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 1H..IU 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Special Agents Series No. 218. 
 
 FIG. 1—GOVERNMENT BUILDING AT KUALA LUMPUR, FEDERATED MALAY STATES. 
 
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 
 
 BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE 
 
 JULIUS KLEIN, DIRECTOR 
 
 SPECIAL AGENTS SERIES—No. 218 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES 
 AND BRITISH MALAYA 
 
 A COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL HANDBOOK 
 
 By 
 
 JOHN A. FOWLER 
 
 Ok 
 
 Trade Commissioner ^ 
 
 PRICE, $1.00 
 
 Sold by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office 
 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
 
 1S23 
 
 BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRARY 
 CHESTNUT «m,MASSL 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 180866 
 
 I 
 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Letter of submittal-4 _ xiit 
 
 Introduction_ 1 
 
 Netherlands East Indies_ 1 
 
 Position and area_ 1 
 
 Historical background_ 2 
 
 Political divisions_ 3 
 
 Trade routes and distances- 5 
 
 Topography_ 5 
 
 Climate- 6 
 
 Natural resources- 7 
 
 Java_ 7 
 
 Outer Possessions_ 8 
 
 Organization of the Central Government_ 8 
 
 Organization of the provincial governments_ 9 
 
 Self-governing communities_ 10 
 
 Administration of the law_ 11 
 
 Administration of justice_ 11 
 
 Courts_ 12 
 
 Distribution of population- 12 
 
 Oriental peoples of the Netherlands Indies_ 13 
 
 Tribal divisions and their economic status_ 14 
 
 Java and Madoera- 14 
 
 Sumatra_ 17 
 
 Borneo- 21 
 
 Asiatic immigrant^ in Borneo- 22 
 
 Celebes_ 22 
 
 The Moluccas_ 24 
 
 Timor_ 25 
 
 Bali and Lombok_ 26 
 
 New Guinea_:_ 27 
 
 Labor_,- 28 
 
 Contract labor law- 30 
 
 Wages paid contract coolies and other labor_ 33 
 
 Emigration- 34 
 
 Colonization- 34 
 
 Foreign commerce_ 34 
 
 Statistics and their relative values_ 37 
 
 British Malaya--- 39 
 
 Position and area- 39 
 
 Historical background_ 39 
 
 Political divisions- 40 
 
 Government_ 40 
 
 Ports of Singapore and Penang_ 41 
 
 Topography- 42 
 
 Climate_ 42 
 
 Natural resources_ 43 
 
 People of British Malaya_:_ 44 
 
 Labor_._ 45 
 
 m 
 
IV 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Page. 
 
 Transportation_ 46 
 
 Rivers and canals-!-.- 46 
 
 Harbors_ 46 
 
 State railways and tramways- 47 
 
 Privately owmed railways and tramways- 49 
 
 Netherland Indies Railroad Co_ 49 
 
 Deli Railway Co- 49 
 
 Tramways_ 50 
 
 Proposed railway extensions- 51 
 
 Railways of British Malaya-’- 52 
 
 Shipping in Netherlands East Indies- 53 
 
 Status of American ships in the interport trade___ 54 
 
 Shipping in the Straits Settlements- 54 
 
 Location of East Indies ports with respect to world trade_ 55 
 
 New York via Suez and Panama_ 55 
 
 New Orleans via Suez and Panama___ 56 
 
 San Francisco and Port Townsend_ 56 
 
 London and continental European ports_ 56 
 
 Steamship routes_ 56 
 
 Business organization for steamship operation_ 57 
 
 Commercial and shipping affiliations- 58 
 
 Conferences of shipping companies- 60 
 
 European Conference- 60 
 
 Straits Homeward Conference_ 61 
 
 Batavia Conference- 61 
 
 Dutch-British-New York Conference_ 62 
 
 Coastwise and feeder services- 62 
 
 Feeder lines_ 62 
 
 Possible routes for feeder services_._ 64 
 
 Steamship services- 65 
 
 Steamship lines operating through Java ports_ 69 
 
 Agricultural products- 70 
 
 Character of cultivation- 70 
 
 Land laws- 70 
 
 Control of land- 70 
 
 Sugar- 71 
 
 History of sugar cultivation in Java_ 73 
 
 System of land leasing and rotation of crops_ 74 
 
 Sugar-cane cultivation-:- 75 
 
 Costs of production of sugar_ 78 
 
 Cultivation costs of a sugar estate-'!_ 79 
 
 Exports of sugar_ 80 
 
 Grades of sugar_ 81 
 
 Yereeniging Javasuiker Producenten__1_ 82 
 
 First and second hand markets_ 83 
 
 Contract of sale_ 84 
 
 Copra and coconut oil_ 84 
 
 Area and extent of coconut cultivation_ 86 
 
 Copra grades- 88 
 
 Sales and export methods_ 89 
 
 Contract for sale of copra_ 1 _ 90 
 
 Exports of copra and coconut oil_ 91 
 
 Oil mills_ 94 
 
 Market for copra cake_ 96 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 V 
 
 Agricultural products—Continued. ' Page. 
 
 Oil-containing seeds_ 96 
 
 Sesame seed_^_ 96 
 
 Soya beans_ 97 
 
 Kapok seeds_ 97 
 
 Castor beans____ 98 
 
 Peanuts_ 98 
 
 Rubber__ 99 
 
 Cultivation of rubber_ 100 
 
 Planters’ societies_ 101 
 
 Areas planted in rubber__ 102 
 
 The world’s rubber acreage_ 104 
 
 Chemicals used in the prevention and cure of diseases_ 104 
 
 Organization of a rubber, coffee, and sisal estate in east Java_ 106 
 
 Area, climate, production, and production costs_ 108 
 
 Production statistics__«._ 109 
 
 Estate expenditures_ 110 
 
 Exportation of rubber_ 111 
 
 Rubber exports from the Straits Settlements_ 112 
 
 Grades of rubber_ 114 
 
 Singapore auction sales_ r _ 116 
 
 Prices of latex cr$pe_._ 117 
 
 Market review_ 119 
 
 Publications on rubber_ 120 
 
 Coffee_ 120 
 
 Grades of coffee—_ 120 
 
 Acreage and varieties of coffee grown_ 122 
 
 Cultivation of coffee__ T - 124 
 
 Cost of coffee production on an estate in east Java_._ 125 
 
 Estimated cost of development of a coffee estate_ 126 
 
 Shipments of coffee_____ 128 
 
 Exports of Robusta coffee_ 129 
 
 Exports of Java (Arabica) coffee_■_ 129 
 
 Exports of Liberia coffee_ 130 
 
 Tea_ 130 
 
 Grades of tea_ > _ 131 
 
 The tea market_ 131 
 
 Exports of tea- 133 
 
 Tobacco_ 134 
 
 Tobacco cultivation_ 134 
 
 System of cultivation in the Yorstenlanden_ 135 
 
 Java tobacco grades- 137 
 
 Exports of tobacco- 138 
 
 Deli leaf_ 139 
 
 Crop restriction, costs, and selling prices_ 140 
 
 Tapioca-:- 141 
 
 Grades_ 141 
 
 Cultivation and milling of tapioca_ 142 
 
 Exports and imports of tapioca_ 143 
 
 Sago- 145 
 
 Quinine and cinchona bark- 146 
 
 Selling methods- 148 
 
 Fibers-.•- 149 
 
 Kapok_*_ 149 
 
 Exports of kapok_ 150 
 
 Crop seasons and principal producing districts_ 151 
 
 Agreement used on Soerabaya kapok market:_ 154 
 
VI 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Agricultural products—Continued. 
 
 Fibers—Continued. Page. 
 
 Cotton_ 153 
 
 Sisal, cantilla, and manila hemp_ 151 
 
 Production and costs of sisal on an estate in east Java_ 155 
 
 Coir_ 156 
 
 Spices_ 156 
 
 Pepper_ 157 
 
 Black pepper_ 157 
 
 White pepper_ 158 
 
 Pepper trade of British. Malaya_ 159 
 
 Chili peppers_ 160 
 
 Nutmegs and mace_ 160 
 
 Cloves_*___ 163 
 
 Cinnamon barks—_ 164 
 
 Cardamoms_ 165 
 
 Areca nuts_ 165 
 
 Medicinal plants_ 166 
 
 Cubebs_ 166 
 
 Coca leaves and cocaine_ 166 
 
 Cacao and vanilla beans_ 167 
 
 Natural indigo_ 167 
 
 Pineapple industry_ 168 
 
 Essential oils_ 169 
 
 Citronella_ 169 
 
 Cajeput oil_ 170 
 
 Patchouli leaves and oil_ 170 
 
 Other essential oils_-_ 171 
 
 Hides and skins_,_ 171 
 
 Cow and buffalo hides_ 174 
 
 Sheepskins_ 175 
 
 Goat and kid skins_ 175 
 
 Deerskins_ 176 
 
 Forest products_ i _ 177 
 
 Rattans__:_ 177 
 
 Grades of rattan_ 178 
 
 Exports of rattan_ 180 
 
 Gutta-percha and guttajoolatong_ 180 
 
 Copal and damar_ 182 
 
 Shipments of copal_ 183 
 
 Shipments of damar_ 185 
 
 Grading of damar_____ 187 
 
 Gum benzoe or benjamin_ 187 
 
 Cutch- 188 
 
 Uses of cutch_ 189 
 
 Tanning materials_,_ 189 
 
 Oil-containing nuts_ 190 
 
 Mineral products and hydraulic power_ 191 
 
 Mineral products_ 191 
 
 Tin mining in Netherlands East Indies_ 191 
 
 Exports o£ tin and tin ore_ 194 
 
 Tin mining in British Malaya_ 194 
 
 Occurrence of tin_ 195 
 
 Methods of mining tin_ 196 
 
 Cost of mining_ 198 
 
CONTENTS. VII 
 
 Mineral products and hydraulic power—Continued. 
 
 Mineral products—Conti^ed. 
 
 Tin mining in British Malaya—Continued. Page. 
 
 Metallurgy_ 199 
 
 Smelting_1_ 199 
 
 Labor_ 200 
 
 Capital invested in mining_ 201 
 
 Future mining prospects_ 202 
 
 Tin grades_ 202 
 
 Taxes and duty on tin_ 202 
 
 Other mining in British Malaya_ 203 
 
 Coal mining_ 204 
 
 Petroleum production_ 206 
 
 Gold_ 207 
 
 Iron___ 208 
 
 Other minerals_ 209 
 
 Mining laws_ 210 
 
 Titles to mining properties_ 211 
 
 Hydraulic power_ 212 
 
 Present and future utilization of hydraulic power_ 212 
 
 Fisheries products_ 217 
 
 Shells of the Netherlands Indies_ 217 
 
 Shell trade of the Straits Settlements_ 218 
 
 Industries- 220 
 
 Number in operation_ 220 
 
 Trade in fiber hats_ 224 
 
 Increase in prices_ 224 
 
 Exports of pandan and bamboo hats_ 225 
 
 Trade with the United States- 225 
 
 Industries of British Malaya_ 225 
 
 Import commodities- 226 
 
 Cotton goods- 226 
 
 Importation of cotton piece goods_ 226 
 
 Unbleached cottons_ 229 
 
 Bleached cottons_ 231 
 
 Sarongs, kains, slendangs, and kapellas_ 231 
 
 Fancies_ 231 
 
 Business organizations- 233 
 
 Kinds of clothing worn by natives_ 235 
 
 Market review- 236 
 
 Cotton-yarn trade- 238 
 
 Cotton trade of British Malaya_ 238 
 
 * Iron and steel- 239 
 
 Principal factors in Netherlands East Indies trade_ 239 
 
 Construction companies_ 240 
 
 Review of the market_ 241 
 
 Imports of iron and steel_ 241 
 
 Rails and fittings_ 244 
 
 Bridges and parts thereof_ 246 
 
 Well casing, tubing, and pipe—_ 247 
 
 Galvanized-iron roofing___ 248 
 
 Telephone, telegraph, and other iron wire_ 250 
 
 Electric cables_ 251 
 
 Rounds, flats, sheets, and plates_ 251 
 
Vni CONTENTS. 
 
 Import commodities—Continued. 
 
 Iron and steel—Continued. 
 
 Imports of iron and steel—Continued. Page. 
 
 Wire nails_ 253 
 
 Spikes___ 254 
 
 Other iron and steel products_ 255 
 
 Wire rope_ 256 
 
 British Malaya imports of iron and steel_ 257 
 
 Shapes and structural steel_ 258 
 
 Box strapping and hoop iron_ 259 
 
 Iron pipe and wire rope_ 259 
 
 Motor-vehicle market_ 260 
 
 Introduction_ 260 
 
 Commercial divisions and roads_1_ 261 
 
 Number of motor vehicles in Netherlands East Indies_ 265 
 
 Number of motor vehicles in British Malaya_ 265 
 
 Importation of motor vehicles_ 266 
 
 Motor cycles_ 267 
 
 Dealer organization_ 268 
 
 Credits_ 268 
 
 Advertising_ 269 
 
 American sales organization,_ 270 
 
 The tire trade_ 271 
 
 Imports of tires_ 271 
 
 Standard sizes of tires_ 272 
 
 Foodstuffs_ 273 
 
 Milk_ 273 
 
 Canned milk_ 273 
 
 Condensed milk_ 274 
 
 Sterilized milk_ 275 
 
 Canned meats_ 276 
 
 Canned vegetables_ 277 
 
 The fish trade_ 280 
 
 Canned fruit_ 281 
 
 Dried fruit___._ 283 
 
 Wheat flour_ 284 
 
 Corn meal_^_ 285 
 
 Biscuits_ 286 
 
 Ham_ 287 
 
 Chemicals- 287 
 
 Principal chemical products in demand_ 288 
 
 Chemicals for combating diseases of rubber trees_ 303 
 
 Paper trade- 303 
 
 Newsprint paper_ 303 
 
 Writing and book papers_ 304 
 
 Old newspapers_:_ 305 
 
 Printers’ and lithographers’ supplies___ 306 
 
 Inks_ 306 
 
 Type, and linotype and stereotype metal_ 307 
 
 Agricultural implements_ 308 
 
 Hand tools_ 308 
 
 Use of the patchoel or chunkoel_ 308 
 
 Alang alang forks, arits, and chopping knives_ 308 
 
 The chunkoel of British Malaya_ 309 
 
 Other tools_ 309 
 
CONTENTS. IX 
 
 Import commodities—Continued. 
 
 Agricultural implements—Continued. Page. 
 
 Tractors_ 310 
 
 Small tractor suitable for tobacco cultivation- 311 
 
 Superiority of tractor for clearing the jungle- 311 
 
 Hoad rollers_ 311 
 
 Market possibilities_ 312 
 
 Other machinery_ 313 
 
 Household supplies_ 313 
 
 Oil and gas stoves and heaters—_ 313 
 
 Electric bulbs and lamps_ 314 
 
 Gas and oil lamps- 315 
 
 Aluminum ware and earthenware_ 315 
 
 Glassware__1- 317 
 
 Rice bowls, frying pans, and cooking utensils_ 317 
 
 Filters and refrigerators_ 317 
 
 Hardware and related articles_:__ 318 
 
 Axes and adzes-----— 318 
 
 Hammers and sledges_ 319 
 
 Saws_ _ 320 
 
 Carpenters’ tools other than saws and hammers_ 321 
 
 Blacksmiths’ tocds_ 322 
 
 Threading and pipe tools_ 322 
 
 Cutlery_ 323 
 
 Brass, galvanized, and painted wire cloth_ 324 
 
 Enameled ware_/._ 324 
 
 Buckets_._ 325 
 
 Locks, hinges, bolts, and screws_ 326 
 
 Carriage hardware_:_ 328 
 
 Axles_ 329 
 
 Sanitary goods_ 330 
 
 Arms, ammunition, and explosives_ 330 
 
 Bicycles_ 330 
 
 Safes and cash boxes_ 332 
 
 Scales_ 332 
 
 Fire brick and tiles_ 333 
 
 Belting_ 333 
 
 Engine-room and mill and mine supplies_ 334 
 
 Automatic fire-extinguishing apparatus_ 335 
 
 Roofing- 335 
 
 Miscellaneous hardware supplies__ 335 
 
 Sundries_ 338 
 
 Matches_ 338 
 
 Washing soaps_:__ 339 
 
 Toilet soaps and toilet articles_1_ 339 
 
 Office equipment_ 341 
 
 School supplies_ 343 
 
 Hospital supplies___ 344 
 
 Clothing- 345 
 
 Men’s clothing and haberdashery_ 345 
 
 Women’s wear_ 346 
 
 Boots, shoes, and shoemakers’ supplies_ 347 
 
 Traveling bags- 348 
 
 Purchasing divisions_ 349 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Pace. 
 
 Business factors_*- 353 
 
 Banks- 354 
 
 Government and people’s banks- 354 
 
 Foreign banks- 356 
 
 Savings banks_ 357 
 
 Banks in British Malaya_ 357 
 
 Practices in handling bills of exchange_ 358 
 
 Financing of exports_ 358 
 
 Exchange quotations_ 359 
 
 Financing of imports_ 359 
 
 Commissions on bills_ 361 
 
 Protested items___ 362 
 
 Shipping documents_ 362 
 
 Sale of goods by banks and reshipments_ 362 
 
 Collection and interest charges_ 362 
 
 Commercial organizations- 363 
 
 Monetary exchange_ 364 
 
 Insurance_ 364 
 
 Fire insurance_ 364 
 
 Marine insurance_ 365 
 
 Forwarding companies_ 365 
 
 Brokers and brokerages_ 366 
 
 Exporters and importers_ 367 
 
 Exporters in Netherlands East Indies_ 367 
 
 Importers in Netherlands East Indies_ 368 
 
 The Chinese as merchants_ 369 
 
 Competitors of the Chinese_1_ 370 
 
 Chinese business morality_ 370 
 
 The Chinese as speculators_ 371 
 
 The Chinese as local credit risks_ 372 
 
 Transaction of American business through Chinese firms_ 372 
 
 The Chinese in the Malay Peninsula_ 373 
 
 Wealthy Chinese furnish market for high-priced commodities- 374 
 
 The Chinese merchant__ 375 
 
 Credit of the Straits Chinese_ 375 
 
 Business organization in British Malaya_ 376 
 
 Assembling of produce in Singapore or Penang for export_ 379 
 
 Credit- 381 
 
 Advertising_ 3g2 
 
 Population and earning capacity_ 382 
 
 Distribution of Javan population, by races_ 382 
 
 Languages - 383 
 
 Translations _ 384 
 
 Newspapers and other periodicals_ 384 
 
 Poster advertising_ 386 
 
 Newspaper advertising_ 386 
 
 Other advertising media___ 387 
 
 Government monopolies_ 389 
 
 Pawnshops _ 389 
 
 Opium - 390 
 
 Salt monopoly_ 391 
 
 Taxation _ 391 
 
 Special taxes on staple products_ 394 
 
 Export duties _ 398 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 XI 
 
 Business factors—Continued. 
 
 Taxation—Continued. Page. 
 
 Extension and increase of import and export duties- 399 
 
 New stamp act- 400 
 
 Income-tax ordinance of Straits Settlements- 403 
 
 Definition of income- 403 
 
 Exemptions and deductions- 403 
 
 Amendment of 1921- 404 
 
 Export duties, Federated Malay States- 405 
 
 Import duties- 406 
 
 Netherlands East Indies-- 406 
 
 Straits Settlements - 410 
 
 Federated Malay States- 411 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Fig. 1. Government building at Kuala Lumpur—__-facing.. i 
 
 2. Distribution of tribal groups--- 16 
 
 3. Palace of the Governor General at Weltevreden-facing— 58 
 
 4. House of Yolksraad (People’s Council) at Weltevreden—facing— 58 
 
 5. Mohammedan temple at Kuala Lumpur-facing— 59 
 
 6. Sugar ports and location of sugar mills in Java-— 72 
 
 7. Fluctuations in price of superior head sugar in Soerabaya market. 82 
 
 8. Preparing ground for the planting of sugar cane-facing— 84 
 
 9. A field of young cane-facing— 84 
 
 10. Typical coconut village in Celebes-.facing— S5 
 
 11. Fluctuations in price of coconut oil in Soerabaya market- 88 
 
 12. Fluctuations in price of copra in Soerabaya market- 92 
 
 13. Fluctuations in price of Robusta coffee in Soerabaya market_ 124 
 
 14. Tea pickers, Buitenzorg, Java-facing.. 132 
 
 15. A Menangkabau Malay chief’s house-facing.. 133 
 
 16. Ports of export of rattans- 181 
 
 17. Ports of export of copal and damar- 184 
 
 18. Hydraulic tin mining, Federated Malay States_facing_ 194 
 
 19. Kali Mas, the lighter harbor of Soerabaya--facing_ 195 
 
 20. Commercial divisions for the sale of cotton piece goods_ 227 
 
 21. Imports of unbleached cotton goods- 229 
 
 22. Imports of bleached cotton goods- 230 
 
 23. Imports of dyed and printed cotton goods_ 232 
 
 24. Imports of sarongs, kains, slendangs, and kappellas_ _ _ 234 
 
 25. Type of Java hotel of the first class_facing_ 252 
 
 26. A first-class hotel in Singapore_facTng_ 252 
 
 27. Railway station and hotel at Kuala Lumpur, Federated Malay 
 
 States-.-facing_ 253 
 
 28. Commercial divisions for the sale of automobiles_ 262 
 
 29. Tandjoengpriok (Batavia) Harbor_facing_ 312 
 
 30. Macassar Harbor, Celebes_facing_ 313 
 
 31. Raffles Square, the retail center of Singapore_facing.. 378 
 
 32. Peddler of general merchandise, Java_facing_ 379 
 
 Map of all Netherlands East Indies, in colors_following 411 
 
 Map of Java and Madoera, in colors___following 411 
 

 
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LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. 
 
 Department of Commerce, 
 
 Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 
 
 Washington , November 29,1922. 
 
 Sir : Submitted herewith is a commercial handbook of the Nether¬ 
 lands East Indies and British Malaya, by John A. Fowler, a trade 
 commissioner of this bureau. The information presented was gath¬ 
 ered by Mr. Fowler during a residence of about three years in these 
 countries. The book contains a full discussion of the export prod¬ 
 ucts and import commodities of a territory with which the United 
 States has a direct trade averaging more than $300,000,000 annually. 
 
 Respectfully, 
 
 Julius Klein, Director of Bureau. 
 
 To Hon. Herbert Hoover, 
 
 Secretary of Commerce. 
 
PREFATORY NOTE. 
 
 Postage .—The postage rate for letters from the United States to the Nether¬ 
 lands East Indies is 5 cents for the first ounce or fraction of an ounce and 
 3 cents for each additional ounce or fraction thereof. The rate from the 
 Netherlands Indies to the United States is 20 Dutch cents for the first 20 
 grams (8 U. S. cents for 0.7 ounce) and 10 Dutch cents for each additional 
 20 grams. There is parcel-post service from the United States to all the prin¬ 
 cipal islands; rate, 12 cents per pound; limit of weight, 11 pounds. 
 
 The first-class postage rate from the United States to the Straits Settlements 
 and the Federated and Non-Federated Malay States is 5 cents for the first 
 ounce and 3 cents for each additional ounce. The rate to the United States 
 is 10 Straits cents (5.68 U. S. cents) for the first ounce and 6 Straits cents 
 (3.4 U. S. cents) for each additional ounce. Parcel-post service from the 
 United States is at the rate of 12 cents per pound; limit of weight, 11 pounds. 
 
 Weights and measures .—The metric system of weights and measures ha:; 
 been officially adopted in the Netherlands East Indies, but its use is not 
 obligatory. A common unit of weight is the picul, equal to 136 avoirdupois 
 pounds, which is divided into 100 catties. Land is measured by the bouw, 
 equal to 1.754 acres. 
 
 English weights and measures are used in British Malaya. Local customary 
 units of weight are the tahil, equal to 14 ounces; the catty, equal to 14 pounds; 
 and the picul, equal to 133^ pounds. 
 
 Geographic names .—For geographic names the spelling as given in the School 
 Atlas of the Netherlands East Indies, by W. van Gelder, former inspector of 
 native education, has been generally followed. 
 
 XIV 
 
NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES. 
 
 POSITION AND AREA. 
 
 The Netherlands East Indian possessions consist of a group of 
 islands with a total area of approximately 770,000 square miles which 
 lie between southeastern Asia and Australia. They extend some 
 3,100 miles from west to east between 95° and 141° east longitude 
 and 1,250 miles from north to south between 6° north and 11° south 
 of the Equator. The map of this colony superimposed on one of the 
 United States shows the northern point of Sumatra on the California- 
 Oregon line at the Pacific coast and the coast of North Carolina at 
 the extreme western tip of New Guinea, with the whole of that vast 
 island in the Atlantic Ocean, and the southernmost part of the 
 islands at the southern point of Texas. 
 
 The largest of these island territories are the Dutch part of the 
 island of Borneo, with an area of 213,000 square miles; Sumatra and 
 adjacent islands, with 162,000 square miles; Dutch New Guinea, with 
 153,000 square miles; Celebes and adjacent islands, with 72,000 square 
 miles; and Java and Madoera, with 51,000 square miles. The re¬ 
 mainder is made up of the so-called Smaller Soenda Islands lying 
 to the east of elava, the Moluccas, and innumerable smaller islands. 
 
 These islands are usually grouped as follows: The Larger Soenda 
 Islands, including Sumatra (with the adjacent islands), Java (with 
 Madoera), Borneo, and Celebes (with the adjacent islands); the 
 Smaller Soenda Islands, including Bali, Lombok, Soembawa, So- 
 emba, Flores, and Timor (with the adjacent islands); the Moluccas, 
 and New Guinea. 
 
 They are bounded on the north by the Strait of Malacca, the South 
 China Sea, the Sulu Sea, the Celebes Sea, and the Pacific Ocean; 
 on the east by the Pacific Ocean and British New Guinea; on the 
 south by the Arafoera Sea, the Timor Sea, and the Indian Ocean; 
 and on the west by the Indian Ocean. The principal interisland 
 waters are the Straits of Karimata, between the islands of Sumatra 
 and Borneo; the Straits of Soenda, between Sumatra and Java; the 
 Java Sea, between Java and Borneo; the Straits of Macassar, between 
 Borneo and Celebes; the Straits of Molucca, between Celebes and 
 Halmahera; and to the south of these latter straits are the Boeroe, 
 Ceram, Banda, and Flores Seas. 
 
 1 
 
2 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND. 
 
 During the sixteenth century Portugal and Spain dominated the 
 trade of the Far East, and through confidence in their monopoly they 
 left the distribution of their imports throughout Europe to the 
 Dutch, who were the great retailers of that time. Philip’s war with 
 the lowlands and the trading ability of the Dutch led the latter to 
 retaliate by sending their own fleets to the Orient. The peak of the 
 Dutch struggle against these arrogant enemies was reached in 1609 
 and left the Dutch in possession of the right to trade in the Far East 
 and to hold the many advantages their merchants had gained in 
 that trade during the contention. The Dutch East Indian Co. had 
 been formed in 1602 and the monopoly of the far eastern trade was 
 delegated to it. The operations of this company, which continued 
 until 1791, were firmly based on the monopolistic theory, and so great 
 was the faith of the Dutch people in the efficacy of this system that 
 the ignominious failure of that company and the revelations succeed¬ 
 ing it only temporarily turned them aside from the policy of ex¬ 
 ploitation of the producing country and the consuming markets. 
 
 Toward the close of the eighteenth century the British had in¬ 
 truded in the trade and in October, 1811, took possession of Java 
 under an agreement with William V of the Netherlands, made some 
 16 years earlier. The colony was ruled as a part of British India 
 until August, 1816, when it was returned to the Dutch. During 
 most of this time Sir Thomas Stamford Baffles, who later founded 
 Singapore, was governor, and he instituted many reforms that could 
 not be carried out during the short period of British occupation. 
 
 These reforms greatly embarrassed the later Dutch administra¬ 
 tion, and after some effort to harmonize them with the Dutch policies 
 there ensued a period of reaction, during which the “ cultuur system ” 
 developed. Monopoly was the keynote of the colonial policy until 
 the beginning of the third quarter of the nineteenth century. 
 
 In 1824 the Netherlands Trading Society was organized and given 
 a monopoly of the sale of the products of the Government’s agricul¬ 
 tural enterprises. This company aided the Government in continu¬ 
 ing the policy of monopoly which has bound the Dutch commercial 
 effort within narrow lines and left a large field of commercial effort 
 open to the British merchants of Singapore. 
 
 Between 1860 and 1865 the less important Government cultures 
 (tea, tobacco, indigo, pepper, and cinnamon) were given up, the 
 natives were freed from the passport system, which impeded easy 
 movement of laborers, and were protected against heavy demands for 
 their services, and many other reforms were instituted. 
 
 In the year 1856, out of 20,000 Dutch people resident in the colony 
 only 608 supported themselves independently of the Government, 
 but shortly afterwards Dutch merchants were encouraged to enter 
 trade, and there has since developed the Dutch business organization 
 that is described in succeeding pages. 
 
 In the late seventies the Government finally abandoned the cul¬ 
 tivation of sugar, and the industry under private ownership has 
 developed initiative, both in agricultural development and scientific 
 research, that was impossible under the monopolistic system. The 
 first petroleum concession was granted in 1883, and through pri¬ 
 vate enterprise the mineral-oil industry has taken a prominent place 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 3 
 
 in the world’s economy. In 1873 the first railway was completed 
 in central Java by a private company and the first section of Gov¬ 
 ernment railways was completed in 1878. At the end of 1918 there 
 were 3,612 kilometers of Government railroads and 4,537 kilometers 
 of privately owned road. 
 
 Until 1914 the colony was little known to the countries of the 
 Western Hemisphere and the major part of the business went 
 through Dutch ports and through London, but the conditions 
 brought about by the war diverted shipments from European ports 
 and for a period they reached the American consumer by the 
 shortest route. The disorganization of the old trade routes and the 
 temporary inability of central Europe to buy on anything like the 
 pre-war scale has reacted in favor of American trade, and a start 
 has been made toward a better acquaintance between the Dutch con¬ 
 sumers and producers and American manufacturers. 
 
 POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 The seat of the Central Government is at Buitenzorg and Batavia, 
 in the Residency of Batavia, and some Government departments are 
 located at Bandoeng, in the Preanger Regencies. 
 
 Politically the colony is divided into two main parts, Java and 
 Madoera, and the Outer Possessions (Buitenbezittingen), and these 
 main divisions are again divided into 37 residencies or governments. 
 
 Java, although the smallest of the Greater Soenda Islands, con¬ 
 tains 68 per cent of the total population of 47,000,000 (estimate of 
 1917), and its agriculture has reached a high state of development. 
 Together with Madoera, its 17 divisions are as follows: 
 
 Bantam, on the extreme west, with the seat of government at Serang. 
 
 Batavia, east of Bantam and north of the Preanger Regencies, with the seat 
 of government at Batavia. 
 
 Preanger Regencies, east of Bantam and south of Batavia, with the seat of 
 government at Bandoeng. 
 
 Cheribon, east of Batavia and Preanger Regencies and north of the latter, 
 ' with the seat of government at Cheribon. 
 
 Pekalongan, east of Cheribon and north of Banjoemas, with the seat of govern¬ 
 ment at Pekalongan. 
 
 Banjoemas, east of the Preanger Regencies and south of Pekalongan, with the 
 seat of government at Banjoemas. 
 
 Semarang, east of Pekalongan and north of Kedoe and Soerakarta, with the 
 seat of government at Semarang. 
 
 Kedoe, east of Banjoemas and south of Semarang, with the seat of government 
 at Magelang. 
 
 The Vorstenlanden (Princes’ Lands) : 
 
 Djokjakarta, east and south of Kedoe and south of Soerakarta, with the 
 seat of government at Djokjakarta. 
 
 Soerakarta, east of Djokjakarta and Kedoe and south of Semarang, with 
 the seat of government at Soerakarta. 
 
 Rembang, east of Semarang and north of Madioen and Kediri, with the seat 
 of government at Rembang. 
 
 Madioen, east of Soerakarta and south of Rembang, with the seat of govern¬ 
 ment at Madioen. 
 
 Kediri, east of Madioen and south of Rembang and Soerabaya, with the seat 
 * of government at Kediri. 
 
 Soerabaya, east of Rembang and Kediri and north of Pasoeroean, with the seat 
 of government at Soerabaya. 
 
 Pasoeroean, east of Kediri and south of Soerabaya, with the seat of govern¬ 
 ment at Pasoeroean. 
 
 Besoeki, east of Pasoeroean, with the seat of government at Bondowoso. 
 
 19878°—23-2 
 
4 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The island and Residency of Madoera lies to the east- of Soerabaya, and is 
 separated from that residency by a narrow strait. Its seat of government is 
 at Pamekasan. 
 
 The Outer Possessions are divided into 19 residencies and govern¬ 
 ments. From north and west to east they are as follows: 
 
 Sumatra: 
 
 Atjeh and its dependencies are located at the extreme north of the island 
 of Sumatra, with the seat of government at Koeta Radja. The large 
 island of Simeuloe is included in this division. 
 
 The Government of Sumatra East Coast, south and east of Atjeh and 
 east of Tapanoeli and Sumatra West Coast, with the seat of government 
 at Medan. 
 
 Tapanoeli, south and west of Sumatra East Coast and bounded on the 
 west by Atjeh and the Indian Ocean, with the seat of government at 
 Sibolga. The large island of Nias is included in this division. 
 
 Sumatra West Coast, south of Tapanoeli and Sumatra East Coast, west 
 of Sumatra East Coast, Riouw and Djambi, with the seat of government 
 at Padang. The Mentawei Islands are included in this division. 
 
 Riouw and dependencies, south of Sumatra East Coast and east of Sumatra 
 West Coast, also the Riouw Lingga Archipelago to the south of Singapore 
 between the Straits of Malacca, Sumatra, and the China Sea, with the 
 seat of government at Tandjoengpinang on the island of Bintan (Riouw). 
 
 Djambi, south of Riouw and Sumatra West Coast, east of Sumatra West 
 Coast and Benkoelen, with the seat of government at Djambi. 
 
 Benkoelen, south of Sumatra West Coast and south and west of Djambi, 
 Palembang, and Lampong districts, with the seat of government at 
 Benkoelen. 
 
 Palembang, south of Djambi and east of Benkoelen, with the seat of gov¬ 
 ernment at Palembang. 
 
 Lampong districts, south and east of Palembang and east of Benkoelen, 
 at the extreme south of Sumatra, with the seat of government at Telok- 
 betong. 
 
 Banka and dependencies, the island of Banka and adjacent islands off the east 
 coast of Palembang (Sumatra) and south of the China Sea, with the seat 
 of government at I'angkalpinang. 
 
 Billiton, the island of Billiton and adjacent islands lying to the east of Banka, 
 in the Straits of Karimata, with the seat of government at Tandjoengpandan. 
 
 Borneo: 
 
 Western division of Borneo, south of Sarawak (British) and north and 
 west of the southern and eastern divisions of Borneo, with the seat of 
 government at Pontianak. 
 
 Southern and eastern division of Borneo, south and east of the British 
 possessions in Borneo and east of the western division of Borneo, with 
 the seat of government at Bandjermasin. 
 
 Celebes: * 
 
 Celebes and dependencies, the southern part of the island of Celebes and 
 adjacent islands, with the seat of government at Macassar. 
 
 Menado, the northern part of the island of Celebes, including the Sangi 
 and Talaud Islands in the Celebes Sea and minor islands, with the seat 
 of government at Menado. 
 
 Ternate and dependencies, the northern Molucca Islands and adjacent groups, 
 with the seat of government at Ternate. 
 
 Amboina, the southern Molucca Islands and adjacent groups, with the seat 
 of government at Ambon. 
 
 Bali and Lombok, the islands of Bali and Lombok and adjacent islands lying 
 due east of the Residency of Besoeki, in eastern Java, with the seat of gov¬ 
 ernment at Singaradja. 
 
 Timor and dependencies, the Dutch portion of the island of Timor and the 
 islands of Flores, Soemba, Soembawa. and adjacent islands, all lying east .of 
 Bali and Lombok, with the seat of government at Ivoepang. 
 
 New Guinea, the Dutch portion of the island of New Guinea, with the seat 
 of government at Manokwari. 
 
 The principal market cities are Batavia, Soerabaya, and Semarang 
 in Java, Medan and Padang in Sumatra, and Macassar in Celebes. 
 
INTRODUCTION'. 
 
 5 
 
 TRADE ROUTES AND DISTANCES. 
 
 The northern part of the east coast of Sumatra lies on the Strait 
 of Malacca, through which all vessels from the Far East must pass, 
 and Singapore, the port of call for those vessels, is 38 hours’ steam¬ 
 ing from Batavia and 79 hours from Soerabaya. The major part of 
 the run from Singapore to Port Darwin, Australia, is through Neth¬ 
 erlands East Indian waters. The distances, in nautical miles, from 
 the Netherlands East Indies major ports to the market cities of the 
 United States and to London are shown on page 55. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY. 
 
 Sumatra, Java, the Smaller Soenda Islands, and New Guinea form 
 the arc of a gigantic circle—a rampart of volcanoes outlining the 
 southern boundary of the archipelago. Borneo and Celebes are 
 separated from the islands directly to the south by shallow seas, but 
 between them and the Philippine Islands and the Moluccas and 
 joining the Indian Ocean to the south of Timor are vast ocean depths 
 that, it is claimed, once formed narrow seas between a far different 
 Asia and an Australian continent that included New Guinea. All 
 these islands have a more or less extensive mountain region, a coastal 
 plain, and between these a hill land, generally not very wide. 
 
 On the west Sumatra’s mountain range drops abruptly to the 
 Indian Ocean, while to the east it slopes more gradually to a broad 
 alluvial plain stretching toward the Strait of Malacca and the 
 China Sea. Its rivers of consequence, some of which are navigable 
 for coastwise steamers for some distance, are all on the eastern slope. 
 
 The western third of the island of Java is a mountainous country, 
 with many active volcanoes, except for a strip of coast line on the 
 north, approximately 50 miles in width. In central and east Java 
 many volcanoes rise singly or in groups from the alluvial plains that 
 have been enriched by recurrent eruptions through the past ages, 
 and in the southern part of the eastern half of the island low hills 
 are characteristic of the coastal area. The principal rivers, which 
 are not navigable for craft of any considerable draft, all flow north¬ 
 ward toward the Java Sea. 
 
 Northern Borneo is crossed by a mountain range from the north¬ 
 east to the southwest which spreads southward in several distinct 
 systems. The highest peak is in the north, approximately 13,000 
 feet, and there are other important peaks ranging from 4,000 to 
 10,000 feet. Extensive river systems rise in these mountains and flow 
 through alluvial valleys and plains which widen out into vast swamp 
 lands in the lower reaches. While there are many rivers tapping 
 considerable areas, there are four principal systems, one flowing 
 westward into the South China Sea at Pontianak, one southward 
 into the Java Sea at Bandjermasin, and two eastward into the Strait 
 of Macassar at Tandjoengseilor and at Samarinda, all navigable for 
 considerable distances from their outlets. Wide swamp lands char¬ 
 acterize the coast line. 
 
 Celebes is traversed from south to north by ranges of volcanic 
 mountains, some of the peaks of which reach an altitude of 10,000 
 feet. There are innumerable rivers, some of which drain large areas, 
 but they are navigable for small craft only and for short distances. 
 
6 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Mountains, low hills, or narrow alluvial plains, especially near the 
 rivers, characterize a large part of the coast line, and in the western 
 part bordering the Strait' of Macassar and on the Gulf of Bone 
 are large coastal swamp areas. In the Minahasa district, in the 
 northern part of the island, are fertile table-lands, and in the south, 
 in the Macassar, Bantaeng, Bone, and Pare Pare districts, are fine 
 agricultural lands. 
 
 Halmahera, the principal island of the northern Moluccas, is very 
 mountainous, with narrow alluvial plains along the coasts or where 
 the rivers flow into the sea. Much of the interior is unexplored. 
 Ceram, the largest of the southern group, is also mountainous, with 
 a more clearly defined coastal plain. Both of these islands are essen¬ 
 tially volcanic in character. 
 
 Dutch New Guinea is mountainous in the interior, with a large 
 part of its coast line low and swampy, especially in the west and 
 south. 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 The difference between the longest and shortest day is about 48 
 minutes; therefore the duration of the sun’s radiation is very uni¬ 
 form and the difference in temperature is not great. The daily 
 variations in temperature are less than in the tropical continents, 
 due to the influence of the sea, which tempers the heat by day. On 
 the coast the average temperature is from about 79° to 80J°, the 
 absolute maximum temperature from about 98° to 95^°, and the 
 average maximum temperature from about 86° to 891° F. The abso¬ 
 lute and average temperature minima on the coast are from about 
 61° to 7l-J° and from 70° to 75°. With an increase in altitude the 
 temperature increases approximately 1° to 400 feet. The atmos¬ 
 pheric pressure is also very even. Slight fluctuations are observed 
 daily, but depressions such as are found in the Temperate Zone are 
 unknown. The winds are the regular alternating monsoon and 
 trade winds, the period of change being marked by the inconsistency 
 of the winds and by thunderstorms. South of the Equator it is the 
 west monsoon which brings the rain, while the east monsoon brings 
 the dry season. The period of least rainfall is from Mav to August 
 and that of the greatest from November to January. Only on the 
 islands in the southeastern part of the archipelago is there a dis¬ 
 tinctly dry season, with the accompanying withering of vegetation. 
 The difference between the monsoons varies greatly, so that in Java 
 in some years there is no real dry season, while in other years the 
 dry season lasts for months at a time. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 7 
 
 Rainfall and air temperature in the Netherlands East Indies in 1917. 
 
 Month. 
 
 Batavia. 
 
 Buiten- 
 
 zorg. 
 
 Pasoero- 
 
 ean. 
 
 Tosari. 
 
 Medan, 
 
 Sumatra. 
 
 Pon- 
 
 tianak, 
 
 Borneo. 
 
 Ambon, 
 Moluccas. 
 
 Koepang, 
 
 Timor. 
 
 Altitude, 
 8 meters. 
 
 Altitude, 
 240 me¬ 
 ters. 
 
 Altitude, 
 5 meters. 
 
 Altitude, 
 1,735 me¬ 
 ters. 
 
 Altitude, 
 25 me¬ 
 ters. 
 
 Altitude, 
 3 meters. 
 
 Altitude, 
 4 meters. 
 
 Altitude, 
 44 me¬ 
 ters. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 May. 
 
 2.18 
 
 15.16 
 
 1.38 
 
 2.26 
 
 3.31 
 
 12.22 
 
 26.19 
 
 0.71 
 
 June. 
 
 1.92 
 
 9.26 
 
 .75 
 
 5.85 
 
 4.27 
 
 5.60 
 
 29.36 
 
 2.17 
 
 July . . .. 
 
 4.43 
 
 15.09 
 
 
 2.01 
 
 6.77 
 
 4.86 
 
 44.37 
 
 .03 
 
 November. 
 
 2.99 
 
 7.55 
 
 4.73 
 
 11.95 
 
 9.55 
 
 11.96 
 
 8.36 
 
 3.17 
 
 December. 
 
 8.26 
 
 12.49 
 
 10.58 
 
 23.13 
 
 7.58 
 
 7.90 
 
 4.22 
 
 6) 
 
 January. 
 
 17.28 
 
 12.60 
 
 16.11 
 
 17.30 
 
 10.32 
 
 11.00 
 
 5.35 
 
 22.65 
 
 Total for year.. 
 
 83.86 
 
 241.05 
 
 71.71 
 
 122.32 
 
 82.69 
 
 134.09 
 
 186.49 
 
 55.50 
 
 
 °F. 
 
 ° F. 
 
 °F. 
 
 0 F. 
 
 °F. 
 
 O J? 
 
 °F. 
 
 °F. 
 
 Mean air tempera- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ture for year. 
 
 79.00 
 
 76.50 
 
 79.00 
 
 61.00 
 
 77.00 
 
 78.50 
 
 79.00 
 
 79.00 
 
 Maximum varia- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tion. 
 
 2.61 
 
 1.69 
 
 1.59 
 
 .93 
 
 2.79 
 
 1.56 
 
 1.51 
 
 1.31 
 
 1 No record. 
 
 NATURAL RESOURCES. 
 
 The Netherlands East Indies are very rich in natural resources— 
 agricultural, forestal, and mineral—and their waters abound in fish 
 of infinite variety. 
 
 JAVA. 
 
 The rich volcanic soil of Java, an almost entirely agricultural pop¬ 
 ulation averaging 671 to the square mile, and Dutch energy and thor¬ 
 oughness have all contributed to bring the cultivation of the soil to 
 a very high state of development, until Java has become one of the 
 world’s greatest producing areas. The agricultural products are 
 rice, maize, legumes, and other native food products, pinang nuts, 
 sugar, coconuts, oil-containing seeds and plants, coffee, rubber, to¬ 
 bacco, tea, cinchona bark, cassava, fibers, cacao, indigo, coco leaves, 
 vanilla beans, cinnamon, cassia vera, cloves, plantation gutta-percha, 
 hardwoods, hides, horns, and skins. 
 
 Petroleum is produced in considerable quantities in the eastern part 
 of the island, building stone of a good quality is quarried, and pottery 
 clays, limestone, cement materials, and sulphur are found. It is re¬ 
 ported that very valuable manganese deposits have been discovered in 
 central Java. 
 
 The fishing fleets supply nearly all the requirements of the popula¬ 
 tion for fish, of which a large quantity is used by the natives, and 
 sufficient sea salt is produced by or under the supervision of the Gov¬ 
 ernment on the island of Madoera for the requirements of the colony. 
 
 Water power is being developed in the Preanger Regencies, and 
 many other projects are receiving consideration. Some minor proj¬ 
 ects have already been brought into production. According to a 
 rough official estimate, 500,000 horsepower can be developed on the 
 island. 
 
8 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 OUTER POSSESSIONS. 
 
 But little effort on the part of Europeans has been made to develop 
 the agricultural resources of the areas outside of Java and Madoera 
 except in the Sumatra East Coast Residency, where there are ex¬ 
 tensive tobacco, rubber, tea, and African oil-palm plantations, and in 
 the “ Spice Islands,” where the finest qualities of sutmegs and mace 
 are grown. The native agricultural products, besides rice, maize, 
 legumes, and other food products for their own use, are coconuts and 
 oil-containing seeds and plants, rubber, coffee, tobacco, spices, pinang 
 nuts, gambier, sago, fibers, hides, skins, horns and hoofs, horses, cat¬ 
 tle, hogs, poultry, and feathers. 
 
 The vast forests produce rattan, resins, guttas and wild rubbers, 
 cutch and mangrove bark, hardwoods, bird skins and nests, oil-con¬ 
 taining nuts, dragons’ blood, deer skins and horns, and beeswax. 
 
 Extensive fisheries off the coast of Sumatra provide sea food for 
 the native-population of the colony and near-by countries; agar agar 
 is used locally and exported, and tortise and sea shells are obtained 
 in important quantities. 
 
 The mineral resources are petroleum, tin, coal, iron, gold, and sil¬ 
 ver, and recent discoveries promise nickel and copper. Petroleum 
 production is well developed and coal mining is carried on by the ' 
 Government at three widely separated points. Gold and silver 
 mining have given satisfactory returns in southern and western 
 Sumatra. Iron mining has not been undertaken on any important 
 scale, but the development of the Celebes deposits is said to be under 
 serious consideration by the Government. Tin is produced in im¬ 
 portant quantities under Government and private exploitation, and 
 recent reports indicate that new fields may be opened in Timor. 
 
 Surveys have been made of many locations where hydroelectric 
 power may be developed, and Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes are said 
 to be very rich in possibilities for the development of water power. 
 According to a rough official estimate, 5,000,000 horsepower may be 
 developed in the three islands just mentioned. 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The Netherlands East Indies form, politically, a part of the 
 Kingdom of the Netherlands and all its affairs are theoretically sub¬ 
 ject to the regulatory powers held by the Dutch Legislature, but 
 regulations of a legislative nature may be made by the Crown 
 through royal decrees and by the Governor General through or¬ 
 dinances. The supreme control over the colony is vested in the 
 Crown. The Governor General rules over the colony in the name 
 of the King (Queen) and on him rests the entire responsibility for 
 its administration. His legislative as well as his executive func¬ 
 tions are performed with the cooperation of an advisory body, the 
 Raad van Indie (Council of Netherlands India), and the colonial 
 constitution fixes certain matters in which he must be in agreement 
 with this council before he can act. 
 
 The Raad van Indie consists of the Governor General, who is 
 ex officio president, a vice president, four members, and a secretary. 
 
 In his executive functions the Governor General is assisted by 
 the directors of nine departments of general administration, viz, 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 9 
 
 Departement van Justitie (Department of Justice), Departementvan 
 Binneulandsch Bestuur (Department of the Interior), Departement 
 van Onderwijs en Eeredienst (Department of Education .and Re¬ 
 ligion), Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel (De¬ 
 partment of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce), Departement 
 der Burgerlijke Openbare Werken (Department of Public Works), 
 Departement van Gouvernementsbedrijven (Department of Gov¬ 
 ernment Industries), Departement van Financien (Department of 
 Finance), Leger (Department of War), and Zeemacht (Department 
 of Marine). 
 
 The Volksraad (Peoples’ Council) was established in 1916 by 
 royal decree. This is an advisory body consisting of at least 39 
 members, of which the chairman is appointed by the King (Queen) ; 
 5 natives and 14 Europeans and foreign orientals are appointed 
 by the Governor General in agreement with the Council of the 
 Netherlands Indies, and 10 natives and 9 Europeans and foreign 
 orientals are elected by the members of the local councils. The 
 Governor General may consult this body on all subjects, but is 
 obliged to consult it on matters pertaining to the budget, colonial 
 loans, military duties of the inhabitants, and other subjects indi¬ 
 cated by the King (Queen) in a general ordinance. 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF THE PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENTS. 
 
 The following extracts, relating to the organization of the pro¬ 
 vincial governments, the self-governing communities, and the ad¬ 
 ministration of the law, are taken from the Yearbook of the Nether¬ 
 lands East Indies, edition of 1920, and are sufficiently explanatory in 
 themselves without further comment: 
 
 For administration in a narrower sense the Dutch East Indies are divided 
 into 37 Provinces (see under “Political divisions ”), viz, 3 governments, 33 resi¬ 
 dencies, and 1 independent subresidency. 
 
 The highest functionary in the Provinces is a head official, with the title of 
 governor or resident, who represents the Central Government. His task is not 
 the same in all Provinces. The system of administration in Java and Madoera 
 presents, except in the principalities (Soerakarta and Djokjakarta), a different 
 aspect from those in the Outer Possessions, where besides the central authority 
 we find also a native ruler. 
 
 In the regions under direct control of the Government the residents act as 
 direct rulers, but in the self-governing communities their task is limited to 
 supervision and the giving of advice and ass 1 'stance. 
 
 Where they act as rulers in the Outer Possessions their independence as a 
 rule is greater than in Java, because of the more isolated location and the more 
 primitive conditions. Since 1903 the duties of the residents in Java and 
 Madoera have been transferred partly to provincial and municipal councils, 
 which are established for the advancement of local interests. 
 
 The Provinces are subdivided into divisions (afdeel ngen), at the head of 
 which are assistant residents, while the divisions again are subdivided into 
 smaller districts (onderafdeelingen), under the administration of “ control- 
 euren,” or district officers. 
 
 Besides European civil servants we find native officials throughout the colony. 
 Since the founding of the Dutch East Indian administration the principle has j 
 always been to have the people under the rule of their own chiefs. The high¬ 
 est post which a native can occupy, that of regent, is hereditary, a son or some 
 other relative of the deceased or ex-regent succeeding, in case he fulfills the 
 stipulated requirements as to ability and efficiency. 
 
 In his domain, a regency, which generally corresponds with a division, the 
 regent is the head of the native population and adviser to the European official 
 in charge of the division. The regencies are further subdivided into districts, 
 
10 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 with minor native officials in charge (the smallest of which is the “ desa,” or 
 village, under the administration of a “ widono ” or “ assistant widono ”— 
 headman). 
 
 In the Outer Possessions are found native officials under a number of 
 designations but who lack the authority and the influence of the regent in 
 Java. The direct relation of the European official with the population is, as a 
 rule, greater in these places. 
 
 In the administrative system the village communities occupy a special posi¬ 
 tion, because in a certain measure they enjoy autonomy, which expresses itself 
 in the management of their domestic affairs and in the election of their village 
 headman, though under the supervision of European authority. 
 
 The village headman’s duties consist in executing the regulations and orders 
 of the superior authority and thus facilitating intercourse between the European 
 administration and the native population. The headmen receive no fixed salary, 
 but get a share of the taxes collected by them and the revenue of certain lands 
 owned by the Government. They can also claim the services of the inhabitants 
 of their village. 
 
 In the Provinces under direct rule, wherever circumstances permit, by the 
 establishment of representative bodies, opportunity is given the residents to 
 take active part in the governing of Provinces, districts, and towns. The estab¬ 
 lishing of these magistracies dates from 1903 and went regularly into effect. 
 
 All public works, such as roads, with the appertaining works and plantings, 
 plantations, gardens, markets and market buildings, slaughterhouses, and 
 cemeteries, as well as irrigation and drainage works, are under the management 
 of the local organizations. 
 
 The local councils are so composed that they contain representatives from 
 all nationalities of which the people in the jurisdiction consist. In the town 
 communities, which usually have an Indo-European character, the majority of 
 the seats are given to the European element. In the more extensive rural 
 districts, however, a majority in the council is pledged to the native population. 
 
 In the councils which are established for residencies (provincial councils) 
 and which often include more than one municipal or district resort, the majority 
 still consists of civil servants and Europeans. 
 
 The assignment of members to these last-named (provincial) councils con¬ 
 sequently took place by appointment. Members of municipal and district 
 councils, however, are nearly always elected by the citizens of the resort who 
 are entitled to vote, or in accordance with existing popular custom. The right 
 of election to these councils is being gradually extended in a liberal sense. 
 
 On the basis indicated here councils are established for all of Java wherein 
 the division of the existing residencies is followed. Furthermore, municipal 
 councils are established in 19 of the larger towns. Fifteen district councils 
 will follow in the course of the coming year. 
 
 In the Provinces outside of Java, also, political organization has been force¬ 
 fully taken in hand during the last few years. 
 
 Ten of the larger towns in the Outer Possessions have municipal councils; 
 various district resorts have been formed. Among others, the so-called agri¬ 
 cultural district on the East Coast of Sumatra was designated as a separate 
 resort. 
 
 Provincial councils are not yet established outside Java and Madoera. 
 
 SELF-GOVERNING COMMUNITIES. 
 
 Netherlands India is politically divided into directly ruled territory and 
 into territory where the “ native princes and peoples ” enjoy autonomy. 
 
 In the self-governed territory the native authority remains established under 
 Dutch sovereignty. The relationship between the Netherlands East Indian 
 Government and the self-governing communities rests mainly on historical 
 foundations and is regulated by political treaties or corresponding declarations. 
 
 Since the beginning of the present century it has been the aim to cement the 
 relation with most of the self-governing communities in treaties of simpler 
 form. The existing detailed agreements were sometimes out of place in insig¬ 
 nificant Provinces and sometimes proved an impediment to a more vigorous 
 interference by the Dutch Government. They were accordingly replaced by a 
 political contract called “ short declaration,” in which the self-ruler promises, 
 among other things, to obey all regulations and orders issued by the Govern¬ 
 ment with regard to the community. A briefer account of the mutual rights, 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 11 
 
 qualifications, and obligations which are described elsewhere in the treaties 
 is set forth in a legal regulation, the ordinance concerning autonomies, which 
 received its sanction in 1914, but has not yet come into force. It is to be 
 replaced by a new ordinance, revised and up to date. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAW. 
 
 The division of the population of the Netherlands Indies into Europeans, 
 natives, and foreign orientals has its influence on the legal system. 
 
 The statutes which regulate the administration of the Dutch East Indies 
 demands, where Europeans are concerned, that their rights must be similar with 
 those of Holland, in so far as particular conditions in India, or the desirability 
 of enforcing a rule at the same time for another group of the imputation, do not 
 necessitate a variation. 
 
 The civil, mercantile, and criminal codes for Europeans are almost the same as 
 those in the Netherlands. 
 
 For natives and foreign orientals the same criminal code is in effect as for 
 Europeans; the civil code of these two groups of population is based on the 
 principle that, as far as their social standing permits, they are subjected to the 
 same taws as the Europeans, while, moreover, their “ adat ” (native law) is 
 respected as much as possible. 
 
 The practice of this principle has made the Chinese in the biggest part of 
 India subject to a law almost similar to that of the Europeans in its regulation 
 of civil and mercantile codes, which regulation will soon be extended over all 
 India. 
 
 The other foreign orientals are subjected in most Provinces to the European 
 property law, but their family taws are still ruled by their “ adat.” This regu¬ 
 lation also will soon be enforced throughout all India. 
 
 For the natives, as far as the civil law is concerned, their “ adat ” is prac¬ 
 tically unchanged. 
 
 Natives and foreign orientals also have the opportunity of making themselves 
 subject to the civil and mercantile law for Europeans. 
 
 It is the aim of the legislator to do away with the difference in taw where- 
 ever possible. In order to obtain as much uniformity as possible, a general civil 
 code is in preparation, which, as far as property rights are concerned, gives an 
 almost uniform regulation, and which, with regard to family taw and relative 
 matters, has only such differences as can not be avoided on account of divers 
 creeds and social opinions. 
 
 In a similar spirit the commercial law will be revised. The penal code, as 
 mentioned above, is already unified. 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 
 
 With regard to the administration of justice in these colonies, we observe 
 principally three rubrics: 
 
 (a) Administration of justice for Europeans and those enjoying similar 
 
 rights. 
 
 (b) Government administration of justice for natives and foreign orientals 
 in regions under direct rule. 
 
 (c) Native administration of justice in self-governed districts and in some 
 parts of the directly governed regions where the people, either for political 
 or for practical reasons, are left in enjoyment of their own administration of 
 justice. 
 
 Only the administration of justice mentioned under (a) and (6) is adminis¬ 
 tered in the name of the Queen. 
 
 Europeans and those who enjoy the same rights are usually tried before 
 European magistrates throughout the whole of Netherlands India, except in 
 several parts, for minor offenses. The magistrates who try Europeans handle 
 also civil and commercial suits brought against natives and foreign orientals, 
 in case these suits come under the jurisdiction of European law. In the 
 directly governed regions Government administration of justice for natives is 
 the rule. 
 
 Government subjects come under Government jurisdiction. 
 
 Government magistrates hilso act in these regions when offenses against 
 direct subjects or properties of the Government are tried, as well as in trans¬ 
 gressions with respect to taxes and import and export duties. 
 
12 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 COURTS. 
 
 Europeans are brought to trial before one of the courts of justice, of which 
 there are three in Java, two in Sumatra, and one in Celebes. Higher appeal 
 may be made at the High Court of Justice of Netherlands India, which is also 
 a court of cassation and which is located at Batavia. 
 
 Minor civil cases are handled by the residential court, which is held by the 
 local president of the “ Landraad.” 
 
 The court for the native population and foreign orientals is the Landraad 
 or a board of equal rank, in Java and Madoera presided over by a judicial 
 official. In the Outer Possessions are still many native courts under the 
 praesidium of civil officials. For some years past it has been decided that 
 native chiefs also may hold this position. The members are native chiefs, 
 some of whom take seat by virtue of their office and some are appointed by 
 the Governor General. 
 
 To each Landraad is attached an adviser of the same nationality or religion 
 as the accused, who gives information regarding the “ adat.” From the Land¬ 
 raad higher appeal may be made to the courts of justice. 
 
 Minor offenses are judged for all groups of the population in Java and 
 Madoera by the “ Landgerecht.” The judge of this court is a lawyer or an 
 official especially appointed. In the Outer Possessions the Magistry Court 
 (Magistraatgerecht) has this authority over natives and foreign orientals; it 
 deals also with minor civil cases. 
 
 From the judgment of this court no appeals can be made. Officials are 
 obliged to register all penalties applied, while the High Court of Justice of 
 Netherlands India may look into the registers at any time. 
 
 In Java and Madoera minor civil cases and native legal offenses are admin¬ 
 istered by the Regency or District Court, consisting of the regent or the chief 
 of the district, each for the region under his authority. From the decisions 
 of the District Court in civil affairs a higher appeal may be made to the 
 Regency Court. From the decisions of the Regency Court a higher appeal may 
 be made to the Landraad. 
 
 It is the intention to unify the law of proceeding as well as the material law. 
 As far as the Landgerecht procedure is concerned, this unification is already at¬ 
 tained ; all minor penal cases are handled alike before this court. A plan for 
 the unification of the entire remaining penal process is ready but not yet 
 established. The unification of the civil process is still being worked on. 
 
 The procedure of the law for Europeans is here much the same as in Holland, 
 while for the natives it is simpler and less expensive. 
 
 The High Court of Netherlands India exercises supervision over the entire 
 legal administration of the colonies. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION. 
 
 According to an official estimate of population made at the end of 
 the year 1917, based on the census of 1905, the total population of the 
 colony was 47,203,639, divided as follows: 
 
 District. 
 
 Euro¬ 
 
 peans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 Other ori¬ 
 entals. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Area in 
 square 
 miles. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 111,430 
 
 33,652,230 
 
 393,723 
 
 34,157,3S3 
 
 50,775 
 
 672.00 
 
 Sumatra and Riouw Lingga. 
 
 15,210 
 909 
 2,448 
 4,223 
 3,658 
 967 
 
 4,993,865 
 120,274 
 1,428,421 
 3,061,758 
 553,219 
 2,422,360 
 
 217,647 
 92,476 
 83,634 
 28,093 
 4,192 
 12,902 
 
 5,226,722 
 213,659 
 1,514,503 
 3,094,074 
 561,069 
 2,436,229 
 
 178,612 
 6,309 
 213,646 
 71,781 
 197,225 
 
 29.00 
 
 33.00 
 
 7.00 
 
 43.00 
 
 2.84 
 
 Banka and Billiton.... 
 
 Dutch Borneo. 
 
 Celebes and surrounding islands. 
 
 Amboina, Ternate, and New Guinea.. 
 Smaller Soenda Islands. 
 
 All others. 
 
 51,652 
 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27,415 
 
 12,579,897 
 
 438,944 
 
 13,046,256 
 
 719,225 
 
 18.10 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 138,845 
 
 46,232,127 
 
 832,667 
 
 47,203,639 
 
 770,000 
 
 61.30 
 
 
 Note. —Actual survey of Java and Madoera. Estimate of areas of other islands to be considered broadly 
 approximate. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 13 
 
 . ORIENTAL PEOPLES OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES. 
 
 [Written partly from data supplied by the Encyclopedic Bureau of the Department of 
 the Interior of the Government of the Netherlands East Indies.] 
 
 The origin of the races inhabiting the islands of the Netherlands 
 East Indies stands in doubt. According to some anthropologists 
 the earliest inhabitants of Java were the Indonesians, whose prob¬ 
 able descendants, the Badoei, in southern Bantam, and the Tengerese, 
 in the Tenger Mountains in east Java, still live as separate tribes, 
 although their numbers are small and they differ little from their 
 neighbors. Others contend that these two peoples are descendants 
 of subjects of the former Hindu Empire who fled before the intrud¬ 
 ing Islamites. The earliest known inhabitants had some culture and 
 a written language, the basis of the present Javanese characters, 
 which was modified or altered by the Hindus who invaded the 
 country about the year 600 A. D. In the middle of the thirteenth 
 century the Hindus were expelled by the followers of Islam, but it 
 was not until the beginning of the fifteenth century that Hinduism 
 finally gave way to Islamism in Java and Sumatra, and European 
 civilization did not begin to influence the life and culture of the 
 people until the beginning of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Hinduism manifested itself in the system of writing and in the 
 literature, architecture, and sculpture of the people of Java, while 
 Mohammedanism (Islamism) exerted its greatest influence on their 
 religious conceptions. Some of the animists of northern Sumatra, 
 northern Celebes, and on the eastern islands have been converted to 
 Christianity, but wherever Islamism or Hinduism has become thor¬ 
 oughly established the Christian religion has made but small prog¬ 
 ress. European influence in its economic aspects has, however, con¬ 
 tributed much that has benefited native life. 
 
 The population of Java is dense and largely homogeneous, but in 
 Sumatra the conditions are very different. The successive immigra¬ 
 tions and the trade routes from and to the west followed the coast 
 of Sumatra lying on the Strait of Malacca, and, while the origin of 
 the numerous tribes is in doubt, the influence of the various migra¬ 
 tions is apparent. 
 
 According to their traditions the Malays were the earliest inhab¬ 
 itants of the island, and more particularly the Menangkabau Malays, 
 who dwell in the mountainous regions of the west. They claim 
 direct descent from Alexander the Great, whose son, their legends 
 state, settled on the slopes of Mount Merapi and became the an¬ 
 cestor of the Menangkabau people. From there they migrated to 
 other parts of the island, to the Malay Peninsula, and to the islands 
 to the east, founding Malacca and Singapore and spreading the 
 faith of Islam wherever they went. Anthropologists disagree as 
 to the origin of the Malay race, some suggesting that it had its birth 
 on the Asiatic continent, while others contend that it is a develop¬ 
 ment from the early races of Sumatra and Borneo, which were 
 richly fertilized by the succeeding invasions from Asia proper, and 
 that those peoples who did not mix with the foreigners retired to 
 the interior and are now found in the Orang Koeboe of Sumatra, 
 the Orang Sakei of the peninsula, and others of the more primitive 
 peoples. There are many tribal groupings in Sumatra, most of 
 which have been strongly influenced in customs and language by the 
 
14 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Malays, and the Chinese and Artibs are even now working changes 
 in their customs and culture. 
 
 The waves of immigration that affected the populations of 
 Sumatra and Java in ancient times seem to have passed by Borneo, 
 but the modern immigrations of Chinese and Malays are working 
 their way inland along the river systems of the west and south and 
 on all the coasts of the island. In Dutch Borneo there are two types 
 of Dyaks, the earliest known inhabitants, who constitute the large 
 bulk of the population and are roughly classed as river and mountain 
 people. They go to the coast only to trade, and they form no part 
 of the population of the coastal districts. In Sarawak, British 
 Borneo, there are Dyaks who dwell on the coast and are called “ Sea 
 Dyaks.” 
 
 The islands of the Smaller Soenda Group, not including Bali and 
 Lombok, which are inhabited by people racially related to those of 
 Java, are populated by Malayo-Polynesians of much purer type than 
 the people of the islands to the west, and much less affected by the 
 modern Chinese and Malay immigrations. In Timor and the sur¬ 
 rounding islands are local groups with a strong admixture of Portu¬ 
 guese and Dutch blood. 
 
 The people of Celebes and the Moluccas show a considerable vari¬ 
 ation of culture, but they are racially of almost pure Malayo-Poly- 
 nesian blood, except in the Southern Spice Islands, where there are 
 some inhabitants of Portuguese mixture. 
 
 The origin of the people of New Guinea is unknown. There are 
 anthropologists who contend that these people are related to the 
 Negritos of the Philippine Islands, while others dispute this claim. 
 
 TRIBAL DIVISIONS AND THEIR ECONOMIC STATUS. 
 
 JAVA AND MADOERA. 
 
 Java is the home of the Javanese and Soendanese peoples, besides 
 the small groups of Tengerese, who are practically absorbed by the 
 Javanese and Badoeinese, who may be grouped, economically, with 
 the Soendanese, while the Madoerese, whose home is on the island 
 of Madoera, have migrated in large numbers to eastern Java and 
 have formed an integral part of Java’s population. The Malays, 
 Chinese, and Arabs, who are found in all parts of the colony, will 
 be discussed in a separate section. 
 
 The census of 1905 states that 84 per cent of the population of 
 Java is agricultural. This agricultural population is grouped as 
 follows: 
 
 Groups. 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Owners of the ground. 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 270,000 
 
 1,200,000 
 170,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 950,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 3,300,000 
 
 285,000 
 
 2,150,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 Farmers.T. 
 
 Agricultural laborers: 
 
 Native. 
 
 European. 
 
 
 4,640,000 
 
 1,345,000 
 
 5,985,000 
 
 Javanese .—There are approximately 22,000,000 Javanese on the 
 island of Java, most of whom are in the central and eastern part. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 15 
 
 The Javanese language is used only in middle and eastern Java, east 
 of the Preanger Regencies, and the Residency of Cheribon. In writ¬ 
 ing and printing the Javanese characters are used, and the Romanized 
 characters are not understood. There are two principal and entirely 
 different forms of words and manners of speech to be mastered, one 
 for the superior and the other for the inferior, and this, coupled 
 with its complexity, makes it a very difficult language to learn. 
 
 Javanese industries are generally operated in connection with agri¬ 
 culture—the preparation of oil, sugar, tapioca, copra, or tobacco. It 
 is exceptional that native industry enters the field of what is called 
 “ great industry,” which is in the hands of Europeans, Chinese, and, 
 in a small way, Japanese, and works largely for the foreign markets. 
 
 As a rule the articles manufactured in the household industries 
 have a greater artistic than utilitarian value. 
 
 On the coasts of the Residency of Rembang native shipbuilding is 
 carried on. 
 
 Most of the native trading is done in the markets by women as 
 both sellers and buyers, and the “ waroeng” (or small native shop) 
 traffic is conducted entirely by them. The more important centers of 
 native trade are in Kedoe, Djokjakarta (Pasir Gede), and Peka- 
 longan. The shop trade (retail stores) is in the hands of the Chinese, 
 especially in the small towns. 
 
 The Javanese as factory or port laborers are generally considered 
 satisfactory. They have few wants and hard work is not necessary, 
 but when at work they perform their tasks well. In some parts of 
 Java the natives are addicted to opium smoking and throughout the 
 island they go to excess in their festivities, often losing everything 
 they have in gambling. 
 
 Islamism is the religion of the Javanese. 
 
 The Soendanese. are approximately 7,000,000 in number and live in 
 western Java, in the mountains of the Preanger Regencies, and in the 
 lowlands to the north and west. Their language, which has its own 
 grammar and written characters, is far poorer in Sanskrit words 
 and terms than the Javanese and in Arab words than the Malay. 
 They are taller and stronger than the Javanese and more energetic. 
 Their temperament is more lively, which is indicated in the greater 
 use of bright colors in their clothing, but their civilization is dis¬ 
 tinctly inferior. • Otherwise they have the same general charac¬ 
 teristics as the Javanese, and, like them, are agriculturists. In 
 the larger towns the Soendanese are inclined to assimilate the ways 
 of the various races resident there, but in the mountains and rural 
 districts, where they live by agriculture and the chase, they have a 
 reputation for being honest, loyal, subject to tradition, and of a re¬ 
 ligious disposition, although their Islamism, modified as it is by relics 
 and ritual of bygone cults, is of a doubtfully orthodox type. Out¬ 
 wardly they have been influenced far less than the Javanese by the 
 Hindu and Arab civilizations. 
 
 The Madoerese number about 4,000,000, of which 2,500,000 live in 
 Java, in the Residencies of Pasoeroean and Besoeki. They have 
 also emigrated to the islands of Kangean and Bawean, in the Java 
 Sea. 
 
 While there is a tendency toward the Soendanese becoming 
 absorbed by the J avanese race, the Madoerese, whose ancestral home 
 
16 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 
 |S?lg 
 
 O u O® o 
 
 uii2g| 
 
 
 o 
 
 t-4 
 
 Em 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 17 
 
 is in the island of Madoera, are successfully retaining their rugged 
 and forceful characteristics. Some of them are merchants, but 
 most are agriculturists, and are headstrong, vindictive, and ever 
 ready to draw the “ pi so blati ” (knife) to avenge the slightest insult'. 
 On the other hand, they are industrious, frugal, and have more fore¬ 
 sight than most of the other natives of the archipelago. They have 
 no equals in the colony as breeders of cattle. They are successful 
 small traders and are also fishermen and daring navigators. In the 
 industries they have not developed very far, but are good potters, 
 basket makers, carpenters, and smiths and, unlike most other natives 
 of the archipelago, are inclined to save their money. The Madoerese 
 of Bawean carry on a trade with the various small ports of north 
 Java and with Bandjermasin, in Borneo. 
 
 Islamism is the religion of the Madoerese. 
 
 SUMATRA. 
 
 The following table gives the population, area, and density of 
 population of Sumatra, based on the estimate of December, 1917: 
 
 Residency. 
 
 Euro¬ 
 
 peans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 / 
 
 Other 
 
 orientals. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Area in 
 square 
 miles. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Sumatra West Coast. 
 
 3,532 
 
 1,273,170 
 761, 844 
 226,062 
 
 11,922 
 2,671 
 
 1,288,624 
 
 15,558 
 16,231 
 
 82 
 
 Tapanoeli. 
 
 723 
 
 765,238 
 229, 845 
 
 47 
 
 Benkoelen. 
 
 484 
 
 3; 299 
 
 9,437 
 
 24 
 
 Lampongs. 
 
 458 
 
 168' 256 
 
 2; 858 
 12,673 
 
 17i; 572 
 
 11,337 
 
 15 
 
 Palembang. 
 
 1,400 
 
 746,475 
 
 760,548 
 207,265 
 894,140 
 709, 841 
 199,649 
 
 } 53,714 
 35,478 
 
 D jambi. 
 
 190 
 
 203,116 
 
 3; 959 
 
 18 
 
 Sumatra East Coast. 
 
 6,270 
 
 742; 215 
 695,125 
 
 145; 655 
 12,982 
 
 25 
 
 Atjeh and dependencies. 
 
 1,734 
 
 20, 548 
 
 34 
 
 Riouw and dependencies. 
 
 419 
 
 177; 602 
 
 21,628 
 
 16; 377 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 15,210 
 
 4,993,865 
 
 217,647 
 
 5,226,722 
 
 178,680 
 
 29 
 
 Menangkabau Malays .—The home of the Menangkabau Malays is 
 in the highlands of the Sumatra West Coast Residency, an area of ap¬ 
 proximately 8,700 square miles, in which the largest part of the popu¬ 
 lation of the residency is located. They claim to be, and probably 
 are, the parent stock of the whole Malay race. Their culture is 
 highly developed and their rich language has strongly influenced all 
 of the languages of Sumatra to a greater or less degree. They use 
 Arabic Malay script in writing. These virile people live principally 
 by agriculture and excel all other natives in the archipelago in care¬ 
 ful cultivation. While their herds are not large, the stock is well 
 bred. The agricultural products are rice, pepper, cacao, indigo, nut¬ 
 megs and mace, cassia vera, tamarinds, coffee, teakwood, tobacco, 
 gambier, coconuts, pinang nuts, kapok peanuts, Turkish wheat, po¬ 
 tatoes, fruits, and green vegetables. Property succession is in the 
 female line. 
 
 The European exporters and importers find the Menangkabau 
 Malays to be sharper business men than the Chinese, who have never 
 been able to secure a foothold in the interior trade. 
 
 The industries carried on by the men are mainly carpentry and 
 ironwork for local needs, while the women occupy their spare time 
 in spinning, weaving, and basketwork. The Menangkabau Malay 
 weaves are very exceptional in texture and design, both in cotton and 
 
18 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 silk fabrics. Their economic position is much above that of the other 
 inhabitants of Sumatra, if not of the whole colony, and their con¬ 
 sumption of western manufactures is considerable. Islamism is 
 their religion. 
 
 The Coast Malays .—This designation is somewhat a misnomer, as 
 the Malays occupy not only the coastal district but are the principal 
 part of the population of the vast interior areas in Palembang, 
 Djambi, and Riouw in Sumatra, and they are established along the 
 river systems of Borneo, far in the interior. Malay settlements are 
 found along the coasts of most of the important islands, and espe¬ 
 cially at trade centers. There is no way of estimating the total 
 number, as they are classed as natives in the census. The language 
 of the Coast Malays is based on the Menangkabau Malay, but is much 
 simpler and is supplemented by Portuguese, English, or Dutch words 
 in various sections and in some places by all. It is divided practi¬ 
 cally into two languages, High Malay and Low Malay. Broadly, 
 Malay is spoken in all of central and south Sumatra; it is the lan¬ 
 guage of commerce, and wherever the Dutch Government is es f ab- 
 lished it is introduced through the schools. The native chiefs every¬ 
 where speak this language, the knowledge of it being a sign of some 
 culture. Low Malay is easy to learn, and the knowledge of a few 
 hundred words will make it possible to converse on ordinary topics 
 throughout the Netherlands East Indies and British Malaya. 
 
 As noted in the preceding section, these people are an offshoot of 
 the Menangkabau Malays and were probably more recently crossed 
 with foreign racial elements. In Palembang and Djambi, as well 
 as in southern and eastern Borneo, they give the Chinese merchants 
 very strong competition and form the predominant factor in the trade 
 of the interior. They are also agriculturists, daring navigators, and 
 manufacturers of articles for native use and adornment. They are 
 ardent Mohammedans, and the spread of Islamism throughout the 
 colony has, in a large degree, been due to their efforts. 
 
 The Lampongers live in the southernmost part of the island of 
 Sumatra. In the Residency of the Lampongs, the home of this 
 group, all of the population of 168,000 are Lampongers, w T ith the 
 exception of a few of the people of the Bantam Residency, who 
 have settled there as laborers in their employ, and the imported 
 labor for European estates. A considerable part of the 115,000 
 people of southern Benkoelen and the 154,000 people of southern 
 Palembang also either belong to this group or are strongly influ¬ 
 enced byTlieir culture. 
 
 The language of these people has many dialects, differing widely 
 in sound and word formation, but all have a common grammar and 
 are closely related to the Menangkabau Malay. The written char¬ 
 acters follow closely the Sanskrit alphabet, and when writing Malay 
 or Soendoenese, which many of them understand, the Lampongers 
 use their own alphabet. 
 
 The principal source of livelihood of the Lampongers is the culti¬ 
 vation of pepper, from which they have amassed considerable wealth. 
 They do but little of the work of cultivation and harvesting them¬ 
 selves, but employ laborers from the near-by Residency of Bantam, 
 in Java, whence large numbers emigrate during the pepper harvest 
 season. While keen business men, they are not industrious, and, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 19 
 
 outside of pepper, coconuts, and some coffee, the resources of the 
 area are exploited by the foreign Asiatic and European population. 
 Their religion is Islamism. 
 
 The Redjangs live in the highlands to the east of the town of 
 Benkoelen and constitute a considerable portion of the 17,000 native 
 peoples in that subdistrict. They have their own language, but 
 their system of writing is the same as that of the Lampongers. 
 They differ little from the Menangkabau Malays, and such differ¬ 
 ences as there are may be said to be the result of Javanese influence. 
 Coffee, rice, and cattle are the principal products. Their Islamism is 
 mixed with animism, and they are said to be much less hospitable 
 than their neighbors. 
 
 The Lebongs constitute approximately half of the native popula¬ 
 tion of 93,000 in the subdistrict of the same name in the Residency of 
 Benkoelen, adjoining the home of the Redjangs. According to their 
 traditions, they are descendants of the Menangkabau Malays, but 
 some authorities contend they are related to the Orang Koeboe. 
 Their writing is done on bamboo in the Lampong alphabet. Islam¬ 
 ism is their religion. 
 
 The Korintjis are a mountain people, about 57,000 in number, 
 whose rich homeland, adjoining that of the Lebongs and the 
 Menangkabau Malays, is surrounded by mountains and is so inac¬ 
 cessible that their agricultural products can not be taken out. They 
 are descendants of the Menangkabau Malays, speak a dialect of their 
 language, and use the same written characters. Intellectually and 
 as agriculturists they are said to be far in advance of their neighbors, 
 other than the Menangkabau Malays, and are keen money makers 
 and savers. The products are rice, coffee, tobacco, and water buffaloes, 
 all of which are of superior quality or breed. Islamism is their 
 religion. 
 
 People of Palembang , Djcombi, Riottvj, and the southern part 
 of Sumatra East Coast. —These vast areas are populated most largely 
 by an offshoot of the Menangkabau Malays, usually termed “ Coast 
 Malays,” the exception being the Orang Koeboe, about 7,000 wild 
 dwellers in the jungle, of no economic importance, and the Lampong¬ 
 ers in the south. The total native population of these three resi¬ 
 dencies, including the Riouw Archipelago and excluding the 
 Lampongers, already mentioned, is 1,075,000. The religion of the 
 Malays is Islamism, while the Orang Koeboe are animists. 
 
 Mandailing and other West Coast Malays. —To the north of the 
 Menangkabau Malay country, in the Residencies of Tapanoeli and 
 southern Atjeh, are several groups of Malays who take their names 
 from the districts in which they live. These are the Mandailings, 
 Sibolgas, etc.—in fact, Coast Malays, slightly more under the in¬ 
 fluence of the parent race than others under that general heading, 
 and therefore more industrious. Their country is very fertile, and 
 some of the best qualities of coffee are raised in this district. They 
 number upward of 800,000. Islamism is their religion. 
 
 In the highlands in the southern part of Tapanoeli are two 
 primitive peoples, the Orang Ulu and. the Orang Lobu, small in 
 numbers and of little economic value. Their language is Low Malay 
 and their religion Islamism, with a strong animistic tendency. 
 
 19878°—23 - 3 
 
20 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The Battiks occupy the whole of the highlands of northern 
 Sumatra, south of Atjeh, in the Tapanoeli and Sumatra East Coast 
 Residencies. The Batak dialects can be grouped under two general 
 classifications, which are again divided into five subdivisions. The 
 population divided according to these dialects is as follows: 
 
 Karo Bataks, north of Lake Toba, numbering about 120,000. 
 
 Pak Pak Bataks, west of Lake Toba, numbering about 22,000. 
 
 Toba Bataks on the shores of Lake Toba, the peninsula of Samosir, 
 the plateau of Toba, the highlands of Assahan (Sumatra East 
 Coast Residency), Selindoeng, the country between Baros, Sibolga, 
 and the mountains of Tapanoeli, and Babinsaran, numbering about 
 400,000. 
 
 The Angkola and Mandailing Bataks, in Angkola and Sipirok, in 
 the Residency of Tapanoeli, numbering about 160,000. 
 
 The Timoer and Simeloengoen Bataks, east of Lake Toba. The 
 written language is said to have originated in Asia and is somewhat 
 similar in the main principles to the Javanese system, but much 
 simpler. Besides the differences in language, these tribes vary in 
 their customs, morals, and conceptions of justice, but only in details. 
 
 All of the Bataks, except those of Simeloengoen, dwell in per¬ 
 manent villages, built with some regularity. The homes, especially 
 those of the wealthy classes, are skillfully constructed and decorated 
 with carvings and colors. 
 
 The Bataks are an agricultural people, cultivating rice and, where 
 water is scarce, the inland potato (gadoen), which takes the place of 
 rice as the staple food. While the handicrafts necessary for the life 
 of the people are carried on, it may be said that every artisan is also 
 an agriculturist. Cattle breeding, especially of the carabao, or water 
 buffalo, is extensively carried on. The Batak carabao and horses are 
 favorably regarded in the lowlands. 
 
 The many good roads of the country favor the inland trade which 
 is carried on by these people. 
 
 The ancient heathen beliefs have been largely supplemented by 
 Islamism in the southern part of the Batak country and by Chris¬ 
 tianity in the northern part. 
 
 The Gajus live in the interior of the Residency of Atjah, just north 
 of the Batak country. They are agriculturists and cattle breeders. 
 Their houses, villages, clothing, and language are very similar to 
 those of the Bataks, but it is apparent that the Atchinese, Malays, and 
 Korintjis have all contributed in some part to their culture. 
 
 The Atchinese. —The origin of the Atchinese is not known to a 
 certainty, but the Hindus, Arabs, Javanese, Bataks, and the people 
 of Nias have all contributed in some part to their culture. Generally, 
 the people of Atjeh are darker, more slender in build, and more lively 
 than the Malays. Their speech is hard and passionate, which cor¬ 
 responds with their nature. 
 
 The Atchinese language is divided into several dialects, of which 
 the Banda is the most important, and is considered to be the basic 
 Atchinese language. The Arab-Malay characters are used in writing. 
 
 The Atchinese are, above all, agriculturists, planting pepper, coco¬ 
 nuts, pinang nuts, and sugar. They are also fishermen. As a result 
 of the war with the Dutch Government, order is maintained with 
 difficulty, especially in the interior, and there is much yet to be done 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 21 
 
 before a proper respect will be developed for the lives and property 
 of others. The Atchinese war began in 1873 and has continued until 
 very recent times. The war may now be said to be over, and the 
 rising generation is learning self-control and discipline, something 
 unknown to their fathers. With their energy, intelligence, and 
 knowledge of business they will develop rapidly along economic lines. 
 
 Islamism is the religion of the Atchinese. 
 
 Agriculturally, the northern part of the low and hill lands of the 
 Sumatra East Coast is very highly developed under European con¬ 
 trol, and there is a large population of immigrant laborers drawn 
 from China, British India, Java, and other parts of the Orient, be¬ 
 sides a considerable population of Coast Malays. In advertising the 
 Malay, Javanese, Chinese, and Tamil scripts are used, according to 
 the class it is desired to reach. 
 
 The inhabitants of the islands off the West Coast of Sumatra vary 
 greatly in culture, but their economic status is largely similar. They 
 collect forest products, including damar, rattans, and hardwoods, and 
 cultivate coconuts and native food products. 
 
 The population, area, and density of population in residencies out¬ 
 side of Java and Madoera and of Sumatra are as follows: 
 
 Residency. 
 
 Euro¬ 
 
 peans. 
 
 Natives. 
 
 Other 
 
 orientals. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Area 
 in square 
 miles. 
 
 Density. 
 
 Banka and dependencies. 
 
 541 
 
 81,923 
 
 71,714 
 
 154,178 
 
 4,473 
 
 34 
 
 Billiton. 
 
 368 
 
 38,351 
 
 20,762 
 
 59,481 
 
 1,868 
 
 32 
 
 Western division of Borneo. 
 
 485 
 
 506,134 
 
 67,018 
 
 573,637 
 
 56,057 
 
 10 
 
 Southern and eastern division of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Borneo. 
 
 1,963 
 
 922,287 
 
 16,616 
 
 940,866 
 
 157,576 
 
 6 
 
 Menado. 
 
 1,787 
 
 729,513 
 
 10,726 
 
 742,026 
 
 22,175 
 
 33 
 
 Celebes and dependencies. 
 
 2,436 
 
 2,332,245 
 
 17,367 
 
 2,352,048 
 
 49,603 
 
 47 
 
 Amboina (except New Guinea). 
 
 3,1S1 
 
 354,754 
 
 2,999 
 
 360,934 
 
 
 
 Temato and dependencies (except 
 
 
 
 
 
 New Guinea). 
 
 477 
 
 198, 465 
 
 1,193 
 
 200,135 
 
 
 
 Timor and dependencies. 
 
 653 
 
 1,085,875 
 
 4’ 821 
 
 1,091,349 
 
 17,781 
 
 61 
 
 Bali and Lombok. 
 
 314 
 
 1,336,485 
 
 8,081 
 
 1,344, 880 
 
 4,062 
 
 331 
 
 Total. 
 
 12,205 
 
 7,586,032 
 
 221,297 
 
 7,819,534 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 BORNEO. 
 
 Except as they are organized by immigrant peoples, the Dyaks of 
 Borneo have no political grouping beyond their tribes, some of which 
 comprise less than a hundred members and are named from the river 
 or mountain near which they dwell. They are largely nomadic, 
 although many of them have settled abodes and cultivate dry rice 
 fields, while a few near the southern coast have copied the Javanese 
 system of irrigation. 
 
 The total native population of the two Dutch residencies on the 
 island, according to the 1917 estimate, is 1,428,000, but this includes 
 coast natives, who are practical^ all Malays and Buginese. 
 
 About the many different languages and dialects of the Dyaks 
 little is known. In the Southern and Eastern Residency of Borneo 
 the Dgadjoe language is spoken; to the west of the Barito River, 
 that of the Olou Manjaan; and in the western division, the Boesang 
 language. There are no systems of writing any of these languages, 
 and therefore there is no literature. 
 
22 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITTSH MALAYA. 
 
 The nomadic tribes are the collectors of forest products, such as 
 copal, damar, rattans, deerskins, and horns, and the various wild 
 rubbers and guttas. Trade in the interior is by barter, but the use 
 of the Dutch subsidiary coinage is gradually penetrating the trade 
 routes. 
 
 Such industries as exist are carried on in the homes and are for 
 the immediate wants of the individual and his family, except iron¬ 
 working, which is done by men trained for this work, a few of whom 
 are found in each village. The abundance of fish to be found in the 
 rivers gives fishing a prominent place in the life of the Dyaks. 
 Animism is their religion. 
 
 ASIATIC IMMIGRANTS IN BORNEO. 
 
 The Chinese of western Borneo did not come as merchants but as 
 colonists, and they have become farmers and miners. In earlier 
 times they established States which negotiated with the early Euro¬ 
 peans independently of the Malay princes, but as a result of Euro¬ 
 pean occupation these independent Chinese States have disappeared, 
 with a consequent gradual falling off in the Chinese population. 
 
 The relations of the various foreign elements in Borneo to each 
 other and to the natives are much the same as in other parts of the 
 colony. 
 
 According to the 1905 census, the population of the Western Resi¬ 
 dency of Borneo was 450,929, of which 374 were Europeans, 48,348 
 were Chinese, 1,342 Arabs, 533 Klingalese, and 400,332 natives. 
 
 The Malays settled along all the coasts and rivers and in south and 
 east Borneo developed political units. When the Europeans first 
 came to Borneo the Malays held political domination of a large part 
 of south and east Borneo. The Javanese settled along the south 
 coast, and on the east coast the Buginese of Celebes formed some 
 colonies. 
 
 Twenty-two Malay States were formed under the Sultan of Koetei, 
 but the total number of his subjects is only about 100,000. The 
 Malay princes did not attempt to govern their principalities, but con¬ 
 tented themselves with raising taxes, so that the Dyaks in their im¬ 
 mediate vicinity were either subdued and absorbed or forced with¬ 
 out the boundaries. 
 
 According to the census of 1905, the population of the South and 
 East Residency of Borneo, in which the Malays take precedence over 
 the Chinese in trade, was 782,726, of which 1,008 were Europeans, 
 7,174 were Chinese, 1,799 Arabs, 213 Klingalese, and 772,532 natives. 
 
 CELEBES. 
 
 Buginese and Macassarese .—In the south of Celebes there are two 
 tribal groups, the Macassarese and the Buginese, which are so closely 
 related that they will be treated here jointly. 
 
 The Macassarese occupy the former empire of Gowa, which ex¬ 
 tends from Maros and Macassar southward to Bontain and to the 
 island of Salcier. This is the so-called “ government territory.” 
 The seat of the Buginese tribe is at Bone, on the eastern coast of the 
 southwestern “ leg ” of Celebes, in what is called the “ indirect gov¬ 
 ernment territory,” but there are many Buginese inhabitants in the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 23 
 
 Macassarese towns of Maros, Pankadjene, Boeloekomba, and Sindjai. 
 There are settlements of Buginese in Borneo, at Samarinda, Pon- 
 tianak, Satnbas, and Soengei Kakap, and in Flores, Endeh, and other 
 islands, and on the East Coast of Sumatra they formerly had some 
 influence. 
 
 The features of both of these peoples are very similar to those of 
 the Javanese, but in color they are much lighter. In character they 
 are said to be vindictive and ready to rob and murder, but this is 
 largely due to their form of government under the native rulers. 
 During the past 15 years they have been brought completely under 
 the rule of the Dutch Government and their better qualities are 
 becoming more evident. They constitute the bulk of the population 
 of the three southern divisions of the residency, which is given in 
 the 1917 estimate as 627,923. 
 
 The Buginese and Macassarese have common origin and differ in 
 the use of separate languages, which have remained distinct and 
 unmixed even in those districts where they live side by side. The 
 chiefs understand both languages, but the common people use their 
 own tribal tongue. The two languages have almost the same gram¬ 
 matical construction, but differ in regard to the sound system, that 
 of the Macassarese being harsh, while that of the Buginese has a 
 nasal sound. The characters used in writing are the same, with the 
 exception of that used to express this nasal sound. The literature 
 of the Buginese is much richer. 
 
 As agriculturists they cultivate rice, Turkish wheat, coffee, coco¬ 
 nuts, and the areng palm, from which sugar is extracted. 
 
 The Buginese are skillful navigators and merchants and their 
 small ships trade throughout Borneo, and even in the West Coast of 
 Sumatra, and are seen in all the ports of Java and the islands of the 
 east. 
 
 Weaving is a household industry, practiced by the women of both 
 tribes, and the “ sarongs ” and other articles of dress made by them 
 are prized very highly throughout the archipelago, where they are sold 
 by the Buginese mariner merchants. They are also clever workers 
 in gold and silver and formerly made agricultural tools, but these 
 latter are being largely replaced by imported articles. 
 
 Many Macassar horses are exported to the surrounding islands, 
 where they are favorably regarded. The carabao is the principal 
 draft animal, although some other cattle are raised. These are in 
 sufficient numbers for local use. Neither of the tribes under review 
 stands high as cattle breeders. 
 
 Nominally the Buginese and Macassarese are Islamites, but in fact 
 they are animists. 
 
 The Minahasaers occupy the extreme northeastern part of the 
 island of Celebes. Their origin is not definitely known, but their 
 morals, customs, and language do not encourage the presumption that 
 they came from the islands to the north. They are much different 
 from the other inhabitants of the colony, being of the Christian faith, 
 and the children of such of the heathens as still survive are accept¬ 
 ing Christianity on reaching maturity. As a result of the combined 
 efforts of the missions and the Government, the civilization of these 
 people stands very high. The land is fertile and there is wide¬ 
 spread prosperity, which is apparent in the dress and living condi- 
 
24 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 tions of the people and in the commerce and industry. There is but 
 little illiteracy. The native Christians number about 200,000, and 
 Mohammedans are almost unknown in the district. 
 
 The Minahasaers have a language of their own, which may be 
 divided into two dialects—the Tomboeloe and the Tonteboan. The 
 former is more widely used and has the richer literature. Malay is 
 the language of the ports, as well as the official language. It is also 
 used throughout the colony. 
 
 The Minahasa men are much in demand in commerce, for the Gov¬ 
 ernment services, and in the army, and the draining of the country of 
 its young men is a great drawback to the general development. The 
 people consider themselves almost on an equality with their rulers, 
 the Dutch, and have developed a distaste for the handicrafts and 
 primitive living of their ancestors. 
 
 The products of agriculture are principally rice, coconuts, coffee, 
 Turkish wheat, and fruits. 
 
 Other peoples of Celebes are the mountain tribes, wrongly called 
 the Alfoers and the To Radj as. These words are not the names of 
 tribes or races, and it is not correct to use them to indicate the peo¬ 
 ple of the mid-Celebes, but they incorrectly designate the people of 
 the north and the people of the south. There exist several peoples 
 named from the districts to which they belong. Before the Dutch 
 Government had gained a strong control of these people the To 
 Rad j as were governed by the princes of Loewoe, whose empire ex¬ 
 tended to the whole of the central part of Celebes. The people liv¬ 
 ing in the coast towns have adopted the dress and customs of the 
 Buginese, but in the interior their clothing is very primitive. These 
 To Rad j as are divided into many tribes, whose names all begin with 
 To, meaning “men.” They are largely animists, and their civiliza¬ 
 tion stands very low, with the exception of a small number who have 
 adopted the Christian faith. 
 
 As agriculturists they cultivate principally rice, Turkish wheat, 
 and coffee. Household industries are carried on only for the wants 
 of the family. They excel in basketry and ironwork. The people 
 of the coast are expert builders of native ships, while the mountain 
 peoples are the collectors of copal, rattans, and other forest prod¬ 
 ucts. The trade, which in the aggregate is large, is in the hands of 
 foreigners—Chinese, Arabs, and Europeans. 
 
 The people who inhabit the northwest Celebes, the so-called neck 
 of the northern peninsula, have the same characteristics as those of 
 mid-Celebes. On the coast they are principally of Buginese origin, 
 while the so-called Alfoers live in the interior. These latter, like 
 the To Rad j as of the interior, are collectors of forest products. Ap¬ 
 proaching the northern peninsula the natives are found to be more 
 highly developed, especially those inhabiting the western part, where 
 they have come under the influence of the inhabitants of Minahasa. 
 
 THE MOLUCCAS. 
 
 The inhabitants of the Moluccas, which include the Spice Islands, 
 are more mixed than any other people of the archipelago. The 
 Buginese and, in earlier times, the Javanese settled in the Moluccas 
 and mixed with the coast people, but those of the interior preserved 
 their original type. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 25 
 
 There are many distinct tribes in the interior of the various 
 islands, generally designated as Alfoers, or men of the mountains, an 
 uncivilized people. It is not politic to use this term, and when it is 
 necessary to mention a certain people it is always safer to use the 
 name of the island or district in which they live. Many languages 
 are spoken, and the authorities claim that none of them has any 
 relation to the Malay Polynesian. The language of the ports is 
 Malay. 
 
 The productivity of the Moluccas is not great. There is almost no 
 agriculture, and the people live mainly on the sago palm, which 
 grows abundantly, especially in the island of Ceram, whence there 
 is a considerable export to surrounding islands. The principal prod¬ 
 ucts for export are copra, copal, damar, and rattan. 
 
 Special mention must be made of the people of the island of 
 Ceram, a large island north of Amboina, the seat of the government 
 of the residency of that name. The population of the coast towns 
 of the island have been very much intermixed with the foreign immi¬ 
 grants, but the natives, who are also carelessly called Alfoers, form 
 many tribes with different languages and customs. These can be 
 divided into four principal groups—the Patasiwa Hitam, the Pata- 
 siwa Puteh, the Patalima, and the peoples of eastern Ceram, who 
 have no collective name. The black (hitam) Patasiwa are thus 
 designated because of their practice of tattooing the body, while the 
 white (puteh) Patasiwa leave the body as nature made it. 
 
 TIMOR. 
 
 Timor is the eastern island of the Smaller Soenda Group lying 
 in a chain eastward from the southeastern point of Java. The 
 eastern half of this island* belongs to the Portuguese. The inhab¬ 
 itants belong to the so-called Papuan or curly-headed race. This 
 race is found also on the other islands of this group as far as the 
 middle of the island of Flores, westward of which are found the 
 Malay types. 
 
 At the town of Koepang, the principal town in Dutch Timor, live 
 a separate people, the Mardijkers, or descendants of the inhabitants 
 of the island of Poti, who were sent by the Dutch in the eighteenth 
 century as soldiers to guard that town from the Black Portuguese, 
 the inhabitants of the Portuguese part of the island. When in the 
 beginning of the nineteenth century the need of this guard ceased it 
 was disbanded and became a part of the population. 
 
 Off the north coast of Portuguese Timor lies the island of Kisar, 
 where the “ mest'inos of Kisar ” live. These mestinos are descendants 
 of the Dutch, who in early days were stationed there for protection 
 against the Portuguese. For the greater part they have not inter¬ 
 bred with the natives and are therefore of pure European blood, but 
 they have adopted the native language and customs. They number 
 about 300. 
 
 Another peculiar people live on the island of Semaoe, off the west 
 coast of Timor. They claim to have come from the west. 
 
 At the town of Koepang are also the Fatoe Fetoe, descendants of 
 Europeans, Menadonese, and Ambonese fathers and Timorese 
 mothers, who esteem themselves far better than the natives and 
 almost equal to Europeans, from whom they have adopted all tho 
 
26 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 bad qualities. They will not work at the handicrafts and endeavor 
 to enter the Government service. Many of them are extremely poor, 
 but try to conceal their poverty by a show of state. 
 
 The inhabitants of the Alor group of islands are divided into tw® 
 groups—the people of the coast and the inland peoples. The coast 
 people are much mixed with the foreign elements and live by trading 
 and fishing. The inland peoples are agriculturists, their principal 
 products being Turkish wheat and rice, and during the past few years 
 the cultivation of coconuts and cotton has developed. Turkish wheat 
 and cotton are exported. 
 
 BALI AND LOMBOK. 
 
 The inhabitants of Bali are of quite a different type from the other 
 natives of the archipelago, being of Hindu-Javanese origin, de¬ 
 scendants of the subjects of the Hindu empire in Java who migrated 
 to Bali when Islam intruded and mixed with the former population 
 of that island. From Bali they crossed to the island of Lombok 
 and subdued the natives there, some of whom fled to the island of 
 Soembawa. The descendants of the original inhabitants of Bali, the 
 Kali Aga, still have Indonesian customs, although they have accepted 
 much of the Balinese culture. The native population of Bali is 
 902,000 and of Lombok 434,000. 
 
 The language of the Balinese has been influenced much by the 
 Javanese, and in a lesser degree by Buginese and other languages, 
 but the dual language of the Javanese, one for the superior and the 
 other for the inferior, is not used, although, as in all languages, there 
 are some words relating to the higher classes. The system of writing 
 differs but little from that of the Javanese. Records are inscribed 
 on the leaves of the pandan tree instead of on paper. The Balinese 
 literature is rich and at its best is poetic. 
 
 The products of agriculture are rice, coconuts, coffee, beans, tobacco, 
 Turkish wheat, cotton, indigo, onions, and some minor products. 
 
 The Balinese are excellent agriculturists and cattle breeders, and 
 there is a large export of hogs, generally to Singapore and China. 
 The Balinese system of irrigation—the a soebak ” system—is much 
 superior to anything used by the other natives of the archipelago, 
 and the Government has accepted their methods in irrigation control. 
 
 Industry, particularly in its relation to art, stands very high. 
 Decoration in Bali is very closely related to religion; the temples are 
 true objects of art, and even the entrances of common houses are 
 decorated with fine carving. 
 
 Metal working in iron, copper, and gold is done with great skill, 
 especially the inlaying of gold leaves in other metals. 
 
 The Balinese excel in the art of weaving and plaiting. Balinse 
 pottery is excellent; in fact, it may be said that all articles made by 
 the Balinese show taste and skill in decoration. 
 
 The religion of the principal part of the inhabitants is Hinduism. 
 
 The people of some parts of the island of Lombok are similar to 
 those of Bali, as the Balinese were the conquerors of Lombok. Be¬ 
 sides the conquerors there are the Sasaks, who are of an entirely 
 different type, and the Bodhas, a small tribe related to the Sasaks. 
 
 Their language differs much from the Balinese, although they have 
 borrowed many of the Balinese words and have adopted the Balinese 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 27 
 
 system of writing. Their literature consists principally of stories 
 of Arab and Malayan origin, and many of them speak both the Malay 
 and Balinese languages. By establishing schools among them, an 
 effort is being made by the Government to raise their standard of 
 work and living. They are agriculturists, cultivating the same prod¬ 
 ucts as the Balinese. They live chiefly in the eastern part of the 
 island, but there are some in the west and a few at Karangasem, in 
 Bah. 
 
 While the Bodhas are still animists, the Sasaks have accepted 
 
 Islam. 
 
 NEW GUINEA. 
 
 The inhabitants of New Guinea are to a very large extent the 
 Papuans. As was said of the word “Alfoer,” so “ Papua ” is a term 
 signifying a man of the interior and is not known to the natives, who 
 designate themselves according to their district. 
 
 Trade is carried on by means of barter, as few Papuans know the 
 use of money, except near such settlements as Merauke, Manokwari, 
 and Fak-Fak, where Dutch money is accepted in exchange for 
 products. 
 
 Outside the trade settlements the natives are naked, or at most 
 wear a loin cloth, being very little removed from absolute savagery. 
 They trade in forest products, which are exchanged for such western 
 products as they fancy or require. 
 
 The hunting for birds of paradise in New Guinea is done by for¬ 
 eigners, usually natives of Ternate. 
 
 The Chinese monopolize the retail business with the natives in 
 almost every part of the colony, taking in exchange for western 
 manufactures the products of the country. They are the carpenters, 
 tinsmiths, and handicraftsmen in every occupation that the native is 
 Unqualified to fill; they are independent agriculturists in western 
 Borneo and laborers in the tin mines of Banka and Billiton and in 
 the tobacco plantations of the Sumatra East Coast Residency. They 
 are classed under two general headings—the Paranakans and the 
 Singkehs, the Chinese who are born in the colony and the Chinese 
 immigrants. The blood of those born in the colony is often slightly 
 mixed with that of the natives, but they retain their Chinese customs, 
 although modified by local conditions, and their strong Chinese char¬ 
 acteristics. As to living conditions, they adapt themselves to circum¬ 
 stances as they find them. When living on plantations or in camps 
 they approximate the living conditions of their homeland; when in 
 the native towns as small merchants, they adopt many of the native 
 habits of life; when they acquire wealth, they generally copy Euro¬ 
 pean dress and living conditions. 
 
 The 1905 census gave the number of Chinese in the colony at 1.8 per 
 cent of the native population. 
 
 The Arabs were established in the archipelago long before 
 Magellan discovered the Spice Islands, and their position is firmly 
 intrenched through their superior status as Mohammedans and their 
 superior ability in finance. They use their religious authority to 
 their financial advantage without scruple, as do the natives who 
 have made the pilgrimage to Mecca. They are primarily money 
 lenders and usurers. In comparing them with the Chinese in this 
 
28 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 respect, Clive Day in his book, The Dutch in Java, quotes a Javanese 
 saying, “ They both bleed us, but the Moor hurts:” 
 
 LABOR. 
 
 In Java employers of labor find an ample supply ready at hand. 
 Sugar-estate laborers are the people who raise rice and other food 
 crops on the land in the alternative period. (See “Agricultural 
 products.”) The tobacco labor, likewise, is already on the land. The 
 skilled labor on the rubber estates is generally resident of the plan¬ 
 tation itself, as well as a part of the common labor. Coffee har¬ 
 vesters are recruited in part from near-by villages. The labor on 
 the tea estates is usually resident on the estate or in near-by villages. 
 Harbor labor in Soerabaya is made up of Madoerese, at Semarang of 
 Javanese, and at Batavia of a mixture of all classes of natives, but 
 very largely of Soendanese. Railroad labor is most largely drawn 
 from the district in which the work is to be done. 
 
 In the Outer Possessions there is a great scarcity of labor for 
 plantations, except in the Residency of Sumatra West Coast, and 
 it is imported mainly from Java, although the tobacco planters 
 import Chinese coolies for their heavier work, and some rubber 
 planters import Tamils (southern British Indians). The cost of 
 securing Javanese laborers and transporting them to the plantation 
 in 1913 was approximately from 155 to 165 florins each, and a year 
 later it was 184 florins, besides the return fare on completion of 
 the contract. In addition to the wage and u indent ” charge there 
 must be added the cost of hospital service, which is given free to 
 the employees under Government supervision. 
 
 Before the outbreak of the World War there were no labor or¬ 
 ganizations in the colony, but there has developed, out of the dis¬ 
 turbances of oriental thought, a movement claiming to be religious 
 in conception, called the Sarikat Islam, or Bond of Islam. In 
 Java many subsidiary “bonds” have grown out of this movement 
 that are, in effect, labor organizations. The chief of these is the 
 Sugar Workers’ Bond, and this organization has shown some unity 
 and strength. Among the agricultural industries more remote from 
 the ports and from the centers of sugar culture this movement had 
 less chance to develop, but has made some headway. 
 
 The following table shows the monthly wages on the railways 
 of the Netherlands East Indies as of November 15, 1920: 
 
 Occupation. 
 
 State 
 railways 
 (Java and 
 Sumatra). 
 
 Nether¬ 
 lands Indies 
 Spoor weg 
 (Java). 1 
 
 Deli Spoor- 
 weg Mij. 
 
 (Sumatra). 
 
 Tram lines 
 (Java). 
 
 Locomotive drivers 2 . 
 
 Florins. 
 
 43-200 
 
 Florins. 
 
 25-125 
 
 Florins. 
 
 4,5-125 
 
 Florins. 
 
 80-155 
 
 Firemen. 
 
 38- 85 
 
 20- 55 
 
 50- 90 
 
 2 60 
 
 Brakemen. 
 
 23- 38 
 
 15- 30 
 
 29- 90 
 
 j 42 
 
 Station agents. 
 
 53-210 
 
 70-170 
 
 100-250 
 
 45-210 
 
 Switchmen. 
 
 23- 38 
 
 14- 22 
 
 *42 
 
 Wipers, cleaners, and common labor. 
 
 23- 38 
 
 11- 14 
 
 29- 45 
 
 *30 
 
 Track foreman.. 
 
 38- 48 
 
 25- 40 
 
 50-130 
 
 *60 
 
 Track workers. 
 
 23- 38 
 
 11- 14 
 
 *30 
 
 
 
 1 Wa"^ paid by this railway before Mar. 1, 1920, at which time an increase was to have been made. 
 
 * Mileage extra. 
 
 * Average per month. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 29 
 
 The following wage schedule for harbor labor was furnished by 
 the manager of a lighterage and stevedoring company at Soerabaya, 
 November 20, 1920: 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Common laborers_per day_0. 75- 2. 00 
 
 Maximum earning on piecework_do_ 5. 00- 7. 00 
 
 Crane operation_per month_ 30. 00- 75. 00 
 
 Office help_do_ 30. 00-200. 00 
 
 Watchmen_do_ 40. 00-150. 00 
 
 Native supervisors_do_ 30.00-100. 00 
 
 The wages paid to workers on sugar estates in Java vary in differ¬ 
 ent sections. The district of Pasoeroean is selected as representa¬ 
 tive of wage conditions in east Java, the district of Pekalongan as 
 representative of central Java, and the district of Djokjakarta as rep¬ 
 resentative of south-central Java. This wage scale is for work dur¬ 
 ing harvest. Most of the workers get a percentage bonus according 
 to the profits of the year’s business. The following table shows the 
 prices paid during the harvest season, November 20, 1921: 
 
 Workers. 
 
 Pasoeroean. 
 
 Pekalongan. 
 
 Djokjakarta. 
 
 Mini¬ 
 
 mum. 
 
 Maxi¬ 
 
 mum. 
 
 Mini¬ 
 
 mum. 
 
 Maxi¬ 
 
 mum. 
 
 Mini¬ 
 mum 
 increase 
 foreach 
 year of 
 service. 
 
 Mini¬ 
 
 mum. 
 
 Maxi¬ 
 
 mum. 
 
 Coolies: 
 
 • 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins, 
 
 Male. 
 
 .. .per day.. 
 
 0.45 
 
 0.55 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.55 
 
 
 
 0.54 
 
 Female. 
 
 ......do.*... 
 
 .35 
 
 .45 
 
 
 
 
 
 .40 
 
 Children. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 .25 
 
 .35 
 
 
 
 
 
 .27 
 
 Helpers and household servants. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 .55 
 
 .95 
 
 .60 
 
 1.00 
 
 0. 05 
 
 0.45 
 
 .70 
 
 Machinists. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 .60 
 
 2. 50 
 
 1.10 
 
 2.00 
 
 .10 
 
 .75 
 
 3.00 
 
 Head machinists. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 2.50 
 
 4.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 Up. 
 
 . 10 
 
 
 
 Boss machinists. 
 
 per month.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 60.00 
 
 111. 00 
 
 Factory gang bosses. 
 
 !. .per day.. 
 
 .60 
 
 1.00 
 
 .75 
 
 i. 66 
 
 
 . 50 
 
 1.05 
 
 Assistant head gardeners. 
 
 per month.. 
 
 9.00 
 
 15. 00 
 
 18.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 
 15.00 
 
 20. 00 
 
 Head gardener... 
 
 *.do_ 
 
 15.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 50. 00 
 
 2. 50 
 
 20.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 Head supervisors. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 55.00 
 
 100.*00 
 
 60.00 
 
 Up. 
 
 5.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 75.00 
 
 Garden watchmen. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 12.00 
 
 18.00 
 
 
 
 
 12.50 
 
 15.00 
 
 Field clerks. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 “Bibit” bosses. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 17.50 
 
 35.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 50. 00 
 
 2.50 
 
 
 
 Track bosses. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 18.00 
 
 55.00 
 
 .60 
 
 1.00 
 
 .10 
 
 18.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 Cane-cutter bosses. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 15.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 
 
 Transport bosses. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 
 
 20.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 
 
 Head bosses. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 
 
 50.00 
 
 Up. 
 
 5.00 
 
 35.00 
 
 75.00 
 
 Assistant. 
 
 
 15.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 18.00 
 
 24.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 15.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 Clerks. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 30.00 
 
 75.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 40.00 
 
 Head clerks. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 80.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 120.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 45.00 
 
 90.00 
 
 Helpers in laboratory. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 15.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 
 
 
 15.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 Laboratory men... *. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 30.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 Head laboratory men. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 55.00 
 
 125.00 
 
 75.00 
 
 125.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 Surveyors. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 30.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 120.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 Cashiers. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 80.00 
 
 125.00 
 
 60. 00 
 
 120.00 
 
 10.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 100.00 
 
 Paymasters. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 18. 00 
 
 35.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 
 
 Native warehouse supervisors.... 
 
 .do_ 
 
 25.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 
 
 Office messengers...'.. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 12.00 
 
 18.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scale boss. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 
 
 25.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 20.00 
 
 40.00 
 
 Scale clerk. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 22.50 
 
 50.00 
 
 25.00 
 
 50.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 
 
 Weighers. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 20.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 18.00 
 
 24.00 
 
 2.00 
 
 1 .60 
 
 U90 
 
 Chinese sugar boilers: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 First class. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 100.00 
 
 150.00 
 
 
 
 
 150.00 
 
 200.00 
 
 Second class. 
 
 
 60.00 
 
 110.00 
 
 75.00 
 
 150.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 150.00 
 
 Third class. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 30.00 
 
 60.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 45.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 
 
 Native sugar boilers, second class 
 
 .do_ 
 
 
 
 50.00 
 
 125.00 
 
 5.00 
 
 
 
 Native helper cookers, third class 
 
 .do_ 
 
 
 
 20.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 2.50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Per day, 
 
30 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Wages on a rubber, coffee, and sisal producing estate in Java 
 during the first half of 1920, taken from pay-roll sheets, were as 
 follows: 
 
 European staff, —Chief estate assistants received 250 to 300 florins 
 per month; chief factory assistants, 300 florins per month; machinist, 
 250 florins; bookkeeper, 250 florins. It was proposed to increase the 
 above by 30 per cent immediately. 
 
 Native labor, —Head field supervisors received 30 to 50 florins per 
 month; tappers (rubber), 50 to 80 cents per day, the latter being 
 paid according to the rubber content of their daily collection. Coffee 
 harvesters, according to the abundance of crop, earn from 60 cents to 
 1 florin per day and sisal harvesters, paid by quantity, earn about 
 70 cents per day. Common labor is paid at the rate of 40 cents per 
 day for men and 25 cents for women. 
 
 Native factory help. —Rubber-machine supervisors were paid 20 
 to 30 florins per month; skilled machine laborers, 15 to 20 florins per 
 month; coolies, men, 50 cents per day; coolies, women, 30 cents per 
 day. - Coffee-kiln supervisor received 25 florins per month; mill 
 supervisor, 20 florins per month; sorter supervisor, woman, 50 cents 
 per day and 1 cent each for sewing bags; coolies, men, 40 cents per 
 day; women sorters, 50 cents for 136 pounds. Sisal-machine super¬ 
 visors received 25 florins per month; coolies, men and women, 50 
 cents per day; drying, sorting, and packing supervisors, 20 florins 
 per month; coolies in drying yards, 40 cents per day; coolies, women, 
 sorting and packing, 10 cents per 136 pounds; coolies, men, pressing, 
 60 cents per 136 pounds. 
 
 Other native labor. —Master carpenters received 75 florins per 
 month; carpenters and helpers, 60 cents to 1.50 florins per day; 
 master blacksmiths, 75 florins per month; blacksmiths and helpers, 
 60 cents to 1.50 florins per day; master bricklayers, 60 florins per 
 month; bricklayers and helpers, 60 cents to 1.50 florins per day. 
 
 CONTRACT LABOR LAW, POPULARLY KNOWN AS « POENALE SANCTIE.” 
 
 The following is an official statement of the development of the 
 above-mentioned law and the attitude of the Government toward its 
 continuation: 
 
 The ordinance (Government Gazette 421, 1915) governing the 
 responsibility of contract laborers in the Sumatra East Coast Resi¬ 
 dency to fulfill their contracts, popularly called “Poenale Sanctie,” 
 fixes the punishment of the laborer for failure to live up to the 
 terms of his contract as well as the responsibility of the estate owners 
 and managers. 
 
 Up to 1872 the imported laborers in this district were under the 
 jurisdiction of the Sultan, who left the punishment of all minor 
 offenses to the planters, but in that year the jurisdiction over all 
 immigrant inhabitants was taken over by the Netherlands East 
 Indian Government. Under the laws as then existent all cases con¬ 
 cerning Chinese and Tamil (southern British Indians) laborers in¬ 
 volving 100 florins or three months’ imprisonment came before the 
 assistant resident. This took from the planters the police powers 
 formerly enjoyed, but the Government did not provide an adequate 
 substitute, and it is claimed that many disorders resulted. At the 
 end of 1875 there were 59 estates in this district employing about 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 31 
 
 4,500 Chinese and 1,000 Tamils and Javanese. In order to get a 
 sufficient supply of coolie labor the planters had to make advances 
 to the recruits before leaving their native lands to cover their debts, 
 to provide temporary support for their families and for expenses of 
 travel. The landing of a coolie at a Sumatra port involved a con¬ 
 siderable investment of money on the part of the estate, and this 
 investment was jeopardized by the new laws, under which the max¬ 
 imum punishment for breach of contract was from 8 to 12 days’ 
 labor on public works. Desertions immediately on arrival became 
 common, and planters had to write off heavy losses annually for this 
 account. 
 
 In June, 1875, the planters came together in an effort to obtain 
 an increase of punishment for breaches of contract and a fine for 
 estates employing deserters. This met with much opposition from 
 the Minister of the Colonies and from the Parliament in the Nether¬ 
 lands. No relief was given them until July, 1880, when the first 
 coolie ordinance came into existence. 
 
 The coolie ordinance , known as “Poenale Sane tie T —This ordi¬ 
 nance laid down rules for the drawing up of contracts between the 
 managers of agricultural and industrial undertakings and laborers 
 from without the district and for registration of the contract by the 
 head of the local government, who was to guarantee that the laborer 
 signed the contract absolutely of his own free will and that he 
 understood its conditions. It decreed that the contract must include 
 the name, age, nationality, and, if possible, the tribe of the laborer, 
 the name of the employers, the type of labor to be rendered, and 
 the number of working hours per day (the maximum to be 10) ; 
 that the duration could not be more than three years, and that the 
 employer was to provide the laborer with lodgings and medical 
 treatment. 
 
 In the interest of the employer this ordinance provided that the 
 period during which the laborer had been idle, for furlough, deser¬ 
 tion, or more than one month’s sickness, should be added to the 
 term of the contract; that the coolie could not leave the estate with¬ 
 out the written permission of the manager, but that such permis¬ 
 sion should not be refused if the workman desired to serve a com¬ 
 plaint to the local government, and that in such cases no more than 
 three coolies might go together. It also provided that differences 
 of opinion in the reading of the contract should be settled by the 
 head of the local government and for appeal from this decision to 
 the civil or criminal judges. 
 
 “ Poenale Sanctie ” concerned transgressions and intentional viola¬ 
 tions of the contract. Transgressions were to be punished by a fine 
 of, at most, 100 florins for Europeans and 25 florins, or 12 days’ 
 labor, for natives or those classed similarly. Intentional violation 
 was liable to a fine of, at the most, 100 florins for the employer and 
 three months’ labor on the public works for the coolie. The ordi¬ 
 nance further enumerated the acts which should count as intentional 
 violation, viz, desertion and persistent refusal to work, both only 
 prosecutable on the accusation of the employer. For first offenses 
 the accused could escape punishment if, with the approval of the 
 accuser, he should return to work before the pronouncement of the 
 sentence, but on second and subsequent convictions the coolie could 
 
32 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 be punished with from three months to one year of forced labor 
 without chains. 
 
 With a view to the maintenance of peace the ordinance made re¬ 
 bellion, insult or menace, disturbance of the peace, incitement, fight¬ 
 ing, and drunkenness (if the acts were not to be comprehended as 
 misdemeanors) punishable by a fine of at most 25 florins or labor on 
 public works during 12 days. 
 
 The ordinance also provided that on the completion of the con¬ 
 tract, or when an employer intentionally abrogated a contract, or 
 when a contract is considered as annulled, owing to the coolies’ con¬ 
 tinued unfitness for labor, such coolies should be sent back to the 
 place of origin on the first possible occasion by the employers or, if 
 they should neglect to do so, by the Government at the employer’s 
 expense, but if the coolie should wish to remain and had or could 
 obtain work sufficient to maintain existence he would be allowed 
 to do so. 
 
 This ordinance of 1880 was made the model for many other residen¬ 
 cies in the Outer Possessions during the following years. In 1886 an 
 ordinance came into existence in the West Coast Residency of 
 Sumatra; in 1887 Palembang, Sumatra, had a similar ordinance, fol¬ 
 lowed by Ternate in 1888, west Borneo and Benkoelen in 1889, and 
 the Lampongs, south and east Borneo, and Riouw in 1891. 
 
 The ordinance of 1880 for the East Coast of Sumatra, outlined 
 above, has been repeatedly altered and supplemented during the 
 intervening years. In its present form it was proclaimed by ordi¬ 
 nance in the Government Gazette No. 421 of 1915, by which some 
 radical alterations were made. 
 
 The obligation to sign a contract fell into disuse, as the rights 
 and obligations of the employer and the laborer were governed by 
 ordinance. Further, the various methods of recruiting labor had 
 to be taken into consideration—by immigration contract made out¬ 
 side the district; with persons who came into the Province for the 
 first time; by reengagement of persons who were continuing work 
 after the expiration of their engagement. 
 
 Penal clauses which were in former ordinances covering “ extreme 
 laziness ” and “ refusal to work ” fell into disuse. “ Intentional 
 violation of agreement” is now understood to include “nonfulfill¬ 
 ment of the obligation to be present on the estate on time,” “ deser¬ 
 tion,” and “ persistent refusal t‘o perform the obligatory labor.” 
 
 The greatest change in the mind of the legislator was apparent in 
 article 24 of this new coolie ordinance. This article gives the Gov¬ 
 ernor General authority to shorten the maximum term of all agree¬ 
 ments or stipulated groups of agreements. (The term of an immi¬ 
 gration contract is 3 years and a reengagement contract 18 months.) 
 It states: 
 
 The stipulations of this ordinance containing threats with punishment for 
 violation of the labor contract on the part of the laborers and for refusing to 
 perform their duty, as also those concerning the return of laborers to the 
 estates by force, cease to exist for the estates in the whole Province or in a 
 certain area for all agreements of a certain kind and tendency, at a time stated 
 by the Governor General, as soon as in his judgment circumstances admit. 
 
 The control of labor under this law is under the service for labor 
 inspection, representatives of which are required to visit the estates 
 and to receive complaints from both the laborers and the employers. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 33 
 
 Recruiting is done by the two principal planters’ societies of the 
 Sumatra East Coast—the Deli Planters’ Association (called the 
 D. P. Y.) and the Algemeene Vereeniging van Rubber Planters 
 ter Oostkust van Sumatra (called the AVROS)—and by profes¬ 
 sional recruiters. Bgth these associations also depend largely on 
 the professional recruiters. 
 
 In the introduction of the colonial report of 1917 it was stated: 
 
 “ Poenale Sanctie ” creates a state of affairs deviating from the normal course 
 of justice which may no longer be maintained than is strictly necessary, and 
 that it also, apart from the known objections of a theoretical and practical 
 nature, ought to disappear as being inconsistent with a colonial government 
 founded upon modem principles, as it has already disappeared in other col¬ 
 onies. * * * 
 
 That the penal-law compulsion for the time being still remains in 
 force finds its reason solely in the consideration that the planters 
 ought to be granted a fair transition period for the drawing up of 
 measures to obtain sufficient free labor. 
 
 WAGES PAID CONTRACT COOLIES AND OTHER LABOR. 
 
 In the Sumatra East Coast Government on December 31, 1920, 
 there w T ere employed 238,336 contract coolies, as follows: 23,886 Chi¬ 
 nese, 150,691 male and 61,704 female natives of Java, 1,950 British' 
 Indians, and 105 others. The wage schedule for first contract coolies 
 was 55 cents (1 florin=$0,402 mint par; 1 cent=one one-hundredth of 
 a guilder or florin) per day for men and 50 cents for women, and re¬ 
 engaged coolies received 60 cents per day for men and 55 cents for 
 women. Rice was sold to contract coolies at 20 cents per catty (1 
 catty—1.36 pounds). On the same date there were 44,063 noncon¬ 
 tract or “ free ” coolies working on the European-owned estates at 
 from 70 cents to 4 florins per day, according to their occupation, while 
 wages of mandoers (native supervisors) were from 25 florins to 
 140 florins per month for men and from 1 to 1.50 florins per day for 
 women. All contract coolies received hospital service free. 
 
 In the Residency of Sumatra West Coast there were 3,037 contract 
 coolies besides those working for the Government-owned coal mines. 
 The wage schedule for first contract coolies was 35 cents for men and 
 30 cents for women, and reengaged coolies received 40 cents and 35 
 cents, respectively. The price of rice for contract coolies was fixed at 10 
 cents per ca-tty. First contract coolies working in the mines received 
 55 cents per day for underground work and 44 cents for Surface work, 
 and reengaged coolies received from 60 to 65 cents for underground 
 work, and from 50 to 55 cents for surface work, with a fixed charge for 
 rice of from 10 to 14 cents per catty. All contract coolies received 
 hospital service free. There were also 3,064 local laborers working for 
 estates owned by Europeans, who received from 40 to 60 cents for 
 the lowest classes of work, while skilled labor was paid as high as 
 3 florins per day. 
 
 In the Lampong districts of southern Sumatra there were 10,244 
 contract coolies receiving 41 cents per day for men and from 30 to 36 
 cents for the women, reengaged coolies receiving 47 cents and 42 
 cents, respectively, with a free issue of 24 catties of rice per month 
 for men and 18 catties for women. Hospital service was supplied 
 free. 
 
34 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH "MALAYA. 
 
 There were also 2,435 other laborers employed by the European- 
 owned undertakings under various types of agreements whose wages 
 ranged from 75 cents to 1.50 florins. 
 
 In the Kesidency of Southern and Eastern Borneo there were 
 approximately 8,400 contract coolies, 900 of whom were women. On 
 the estates near Bandjermasin the contract coolies were paid 41 cents 
 per day for the men and 36 cents for the women, with the price of 
 rice fixed at 10 cents per catty. In the coal mines various rates of 
 wages are paid. Some mines pay 70 cents for underground work 
 and 60 cents for surface work, and when the coolies receive food from 
 their employers they are charged from 20 to 30 cents per day for it. 
 One mine paid a minimum wage of 41 cents per day, with an increase 
 to reengaged coolies of 5 cents per day for every additional year. 
 Besides the contract coolies there were 7,960 “ free ” or noncontract 
 coolies. The Bataafsche Petroleum Mij. is the largest employer of 
 labor in this district. Its minimum wage for contract coolies was 
 45 cents for Javanese and other native men and 35 cents for women, 
 while for Chinese it was 52 cents. Macassar men were paid from 80 
 to 90 cents per day, according to the character of the work performed, 
 and other special workers received from 85 cents to 1.50 florins per 
 day, while the maximum wage for special workers was 5 florins per 
 day. 
 
 Other districts where contract coolies are employed are Amboina 
 and Ternate, where the common contract coolie men receive a mini¬ 
 mum of 25 cents per day and the women 20 cents, with one catty of 
 rice per day free and an allowance of salt and clothing. 
 
 EMIGRATION. 
 
 There is a considerable export of Javanese coolies to Dutch Guiana, 
 Netherlands West Indies, and some to the Federated Malay States, 
 Straits Settlements, British North Borneo, and French Indo-China. 
 Very elaborate regulations are provided defining their rights and 
 obligations. A copy of these regulations is on file with the Far 
 Eastern Division, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 
 
 COLONIZATION. 
 
 In 1905 an area in the Lampong district, in southern Sumatra, 
 was opened for colonization where indigent Javanese were given land 
 and advances* of stock and implements. Under the Government’s 
 supervision the colonists have succeeded in establishing themselves, 
 and the success of this colony has led to the opening of another in 
 southern Borneo. It is proposed to extend this colonizing effort to 
 areas where the population is sparse, and thus in time to provide 
 laborers for the development of European agricultural enterprises. 
 
 FOREIGN COMMERCE. 
 
 The great per acre production of Java and aggregate production 
 of the vast areas in the Outer Possessions, combined with the buying 
 power of 47,000,000 people of small individual purchasing capacity, 
 but largely homogeneous, makes this colony important in world trade 
 regardless of other considerations, but, aside from its very consider¬ 
 able purchasing capacity, it is very important to the United States, 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 35 
 
 for the reason that it is located at a point where homeward cargoes 
 are most needed, not only by the ships of European countries but 
 by American ships. 
 
 The United States is the ultimate consumer of a very large part of 
 the products which before the war were routed through European 
 market cities. During the war years much of this cargo was shipped 
 direct to the United States, and in the post-w T ar period a quite natural 
 effort has been made to reestablish the European markets in their 
 former position. 
 
 The figures in the following tables, which will be analyzed in an¬ 
 other section, are taken from volume 1 of the Netherlands East 
 Indies import and export returns. They are given merely to illus¬ 
 trate in the broadest way the extent of the disorganization of the 
 trade and the ability of the United States to consume the products 
 of the colony. During the period covered by the tables there was a 
 very wide fluctuation in exchange; market prices rose steadily in most 
 commodities, steamship lines were disorganized and reorganized, and 
 freight and insurance rates rose and fell with the changing conditions. 
 
 Items. 
 
 1904 
 
 1908 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In 1,000 
 
 In 1,000 
 
 In 1,000 
 
 In 1,000 
 
 In 1,000 
 
 In 1,000 
 
 In 1,000 
 
 In 1,000 
 
 In 1,000 
 
 General imports: 
 
 florins. 
 
 florins. 
 
 florins. 
 
 florins. 
 
 florins. 
 
 florins. 
 
 florins. 
 
 florins. 
 
 florins. 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 118,798 
 
 166,182 
 
 301,173 
 
 263,380 
 
 261,210 
 
 288,836 
 
 311,755 
 
 364,671 
 
 423,677 
 
 Outer .Possessions. 
 
 65,564 
 
 77,362 
 
 136,730 
 
 120,809 
 
 112,945 
 
 115,888 
 
 155,264 
 
 165,744 
 
 215,352 
 
 Government imports: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 7,607 
 
 6,219 
 
 24,491 
 
 25,152 
 
 15,577 
 
 15,062 
 
 18,926 
 
 27,360 
 
 97,788 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 1,993 
 
 1,447 
 
 2,530 
 
 3,333 
 
 2,183 
 
 1,457 
 
 1,435 
 
 1,010 
 
 3,904 
 
 Total merchandise.... 
 
 193,962 
 
 251.210 
 
 464,924 
 
 412,674 
 
 391,915 
 
 421,243 
 
 487,380 
 
 558,785 
 
 740,721 
 
 Specie. 
 
 16,886 
 
 29,348 
 
 28,417 
 
 16,779 
 
 7,488 
 
 25,009 
 
 9,305 
 
 9,019 
 
 52,512 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 207,848 
 
 280,558 
 
 493,341 
 
 429,453 
 
 399,403 
 
 446,252 
 
 496,685 
 
 567,804 
 
 793,233 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 General exports: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 172,120 
 
 310,887 
 
 317,341 
 
 335,682 
 
 432,946 
 
 511,290 
 
 457,536 
 
 353,469 
 
 1,413,305 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 99,961 
 
 141,936 
 
 303,163 
 
 364,998 
 
 325,258 
 
 345,367 
 
 328,574 
 
 322,431 
 
 748,810 
 
 Government exports: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 20,542 
 
 16,857 
 
 34,365 
 
 19,275 
 
 6,938 
 
 3,494 
 
 1,213 
 
 3,711 
 
 5,220 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 2 
 
 
 22,866 
 
 19,161 
 
 4,930 
 
 7,663 
 
 457 
 
 
 5 
 
 Total merchandise.... 
 
 292,625 
 
 469,680 
 
 677,735 
 
 679,116 
 
 770,072 
 
 867,814 
 
 i 87 y /80 
 
 679.611 
 
 2,167,340 
 
 Specie.. v . 
 
 2,982 
 
 1,034 
 
 6,211 
 
 5,539 
 
 788 
 
 343 
 
 5,449 
 
 233 
 
 131 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 295,607 
 
 470, 714 
 
 683,946 
 
 684,655 
 
 770,860 
 
 868,157 
 
 793,229 
 
 679,844 
 
 2,167,471 
 
 A recapitulation of the above table shows the following grand 
 totals of exports and imports for the years given: 
 
 , Year. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Specie. 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 1904. 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 292,625 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 193,962 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 486,587 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 
 16,868 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 503,455 
 751,272 
 
 1908. 
 
 469,' 680 
 
 25l'210 
 
 720,890 
 
 30,382 
 
 1913. 
 
 677, 735 
 679,116 
 770,072 
 867,814 
 
 464' 924 
 
 1,142' 659 
 
 34,628 
 
 1,177; 287 
 
 1914. 
 
 412' 674 
 
 l' 091' 790 
 1,161,987 
 1,289,057 
 1,275,160 
 
 22,318 
 
 i; m; 108 
 
 1915. 
 
 39l' 915 
 
 8; 276 
 
 1,170,263 
 1,314,409 
 1,289,914 
 
 1916. 
 
 421' 243 
 
 25,352 
 14,754 
 9,252 
 
 1917. 
 
 787' 780 
 
 487' 380 
 
 1918. 
 
 679'611 
 
 558, 785 
 
 1,238; 396 
 2,908,061 
 
 I', 247; 648 
 2,960,704 
 
 1919. 
 
 2,167' 340 
 
 740 721 
 
 52; 643 
 
 
 
 19878°—23-4 
 
36 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 * The following table shows the values of imports for the whole 
 colony during the years 1913 to 1919, inclusive (with the exception 
 of gold and silver imports), giving also the countries of origin of 
 shipments: 
 
 Countries of origin. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 145,259 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 124,070 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 99,902 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 90,771 
 84,651 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 47,947 
 70,807 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 11,355 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 83,359 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 76,571 
 28,776 
 3,432 
 
 70,311 
 21,759 
 
 79', 922 
 4,302 
 1,930 
 
 78,630 
 477 
 
 90,' 860 
 957 
 
 Germany. 
 
 842 
 
 361 
 
 France. 
 
 2, 665 
 
 2,686 
 
 2,670 
 
 1,820 
 
 4,830 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 6,198 
 
 4,035 
 5,789 
 
 170 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 Italv.. 
 
 4,359 
 
 6,363 
 
 5,219 
 
 3,501 
 
 1,197 
 
 1,036 
 
 Austria. 
 
 687 
 
 469 
 
 85 
 
 53 
 
 21 
 
 
 22 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 1,063 
 
 1,255 
 
 1,546 
 
 1,506 
 
 889 
 
 1,163 
 
 1,640 
 
 Spain. 
 
 98 
 
 33 
 
 246 
 
 30 
 
 47 
 
 11 
 
 113 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 77 
 
 72 
 
 57 
 
 37 
 
 16 
 
 34 
 
 53 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 36 
 
 81 
 
 184 
 
 201 
 
 174 
 
 489 
 
 432 
 
 Norway. 
 
 145 
 
 14 
 
 164 
 
 88 
 
 101 
 
 198 
 
 541 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 602 
 
 353 
 
 1,481 
 
 1,852 
 
 1,196 
 
 628 
 
 2,181 
 
 Russia . 
 
 1 
 
 839 
 
 » 10 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 3 
 
 1 32 
 
 
 Gibraltar and Malta. 
 
 } 11 
 
 / 2 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 Other Europe. 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 { 1 
 
 
 Canada . 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 36 
 
 25 
 
 456 
 
 United States. 
 
 9,033 
 
 9,693 
 
 15,058 
 
 30,801 
 
 60,592 
 
 62,440 
 
 1 
 
 130,487 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 80 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 162 
 
 844 
 
 185 
 
 150 
 
 403 
 
 487 
 
 1,407 
 
 Arabia. 
 
 28 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 Persia. 
 
 91 
 
 364 
 
 654 
 
 
 3,091 
 
 British India. 
 
 22,746 
 13,455 
 
 15,153 
 
 16,235 
 
 27,136 
 
 30,923 
 17,744 
 284 
 
 32,791 
 21,682 
 
 16; 205 
 14,468 
 
 Penang. 
 
 13; 526 
 
 13; 266 
 216 
 
 14,189 
 
 Malacca.. 
 
 '356 
 
 '320 
 
 ' 192 
 
 '291 
 
 399 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 67,847 
 
 58,923 
 
 66,087 
 
 76, 507 
 2,912 
 
 119,187 
 
 134,113 
 4,704 
 
 132,191 
 9,607 
 2,956 
 
 Siam. 
 
 4,184 
 
 2; 979 
 
 4,710 
 19,028 
 
 4 ', 413 
 
 French Indo-China. 
 
 15', 560 
 
 14,663 
 6,320 
 
 9,565 
 
 15; 336 
 10,307 
 
 10; 051 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 7,451 
 
 9; 093 
 
 8,568 
 
 15; 846 
 
 20', 351 
 
 China . 
 
 9,231 
 
 9',403 
 
 8; 165 
 
 5; 667 
 1,356 
 
 4; 982 
 
 4 501 
 
 5,053 
 
 815 
 
 Dairen, Chosen, and Vladivostok. 
 
 '307 
 
 '298 
 
 2,117 
 
 1,094 
 
 1,324 
 
 Japan, including Formosa. 
 
 6,769 
 206 
 
 6,591 
 
 12,810 
 
 27,238 
 
 54,879 
 
 938 
 
 114,580 
 
 77,075 
 
 1,359 
 
 Philippines. 
 
 108 
 
 106 
 
 '330 
 
 L 619 
 
 British Borneo 2 . 
 
 127 
 
 374 
 
 965 
 
 436 
 
 588 
 
 '415 
 
 1,156 
 
 Portuguese Timor. 
 
 513 
 
 677 
 
 1,082 
 
 915 
 
 676 
 
 269 
 
 602 
 
 Cocos and Christmas Islands. 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 29 
 
 14 
 
 Australia 3 . 
 
 10,573 
 
 10,291 
 
 5,340 
 
 7,276 
 
 51 
 
 11,705 
 
 21,487 
 
 31,745 
 
 123 
 
 British South Africa. 
 
 
 107 
 
 8 
 
 '139 
 
 All* other. 
 
 803 
 
 1,088 
 
 982 
 
 851 
 
 2,821 
 
 6,144 
 
 2,441 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 436,683 
 
 383,150 
 
 372,318 
 
 402,795 
 
 464, 764 
 
 528,955 
 
 638,056 
 
 
 
 
 i Via Vladivostok. 
 
 * Including Sarawak and British North Borneo. 
 
 * Including Tasmania, New Zealand, and the Australian islands in the Pacific Ocean, ut not New 
 Guinea nor the Cocos and Christmas Islands. 
 
 In the following table are shown the values of exports for the 
 whole colony during the years 1913 to 1919, inclusive (with the 
 exception of gold and silver exports), giving also the countries of 
 destination: 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 37 
 
 Countries of destination. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 172,616 
 23,934 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 14', 307 
 
 France/.. 
 
 26, 715 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 3,103 
 
 Italy. 
 
 2,523 
 
 Austria. 
 
 4,261 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 8 
 
 Spain. 
 
 155 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 21 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 889 
 
 Norway. 
 
 7 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 27 
 
 Russia. 
 
 1,739 
 
 Gibraltar and Malta. 
 
 | 16,181 
 
 Other Europe. 
 
 Canada_". 
 
 785 
 
 United States. 
 
 13,331 
 
 Turkey. 
 
 95 
 
 Egypt" (including Suez for orders and 
 Port Said for orders). 
 
 6,478 
 
 Arabia. 
 
 308 
 
 Persia. 
 
 166 
 
 British India, including Pondicherry. 
 Penang.. 
 
 88,924 
 19,034 
 
 Malacca. 
 
 2,097 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 109' 671 
 
 Siam:. 
 
 2,284 
 
 French Indo-China. 
 
 1,115 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 34,193 
 
 China... 
 
 17' 699 
 
 Dairen, Chosen, and Vladivostok. 
 
 
 Japan, including Formosa. 
 
 35, 812 
 
 Philippines_/. 
 
 806 
 
 Britisfi Borneo 1 2 . 
 
 216 
 
 Portuguese Timor. 
 
 252 
 
 Cocos and Christmas Islands. 
 
 19 
 
 Australia 3 . 
 
 12,847 
 
 British South Africa. 
 
 17 
 
 All other. 
 
 1,570 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 149,305 
 106,093 
 6,647 
 20,290 
 1,751 
 2,922 
 1,085 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 587 
 
 47 
 
 4 
 
 1,171 
 
 21,293 
 
 152 
 
 16,304 
 
 69 
 
 18,136 
 54 
 2 
 
 67,402 
 18,693 
 5,478 
 106,154 
 3,036 
 1,434 
 23,636 
 18,500 
 
 19,179 
 1,612 
 368 
 159 
 11 
 
 20,159 
 2,215 
 1,796 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 195,210 
 92,816 
 6 
 
 23,728 
 
 2,837 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 157,798 
 167,932 
 3 
 
 22,552 
 
 3,493 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 19,730 
 85,274 
 
 8,523 
 
 290 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 3,358 
 38,325 
 
 7,912 
 
 1,549 
 
 In 1,000 
 florins. 
 351,037 
 235,809 
 10,147 
 63,452 
 20,350 
 12,288 
 
 7 
 46 
 17 
 
 434 
 
 8 
 4 
 
 174 
 
 8,157 
 
 207 
 
 40,002 
 
 
 1,115 
 3,841 
 1,081 
 i 10,770 
 f 2,283 
 
 1,186 
 97,879 
 
 6,996 
 
 i 7,898 
 
 1,584 
 2,764 
 200,080 
 
 2,165 
 
 1,436 
 3,315 
 2,345 
 1 271 
 
 1,585 
 7,419 
 110,886 
 
 3,080 
 6,593 
 
 18,657 
 54,552 
 20,084 
 4,660 
 11,125 
 9,291 
 6,840 
 190,926 
 10,319 
 
 26,079 
 
 129 
 
 93,839 
 13,269 
 4,117 
 119,044 
 4,523 
 2,912 
 44,740 
 17,887 
 4,972 
 15,623 
 1,055 
 363 
 128 
 9 
 
 27,694 
 2,567 
 
 15,701 
 
 22,483 
 
 41 
 
 84,072 
 14,839 
 4,906 
 126,896 
 4,503 
 2,024 
 32,675 
 13,063 
 2,135 
 18,107 
 1,872 
 364 
 131 
 6 
 
 16,551 
 37,996 
 1,645 
 
 25,298 
 
 68,530 
 18,707 
 7,127 
 161,484 
 
 7.701 
 
 2.701 
 37,085 
 22,909 
 
 1,789 
 31,357 
 1,889 
 562 
 96 
 1 
 
 23,427 
 22,160 
 10,587 
 
 18,046 
 
 22 
 61,837 
 13,499 
 7,079 
 164,028 
 3,333 
 3,042 
 51,091 
 38,496 
 1,678 
 77,812 
 2,270 
 366 
 61 
 
 27,633 
 12,378 
 9,195 
 
 109,947 
 23 
 
 190,165 
 23,515 
 10,771 
 321,460 
 6,493 
 3,920 
 125,625 
 30,636 
 4,148 
 180,875 
 10,924 
 428 
 308 
 
 82,379 
 5,887 
 4,598 
 
 Total 
 
 614,205 
 
 635,781 
 
 758,204 
 
 854,242 
 
 776,553 
 
 672,433 
 
 2,141,313 
 
 1 Via Vladivostok. 
 
 2 Including Sarawak and British North Borneo. 
 
 3 Including Tasmania, New Zealand, and the Australian islands in the Pacific Ocean, but not New 
 Guinea nor the Cocos and Christmas Islands. 
 
 STATISTICS AND THEIR RELATIVE VALUES. 
 
 The statistics covering the imports and exports of the Netherlands 
 East Indies are issued annually in four volumes, as follows (“ deel ” 
 being the Dutch for the word u part ”) : 
 
 Deel I contains the imports and exports by countries. 
 
 Deel TL-a gives the imports and exports for the islands of Java 
 and Madoera by articles, and under each heading the countries of 
 destination are given with the value of the shipments to each country. 
 In many cases, especially since 1914, the quantities also are given 
 and the unit of valuation placed by the import and export division 
 of the Department of Finance. In each case the ports of export are 
 also given, with the quantities from each port. These latter figures 
 are not totaled and often do not include all the exports. This volume 
 also contains a recapitulation of the imports and exports in separate 
 lists; the imports and exports for the account of the Government; 
 the movements of gold and silver, both for Government and private 
 account; a list showing the unit values placed on all commodities by 
 the Government; the rate of the import and export duties and amount 
 of income from each item during the year under review; and a list 
 showing the classifications and the units in which they are listed. 
 
38 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Deel II-5 covers the same information for Outer Possessions. 
 
 Deel III gives the imports and exports by residencies (main politi¬ 
 cal divisions). 
 
 System of valvxition of imports and exports. —Invoice values are 
 not used in making up these statistics, but unit values are arbitrarily 
 fixed by the import and export division, and in doing so an attempt 
 is made to place them at a fair average price for the year. It would 
 be very dangerous, however, to take these valuations and the result¬ 
 ant totals seriously. 'Quantity figures are used in this report when 
 available. 
 
 Approximate dates of publication. —Deel II-&, covering imports 
 and exports for Java and Madoera, is generally ready for the public 
 in April of the succeeding year, but’ Deel II-6, covering those of the 
 “ Butenbezittingen,” or Outer Possessions, is not ready until Novem¬ 
 ber, after which Deels I and III are given out. 
 
 Monthly reports. —Partial returns of imports and exports of the 
 various residencies of Java and Madoera are issued as a supplement 
 of the Javasche Courant, the official organ of the Netherlands East 
 Indies Government, generally within three or four months of the 
 close of the period. These are understood to be tentative figures, and 
 the sum of the 12 months as issued is seldom the same as the annual 
 returns. For the Outer Possessions there is a monthly report of im¬ 
 ports and exports for each of the residencies, issued as a supplement 
 to the Korteberichten voor Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel. These 
 publications are interesting as showing trends of trade, but are not 
 exact, and local merchants do not place much dependence on the fig¬ 
 ures contained therein. 
 
 The Korteberichten voor Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel con¬ 
 tains extracts from the market reports of the various Handelsvereeni- 
 gingen (merchants’ associations), which, coming through an official 
 publication, are particularly valuable as a summary. Other valuable 
 trade and production data are also published in this review, which 
 constitutes a guide to business men watching developments from 
 abroad. 
 
 The exports for 1913 show a producing capacity, on a per capita 
 basis, of 13.01 florins ($5.23 at $0,402 mint par), and in 1919, a very 
 abnormal year, of 45.36 florins ($18.23). 
 
 This colony in 1913 was the sixth largest importer of cotton tex¬ 
 tiles. Its railroads, its coal and tin and other mines, its thousands 
 of plantations, its 187 sugar mills and other industries, and its re¬ 
 quirements for the native population place it in a very important 
 position as a consumer of machinery, iron and steel, hardware, heavy 
 chemicals, paper, crockery, and household supplies and many other 
 western manufactures. 
 
 The imports for 1913 show a purchasing capacity, on a per capita 
 basis, of 9.25 florins ($3.72 at $0,402 mint par), and in 1919, a very 
 abnormal year, of 13.52 florins ($5.44). The total foreign trade 
 figures for these years (exclusive of specie and Government trans¬ 
 actions), on a per capita basis, were 22.26 florins ($8.95) and 58.88 
 florins ($23.67), respectively. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 39 
 
 BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 POSITION AND AREA. 
 
 The British possessions in Malaya consist of the Straits Settle¬ 
 ments, the Federated Malay States, the Non-Federated Malay States, 
 British North Borneo, Brunei, and Sarawak. These possessions, 
 exclusive of the Cocos or Keeling Islands and Christmas Island, lie 
 between 6° 45' and 1° north of the Equator and between 99° 38' and 
 119° 20' east longitude, and include an area of approximately 
 130,000 square miles, about 53,000 miles of which are on the Malay 
 Peninsula. 
 
 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND. 
 
 When Malacca was visited by Albuquerque in 1511 “it was a 
 place of great repute as a harbor and mart.” The Portuguese re¬ 
 mained in possession until 1641, when they were driven out by the 
 Dutch, who were succeeded by the British in 1795. The title of the 
 British to this ancient trade center was finally fixed by the treaty 
 with Holland, 1824. Since the founding of the city of Georgetown, 
 on the island of Penang, Malacca has taken a minor position in the 
 trade of the peninsula. 
 
 Penang (Georgetown) was established under the control of the 
 East Indian Co. by Mr. Francis Light in 1786 and was the seat of 
 the operations of that company in Malaysia. 
 
 Singapore was ceded to the British by a preliminary treaty on 
 January 30, 1819, and by a more formal document on February 6 of 
 the same year, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles acting on behalf of the 
 “ Honourable East Indian Company.” It is recorded that there 
 were about 150 Malays resident there on the date of the arrival of 
 the Raffles expedition and that by July there was a population of 
 5,000, mostly Chinese. The trade of Singapore and Penang grew 
 rapidly, but most largely in the products of the Dutch territories, 
 as the resources of the Malay Peninsula were hardly suspected at 
 that time. 
 
 In 1825 Penang, Singapore, and Malacca became a presidency of 
 India. In 1829 they were placed under the government of Bengal, 
 and in 1851 they passed to the Supreme Government of India and so 
 remained until they became a Crown colony in 1867. 
 
 On November 2, 1875, Mr. James W. Birch, resident of the State 
 of Perak, was assassinated by the Malays, and as a result a punitive 
 expedition was sent into the interior and a government formed under 
 which life and property were secure. The rich tin deposits were 
 developed as producers, the taxes on output providing funds for 
 building roads and railroads, and the later growth of the rubber 
 industry has provided a large increase in the revenues. 
 
 In 1896 the federation of the States of Perak, Selangor, Negri 
 Sembilan, and Pahang was formed, and Kuala Lumpur, in the State 
 of Selangor, was made the capital. 
 
 The relations between Johore and Great Britain were first defined 
 in a treaty in 1885, and in 1914 the Sultan agreed to accept and act 
 upon the advice of a British adviser. 
 
 An agreement defining the relations between the British Govern¬ 
 ment and the State of Trengganoe was signed on April 22, 1910, 
 
40 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 and this was supplanted in 1919 by a clause providing for the accept¬ 
 ance of a British adviser on similar terms to those of Johore. 
 
 The States of Kelantan, Kedah, and Perlis came under the suze¬ 
 rainty of Great Britain under the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909. 
 
 The relations between the British Government and Brunei, in 
 Borneo, are fixed by treaty signed on January 2, 1906, and are 
 similar to those defining the status of the Federated Malay States. 
 
 POLITICAL DIVISIONS. 
 
 The Straits Settlements consist of the Crown colonies of Singapore, 
 Malacca, the Dindings, Penang, and Province Wellesley, all on the 
 Malay Peninsula; Labuan, an island off the coast of Brunei in 
 Borneo; and the Cocos or Keeling Islands and the Christmas Island, 
 lying south of the Netherlands Indies. The area is about 1,550 
 square miles, and the population, according to the latest available 
 estimate, 820,871. 
 
 The Federated Malay States include the native States of Perak, 
 Selangor, and Negri Sembilan, lying to the west of the mountain 
 range which divides the peninsula into two unequal portions, and the 
 native State of Pahang, lying to the east. The area included in this 
 political division is approximately 27,500 square miles, the latest 
 available estimate of the population being 1,037,000. 
 
 The Non-Federated Malay States include the native States of 
 Johore, on the south end of the peninsula; Trengganoe and Kelantan, 
 lying to the east of the dividing range of mountains and north of the 
 State of Pahang; and Kedah and Perlis, lying to the west of the 
 mountains and between Perak and Province Wellesley on the south, 
 with Siam on the north and east. These States have an area of ap¬ 
 proximately 23,500 square miles and a population of about 900,000. 
 
 British North Borneo lies in the northeastern portion of the island 
 of Borneo and has an area of approximately 31,000 square miles and 
 a population estimated at 208,000. 
 
 The State of Sarawak lies on the north coast of the island of 
 Borneo and to the west of British North Borneo. It has an area of 
 approximately 42,000 square miles, with a population estimated at 
 600,000. 
 
 Brunei is bounded on three sides by the State of Sarawak and on 
 the north by the China Sea. It has an area of approximately 4,000 
 square miles and a population estimated at 32,000. 
 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The Straits Settlements are a Crown colony of the British Empire 
 and are governed by a Governor General, who is also the High Com¬ 
 missioner to the Federated and Non-Federated Malay States and to 
 Brunei. The Federated Malay States are a federation of the four 
 States enumerated above for the purpose of administration and 
 economic development. Each State is under the nominal rule of a 
 native sultan, and the British influence is exercised through a resi¬ 
 dent, who nominally has advisory powers only. The Non-Federated 
 Malay States are also each ruled by a native sultan, and the British 
 influence is exercised through British advisers. 
 
 British North Borneo is under the jurisdiction of a chartered corn- 
 pan}^ called the British North Borneo Co., incorporated by royal 
 charter November 1,1881. 
 
INTRODUCTION*. 
 
 41 
 
 The territory of Sarawak is ruled over by Rajah H. H. Charles 
 Vyner Brooke, an Englishman, and is under the protection of Great 
 Britain. Brunei has a government similar in most respects to that 
 of the Non-Federated Malay States on the Malay Peninsula. 
 
 The Malay Peninsula lies at the southeast corner of the continent 
 of Asia, between the China Sea on the east and the Strait of Malacca 
 on the west. The principal ports of entry are Singapore, located 
 on an island off the extreme southern point of the peninsula, and 
 Penang, lying off the west coast near the northern part of the British 
 possessions. 
 
 Port Swettenham, in the State of Selangor, has been reclaimed 
 from marshland and can accommodate deep-sea shipping. There is 
 a considerable amount of rubber exported from this port. 
 
 The secondary commercial towns are Ipoh, in the State of Perak; 
 Kuala Lumpur, in Selangor, the capital of the Federated Malay 
 States and the principal town; and Seremban, in the State of Negri 
 Sembilan. 
 
 Sandakan is the port of entry and export for British North Borneo, 
 and vessels of considerable draft can be accommodated there. The 
 business of the State of Brunei is done through Labuan, one of the 
 Straits Settlement's lying off its coast, and is routed principally 
 through Singapore. 
 
 The shipping of Sarawak is centered at Kuching, and most of the 
 business passes through Singapore. 
 
 PORTS OF SINGAPORE AND PENANG. 
 
 All shipping from Europe to far eastern ports must call at Singa¬ 
 pore, as it lies directly on the main oriental route. Most of the 
 shipping companies operating between Europe and the Netherlands 
 Indies include Singapore as a port of call. 
 
 A very large part of the trade of the Netherlands Indies reaches 
 the world’s markets through Singapore and Penang. The British 
 merchants of those ports have guided the develo pment of a Chinese 
 business organization that penetrates to the remotest parts of the 
 Netherlands Indies, and the markets provided by these British mer¬ 
 chants have been consolidated through London so that many of the 
 products pass by Soerabaya, Batavia, and Semarang, the principal 
 Dutch market cities, through the Singapore Chinese organization, 
 and are exported by the British exporting houses. In return they 
 supply many of the Netherlands Indies ports with manufactures of 
 British factories. 
 
 The following table shows the distances in nautical miles from 
 Singapore and Penang to foreign ports: 
 
 Ports. 
 
 Singa¬ 
 
 pore. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 New York via Panama..%. 
 
 MiUs. 
 12,522 
 10,154 
 
 Miles. 
 12,910 
 9 830 
 
 New York via Suez. 
 
 New Orleans via Panama. 
 
 11,935 
 
 11,595 
 
 7,330 
 
 12,315 
 
 New Orleans via Suez... 
 
 ll' 305 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 7,718 
 
 7,415 
 
 7,990 
 
 Port Townsend. 
 
 7,027 
 
 8,280 
 
 London. 
 
 
42 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY. 
 
 The Malay Peninsula is divided into two unequal parts by a range 
 of mountains lying north and south, with a spur projecting eastward 
 at right' angles to the main range. These mountains rise from the 
 plains in southern Siam and flatten out in the southern part of 
 Regri Sembilan to low hills, which constitute a large part of the 
 State of Johore. The highest peak is that of Gunong Tehan, 7,200 
 feet. To the west these mountains rise abruptly from the plains 
 and valleys of the Perak, Selangor, and other rivers, which produce 
 a large part of the world’s supply of tin and rubber, and toward 
 the east slope in undulating hill land toward the China Sea. The 
 Perak River, on the west, carries a large amount of water and is 
 navigable for 40 miles for steamers of 300 to 400 tons burden. The 
 Selangor River and the other rivers farther south are short, with 
 little fall, and are navigable short distances for light craft. 
 
 To the east of the mountains are some large rivers, that provide 
 transportation for the wide jungle areas. The principal ones are the 
 Kelantan, the Trengganoe, and the Pahang, the Kuantan and Rympin 
 being also important. 
 
 On the south, in the State of Johore, the Maur and Batu Pahat 
 Rivers, running westward; the Johore River, running southward 
 into the Strait of Malacca; and the Sedili, running eastward into the 
 China Sea, are all highways on which jungle products reach the 
 markets. 
 
 The British possessions in Borneo are on the north of the water¬ 
 shed lying northeast and southwest. The Redjang, Loepar, and 
 Baram Rivers, in Sarawak, are navigable for considerable distances, 
 but the rivers to the north and east have a comparatively small 
 volume of water and are navigable only for small boats for short 
 distances. 
 
 CLIMATE. 
 
 The temperature and rainfall in British Malaya are given in the 
 Singapore and Straits Directory as follows: 
 
 Places 
 
 Period. 
 
 Fahrenheit. 
 
 Total 
 
 rainfall. 
 
 Absolute 
 
 maximum. 
 
 Absolute 
 
 minimum. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 1919 
 
 1919 
 
 1919 
 
 1919 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1918 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 93.5 
 
 95.0 
 
 94.0 
 
 92.0 
 
 97.0 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 71.5 
 
 69.0 
 
 70.0 
 
 70.0 
 
 58.0 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 81.7 
 
 81.7 
 
 80.5 
 
 82.0 
 
 1 70.0 
 
 Inches. 
 
 92.6 
 82.1 
 
 84.7 
 108.8 
 
 * 192. 0 
 * 80. 8 
 
 }■ *88.6 
 120.0 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Malacca. 
 
 Labuan. 
 
 Perak. 
 
 Selangor. 
 
 At Seremban, in Negri Sembilan. 
 
 % 
 
 
 / 4 88. 5 
 
 \ 4 68. 5 
 
 British North Borneo. 
 
 93.0 
 
 57.0 
 
 
 
 
 1 Approximate. 
 
 * At Tapah. 
 
 * Kuala Lumpur. 
 
 4 Average 15 years, mean maximum and minimum. 
 
 Average 10 years. 
 
 The figures for Singapore, Penang, Malacca, and Labuan are repre¬ 
 sentative of those colonies. Perak and Selangor are large States. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 43 
 
 The town of Tapah is in the foothill region and within a few miles of 
 very high mountains. The rainfall is therefore higher than in the 
 Kinta Valley and some other parts of the State, although there are 
 points in the mountains where the rainfall is still higher than that 
 at Tapah. The figures submitted are somewhat indicative of the 
 range of temperature and rainfall, but local conditions cause a wide 
 variation. 
 
 On the western slope of the mountains of the Malay Peninsula 
 there is no distinctly dry season. The wettest months are October, 
 November, and December, and the driest are June, July and August. 
 
 NATURAL RESOURCES. 
 
 The principal products of the Malay Peninsula are rubber, tin, 
 and copra. Besides these there is a small production of pineapples, 
 tapioca, gambier, coffee, nutmegs and other spices, oil-producing 
 seeds and leaves, gums, gutta-percha and other guttas, rattans and 
 other forest products, hides, china clay (kaolin), gold, and coal. 
 The production of rice and other native food products is not general 
 throughout the district, although considerable quantities of rice are 
 raised in the Krian district of Perak and in Negri Sembilan. 
 
 There is some development of water power, which is being used 
 almost exclusively in the tin mines, and a survey is being made of the 
 undeveloped areas. 
 
 Aside from rubber and tin and the forest products of British 
 Borneo, British Malaya is not important as a producer of raw ma¬ 
 terials, and its small population limits its purchasing capacity. 
 Singapore and Penang are very important ports, mainly in so far as 
 they deal in the products of the surrounding countries. In 1913 
 these two ports handled 129,000,000 florins of the exports of the 
 Netherlands East Indies, or 21 per cent of the total, and in 1919, 
 345,000,000 florins, or 16 per cent of the total. In the former year 
 the United States took only 2 per cent of the total and in the latter 
 year 9 per cent, a considerable part of which was diverted to direct 
 trade from American trade with Singapore. 
 
 Imports and exports of the Straits Settlements for 1913, the last 
 full pre-war year, and for succeeding years are shown in Straits 
 dollars in the following tables (1 Straits dollar=$0,567 United 
 States currency at mint par) : 
 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 Items. 
 
 1913 
 
 19-14 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 Live animals, food, drinks, and narcotics. 
 
 Raw materials. 
 
 Manufactured and partly manufactured goods.. 
 Coin and bullion. 
 
 172,681,941 
 193,031,124 
 93,360,317 
 25, 079,239 
 
 152, 249,752 
 156,36-1,785 
 67, 293,027 
 15,465, 559 
 
 164,238,549 
 191,701,952 
 70, 802,689 
 10,717, 567 
 
 188,955,905 
 246,667,290 
 94,565,726 
 
 Total value. 
 
 
 484,152,621 
 
 391,373,123 
 
 437,460,757 
 
 530,188,921 
 
 Items. 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Live animals, food, drinks, and narcotics. 
 
 Raw materials. 
 
 Manufactured and partly manufactured goods.. 
 Coin and bullion... 
 
 237, 9§4,803 
 290,926, 201 
 105,295,812 
 
 247,024,056 
 324,221,904 
 128,335,312 
 
 299,148,780 
 383,714,623 
 145,685,960 
 56,156,394 
 
 373,533,234 
 407,232,968 
 283,946,122 
 205,499,855 
 
 Total value. 
 
 
 
 634,176,816 
 
 699,581,272 
 
 884,705,757 
 
 1,270,212,179 
 
44 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 Items. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 Live animals, food, drinks, and narcotics. 
 
 Raw materials. 
 
 Manufactured and partly manufactured goods.. 
 Coin and bullion.;... 
 
 132,908,249 
 198,851,404 
 41,183,615 
 15,986,437 
 
 117,634,888 
 172,880,770 
 35,473,228 
 8,137,134 
 
 134,721, 207 
 215,285,424 
 48,525,647 
 5,395,544 
 
 152,148,711 
 278,482,436 
 57,370,926 
 
 Total value. 
 
 
 388,929, 705 
 
 334,126,020 
 
 403,927,822 
 
 488,002,073 
 
 Items. 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Live animals, food, drinks, and narcotics. 
 
 Raw materials. 
 
 Manufactured and partly manufactured goods.. 
 Coin and bullion. 
 
 183, 829,044 
 372,175,445 
 63,769,104 
 
 195,947, 401 
 346,639,822 
 73,8S8,017 
 
 228,509,322 
 515,242,193 
 107, 548,405 
 23,466,310 
 
 241,207,179 
 507,681,183 
 129,995,122 
 145,162,094 
 
 Total value. 
 
 
 
 619,773,593 
 
 616,475,240 
 
 874,766,230 
 
 1,024,045,578 
 
 PEOPLE OF BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The native population of the British possessions in the Malay 
 Peninsula is made up of a few Sakais and the balance of Malays. 
 The Sakais are of a lower order than the Malays, being physically 
 and culturally but little above the Negrito of the Philippine Islands. 
 They are nomadic tree dwellers and live on forest products and by 
 the chase, sometimes cultivating small clearings in the jungle, which 
 are abandoned as soon as the crop is harvested. 
 
 The Malays of Negri Sembilan claim descent from the Menang- 
 kabou Malays of Sumatra, and in some parts of that State matri¬ 
 archy survives. In the Federated Malay States there are about as 
 many Chinese as Malays, but in the northern and eastern States the 
 Malays greatly outnumber all other races. They are small farmers, 
 but do not take kindly to plantation work and are not satisfactory 
 as household servants, but make good chauffeurs. Many of them are 
 employed in the Government services. In the less developed dis¬ 
 tricts they are the gatherers of jungle products, carrying on such 
 agriculture as is necessary for their immediate needs. 
 
 The Chinese were resident on the Malay Peninsula long before 
 Albuquerque discovered Malacca, and many of them neither speak 
 nor read the Chinese language, although they maintain their Chi¬ 
 nese characteristics and their affiliations with China. The Chinese 
 born on the peninsula of parents of blood slightly mixed with Malay 
 are called 44 babas,” and the full-blood Chinese immigrants are called 
 44 singkehs.” They are the merchants, handicraftsmen, servants, and 
 mine workers, and some rubber estates use Chinese labor. Many 
 Chinese have attained great wealth, and some of them are very 
 highly educated and take a leading part in the local public affairs 
 as unofficial members of governing bodies, as well as in philan¬ 
 thropic and cultural efforts. 
 
 On the western slope of the peninsula Tamil coolies from British 
 India are employed by estates where the health conditions are satis¬ 
 factory to the commission controlling the immigration. These 
 coolies are recruited in India by agents of the estates and their fare 
 paid and return fare guaranteed. No contract with a coolie can 
 effectively hold him, but there is a minimum of contract breaking, as 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 45 
 
 a gentleman’s agreement exists among the planters to protect the 
 contracts of others. When British Indian labor is employed the 
 estates are obliged, under the law, to provide hospital service under 
 the supervision of a European doctor and to comply with very strict 
 regulations as to the treatment of the coolies. The men and women 
 work as tappers on an equal basis, and as common laborers the 
 women are given work suited to their physique, such as weeding. 
 
 British Indians from Bengal (Bengalis) are the bullock-cart 
 drivers in the Federated Malay States and are sometimes employed 
 as watchmen. 
 
 Men from Jaffna, southern India, are largely employed by the 
 railroads. Singalese (Ceylon men) are much in evidence as mer¬ 
 chants. Parsee merchants do a large business in interoriental trade. 
 The Arabs are a conspicuous though not a numerous part of the pop¬ 
 ulation. They are prosperous as money lenders. 
 
 There is a large Eurasian population, mostly centered in the cities 
 and larger towns. These people are a mixture of European blood 
 with Malay or Chinese, or both. They are the clerks in the offices 
 and constitute an independent social group, but are not received on 
 an equal basis by any of the racial groups from which they have 
 sprung. They are an industrious, useful part of the population. 
 
 LABOR. 
 
 The Tamil (British Indian) laborers on the rubber estates are 
 tractable and generally satisfactory. Before the war they were paid 
 about $12 per month in Straits dollars under their contracts, but dur¬ 
 ing the later years of the war they received an increase, besides cer¬ 
 tain rice allowances, which made it possible to keep the wage scale 
 down. The drop in the price of crude rubber, which brought about 
 some restriction of output, made it possible to readjust the nominal 
 wage schedule and rice prices on a pre-war basis. The Tamils took 
 the wage reduction without serious protest. 
 
 The Chinese coolies in the tin mines are employed on a task basis 
 whenever possible and on this basis are very satisfactory laborers. 
 Many of the mines owned by the Chinese are operated on a share 
 basis. Before the war the Chinese mine coolies received about 55 
 cents (Straits currency) per day when working on a day basis in 
 the lowlands, and, although wages went to nearly double this amount 
 during the war, they are now back to the pre-war level. 
 
•vHfc-j h)‘. * 
 
 . : f : 
 
 , ) .: ' i : *'! 
 
 TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 RIVERS AND CANALS. 
 
 The rivers of Java are for the most part short and unnavigable, 
 except near the coast, and most of the canals, of which there are 
 many, are built for irrigation purposes and are not equipped with 
 locks. 
 
 Between Batavia and Tandjoengpriok there is a barge canal that is 
 used for the transport of heavy cargo, and an extension of this canal 
 as far as Weltevreden, the residential portion of Batavia, is used for 
 transportation of cargo in smaller barges. 
 
 The Brantas Biver in eastern Java, which has its source southeast 
 of Kloet Volcano, carries a large volume of water, but the shoals in 
 the upper reaches do not permit of navigation. Near its mouth it 
 divides into what is called the Sidoardjo Delta, formed by two main 
 branches, the Porong and the Kali Mas. The latter branch flows 
 into the sea at Soerabaya, where locks permit the use of barges for 
 handling heavy cargo. The Bergawan or Solo River, flowing into 
 the sea to the north of Soerabaya, also carries a large volume of 
 water. 
 
 The western watershed of Sumatra is narrow and the rivers are 
 short and unnavigable except for short distances near the sea, and 
 then only for small boats and light-draft barges. The eastern water¬ 
 shed is broad and there are many large rivers navigable for consider¬ 
 able distances. The principal ones, from north to south, are the 
 Asahan, the Panai, the Rekan Kanan and Kiri, the Siak, the Kampar, 
 the Indragiri, the Nioer with its branches (the Tembesi and Hari), 
 the Moesi with its elaborate network of branches, and the Toelang- 
 bawang. 
 
 Borneo has many rivers, navigable for long distances. The Ka- 
 poeas, which flows into the China Sea at Pontianak, drains a large 
 area and provides transportation for a large part of the products of 
 western Borneo. In south Borneo the Doesoen River, flowing into 
 the Java Sea near Bandjermasin, drains a wide area and is the high¬ 
 way for the trade of a very large part of the district. The Koetei 
 River in eastern Borneo is navigable for interisland steamers as far 
 as Samarinda and for smaller boats for a considerable distance above 
 that port. A large number of other rivers of Borneo are navigable 
 for small steamers for short distances. 
 
 HARBORS. 
 
 The major harbors of the Netherlands East Indies are Tandjoeng¬ 
 priok (Batavia’s harbor), Soerabaya, and Semarang, on the north 
 coast of Java; Tjilatjap, on the south coast; Macassar, in Celebes; 
 
TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 47 
 
 and Emmahaven (Padang’s harbor) and Belawan Deli (Medan’s 
 harbor), in Sumatra. An extensive harbor and coaling station has 
 been developed at Sabang, an island off the southern point of Su¬ 
 matra. 
 
 The secondary harbors are at Cheribon and Banjoewangi, on the 
 island of Java; Amboina, on Amboina Island in the Moluccas; at 
 Menado in Celebes; at Bandjermasin and Pontianak in Borneo; and 
 at Palembang in Sumatra. 
 
 A description of these harbors is printed in the Yearbook of the 
 Netherlands Indies, 1*921, and a large amount of supplementary data, 
 including drawings of the harbor works at the major, secondary, and 
 minor ports, is on file in the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com¬ 
 mence. 
 
 Singapore and Penang in the Straits Settlements, Port Swetten- 
 ham in the Federated Malay States, and Sandakan in British North 
 Borneo are the major ports of British Malaya. The secondary ports 
 are Malacca and Labuan in the Straits Settlements, Port Dickson, 
 Telok Anson, and Port Weld in the Federated Malay States, Kuching 
 in Sarawak, and Kudat and Jesselton in British North Borneo. 
 
 On the eastern coast of the Malay Peninsula steamers are loaded in 
 the open roadstead. 
 
 STATE RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The first railway in the Netherlands East Indies constructed by 
 the State ran from Soerabaya to Pasoeroean and Malang. The sec¬ 
 tion from Soerabaya to Pasoeroean, 63 kilometers (1 kilometer=0.62 
 mile), was opened to public traffic on May 16, 1878. Since that date 
 the length of State railways has steadily increased, at the end of 1919 
 the following being in operation: 
 
 In Java: 2,509 kilometers with a gauge of 1.067 meters (1 meters 
 3.28 feet) and 104 kilometers with a gauge of 0.60 meter. 
 
 In Sumatra: On the West Coast, 245 kilometers with a gauge of 
 1.067 meters; in South Sumatra, 242 kilometers with a gauge of 0.60 
 meter. 
 
 In Acheen and dependencies, 512 kilometers with a 0.75-meter 
 gauge. 
 
 Since 1906 the State railway operations have developed consider¬ 
 ably, as shown by the following figures, which do not include opera¬ 
 tions in South Sumatra and in Acheen: 
 
 Items. 
 
 Cost of construction.florins.. 
 
 Lines operated (average).kilometers.. 
 
 Gross revenues.florins.. 
 
 Working expenses (including renovation, repair of 
 
 extraordinary damage, and written-off capi¬ 
 tal).... florins.. 
 
 Net receipts.do_ 
 
 Staff: 
 
 European.number.. 
 
 Native.do_ 
 
 Passengers.f.kilometers.. 
 
 Tons. do_ 
 
 Locomotives.number.. 
 
 Carriages.do- 
 
 Cars.....do_ 
 
 1906 
 
 1914 
 
 1917 
 
 178,386,442 
 2,119 
 16,508,198 
 
 234, 495, 886 
 2, 557 
 34,714,830 
 
 275,134, 866 
 2, 836 
 
 44,019,653 
 
 9,745, 895 
 6,760,303 
 
 19,543,195 
 15,171,635 
 
 23,478,923 
 20,540,730 
 
 1,480 
 
 6) 
 
 .512,090,589 
 231,611, 813 
 424 
 975 
 5,858 
 
 2, 535 
 18, 509 
 1,105, 765,121 
 489,850,374 
 513 
 1,589 
 10,094 
 
 3,302 
 21,629 
 1,455,775,018 
 642,291, 224 
 530 
 1,714 
 11,038 
 
 1 Not completely known. 
 
48 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The way in which these railways have prospered is largely due to 
 the change in the management which was effected in 1906. In that 
 year the management was given to a special branch of service known 
 as the Service of State Railways and Tramways, which made it' pos¬ 
 sible to operate the lines in a more effective and systematic way. 
 
 The activities in behalf of the State railways and tramways are 
 now divided into nine branches of service, as follows: (1) The ad¬ 
 ministrative service, (2) service of roads and works, (3) service of 
 traction, simple lines, (4) traffic and business affairs, (5) tramways 
 and automobiles, (6) surveying, (7) construction, (8) construction 
 and bridge building, and (9) extension and architectural affairs. A 
 bureau of supplies is also a part of the organization. 
 
 It is the duty of the service of construction and bridge building 
 to see that all structures which are built fulfill the latest require¬ 
 ments, that they are controlled according to the latest methods of 
 calculation, and that they are built from materials which have proved 
 their good quality. This service must also determine the various 
 types of locomotives to be used on certain construction works. 
 
 During 1918 the following lines were being investigated or 
 surveyed: 
 
 In Java: 
 
 1. Garoet to Tjikadjang. 
 
 2. Tramways in north Cheribon. 
 
 3. Tramways in the southern part of the division of Bandoeng. 
 
 4. Extension of State tramways in the Residency of Madioen. 
 
 5. Lines in south Bantam. 
 
 6. Buitenzorg to Penjawoengan. 
 
 7. Tangerang to Serang. 
 
 In the Outlying Possessions: 
 
 1. Sibolga via Batang Toroe to Padangsidimpoean (Tapanoeli). 
 
 2. Soengailimau to Loeboekbasoeng (Sumatra West Coast). 
 
 3. Macassar to Takalar (Celebes). 
 
 4. Macassar to Tanete to Seenkang (Celebes). 
 
 5. Koto Boemi to Batoeradja. 
 
 6. Moeara Enim to Lahat. 
 
 7. Lahat to Tebingtinggi to Kapalatjoeroep. 
 
 In that year the following lines were being built: 
 
 In Java: 
 
 1. Bandjar to Parigi. 
 
 2. Rogodjampi to KalisetaiL 
 
 3. Krawang to Lemahabang. 
 
 4. Djatinangor to Tjitali. 
 
 5. Bandoeng to Kopo. 
 
 6. Gempolkerep to Ivertosono. 
 
 7. Toeloengagoeng to Trenggalek to Toegoe. 
 
 8. Parigi to Tjidjoelang. 
 
 9. The double-track railway Weltevreden to Tjikampek. 
 
 In Sumatra: 
 
 1. Palembang to Lampong district. 
 
 2. Coal line from Moeara Enim to Tandj >eng and the works at Kertapati. 
 
 3. Pajacombe to Limbanang. 
 
 The completion of the Cheribon-Kroja section in January, 1917, 
 made possible a one-day connection between Batavia and Soerabaya, 
 which is of great importance to business and industry. 
 
 Purchases in America are made by a branch of the purchasing 
 office of the Department of the Colonies of the Netherlands Govern¬ 
 ment, located at No. 17 Battery Place, New York City. 
 
 Purchases are made in Batavia nominally through the Java branch 
 of the above-mentioned purchasing office located at Bandoeng, but 
 
TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 49 
 
 business men going to Batavia will find it to their advantage to get 
 into direct touch with the engineers and board of control of the 
 railways. 
 
 PRIVATELY OWNED RAILWAYS AND TRAMWAYS. 
 
 NETHERLANDS INDIES RAILROAD CO. (N. I. S.). 
 
 The first railroad established by private initiative is the line 
 Semarang-Principalities-Willem I, running from Semarang via 
 Soerakarta to Djokjakarta, with a branch from Kedoengdjati to 
 Willem I. The concession for the construction of this railway, 
 granted in 1862 to W. Poolman, was later transferred to a joint- 
 stock company, the Netherlands Indies Railroad Co. (Nederlandsch- 
 Indische Spoorweg Maatschappij), the establishing of which was 
 sanctioned by royal decree of September 17, 1863, No. 37. The 
 railroad was completed May 21, 1873. 
 
 The Netherlands Indies Railroad Co. obtained a concession in 
 1864 for the construction of a railroad between Batavia and Buiten- 
 zorg. This line, which was completed January 31, 1873, was pur¬ 
 chased by the Dutch East Indian Government and changed hands 
 November 1, 1913. 
 
 The company extended the net of roads by the construction of 
 the following steam tramways : (a) Djokjakarta to Sewoegaloer, with 
 branch from Ngabean to Poendoeng; (6) Djokjakarta to Magelang 
 to Willem I, with branch from Setjang to Parakan; ( c ) Goendik to 
 Soerabaya, with branches; (d) Soerabaya to Bojolali (acquired by 
 purchase); ( e ) Soerabaya to Wonogiri to Kakap. 
 
 In 1918 it opened automobile services from Bringin and Toentang 
 to Salatiga and from Parakan to Wonosobo and Ngadirodjo. 
 
 The table following gives data regarding the results of the working 
 of the Semarang-Principalities Railway from 1914 to 1918: 
 
 Year. 
 
 Kilo¬ 
 meters 
 in use. 
 
 Number of 
 passengers. 
 
 Goods 
 
 carried. 
 
 Cost of 
 construc¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Gross 
 
 revenue. 
 
 Net 
 
 revenue. 
 
 W or king 
 expenses. 
 
 1914. 
 
 206 
 
 3,351,706 
 
 Metric tons. 
 80S 944 
 840,165 
 
 Florins. 
 34,428, 829 
 
 Florins. 
 
 5,162,100 
 
 Florins. 
 
 2, 249,142 
 
 Florins. 
 2,912,958 
 2,870,649 
 2,764,125 
 3,101,661 
 3,250,230 
 
 1915. 
 
 210 
 
 3,264.097 
 3,648' 621 
 
 35,323,810 
 36,351,240 
 36,661,310 
 
 5, 065' 498 
 
 2, 194' 819 
 
 1916. 
 
 210 
 
 957,343 
 921,625 
 
 5,752, 526 
 
 2,9'8,401 
 2,349, 731 
 
 1917. 
 
 210 
 
 4,140, 088 
 4,099,071 
 
 5' 451' 392 
 
 1918. 
 
 210 
 
 1,072,115 
 
 36,753,332 
 
 6,264,857 
 
 3', 014' 627 
 
 
 
 
 
 DELI RAILWAY CO. 
 
 In the district of Deli (East Coast of Sumatra) a third railroad 
 was constructed by private enterprise. In 1883 a concession was 
 granted to the Deli Co. (Deli Maatschappij) for the construction 
 and exploitation of a railway, running from the anchorage on the 
 Belawan River via Medan to Deli Toea, with a side line to Tim- 
 banglangkat. This concession was transferred to the Deli Rail¬ 
 way Co. (Deli Spoorweg Maatschappij), established at Amsterdam. 
 
 The first part, 17 kilometers (11 miles) in length, was opened to 
 traffic July 25, 1886, and the line was further completed and opened 
 up in 1887 and 1888. This company has since been granted various 
 
50 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 concessions for the construction of other railway and tramway lines. 
 In the method of construction and exploitation, however, there is 
 no appreciable dilference between the railways and tramways, and 
 in the latest revisions of concessions some tramways were renamed 
 as railroads, and vice versa. 
 
 The company is at present exploiting the following railways: 
 Bela wan to Medan, Medan Timbang to Langkat, Medan to Per- 
 baoengan, Perbaoengan to Tebingtinggi to Tandjoengbalai to 
 Teloekniboeng, and Tebingtinggi to Pematang Siantar; also the 
 following tramways: Medan to Deli Toea to Batoe, Kampong Baroe 
 to Arnhemia, Loeboekpakam to Bangoenpoerba, Timbang Lankat to 
 Kwala, Timbang Langkat to Pangkalanbrandan, and Pangkalan- 
 brandan to Besitang. 
 
 The following table gives some data regarding the working of 
 these railroads and tramways over the period 1914 to 1918: 
 
 Year. 
 
 Kilo¬ 
 meters 
 in use. 
 
 Number of 
 passengers. 
 
 Goorls 
 
 carried. 
 
 Cost of 
 construc¬ 
 tion. 
 
 Gross 
 
 revenue. 
 
 Net 
 
 revenue. 
 
 Working 
 
 expenses. 
 
 1914. 
 
 263 
 
 3,079,432 
 3,064,627 
 3,930, 221 
 4,573,450 
 
 Mdrfc t.nns. 
 5S7,816 
 800,455 
 954,350 
 918,515 
 893,638 
 
 Florin*. 
 
 22,697,829 
 25,680; 188 
 27,678,081 
 
 Florins. 
 
 3,300,017 
 3,433,636 
 4,513,424 
 
 Florins. 
 
 1,598, 258 
 1,754,708 
 2, 509, 279 
 2,805,866 
 2,874,824 
 
 Florins. 
 1,701,759 
 1,678,928 
 2,004,145 
 2,273,490 
 2,731,671 
 
 1915. 
 
 361 
 
 1916. 
 
 410 
 
 1917. 
 
 410 
 
 30, 285' 429 
 
 5, 079,356 
 5,606,495 
 
 1918. 
 
 414 
 
 4,529' 174 
 
 33, 295,158 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Since January 1, 1916, the company has run an autobus service 
 from Medan to Kaban Djahe. 
 
 TRAMWAYS. 
 
 The tramway net established with private capital at the end of 
 1918 reached a total length of about 2,200 kilometers (1,367 miles). 
 The principal private tramway companies are: 
 
 The Semarang-Joana Steam Tram Co., which runs the following 
 lines: Semarang to Joana to Lasem to Pamotan to Ngantang to 
 Djatirogo, with side lines from Demak to Blora, Koedoes to Petja- 
 gaan (with side line from Majong to Welahan), Joana to Tajoe, 
 Kembang to Tjepoe, Poerwadadi to Goendik, and Wirosari to Krade- 
 nan. 
 
 The East Java Steam Tram Co., which runs the lines Soerabaya to 
 Sepandjang to Krian, Wonokromo to Koepang, Pasar Toeri to 
 Stadstuin Harbor, aad Modjokerto »to Ngoro, with side line from 
 Soemengko to Dinojo. 
 
 The Serajoedal Steam Tram Co., which runs the lines Maos to 
 Bandjarnegara, Bandjarsari to Poerbolinggo, and Bandjarnegara to 
 Wonosobo. 
 
 The Semarang-Cheribon Steam Tram Co., which runs the lines 
 Semarang to Cheribon to Kadi paten, Pekalongan to Wonopringgo, 
 and Tegal to Balapoelang to Margasari. 
 
 The Kediri Steam Tram Co., which runs the lines Kediri to Djom- 
 bang, with side lines from Pesantren to Wates, Goerah to Kawaras- 
 san to Palem to Papar, Pare to Kepoeng, Pare to Konto, and 
 Poeloredjo to Kandangan. 
 
TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 51 
 
 The Malang Steam Tram Co., with the lines Singosari to Blimbing 
 to Malang, Gedonglegi to Dampit, with side lines from Gedonglegi 
 to Senggoro to Kepandjen, Blimbing to Toempang, and Seda joe to 
 Toeren. 
 
 The Pasoeroean Steam Tram Co., with the line from Pasoeroen to 
 Waroengdowo and side lines from Waroengdowo to Alkmaar, 
 Waroengdowo to Winongan, and Waroengdowo to Ngempit. 
 
 The Probolinggo Steam Tram Co., with the line from Modjokerto 
 to Porong and side lines from Djapannan to Bangil and Bangsal to 
 Poegeran. 
 
 The Madoera Steam Tram Co., with the lines Kamal to Pamekasan 
 to Soemenep to Kaliangat, and Kamal to Bangkalan to Tanshmerah 
 to Kwanjar. 
 
 Requisitions for the supplies of the above privately owned rail¬ 
 ways and tram lines are initiated in Java, but the final orders are 
 placed from the head offices in the Netherlands. Further data, in¬ 
 cluding maps, annual reports, and equipment statements, are on 
 file with the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 
 
 PROPOSED RAILWAY EXTENSIONS. 
 
 The program of railroad extension outlined below was submitted 
 by the colonial government as the program for the next 20 years: 
 
 JAVA. 
 
 Kilometers. 
 
 North Cheribon- 200 
 
 Preanger Regencies: South of Bandoeng; between Ranjaekek and Kadi- 
 
 paten (ready up to Djatinangor)- 175 
 
 From Buitenzorg in the direction of Rangkasbitoeng and Bekasi or Lama- 
 
 habang- 160 
 
 Bantam: Serang to Tangerang; Laboean to Anjer; Laboean to Tjiteu- 
 
 reup; Rangkasbitoeng to Bodjongmaik; line to Malinping_ 250 
 
 Extension from Tjibatoe to Garoet to Tjikadjang; extension from Tasik- 
 malaja to Singaparna to Soekaradja; tramways in South Kedoe, Toe- 
 loengagoeng to Kediri to Ngandjoek; enlargement of tramways in the 
 east corner of Java (Residencies of Soerabaya, Pasoeroean, and Be- 
 soeki)- 265 
 
 1, 050 
 
 STJMATBA. 
 
 Completion of south Sumatra lines, including Moeara Enim to Lahat_ 200 
 
 Moeara Tebo to Taloek and to Moeara Kalaban and Pakanbaroe_ 880 
 
 Junction with Benkoelen, including line along coast_ 250 
 
 Junction to Djambi from Soeroelangoen through the oil fields to Moe- 
 
 arabahar - 125 
 
 Side lines: 
 
 Lima line___ 70 
 
 Martapoera to Moearadoea- 40 
 
 Batoeradja to Upper Ogan- 40 
 
 Lower Komering line_ 40 
 
 Pasawah line- 70 
 
 Djelatang to Korintji- 155 
 
 19878°—23 - 5 
 
 1 , 870 
 
52 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Kilometers. 
 
 Sibolga to Padangsidimpoean___ 90 
 
 Extension of the last-mentioned line to Penjaboengan and junction with 
 
 the Deli Railway (Kota Pinang) and with Pakanbaroe_ 500 
 
 Junction with Padang line (from Soengailimau), with the Ophir districts, 
 
 and line from Loeboeksikaping to Pasir Pengarajan_ 250 
 
 840 
 
 CELEBES. 
 
 Takalar to Macassar to Maros_ 72 
 
 Extension of this line to Pare Pare or Soengkang_ 130 
 
 Further extension from Pare Pare along the bay of Mandar to Toebo_ 220 
 
 Junction with Palopo and Malili and extension of this line to the bay of 
 
 Tolo__ 350 
 
 Side line, Lowa to Soenkang to South Boni_ 150 
 
 Side line, Soenkang to Takalala_ 40 
 
 In North Celebes a net in the Minahasa___ 200 
 
 1,162 
 
 BORNEO. 
 
 Pontianak to Sambas_1_ 220 
 
 Side line to Benkahan_:_ 110 
 
 Pontianak to Meraoe to Kuching—- 270 
 
 Side lines: 
 
 •Ngabang to Sanggau-:- 90 
 
 Ngabang to Perigi_ 70 
 
 Pontianak to Soengeikakap to Pematang to Toedjoe_ 40 
 
 Bandjermasin to Martapoera to Tandjoeng_ 250 
 
 Martapoera to Pleihari to Pagatan- 220 
 
 1, 270 
 
 Smaller islands, as Bali, Lombok, Banka, Billiton_ 500 
 
 Grand total_6, 700 
 
 RAILWAYS OF BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The Federated Malay States Railways operate all the railways in 
 the British possessions on the Malay Peninsula, with the exception 
 of a short line on the west coast of the State of Johore. The western 
 or main system runs from Singapore to Woodlands on the island 
 of Singapore, from Johore Bahru at the southern point of the State 
 of Johore to Prai on the mainland opposite to Penang, and from 
 Prai to Padang Besar on the Siamese boundary, where it connects 
 with the Siamese State Railways. Branches are operated from the 
 main line to Malacca, Port Dickson, Port Swettenham, Kuala 
 Selangor, Ampang, Bat'u Caves, Batang Berjuntal, Teluk Anson, 
 Tronoh, and Port Weld. The eastern system is in course of con¬ 
 struction. It branches from the main line at Gemas, in Negri Sembi- 
 lan, from where a line has been built and is being operated beyond 
 Kuala Lipis. This line is being pushed north to connect with a 
 northern section that is being built southward from Kota Bharu. A 
 branch is now operating to Kuala Pilah, in Negri Sembilan. 
 
 The total length of lines (reduced to single track) open on De¬ 
 cember 31, 1920, was 1,014 miles (including Johore leased lines), and 
 of running lines and sidings 1,150 miles; gauge, 1 meter. 
 
 Purchases are made through the Crown agents in London and from 
 local stocks. 
 
TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 53 
 
 A light railway, 2 feet 6 inches gauge, 8-J- miles long, connects the 
 town of Muar, State of Johore, with JParit Jawa, to the southeast. 
 It is operated by the State of Johore. 
 
 A railway from Brunei Bay in British North Borneo to the in¬ 
 terior is operated by the British North Borneo Co. Twenty miles 
 have been constructed, on a meter gauge, between the port of Weston 
 and Beaufort, 57 miles between Beaufort and Jesselton on Goya Bay, 
 and 40 miles up the valley of the Padas to Tenom and Melalap. 
 
 SHIPPING IN NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES. 
 
 The great development of colonial enterprise in the Netherlands 
 East Indies since the beginning of this century and up to the break¬ 
 ing out of the World War has provided a continually expanding field 
 for shipping, in which the Dutch steamship companies have taken by 
 far the greatest part. The value of the foreign trade of the islands 
 increased from about 500,000,000 florins in 1904 to 1,114,000,000 
 florins in 1914 and to 2,960,000,000 florins in 1919. Giving due allow¬ 
 ance for price increases, these figures indicate a steadily expanding 
 commerce. All the commodities in this trade must be carried by 
 water. 
 
 The following table shows the measured capacity (in units of 
 1,000 cubic meters) of vessels engaged in foreign trade that entered 
 Netherlands East Indies ports in 1913 and in 1916-1919, exclusive of 
 warships and Government-owned vessels. (One cubic meter equals 
 0.353 United States register ton.) 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 1913 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 5,584 
 5,732 
 
 5,826 
 
 4,939 
 
 4,059 
 
 5,327 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 4,469 
 
 3'058 
 
 1 ,996 
 
 3,994 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1,799 
 169 
 
 
 
 
 
 Norway". 
 
 247 
 
 155 
 
 106 
 
 230 
 
 United" States. 
 
 1 
 
 44 
 
 30 
 
 58 
 
 323 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 155 
 
 142 
 
 32 
 
 20 
 
 137 
 
 Denmark.. 
 
 180 
 
 67 
 
 40 
 
 80 
 
 277 
 
 Japan. 
 
 558 
 
 556 
 
 507 
 
 1,248 
 222 
 
 1,905 
 
 All other. 
 
 102 
 
 153 
 
 125 
 
 329 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 14, 280 
 
 11,504 
 
 8,886 
 
 7,789 
 
 12,522 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 In the following table is shown the position of the maritime coun¬ 
 tries with regard to the interport trade of the colony. Figures rep¬ 
 resent 1,000 cubic meters of vessel measurement (1 cubic meter equals 
 0.353 United States register ton). 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 1913 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 61,902 
 10,152 
 
 60,452 
 
 53,141 
 
 48,184 
 
 54,812 
 
 5,247 
 
 1 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 6' 735 
 
 4'469 
 
 2,235 
 
 Germany.. T. 
 
 4,274 
 
 
 
 Norway". 
 
 244 
 
 189 
 
 79 
 
 si 
 
 446 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 133 
 
 70 
 
 23 
 
 59 
 
 191 
 
 180 
 
 340 
 
 3,361 
 
 949 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 38 
 
 United States. 
 
 • 25 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 Japan. 
 
 1,190 
 
 1,351 
 
 141 
 
 1,456 
 
 2,250 
 
 All other. 
 
 '414 
 
 217 
 
 403 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 78,189 
 
 69,096 
 
 59,414 
 
 53,223 
 
 65,527 
 
 
 
54 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 STATUS OF AMERICAN SHIPS IN THE INTERPORT TRADE. 
 
 In answer to a request for a definition of the rights of American 
 ships in the interport trade of the Netherlands East Indies, the head 
 inspector of the Navigation Service made the following statement: 
 
 The coasting trade is open to all flags on equal conditions with the Dutch flag. 
 The Crown has reserved the right, however, to exclude from the coasting trade 
 in the Netherlands Indies ships belonging to States or colonies where coasting 
 trade is prohibited to ships belonging either to the Netherlands or the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies. 
 
 SHIPPING IN THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 The following table gives the tonnage of combined arrivals and 
 departures of merchant vessels in British Malayan ports in 1919, 
 exclusive of native sailing craft and steamers under 50 tons net 
 register: 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Malacca. 
 
 Christmas 
 Island and 
 Labuan. 
 
 Total (en¬ 
 tered and 
 cleared). 
 
 American. 
 
 Net tons. 
 327,758 
 2,768 
 6,516,855 
 84,975 
 196,874 
 2,007,405 
 581,307 
 11,872 
 178,374 
 47, 854 
 3,439,005 
 163,112 
 16,286 
 88,742 
 104,614 
 230,872 
 48,626 
 41,476 
 
 Net tons. 
 42,574 
 6,810 
 2,954,575 
 12,198 
 62,936 
 339,962 
 16,162 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 7,776 
 
 Net tons. 
 378,108 
 9,578 
 10,081,120 
 97,173 
 259,810 
 2,348,999 
 604,843 
 11,872 
 178,374 
 47,854 
 4,102,800 
 183,268 
 16,286 
 92,912 
 119,264 
 252,554 
 52,368 
 48,000 
 
 Belgian. 
 
 
 British. 
 
 467, 588 
 
 142,102 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 Danish. 
 
 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 1,008 
 
 7,374 
 
 624 
 
 French. 
 
 Greek. 
 
 
 Interallied. 
 
 
 
 
 Italian. 
 
 
 
 
 Japanese. 
 
 517,635 
 20,156 
 
 88,430 
 
 57,730 
 
 Norwegian. 
 
 Portuguese. 
 
 
 
 Russian. 
 
 4,170 
 
 
 
 Sarawak. 
 
 
 14,650 
 
 Siamese. 
 
 21,682 
 3,742 
 6,524 
 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 14,088,775 
 
 4,009,126 
 
 564,400 
 
 222,882 
 
 18,885,183 
 
 
 The nationality, number, and tonnage of merchant vessels entered 
 and cleared at Singapore during 1919, exclusive of native craft and 
 steamers under 50 tons register, are shown in the following table: 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 Entered. 
 
 Cleared. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Net tons. 
 
 American. 
 
 63 
 
 164,160 
 
 62 
 
 163,598 
 
 125 
 
 327,758 
 
 Belgian. 
 
 1 
 
 1,384 
 
 1 
 
 1,384 
 
 2 
 
 2,768 
 
 British. 
 
 2,751 
 
 3,260,319 
 
 2,750 
 
 3,256,536 
 
 5, 501 
 
 6,516, 855 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 36 
 
 41,592 
 
 38 
 
 43,383 
 
 74 
 
 84; 975 
 
 Danish. 
 
 41 
 
 98,437 
 
 41 
 
 98,437 
 
 82 
 
 196,874 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 1,341 
 
 1,002,958 
 
 1,344 
 
 1,004,447 
 
 2,685 
 
 2,007,405 
 
 French. 
 
 182 
 
 292,097 
 
 182 
 
 289,210 
 
 364 
 
 581,307 
 
 Greek. 
 
 2 
 
 5,936 
 
 2 
 
 5,936 
 
 4 
 
 11,872 
 
 Interallied.: 
 
 34 
 
 106,211 
 
 20 
 
 72,163 
 
 54 
 
 178,374 
 
 Italian. 
 
 7 
 
 23,927 
 
 7 
 
 23,927 
 
 14 
 
 47,854 
 
 Japanese. 
 
 758 
 
 1,722,619 
 
 753 
 
 1,716,386 
 
 1,511 
 
 3,439,005 
 
 Norwegian. 
 
 81 
 
 80,049 
 
 82 
 
 83,063 
 
 163 
 
 163,112 
 
 Portuguese. 
 
 3 
 
 8,143 
 
 3 
 
 8,143 
 
 6 
 
 16,286 
 
 Russian. 
 
 23 
 
 44,371 
 
 23 
 
 44,371 
 
 46 
 
 88,742 
 
 Sarawak. 
 
 85 
 
 52,307 
 
 85 
 
 52,307 
 
 170 
 
 104,614 
 
 Siamese. 
 
 205 
 
 115,436 
 
 205 
 
 115,436 
 
 410 
 
 230,872 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 10 
 
 24,313 
 
 10 
 
 24,313 
 
 20 
 
 48,626 
 
 Swedish. 
 
 7 
 
 20,738 
 
 7 
 
 20,738 
 
 14 
 
 41,476 
 
 Total. 
 
 5,630 
 
 7,064,997 
 
 5,615 
 
 7,023,778 
 
 11,245 
 
 14,088,775 
 
TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 55 
 
 The number and tonnage of native craft and steam vessels under 
 50 tons entered at Singapore in 1919 was as follows: British, 10,587 
 vessels of 570,341 tons; foreign, 6,806 vessels of 315,831 tons. 
 
 LOCATION OF EAST INDIES PORTS WITH RESPECT TO WORLD 
 
 TRADE. 
 
 In considering the export trade of the Netherlands East Indies 
 and British Malaya the transportation cost and trade organization 
 are most important, while manufacture is much less so than in most 
 countries. 
 
 Most of the products of these colonies enter world trade through 
 the ports of Singapore and Penang in the Straits Settlements and 
 through Soerabaya, Semarang, and Batavia in Java. However, rub¬ 
 ber is also shipped from Port Swettenham and Telok Anson in the 
 Federated Malay States and from Belawan Deli in Sumatra; sugar 
 is shipped from the minor ports of Java; copra from Macassar in 
 the Celebes, Tjilatjap in Java, Belawan Deli and Padang in Sumatra, 
 and from Port Swettenham and Telok Anson in the Federated Malay 
 States. A few other products which in certain seasons of the year 
 aggregate sufficient quantities to make it advisable for ships to call 
 are also shipped from these minor ports. 
 
 Soerabaya is most favorably situated for handling products from 
 south and east Borneo, the island of Celebes, and the chain of is¬ 
 lands directly east of Java. Its immediate hinterland on the island 
 of Java is one of the greatest producing areas of the world. 
 
 Semarang’s hinterland comprises only the central part of Java, 
 but this area is a large producer of sugar, copra, kapok, and other 
 bulk cargo. It is not a transshipment port of great importance. 
 
 Batavia is the market and port for western Java, and serves also 
 in part for the districts in west and south Sumatra and west Borneo. 
 
 Singapore and Penang are the local markets for the products of 
 the Malay Peninsula and northern (British) Borneo. They draw 
 products very largely from all of Sumatra, except the Benkoelen and 
 Lampong Residencies in the south; from the islands lying between 
 Sumatra and Borneo; from the west’, south, and east coasts of Borneo, 
 and from Celebes and the islands to the east. 
 
 The following table shows the distances in nautical miles from 
 Manila, Singapore, Batavia, Soerabaya, and Penang to the principal 
 ports in the United States and to London: 
 
 Ports. 
 
 Manila. 
 
 Singa¬ 
 
 pore. 
 
 Batavia. 
 
 Soera¬ 
 
 baya. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 New York: 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Via Panama. 
 
 11,540 
 
 12,522 
 
 12,639 
 
 12,429 
 
 12,910 
 
 Via Suez. 
 
 New Orleans: 
 
 11,521 
 
 10,154 
 
 10,345 
 
 10,765 
 
 9,830 
 
 Via Panama. 
 
 10,918 
 
 11,935 
 
 12,039 
 
 11,739 
 
 12,315 
 
 Via Suez. 
 
 12,980 
 
 11,595 
 
 11,830 
 
 12,250 
 
 11,305 
 
 San Francisco. 
 
 6,221 
 
 7,330 
 
 7, 613 
 
 7,313 
 
 7,718 
 
 Port Townsend. 
 
 5,931 
 
 7,027 
 
 IS 310 
 
 7,010 
 
 7,415 
 
 London. 
 
 9, 656 
 
 8,280 
 
 8, 515 
 
 8,935 
 
 7,990 
 
 NEW YORK VIA SUEZ AND PANAMA. 
 
 Singapore and Penang are closer to New York via Suez than via 
 Panama by 2,368 and 3,080 miles, respectively. The total distances 
 from the secondary ports all favor the Suez route. 
 
56 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 These two British Malaya ports have an advantage over the Java 
 ports, in total distance, for shipments from all ports in Sumatra 
 from Padang north (on the west coast) and from Palembang north 
 (on the east coast); from the islands lying between Sumatra, Borneo, 
 and British Malaya; and from all the coasts of Borneo, although 
 from south and east Borneo ports the advantage is small; and only 
 from the north Sumatra points, when routed through Penang, is the 
 advantage great. In Celebes Island and the islands to the east and 
 south the advantage is slightly in favor of Soerabaya. 
 
 Manila is not in a position, in point of distance, to compete for 
 the New York trade in these colonies, with the possible exception 
 of the ports of Menado, Gorontalo, and Ternate, which are approxi¬ 
 mately 500 miles farther from New York via Manila and Panama. 
 
 NEW ORLEANS VIA SUEZ AND PANAMA. 
 
 Singapore and Penang are closer to New Orleans via Suez than 
 via Panama by 340 and 1,110 miles, respectively; Manila is closer 
 via the Panama route by 2,062 miles and Soerabaya by 511 miles. 
 
 Singapore and Penang have an advantage for shipments from the 
 ports in Sumatra, including Padang and ports north and Palembang 
 on the east coast and ports north; also from the ports in the adja¬ 
 cent islands and on the west and south coasts of Borneo. 
 
 Soerabaya has an advantage for shipments from the islands lying 
 directly east of Java when made via the Panama route. 
 
 Manila has an advantage for shipments from ports on the east 
 and north coasts of Borneo and from Celebes and northern Molucca 
 ports, when made via Panama. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO AND PORT TOWNSEND. 
 
 Manila is closer to San Francisco and Port Townsend than Singa¬ 
 pore by 1,109 and 1,096 miles, and nearer than Soerabaya by 1,092 
 and 1,079 miles, respectively. 
 
 Singapore has the advantage for shipments to both Pacific coast 
 ports from Sibolga and Sabang in north Sumatra, from the east 
 coast of Sumatra as far south as Palembang, and from the adjacent 
 islands. 
 
 Batavia has the advantage for shipments from other Sumatra 
 ports and Soerabaya from southern Borneo ports, from the islands 
 lying directly east of Java, and the southern Moluccas. 
 
 Manila has a slight advantage for shipments from the west coast 
 of Borneo, and a decided advantage for shipments from the north 
 and east coast of Borneo, from Macassar, north Celebes, and the 
 northern Moluccas. 
 
 LONDON AND CONTINENTAL EUROPEAN PORTS. 
 
 Singapore has more or less of an advantage in distance to London 
 and continental European ports from all points in the two colonies, 
 except the Moluccas and the islands lying to the east of Java, from 
 which points Soerabaya has the advantage. 
 
 STEAMSHIP ROUTES. 
 
 Besides the Dutch and British lines which connect these ports with 
 Europe, with the Atlantic and Pacific ports of the United States, 
 
TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 57 
 
 with South Africa, with the east and west coasts of South America, 
 and with Australia, there are Japanese lines, Scandinavian lines, and 
 American lines operating on routes designed to deliver cargo to and 
 from these ports by the shortest routes consistent with economic 
 handling of their ships. All lines operating from Europe to the Far 
 East focus at Singapore. 
 
 In considering the Java ports it should be understood that one of 
 the Royal Dutch European lines approaches Java by way of Sabang 
 and Padang, on the west coast of Sumatra, returning by the same 
 route, while the other one approaches by way of the Strait* of 
 Malacca and Singapore. Their first port of call in Java is Batavia, 
 from which they go to Semarang and Soerabaya. The principal 
 British line serving Java is routed through Singapore to Soerabaya 
 via Batavia and Semarang. The feeder service of the Netherlands 
 East Indies calls at all their major ports. 
 
 The Dutch services are supported by a business organization that 
 is efficient not only for the gathering of merchandise from the re¬ 
 motest parts of the archipelago but for its distribution to the mar¬ 
 kets of Europe, America, and Asia. 
 
 The British trade organization at Singapore controls the markets 
 for many of the minor products of the Netherlands East Indies 
 through superior marketing facilities, by its equipment in Singapore 
 and Penang for repacking, regrading, leveling of grades, and for 
 the first stages of manufacture. 
 
 All these ports have the basic advantage of a local production of 
 a large quantity of bulk cargo in the immediate hinterland. 
 
 BUSINESS ORGANIZATION FOR STEAMSHIP OPERATION. 
 
 In Java there are no American houses in a position to give Ameri¬ 
 can lines efficient representation. The Dutch companies, which might 
 otherwise qualify as agents, are so closely related to competitor in¬ 
 terests, or so much in their power, that it does not seem feasible to 
 use them. There remain only a few British houses which are at 
 present representing all of the American lines calling at Java ports. 
 
 While it seems necessary, for the time being, to make use of British 
 organizations for the representation of American companies, satis¬ 
 factory progress can not be made in our foreign trade connections 
 if this practice is permanently adhered to. British methods have 
 been well adapted to the British temperament and needs, but a 
 whole-hearted cooperation with American methods of agency control 
 can not be expected. 
 
 In Singapore two American lines are represented by branches of 
 their home offices under American management, another is repre¬ 
 sented by the agent of one of the above lines, and two are represented 
 by British concerns. 
 
 Exporters and importers in the Netherlands East Indies are de¬ 
 pendent on the established shipping companies there, and many of 
 them chafe under the power which these companies wield. The entry 
 of a new competitor in the field would be welcome to these shippers, 
 provided this competitor offered facilities which made its patrons 
 independent of the European conference. If American steamship 
 companies wish to gain a secure foothold in this region, they should, 
 therefore, make provision for delivering cargo to the principal Euro¬ 
 pean ports. 
 
58 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA* 
 
 COMMERCIAL AND SHIPPING AFFILIATIONS. 
 
 The Dutch commercial organization did not begin to develop in¬ 
 tensively until the beginning of the third quarter of the nineteenth 
 century. Prior to that time business had been carried on by the Gov¬ 
 ernment and by companies operating under special concessions, and 
 was focused on the products of Java and the Spice Islands, in which 
 there was a whole or partial monopoly, and from which there was a 
 prospect of large profits with a minimum of effort in collection and 
 distribution. 
 
 The Dutch apathy toward th§ trade in the minor products gave an 
 exceptional opportunity to the Singapore merchants, who were not 
 slow to seize it. Singapore and Penang Chinese merchants have 
 branches or close connections throughout the islands lying between 
 the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo; the whole of Sumatra; 
 and west Borneo, the trade of which goes through the ports of 
 Pontianak, Sambas, and Ketapang and is very closely allied with 
 Singapore. 
 
 Products from these districts, and such western products as are 
 taken in return, are carried by Chinese steamers and sailing vessels 
 under the British flag by one important British line plying between 
 Singapore and Belawan Deli (Sumatra East Coast) and by the 
 Dutch K. P. M. (Koninklijke Paketvaart Mij.), the “Royal Dutch” 
 line which operates throughout the Netherlands East Indies. 
 
 In the Residency of South Borneo, the trade of which goes through 
 the ports of Bandjermasin, Semoedi, and Koemai, the Singapore 
 Chinese have close connections. This district produces large quan¬ 
 tities of gums, rattans, and other forest products, which find a market 
 largely through Singapore. Chinese steamers run from Singapore 
 to Bandjermasin and way ports and to East Borneo ports. ' Soera-* 
 baya merchants also have close connections with the South Borneo 
 ports, and very excellent steamship services are maintained by the 
 K. P. M. from Soerabaya to South and East Borneo ports. 
 
 Balikpapan and Tarakan, in East Borneo, are “ oil ports,” at 
 which oil-burning steamers often call for fuel rather than to draw 
 on the stocks at Singapore. Much of the trade in forest products 
 from this district finds a market through Singapore, but Soerabaya 
 and Macassar are making a strong bid for this business, aided by the 
 K. P. M. steamship services. The close connections between the 
 Singapore Chinese and the Chinese of the district, and the superior 
 marketing facilities provided by the British exporting houses, are a 
 severe handicap to the Dutch ports mentioned, and it may be as¬ 
 sumed that Singapore will hold a considerable part of this trade for 
 some time to come. 
 
 The trade organization and steamship routes in Celebes, the 
 Moluccas, and the islands to the south and east favor the port and 
 market of Soerabaya. In pre-war years these districts depended 
 very largely on Singapore for their imports of rice, and British Chi¬ 
 nese steamers plied between Singapore, the Moluccas, and, it is said, 
 even to New Guinea with rice, bringing back products of these islands. 
 The Singapore Chinese claim that they still have their connections in 
 these ports and that the trade will be resumed. An important part 
 of the production of spices from Ambon and Banda is consigned to 
 Singapore Chinese for sale or reconsignment to the world markets. 
 
Special Agents Series No. 218. 
 
 FIG. 4—HOUSE OF THE VOLKSRAAD (PEOPLE’S COUNCIL) AT WELTEVREDEN. 
 
Special Agents Series No. 218. 
 
 FIG. 5.— MOHAMMEDAN TEMPLE AT KUALA LUMPUR, FEDERATED MALAY STATES. 
 
TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 59 
 
 Lying east of Java is a long chain of islands called the Smaller 
 Soenda Islands, Bali, Lombok*, Soembawa, Flores, Soemba, and 
 Timor being the principal ones. The trade of this group goes largely 
 through Soerabaya, but there are some notable exceptions. The 
 Macassar Chinese have close connections with Timor, Flores, Soem¬ 
 bawa, and Soemba, and the Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij 
 operates a line from Macassar to these islands, carrying cotton goods, 
 rice, and foodstuffs and returning with rattans, copra, hardwoods, 
 hides, horns, spices, coffee, and Flores, Burgos, and Troca shells, as 
 well as less important products. Hogs from Bali and Lombok (the 
 inhabitants of these islands are largely Hindus) go past Soerabaya 
 to Singapore, where they are either sold locally or shipped to China 
 and other northern markets. There is also a considerable export 
 from these islands direct to Singapore of hides, coffee, shells, chick¬ 
 ens, birds’ nests, and fruit. 
 
 The British business organization in the British Malayan posses¬ 
 sions is a model of thoroughness, reaching in a powerful way 
 through the closely woven fabric of Chinese business that touches 
 the Dutch territory at vital points. There are several groups of 
 British exporting and importing houses and plantation companies, 
 and British banks are established at all the strategic points. These 
 all support the British steamship lines in a most effective way. 
 
 The Dutch business organizations are closely knit together by in¬ 
 terlocking directorates and other mutual interests. Branches of many 
 of the larger banking and merchandising organizations are estab¬ 
 lished at Singapore or Penang. Most of these organizations are 
 working in cooperation with the Dutch steamship companies for the 
 furtherance of the trade of the Netherlands. 
 
 There are French and Japanese banks and merchandising com¬ 
 panies in both colonies which are using every effort to further the 
 trade and support the steamship lines of their respective countries, 
 and there are important Danish and Italian houses operating in 
 both colonies. 
 
 There are two American banks in Singapore, and one of these has 
 branches in Batavia and Soerabaya. There is a form of American 
 business organization, but, with a few notable exceptions, the various 
 units have not become firmly rooted in the trade. The banks are still 
 exchange banks with little knowledge of or interest in the intimate 
 factors of local trade. In British Malaya two of the steamship com¬ 
 panies have already won a small but recognized place and have the 
 beginnings of an effective organization, but in the Netherlands Indies 
 they are still dependent on non-American agents. 
 
 The basic economic factors give American trade in these colonies 
 certain definite advantages that are clearly recognized by competitor 
 countries, and this has been evidenced by the tightening of the web 
 of organization in banking, shipping, and control of raw materials, 
 all designed to retard or make impossible the coordination of these 
 basic advantages with the developing channels of trade and to force 
 American importers to buy the products of these colonies through 
 the European markets and to sell American manufactures through 
 European channels. 
 
 Coordination of these advantages is of first importance to the life 
 of American shipping in these colonies. American merchandising 
 effort should be viewed from the broadest possible angle by the 
 
60 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 manufacturers. Purchasing power for raw materials should be 
 organized into more important' units and the buying in these colonies 
 delegated to American houses in which the buyers in the United 
 States have confidence. American importers in these colonies should 
 be supported by American manufacturers to the fullest extent, and if 
 the existing organizations are not qualified for proper representation 
 adequate organizations should be developed. 
 
 In foreign trade, in merchandising, banking, and shipping, the 
 United States is face to face with a combination of British and con¬ 
 tinental European organizations that will put up a united front as 
 against the development of American shipping and merchandising. 
 American ships will not get an equal opportunity in the ocean carry¬ 
 ing trade without the support of a merchandising organization equal 
 in effectiveness to the competition presented. 
 
 CONFERENCES OF SHIPPING COMPANIES. 
 
 EUROPEAN CONFERENCE. 
 
 The European Shipping Conference controls the bulk of the ton¬ 
 nage operating in the trade between American and European ports, 
 on the one hand, and the ports of British Malaya and the Nether¬ 
 lands East Indies on the other. 
 
 Subsidiary to this conference the following conferences control 
 cargoes from British Malaya and Netherlands East Indian ports to 
 European and American ports: The Batavia Conference, the Dutch- 
 British-New York Conference, and the Straits Homeward Confer¬ 
 ence. 
 
 The European Conference exercises control through the Batavia 
 Conference of a conference governing shipments to and from Nether¬ 
 lands East Indian ports and British Indian ports. This is popularly 
 known as the Bengal Conference. 
 
 The control of cargo is exercised by allowing rebates to shippers 
 who contract to ship exclusively by conference steamers. This re¬ 
 bate amounts to a total of 10 per cent of the freight charges, payable 
 in London in such a way as to retain a permanent guaranty of 
 per cent in the treasury of the conference, which will be forfeited in 
 case shipments are made by nonconference steamers. The rebate 
 system is outlined in a notice from a member company to the ship¬ 
 pers of British Malaya, extracts from which follow: 
 
 To those exporters from Singapore, Penang, and the Malay Peninsula to 
 Europe, or to ports via Europe, who, from the 1st of January to the 30th 
 of June next, may have found it to their interest to confine their support 
 
 and shipments during that period to the - we shall be happy to allow 
 
 a rebate of 7^ per cent on the freights contributed. 
 
 To those who, on the 31st of December, 1921, may have found it to their 
 interest to so confine their support and shipments during the whole 12 months 
 to the said line, we will allow a further 2 \ per cent on freights contributed 
 up to the 30th of June, 1921. 
 
 To those who, on the 31st of December, 1921, may have found it to their 
 interest to confine their support and shipments during the preceding six 
 months to the said line, we will allow a rebate of per cent on the freights 
 contributed. 
 
 To those who, on the 30th of June, 1922, may have found it to their in¬ 
 terest to confine their support and shipments during the previous 12 months 
 to the said line, we will allow an additional 2 } per cent on freights con¬ 
 tributed during the six months ending December 31, 1921. 
 
TRANSPORTATION. 61 
 
 No “ returns ” will be payable on freight contributed by rice, hemp, to¬ 
 bacco, or treasure. 
 
 Exporters applying for the returns, which will be payable in London on 
 and after the 1st of September, 1921, 1st of March, 1922. and 1st of Septem¬ 
 ber, 1922, respectively, must fill up and sign forms which can be obtained 
 from the agents. 
 
 Exporters failing to apply for returns within three months after the con¬ 
 clusion of each rebate period forfeit their claim thereto. 
 
 The following are the member companies of the European Con¬ 
 ference and its subsidiaries: 
 
 Peninsular & Oriental, British India, and Apcar Lines. 
 
 The Ocean Steamship Co. (and its subsidiary, the Stoomvaart 
 Mij. Oceaan). 
 
 The Messageries Maritimes de France. 
 
 The Nippon Yusen Kaisha. 
 
 The Glen and Shire Line. 
 
 The Ben Line steamers. 
 
 The Mutual steamers (China Mutual Steam Navigation Co., a 
 subsidiary of Alfred Holt & Co., operating in connection with the 
 Ocean Steamship Co.). 
 
 Ellerman & Bucknall Steamship Co. (Ltd.). 
 
 Osaka Shosen Kaisha. 
 
 Companla Transatlantica of Barcelona and Cadiz. 
 
 The East Asiatic Co., of Copenhagen (including steamers of the 
 Norwegian Africa and Australia Line, to Scandinavian ports only). 
 
 Swedish East' Asiatic Co., of Goteborg. 
 
 Holland Oost-Asie Lyn. 
 
 Lloyd Triestino Steam Navigation Co. 
 
 Navigazione Generale Italiana. 
 
 Rotterdam Lloyd. 
 
 Stoomvaart Mij. Nederland. 
 
 Compagnie Franchise de Navigation des Chargeurs Reunis (to 
 their continental ports of call or ports adjacent thereto). 
 
 STRAITS HOMEWARD CONFERENCE. 
 
 This is a conference operating under the rebate system, and its 
 members are the same as those belonging to the European Conference. 
 It is directly subsidiary to that conference. Its operation in Sin¬ 
 gapore is said to be somewhat informal, but nevertheless rigid. For¬ 
 mal meetings are seldom held and no action is taken independently 
 of the principals in London. Through the rebate system it exercises 
 a strong control of shippers and is in a position to bring about re¬ 
 taliatory measures on shippers using steamers in the Pacific trade 
 belonging to companies not in the European Conference. The local 
 agents of the Alfred Holt Co. (Ocean Steamship Co., commonly 
 known as the Blue Funnel or Holt Line), Ellerman & Bucknall . 
 Steamship Co. (Ltd.), and the Peninsular & Oriental Steam Naviga¬ 
 tion Co. practically control the actions of this conference in Sin¬ 
 gapore. 
 
 BATAVIA CONFERENCE. 
 
 The Batavia Conference controls tonnage and cargo from Nether¬ 
 lands East Indian ports to Europe under the rebate system as out¬ 
 lined above. Member companies of this conference are in control of 
 
62 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 the Java-China-Japan Line, the Java-Pacific Line, and the Java- 
 New York Line, and in view of all the facts it may logically be con¬ 
 cluded that shippers patronizing the steamers operated by the Euro¬ 
 pean Conference are given preferential consideration in their trans¬ 
 pacific business, if not held in line by rebate on cargoes shipped to 
 Europe. The relations of this conference to the central European 
 control are not definitely known, but that this relation is a close one 
 is unquestionable. The lead in all matters of common interest within 
 this conference is taken by the Stoomvaart Mij. Nederland, and that 
 company, together with the Rotterdamsche Lloyd and Stoomvaart 
 Mij. Oceaan, handle the bulk of the business. 
 
 DUTCH-BRITISH-NEW YORK CONFERENCE. 
 
 This is a combination between the Rotterdamsche Lloyd, the 
 Stoomvaart Mij. Nederland, and the Stoomvaart Mij. Oceaan, and 
 was spoken of as “ a conference ” by the Batavia agent of the Ocean 
 Steamship Co. and its subsidiary, the Stoomvaart Mij. Oceaan. It 
 is said to be a conference without rebates, although its members are 
 also members of the European Conference. 
 
 COASTWISE AND FEEDER SERVICES. 
 
 The coastwise (or interisland) trade of the Netherlands Indies 
 and French Indo-China can not be participated in by American 
 steamers, as the Dutch and French laws reserve the right to restrict 
 the trade to steamers of countries giving similar privileges to Dutch 
 ships. American steamers, however, are free to enter the coastwise 
 trade of China and British Malaya. 
 
 At present there are 12 United States Shipping Board steamers, 
 of approximately 3,500 tons dead weight and a draft of about 24 feet 
 each, running in the coastwise trade of China to Hongkong and to 
 ports in the East Indies. Eight of these are operated by the Pacific 
 Mail Steamship Co. and four by the Pacific Steamship Co. (Admiral 
 Line). The former company’s steamers touch (south of Hongkong) 
 at Haiphong, Saigon, Bangkok, Singapore, Port Swettenham (when 
 cargo offers), Penang, Rangoon, and Calcutta, and the latter com¬ 
 pany’s steamers at Haiphong, Saigon, Bangkok (when cargo offers), 
 Singapore, Batavia, Semarang, and Soerabaya. These lines cover 
 all the major ports of the district under consideration. 
 
 While these may be called feeder lines, they are so only to a small 
 extent, picking up cargo for transshipment to the main lines at 
 Singapore or Hongkong. Their principal revenue is derived from 
 the interport trade. 
 
 FEEDER LINES. 
 
 Some feeder lines issue through bills of lading to the world’s 
 market cities and also from those ports to the minor ports, thus 
 giving their affiliated lines a very great advantage in the ocean trade 
 with the minor ports which are not served by the “ offshore ” steamers. 
 There is very little local trade between the minor ports. 
 
 Singapore, Soerabaya, Semarang, and Batavia are the only regu¬ 
 lar ports of call for offshore steamers. If American feeder services 
 were to be based on either Soerabaya or Batavia they would have 
 
TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 63 
 
 to be operated under the Dutch flag. Manila is not favorably situ¬ 
 ated geographically so that it can be used as a base for a feeder 
 service for offshore steamers operating to European or United Spates 
 Atlantic ports, in view of the competition presented and its distance 
 from producing points. By this process of elimination the port of 
 Singapore is shown to be the only base for cargo originating south 
 of French Indo-China. 
 
 Feeder services are operated by British-Chinese companies as 
 follows: 
 
 Bangkok , Singapore, Penang , Rangoon , and Calcutta .—All or a 
 part of these ports are served by the Indo-China Steam Navigation 
 Co. (British) ; the Borneo Co. (British) ; the Seang Line of Steam¬ 
 ers (British-Chinese) ; the Ho .Hong Steamship Co. (British- 
 Chinese); Lim Chwee Chiang (British-Chinese); Straits Steamship 
 Co. (British), Singapore to Penang only and Singapore to Bangkok 
 only; the Eastern Shipping Co. (British), Singapore to Penang 
 only; Peninsula & Oriental Steam Navigation Co. (British), Singa¬ 
 pore, Penang, Colombo, etc.; British India Steam Navigation Co. 
 (British); Nippon Yusen Kaisha (Japanese) ; Osaka Shosen Kaisha 
 (Japanese), Singapore to Bangkok only; and the Siam Steam Navi¬ 
 gation Co. (Siamese, subsidiary to Alfred Holt & Co.), Singapore 
 to Bangkok only; also by the steamers of the United States Ship¬ 
 ping Board, operated by the Pacific Mail Steamship Co. 
 
 Singapore , Batavia , Cheribon , Semarang , and Soerabaya. —All or 
 a part of these ports are served by the Koninklijke Paketvaart 
 Maatschappij (Dutch) ; Heap Eng Moh Steamship Co. (British) ; 
 Chop Aik Liong Chan (British-Chinese), Singapore to Soerabaya 
 via Borneo ports; Thong Ek & Co. (British-Chinese), Singapore to 
 Soerabaya; and Osaka Shosen Kaisha (Japanese). Also served by 
 steamers of the United States Shipping Board, operated by the 
 Pacific Steamship Co. (Admiral Line). 
 
 Singapore to the Sumatra East Coast Residency .—The principal 
 port is Belawan Deli (the port of Medan); other ports where steam¬ 
 ers of light draft may secure or deliver cargo are Tandjoengbalai, 
 Pangkalanbrandan, and Poelau Sembilan. This route is served by 
 the Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij (Dutch); Peninsular & 
 Oriental Steam Navigation Co. (British) ; and Ocean Steamship Co. 
 
 Singapore , Bandjermasin , Samarinda , and Soerabaya , returning 
 by the same route .—This route is served by Aik Liong Chan (British- 
 Chinese) . 
 
 Singapore to Pontianak and return. —Served by Thong Ek & 
 Co. (British-Chinese). 
 
 Other minor routes to the Dutch possessions, with the exception 
 of those operated by the Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij, are 
 served by steamers of various Chinese companies. They are as fol¬ 
 lows: Singapore to Khio; Singapore to Selatpandjang, Bengkalis, 
 and Bagan; Singapore to Pangkalpinang; Singapore to Singaradja, 
 in the island of Bali, calling at Billiton and Soerabaya. 
 
 Before restrictions were placed on the shipment of rice from 
 Singapore there was a British-Chinese line operating between Singa¬ 
 pore as far east as Ternate and Ceram, in the Moluccas, and the 
 imports of rice for that district were mostly carried by this line from 
 Singapore, thus giving the Singapore merchants a strong hold on the 
 
64 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 trade of that part of the Dutch possessions. All the British-Chinese 
 lines have developed out of the needs of Singapore merchants for 
 transportation to the districts in which they are financially inter¬ 
 ested, and these lines carry, very largely, cargo that is consigned to 
 the steamship owners. 
 
 The government of Sarawak owns the controlling interest in a line 
 operating from Singapore to Kuching, in Sarawak, Borneo. 
 
 The Straits Steamship Co. (British) is a subsidiary of the 
 Liverpool firm of Alfred Holt & Co. (Blue Funnel Line). This is a 
 sister company of the Ocean Steamship Co. and the Stoomvaart 
 Maatschappij Oceaan, and acts as a feeder for those lines as well as 
 providing the principal interport service along the coasts of the 
 Malay Peninsula from Penang to.Bangkok. It also furnishes serv¬ 
 ice from Singapore to Miri and Labuan (islands between Singapore 
 and the north coast of Borneo), Jesselton, Kudat, and Sandakan (in 
 British North Borneo), and Jolo and Zamboanga (in the southern 
 Philippines). 
 
 The Siam Steam Navigation Co. (Siamese) operates out of Bang¬ 
 kok, between that port and Singapore, and, weather permitting, 
 calls at the following ports: Kretay, Trengganoe, Bisut, Semarak, 
 Bacho, Kelantan, Tabi, Bangnara, Telupi, Panarai, Patani, Singora, 
 Lacon, Bandon, Kohsamui, Languen, Taku, and Chumpon. 
 
 British-Chinese lines run from Singapore to the following ports: 
 Malacca and Muar, on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula; Treng¬ 
 ganoe, on the east coast; Batu Pahat; Cucob, Pontain Besar, Pontain 
 Kitchiel, and Benuit, on or near the coast of Johore. 
 
 POSSIBLE ROUTES FOR FEEDER SERVICES IN SUPPORT OF AMERICAN MAIN 
 
 LINES. 
 
 The Manila-Zamboanga service might be profitably extended to 
 Singapore, covering the following ports from Zamboanga: Jolo, 
 Sandakan (possibly Jesselton and Kudat), Labuan, and Singapore. 
 The success of this line in the additional ports would depend entirely 
 on the strength and activity of the American commercial institutions 
 at Singapore and Manila. It would serve the steamers loading at 
 Manila for ports on the Pacific coast of the United States and steam¬ 
 ers loading at Singapore for Europe and ports on the Atlantic coast 
 of the United States. 
 
 A line could get support, provided there were an active American 
 business organization behind it, operating from Singapore to Pon- 
 tianak and other west Borneo ports, Bandjermasin and other south 
 Borneo port's, Balikpapan and Samarinda on the east coast of 
 Borneo, and Menado and Macassar in Celebes, returning via the ports 
 of south and west Borneo. 
 
 Business might be developed for a line running out of Singapore 
 to ports in the Riouw Archipelago, Banka and Billiton (in the pepper 
 season), Palembang, in the Dutch residency of the same name, and 
 the ports in the Dutch residencies of Djambi and Riouw, on the main¬ 
 land of Sumatra. 
 
 The line from Singapore to Belawan Deli, in the East Coast Resi¬ 
 dency of Sumatra, offers the best prospect for early development, as 
 that district is a large and well-developed producer of raw products. 
 
TRANSPORTATION. 
 
 65 
 
 The routes along the west and east coasts of the Malay Peninsula, 
 including the ports of Muar, Malacca, Port Dickson, Port Swetten- 
 ham, Telok Anson, and Penang, on the west, and the ports listed as 
 being served by the Siam Steam Navigation Co. on the east coast, 
 do not seem, as viewed at the present time, to offer a field for addi¬ 
 tional feeder lines. If strong and active American commercial 
 houses become established in Singapore the need for feeders to cover 
 this and other runs may develop. 
 
 STEAMSHIP SERVICES. 
 
 The following pages give the names and itineraries of steamship 
 lines calling at Singapore and at Java ports as of June 1, 1921. The 
 Transportation Division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic 
 Commerce is preparing a bulletin on steamship services from United 
 States ports which will, as regards lines^operating between this coun¬ 
 try and the East Indies, contain more recent information than ap¬ 
 pears here. For a picture of the shipping facilities of these colonies 
 as a whole, however, it is believed that the list here given is sufficiently 
 true of the present time to justify its publication. 
 
 Pacific Mail Steamship Co. (American). Agents: Own offices. 
 
 Monthly service from San Francisco to Singapore, New York, and Balti¬ 
 more via Colombo and Mediterranean ports. 
 
 Seven-weekly service from Colombo to Calcutta, Singapore, Saigon, Manila, 
 Honolulu, and San Francisco. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Shanghai to Swatow, Hongkong, Saigon, Singa¬ 
 pore, Penang, Rangoon, and Calcutta; also calling at Haiphong, Port 
 Swettenham, Moulmein, and Belawan Deli when business offers. 
 Fortnightly service from Singapore to Saigon, Haiphong, Hongkong, 
 Batavia, Semarang, Soerabaya, and Balikpapan. 
 
 Admiral Line, Pacific Steamship Co. (American). Agents: Own office. 
 
 Monthly service (about) from Singapore to Seattle direct. 
 
 United American Lines (Inc.) (American). Agents: Guthrie & Co. (Ltd.). 
 
 Semimonthly service from Java ports to Singapore and New York via Suez. 
 Struthers & Dixon (Inc.), Green Star Line (American). Agents: The Green 
 Star Steamship Agency (S. S.), Ltd. (British). 
 
 Monthly service (about) from Singapore to New York via Suez. 
 
 The Robert Dollar Co. (American). Steamers operated under British flag. 
 Agents: Own office. 
 
 Monthly service (about) from Singapore to New York via North China 
 and Panama, also via Suez. 
 
 Barber Steamship Lines (American). Agents: The Admiral Line-Pacific 
 Steamship Co. 
 
 Monthly service from Singapore to London, Rotterdam, and Antwerp. 
 China Mail Steamship Co. (America). Agents: Francis Peek & Co. (Ltd.). 
 Monthly service from Singapore to Hongkong, Japanese ports, Honolulu, 
 and San Francisco. 
 
 Ellerman & Bucknall Steamship Co. (British). Agents : McAlister & Co. 
 
 Monthly service from Hongkong to Manila, Iloilo, Singapore, London, Ant¬ 
 werp, Rotterdam, and Hamburg. 
 
 Monthly service from Singapore to New York and Boston via Suez. 
 
 Monthly service from Batavia to Singapore, Colombo, Bombay, Aden, Port 
 Sudan, Port Said, and Montreal. 
 
 Ocean Steampship Company (British). Agents: W. Mansfield & Co. 
 
 Weekly service (about) from Japan ports to Shanghai (Hankow), Hong¬ 
 kong (Manila), Singapore, Port Swettenham, London; or Marseille, 
 Havre, Liverpool; or Genoa, Marseille, Liverpool; or London, Amsterdam, 
 Antwerp. 
 
 Monthly service from Hongkong to Manila, Iloilo, Singapore, and New York 
 via Suez. 
 
 Monthly service in connection with the West Australian Steam Navigation 
 Co. from Singapore to Freemantle. 
 
 Semi weekly service from Singapore to Belawan Deli. 
 
66 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation Co. (British). Agents: Own branch. 
 Fortnightly mail service from Japan ports to Shanghai, Hongkong, Singa¬ 
 pore, Marseille, and London via ports. 
 
 Semimonthly service, Bombay-China Line from Shanghai to Hongkong, 
 Singapore, Penang, Colombo, and Bombay. 
 
 British India Steam Navigation Co. (British), subsidiary to the Peninsular & 
 Oriental Steam Navigation Co. Agents: Boustead & Co. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Port Swettenham, Penang, Madras, and 
 Negapatam, or Pondicherry, Cuddalore, Karikal, and Negapatam. 
 Fortnightly service, Bangkok Line from Singapore to Bangkok. 
 
 British India Steam Navigation Co. Agents: Peninsular & Oriental Steam 
 Navigation Co. 
 
 Weekly service, Singapore-Belawan Line from Singapore to Belawan Deli. 
 Apgar Line, subsidiary of Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation Co. 
 (British). Agents: Adamson, Gilfilan & Co. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Japan ports to Shanghai, Hongkong, Singapore, 
 Penang, Rangoon, and Calcutta, calling at Swatow and Amoy. 
 
 Ben Line Steamers (British). Agents: Paterson, Simons & Co. 
 
 Irregular service from Japan ports to Shanghai, Hongkong, Singapore, and 
 London via ports. 
 
 Glen and Shire Lines (British) ; joint service of steamers of these two lines. 
 Agents: Boustead & Co. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Japan ports to Shanghai, Hongkong, Singapore, 
 Genoa, London, Antwerp, and Rotterdam via ports. 
 
 Prince Line (British). Agents: Adamson, Qilfillan & Co. 
 
 Irregular service from Singapore to New York via Suez or Panama. 
 
 The Dodwell Line (British). Agents: Paterson, Simons & Co. 
 
 Monthly service from Singapore to New York via Suez. 
 
 Union Steamship Co. (British). Agents: Boustead & Co. 
 
 Monthly service (about) from Singapore via Java ports to Sydney, Mel¬ 
 bourne, and New Zealand via Timor Dilly. 
 
 Straits Steamship Co. (British). Agents: Own offices. 
 
 Service Mondays, Wednesdays, and Saturdays from Singapore to Penang 
 via Port Swettenham. 
 
 Weekly service, Saturday, Singapore to Bangkok direct. 
 
 Thrice-weekly service from Singapore to Port Swettenham and Telok 
 Anson. 
 
 Twice-weekly service from Singapore to Port Dixon and Port Swettenham. 
 Five-times-a-week service from Singapore to Malacca and Muar. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Mersing, Kuala Pahang, and Kuantan. 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Kelantan. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Meri, Labuan, Jesselton, Kudat, Sanda- 
 kan, Jolo, and Zamboanga. 
 
 The Borneo Co. (British). Agents: The Borneo Co. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Bangkok to Singapore, Penahg, Colombo, and 
 Bombay. 
 
 The Eastern Shipping Co. (British). Agents: A. van Tooren. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Port Swettenham and Penang. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Malacca. 
 
 Sarawak & Singapore Steamship Co. (British). Agents: Ong Ewe Hai & Co. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Kuching, Sarawak (Borneo). 
 
 Indo-China Steamship Navigation Co. (British). Agents: Boustead & Co. 
 Weekly service from Japan to Shanghai, Hongkong, Singapore, Penang, 
 and Calcutta. 
 
 Ho Hong Steamship Co. (British). Agents: Own offices. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Swatow to Amoy, Hongkong, Singapore, Penang, 
 and Rangoon. 
 
 Twice-weekly service from Singapore to Malacca and Muar. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Trengganoe. 
 
 Ban Heap Hin & Co. (British). Agents: Own office. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Trengganoe. 
 
 Ban Lee Ann (Ltd.), (British). Agents: Own office. 
 
 Semiweekly service from Singapore to Malacca and Muar. 
 
 Daily service from Singapore to Cucob, Pontain, Besar, Pontain Kitchiel, 
 and Benuit. 
 
 Daily service from Singapore to Poelau Bantan, Poelau Bulang, and Poelau 
 Bintan. 
 
TRANSPORTATION 
 
 67 
 
 Soon Kech (Ltd.), (British). Agents: Gaggino & Co. 
 
 Service three times a week from Singapore to Malacca and Muar. 
 
 Twice-weekly service from Singapore to Batu Pahat. 
 
 Wee Bros. Co. (British). Agents: Own office. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Selatpandjang, Benkalis, and Bagan, 
 calling at Dutch islands off the East Coast of Sumatra. 
 
 (Chop) Aik Ling Chan (British). Agents: Own offices. 
 
 Monthly service from Singapore to Bandjermasin, Samarinda, and Soer- 
 abaya. 
 
 Seng Moh & Co. (British). Agents: Own office. 
 
 Service four times a week from Singapore to Biouw. 
 
 Monthly service from Singapore to Selatpandjang, Benkalis, and Bagan. 
 
 Thong Ek & Co. Agents: Own offices. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Singapore to Pontianak. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Singapore to Soerabaya. 
 
 Heap Eng Moh Steamship Co. (British). Agents: Own offices. 
 
 Twice-weekly service from Singapore to Batavia, Cherbon, and Semarang. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Billiton, Soerabaya, and Singaradja 
 (Bali). 
 
 Fortnightly service from Singapore to Pangkalpinang. 
 
 The Seang Line Steamship Co. (British). Agents: Giong Hoe & Co. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Shanghai to Swatow, Hongkong, Amoy, Singapore, 
 Penang, and Rangoon. 
 
 Lim Chwee Chiang (British). Agents: Own offices. 
 
 Monthly service from Singapore to Rangoon. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Trengganoe. 
 
 Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij, commonly known as the K. P. M. 
 (Dutch). Agents: Own office. This company maintains 52 runs, most of 
 which are within the Netherlands East Indies. The lines which touch at 
 Singapore or Penang are as follows: 
 
 Semimonthly service from Batavia to Telokbetong, Padang, Atjeh ports, 
 and Penang. 
 
 Semimonthly service from Batavia to Padang, Atjeh ports, and Penang. 
 
 Semimonthly service from Singapore to Banka and Billiton. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Muntok (Banka) and Palembang. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Djambi. 
 
 Eight-day service from Singapore to Rengat, Prigi Radja, and Riouw. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Belawan Deli, Batavia, Semarang, and 
 Soerabaya. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Belawan Deli via ports. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Tandjoengpandan and Tandjoengpinang. 
 
 Thrice-monthly service from Singapore to Anambas and Natoena Islands. 
 
 Thrice-monthly service from Singapore to Pontianak, Riouw, and Groot 
 Tambelan. 
 
 Thrice-weekly service from Singapore to Singkawang, Selakau, Pemangkot, 
 and Sambas. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Bawean, Soerabaya, Bandjermasin, east 
 coast ports of Borneo, Donggla, and Wani. 
 
 Thrice-weekly service from Singapore to Bandjermasin. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Singapore to Java ports, Macassar, Balikpapan, 
 Menado, Sangir, and Talaud Islands, Gorontalo, and Tominibocht. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Singapore to Java ports, Bali, Lombok, Soem- 
 bawa, Ambon, and Macassar. 
 
 Stoomvaart Maatschappij Nederland (Dutch). Agents: Internationale Cre- 
 diet en Hdv. Rotterdam. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Batavia to Soerabaya, Semarang, Singapore, 
 Marseille, Rotterdam, and Amsterdam via ports. 
 
 Messageries Maritimes de France (French). Agent: Own office. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Japan ports to Shanghai, Hongkong, Haiphong, 
 Saigon, Singapore, and Marseille via ports. 
 
 Chargeurs Reunis, Admiral Line (French). Agents: Moine Compte & Co. 
 
 Irregular service from Haiphong to Saigon, Singapore, Marseille, Havre, 
 Dunkirk, and Antwerp via ports. 
 
 Oompagnie de Navigation (French). Agents: Moine Compte & Co. 
 
 Irregular service from Haiphong to Saigon, Singapore, and Marseille via 
 ports. 
 
 19878°—23-6 
 
68 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Saigon Steamship Co. (French). Agents: Thong Hup & Co. 
 
 Service four times a month from Singapore to Saigon. 
 
 Yong Guan (French). Agents: Yong Seng Guan. 
 
 Monthly service from Singapore to Saigon. 
 
 Osaka Shosen Kaisha (Japanese). Agents: Own office. 
 
 Monthly service from Japan ports to Shanghai, Hongkong, Saigon, Singa¬ 
 pore, Marseille, London, Antwerp, Rotterdam, and Hamburg via ports. 
 
 Monthly service (about) running from Singapore to Java ports, Manila, 
 Hongkong, Shanghai, Japan ports, San Francisco, and New York via 
 Panama. 
 
 Monthly service (about) from Japan ports to Hongkong, Singapore, 
 Colombo, Mauritius, Durban, Cape Town, Buenos Aires, Santos, and Rio 
 de Janeiro. 
 
 Intermediate service from Calcutta to Singapore, Hongkong, Japan ports, 
 San Francisco, and via Panama, New Orleans, Santiago, and Habana. 
 
 Monthly service from Japan ports to Java ports, Singapore, and Calcutta. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Japan ports to Hongkong, Singapore, Colombo, 
 and Bombay. 
 
 Monthly service from Java ports to Singapore, Bangkok, Saigon, Haiphong, 
 Hongkong, Takaw, and Keelung. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Singapore to Bangkok, Batavia, Semarang, and 
 Soerabaya. 
 
 Nippon Yusen Kaisha (Japanese). Agents: Own office. 
 
 Fortnightly service from Yokohama to Kobe (or Moji or Nagasaki), 
 Shanghai, Hongkong, Singapore, Penang, Colombo, Suez, Port Said, Mar¬ 
 seille, London, and Liverpool (or Antwerp). 
 
 Auxiliary service, Liverpool Line, cargo only, from Japan ports to Shanghai, 
 Hongkong, Singapore, Marseille, and Liverpool via ports. 
 
 Auxiliary service, Hamburg Line, cargo only, from Japan ports to Shanghai, 
 Hongkong, Singapore, London, Antwerp, Rotterdam, and Hamburg via 
 ports. 
 
 Monthly service, New York Line, from Japan ports to Hongkong, Singa¬ 
 pore, and New York via Suez. 
 
 Two-monthly service, South American Line, from Japan ports to Hongkong, 
 Singapore, Durban, Cape Town, Buenos Aires, Santos, and Rio de 
 Janeiro. 
 
 Fortnightly service, Bombay Line, cargo only, from Japan ports to Shang¬ 
 hai, Hongkong, Singapore, Penang, and Bombay. 
 
 Fortnightly service, Calcutta Line, cargo only, Japan ports to Hongkong, 
 Penang, Rangoon, and Calcutta. 
 
 Ocean Transport Co. (Japanese). Agents: Paterson, Simons & Co. 
 
 Semimonthly service from Singapore to Seattle. 
 
 Nanyo Yusen Kaisha. Agents at Batavia: Maclaine, Watson & Co. 
 
 Thrice-weekly service from Kobe to Moji, Hongkong, and Batavia, return¬ 
 ing via Semarang, Soerabaya, Macassar, Balikpapan, Hongkong, and 
 Moji. 
 
 Navigazione Generale Italiana (Italian). Agents: Societe Commissionaria 
 di Exportazione di Importazione. 
 
 Irregular service from Shanghai to Hongkong, Singapore, Trieste, and 
 Venice via ports. 
 
 Lloyd Triestino Steam Navigation Co. (Italian). Agents: Societe Commis¬ 
 sionaria di Exportazione di Importazione. 
 
 Monthly service from Japan ports to Shanghai, Hongkong, Singapore, 
 Trieste, and Venice via ports. 
 
 Compania General de Tobacos de Filipinas (Spanish). Agents: Barlow 
 & Co. 
 
 Three-weekly service (about) from Manila to Singapore and Barcelona 
 via ports. 
 
 Compania Transatlantica (Spanish). Agents: Barlow & Co. 
 
 Three-weekly service (about) from Manila to Singapore and Barcelona 
 via ports. 
 
 Ostasiatiske Kompagni (The East Asiatic Co.) (Danish). Agents:.Own office. 
 
 Irregular service from Japan ports to Shanghai, Hongkong, Saigon, Singa¬ 
 pore, Marseille, Aarhus, and Copenhagen via ports. 
 
TRANSPORTATION 
 
 69 
 
 Czechoslovak Central Economic Commission (Trieste-Vladivostok Line). 
 
 Agents: Own office. 
 
 Irregular service from Trieste, Port Said, Aden, Bombay, Colombo, Singa¬ 
 pore, Shanghai, Moji, and Vladivostok. 
 
 Siam Steam Navigation Co. (Ltd.) (Siamese). Agents: Straits Steamship Co. 
 
 Weekly service from Singapore to Kretay, Trengganoe, Bisut, Semarak, 
 Bacho, Kelantan, Tabai, Bangnara, Telupui, Panarai, Patani, Singora, 
 Lacon, Bandon, Kohsamui, Languen, Taku, Chumpon, and Bangkok. 
 
 STEAMSHIP LINES OPERATING THROUGH JAVA PORTS. 
 
 The companies operating lines based on or calling at Java ports 
 (excepting those listed under former section) on June 1, 1921, their 
 agents, and the normal steamship routings were as follows: 
 
 Stoomvaart Maatschappij Nederland. Agents: Own office, Batavia. 
 
 Fortnightly mail and passenger service between Amsterdam and Java ports, 
 calling at Southampton, Lisbon, Port Said, Suez, Colombo, Sabang, Bela- 
 wan Deli, and Singapore. 
 
 A regular cargo service from Holland to the Java ports calling at the same 
 ports served by the passenger line and when business offers at Macassar, 
 Balikpapan, Menado, and minor Java and Sumatra ports. 
 
 Rotterdam Lloyd (Dutch); Agents: Own office, Batavia. 
 
 Fortnightly mail and passenger service between Netherlands East Indies 
 ports and Rotterdam. 
 
 Regular cargo service between the Netherlands East Indies and Rotterdam. 
 
 In conjunction with Stoomvaart Maatschappij Nederland, regular service 
 is maintained between Java ports, Rangoon, and Calcutta. 
 
 Regular lines between Hamburg, Antwerp, and Java ports. 
 
 In conjunction with the Nederland-American steamship lines, the Stoom¬ 
 vaart Maatschappij Nederland, and Stoomvaart Maatschappij Oceaan, 
 service is maintained between Java ports and New York. 
 
 In conjunction with Stoomvaart Maatschappij Nederland and Java-China- 
 Japan line, service between Java ports and the Pacific coast of North 
 America. 
 
 The Clan Line (British). Agents in Batavia: Pitcairn, Syme & Co. 
 
 Monthly service between Java ports and New York. 
 
 Nederlandsch Stoomvaart Maatschappij Oceaan (Dutch subsidiary to Alfred# 
 
 Holt & Co., British). Agents: Maclaine, Watson & Co., Batavia. 
 
 Weekly service from Batavia, Semarang, and Soerabaya to European ports. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 CHARACTER OF CULTIVATION. 
 
 The agricultural effort may be divided, first, into products of 
 European-owned estates and products cultivated by the natives, 
 and, second, native products grown primarily for domestic consump¬ 
 tion and native products grown primarily for export. 
 
 Products of European-owned estates are sugar, rubber, coffee, tea, 
 cloves, nutmegs and mace, cassia vera, coconuts, tobacco, cinchona 
 (Peruvian) bark, cacao, coca, cassava, kapok, manila hemp, sisal 
 and cantilla fibers, citronella grass, teak wood, gutta-percha, and 
 cananga. 
 
 Products grown by the natives primarily for domestic consump¬ 
 tion are rice, Indian corn, various legumes, sago, cassava, and indigo, 
 and those grown by the natives primarily for export are coconuts, 
 rubber, coffee, pepper, cassia vera, nutmegs and mace, cloves, cubebs, 
 cassia fistula, vanilla beans, cacao, castor beans, sesame seed, peanut's, 
 linseed, kapok, cotton, citronella grass, patchouli leaves, palma rosa, 
 Java tobacco, hides, skins, and horns. 
 
 LAND LAWS. 
 
 % The land* laws vary according to the forms of local government 
 and custom. There is one series of ordinances regulating the leases 
 of Government lands in Java and Madoera, another regulating the 
 lease of agricultural land from the natives of Java and Madoera, 
 another regulating the leasing of land by Europeans in the Residen¬ 
 cies of Soerakarta and Djokjakarta, and another regulating the 
 holding of lands in the self-governing districts outside of Java and 
 Madoera. Copies of these regulations are on file under the follow¬ 
 ing titles: 
 
 Toelichting op de Nieuwe Grondhuurbepalingen in de Gouvernementslanden 
 op Java en Madoera. 
 
 Toelichting de Nadere Voorzieningen tot Bescherming van de GSconomische 
 Belangen der Inlandsche Bevolking in de Cultuurcentra op Java en Madoera. 
 
 Toelichting der Nieuwe Regeling Omtrent de Verkrijging van Gronden voor 
 Landbouwdoeleinden in de Residentien Soerakarta en Djokjakarta. 
 
 Agrarische Regelingen voor de Zelfbesturende Landschappen in de Gewesten 
 buiten Java en Madoera (with partial translations). 
 
 CONTROL OF LAND. 
 
 The lands in Java and Madoera are nearly all under cultivation. 
 The most desirable lands outside of Java and Madoera generally 
 come under the classification of “self-governing districts outside of 
 Java and Madoera.” In the latter-named districts the points for 
 first consideration by American companies intending to obtain land 
 rights are as follows: 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 71 
 
 Grounds belonging to the Government and situated outside of Java and 
 Madoera at request can be granted in “ erfpacht ” by the Governor General 
 for a period not exceeding 75 years, at a rent of at most 1 florin per bouw 
 (1 florin=$0.402 mint par; 1 bouw=1.7537 acres), due in the sixth year after 
 the year in which “ erfpacht ” has been registered. 
 
 Only the following classes of persons or companies are eligible as 
 “erfpachters”: (a) Subjects of the Netherlands; (b) inhabitants 
 of the Netherlands; ( c) inhabitants of Netherlands India; ( d ) com¬ 
 panies of commerce established in the Netherlands or Netherlands 
 India, with the understanding that those companies or persons not 
 having their seat in Netherlands India shall be duly represented 
 there. 
 
 A resident of the Netherlands Indies is a person of any nationality 
 who has resided in the colony for more than 18 months and who does 
 not leave the colony for more than 1 year at a time. 
 
 The land laws of the Netherlands Indies are very complicated, 
 and companies about to invest in land in the colony will find it to 
 their advantage to make a thorough study not only of the laws and 
 amendments but of the decisions of the courts. 
 
 In order to sell American agricultural machinery and supplies it 
 is necessary to know something of the problems that confront the 
 agriculturists. Investigations of the methods of cultivation were 
 made entirely from that point of view. 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 The extension of sugar areas in the Dutch East Indies depends 
 first on the extension of irrigation works, and in an almost equal de¬ 
 gree on the development of mechanical cultivation. Lands most 
 suited to the growing of cane are already under cultivation, and 
 any new areas will have disadvantages which will either be offset 
 by cheaper methods or the differences deducted from the profits. 
 Planters in Java have prided themselves on a high production per 
 bouw (1 bouw=1.7537 acres) and claim to have solved many of their 
 plant-disease problems by careful preparation of the soil and indi¬ 
 vidual attention to the plants. 
 
 The ideal sugar climate is one which has a marked dry season 
 with plenty of rain during the growing season or an equivalent in 
 irrigation water. In the Dutch East Indies these conditions are most 
 nearly approximated in central and eastern Java, the sugar estates 
 all lying between 6° 40' and 8° 20' south of the Equator. As the 
 Equator is approached the seasons are less marked, and therefore 
 less suited theoretically for the growth of cane. Restrictive regula¬ 
 tions preclude the enlargement of areas under sugar in Java, where 
 labor is easily obtained and climatic and soil conditions are most 
 nearly right. It is thought that only by cultivation in large units 
 in the Outer Possessions can the acreage be extended, and only by the 
 use of machinery. As American tractors have proven satisfactory 
 in many respects for the work that will be involved, it is hoped that 
 they will solve the problem presented, both in clearing the land 
 cheaply and in the subsequent cultivation. 
 
 In southern Borneo, in the neighborhood of Martapoera, there are 
 said to be areas suited to the cultivation of sugar, and also in south¬ 
 ern Celebes and in northern Sumatra, but the planters will have to 
 depend on imported labor. 
 
72 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 Sugar ports and location of sugar mills in Java. 
 
agricultural products. 
 
 73 
 
 The sugar estates are operated by the same company organization 
 that owns the factories milling the crop. For the purpose of carry¬ 
 ing on experimental and research work all the companies have com¬ 
 bined under an organization called the Suiker Syndicate, with of¬ 
 fices in Soerabaya. The syndicate maintains a “ proof station,” or 
 experimental station, at Pasoeroean for the study of agricultural 
 problems and another at Semarang, where mechanical and chemical 
 problems are studied. 
 
 HISTORY OF SUGAR CULTIVATION IN JAVA. 
 
 During the years of Government cultivation (up to 1878) there 
 was a very low production of cane per bouw (1 bouw=1.7537 acres), 
 and very little progress in cultivation was made. The most notable 
 incident in the sugar industry during those years was the discovery 
 of the comparatively high production from the cane known then and 
 since as the u black Cheribon.” Before 1850 several varieties of 
 native Java cane were planted. After that year an attempt was 
 made to get a uniform planting of one of these varieties. When the 
 black Cheribon was planted generally throughout the island a higher 
 level of production was attained. 
 
 In 1878 the Government announced that within 13 years (by 1891) 
 it would abandon its monopoly of the cultivation of cane. Some 
 private mills were already in operation in that year, milling cane 
 grown by the Government, and from some small areas they were 
 cultivating under special permission. The improvement in methods 
 brought about by the private planters was soon apparent, but many 
 problems had to be encountered before a higher production level was 
 safely reached. 
 
 In 1882 the “ sereh ” or “ zeefvaten ” disease developed to such 
 an extent that it threatened the life of the culture. In 1886 the mill 
 owners formed an association to study and combat this disease, and 
 they partly overcame it by establishing nurseries in the mountains 
 from which bebits were conveyed to the lowlands after being disin¬ 
 fected. The first work of this association was to establish an experi¬ 
 ment station, and during the first few years the scientific staff of this 
 station devoted most of its time to studying the more obvious and 
 destructive of the diseases. 
 
 While climatic conditions caused a considerable variation in the 
 production percentage from year to year, the study and importation 
 of the varieties of cane grown by the natives in other islands of the 
 archipelago resulted in the discovery of canes that were more suited 
 to the various lands of Java, and this caused a rise to a still higher 
 level, reaching about 100 piculs per gross bouw (about 13,600 
 pounds to 1.7537 acres) during the period from 1898 to 1903. Ex¬ 
 periments with seedlings began in 1888, and in 1894 two varieties 
 were developed that by 1904 began to show their influence on pro¬ 
 duction. These w r ere No. 100 P. O. J. (Proefstation Oost Java) and 
 No. 247B, the latter developed by a private planter with the aid of 
 the proof station. In that year production reached 115 piculs to 
 the bouw, establishing a new production level. Since then there 
 have been two particularly bad years in production—1915 and 1919. 
 In the former year, on account of the extremely dry season, with bad 
 distribution of the scarce rainfall over the months of the year, pro- 
 
74 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 duction dropped to 100.3 piculs per bouw. Since then other seedling 
 varieties of cane have been introduced which have been planted 
 extensively, and, with practically the same climatic conditions as in 
 1913, the 1919 crop gave an average production of 111.5 piculs per 
 bouw. The best new variety was planted in 1916 on 1 per cent of 
 the total area planted with cane. In the 1920 crop it reached 32 per 
 cent of the total cane planted. 
 
 As mentioned above, in the early years of the sugar planters’ asso¬ 
 ciation the first object was to provide against the sereh disease, and 
 this has been finally accomplished, not only by transplanting bebits 
 from the mountain nurseries but by developing varieties immune 
 against this disease; in fact, the botanists succeeded in developing 
 immune varieties in the early years, but these did not at first give the 
 high yield which Java required. In the later years the combination 
 of immunity and high yield was accomplished. Besides these immune 
 varieties other very high producing varieties were bred by private 
 planters. 
 
 During these years the “ E. K. 28 ” and the “ E. K. 2 ” have proven 
 their worth to the planters, and large areas are being planted with 
 these varieties. Others are the “ D. L 52,” the “ S. W. 3,” the “ Tjep. 
 24,” and the “ 90F.” The first of these has an exceptionally high 
 sugar content. It is no usual thing to find two or three varieties of 
 cane planted in one field, in order to get the best out of the varying 
 conditions of the soil. One of the chief objects of the investigations 
 now under way is the planting of the right cane on the right field. 
 This is the basis of the experiment station’s program. Every year 
 about 500 field experiments are made in Java in the effort to accom¬ 
 plish this purpose with the greatest accuracy. 
 
 When the wet season continues with heavy rains until June the 
 result will be a loss of about 10 piculs per bouw, while an early dry 
 season will result in an even greater loss. Planters like to see the 
 rain come up slowly in October and stop in April or the 1st of May. 
 
 SYSTEM OF LAND LEASING AND ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 When a company wishes to erect a sugar mill it first applies to the # 
 Government for a concession of land for the cultivation of cane. 
 The £rst consideration given by the Government is as to whether 
 there is sufficient water for the new industry and to leave an ample 
 supply for the native “ sawahs,” or rice fields. If there is insufficient 
 water the concession is not granted. 
 
 A concession when granted gives the company exclusive right to 
 rent land for sugar-cane cultivation from the natives within the limits 
 of the concession, and the negotiations are often carried on with the 
 “dessa” (township) as a body. Before 1919 the period of the lease 
 was generally 12 years, but in that year a new regulation was made, 
 called “ Grondhuurordonnantie ” (ground hire ordinance). By this 
 ordinance any person is free to make contracts up to three years, but 
 when a longer lease is to be made the Government fixes the minimum 
 rental. These contracts may run up to 21 years. As a rule they do 
 not include all agricultural land within the granted area, but usually 
 less than 50 per cent of the total “ sawah ” surface. There are many 
 lands which the natives will not yield to the sugar planter; some 
 places are holy ground; other lands are unfit for cane because the 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 75 
 
 soil is not good or because the area is too small to be cultivated 
 economically. In the hill sections of the island the percentage of 
 available land is even less. 
 
 According to the Government regulations the company can not 
 keep the land from the natives more than 18 months out of each 3 
 years, and this means that but one crop of cane in every 3 years may 
 be harvested from a field. Beginning with the cane planted in 1917, 
 the cycle of cultivation varies but slightly from the following: April, 
 1917, to October, 1918, cane; November, 1918, to April, 1919, rice; 
 April, 1919, to October, 1919, polowidjo (all other crops than rice 
 and cane, such as corn, beans, cassava, etc.); October, 1919, to April, 
 1920, rice; April, 1920, to October, 1921, cane. 
 
 It requires about 13 months for a crop of sugar cane to mature in 
 Java, so the planting* begins about a month earlier than the milling, 
 which starts during May and lasts into October. Though legally the 
 factories may keep the cropped lands to the moment of the expiration 
 of the contract, as a rulo they are turned over to the natives imme¬ 
 diately the cane is harvested. By close figuring it is possible in some 
 districts to get three crops of rice and one of cane in three years, 
 besides a crop of polowidjo in the first year. 
 
 SUGAR-CANE CULTIVATION. 
 
 The sugar planters of Java take over the land from the natives 
 for a period of 18 months, at the expiration of which time it must 
 be returned to them. The unit of cultivation is the plant until the 
 growth is well up, and the intensive care given is said to be the 
 reason for the lack of serious plant diseases. It is feared that the 
 extensive use of machinery will involve the development of plant 
 diseases, the combating of which may prove to be very expen¬ 
 sive. The description of the cultivation of sugar in Java is given 
 to show American manufacturers of agricultural implements the 
 methods that will be supplanted if the use of agricultural machin¬ 
 ery becomes general in this industry. 
 
 The process of cultivation of sugar cane which follows is for 
 the greater part of Java soils where no plowing is done. Plow¬ 
 ing is done only on the lighter sandy soils. There are many small 
 variations in details. Following are the operations: 
 
 First operation .—The clearing of the ground of the rice straw 
 from the preceding crop of rice is the first operation in preparing 
 the land for the cultivation of sugar. This rice straw is cut and 
 placed in piles or rows, where it is burned. Some attempt has 
 been made to do this work mechanically, but that method is not 
 at all common. 
 
 Second operation .—Drainage ditches are then made, the first and 
 deepest ones being called “kliling,” the Javanese word for “all 
 around.” These ditches vary from 18 to 30 inches in depth, accord¬ 
 ing to the topography of the country and the depth of the cane 
 rows, and are cut generally 24 inches wide from top to bottom. 
 They connect with the Government-owned irrigation ditches, from 
 which the water supply is drawn and in which the drainage water 
 is carried away. 
 
 Third operation .—The “moedjoer” ditches are then made. These 
 run in the direction the cane rows are to be planted, generally from 
 
76 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 north to south, extending through the field and connecting at each 
 end with the kliling ditches. The depth is somewhat less than that 
 of the kliling, and the distance between depends on the quality of 
 the soil and the quantity of water which has to be carried off. 
 Where there is a heavy, clayey soil they are approximately 100 
 to 120 feet apart (25 to 30 rows), and in the lighter soils a greater 
 distance is left between, sometimes as much as 220 feet. The prac¬ 
 tice of drying the soil that has become somewhat sour by standing 
 under water during the rice season varies according to its con¬ 
 dition, but some time is always given for it to dry before proceed¬ 
 ing with the cultivation. 
 
 Fourth operation .—The u malang ” ditch is a cross ditch between 
 the moedjoers and cuts the cane rows at right angles. These ditches 
 are from 24 to 30 feet apart in the heavy soils and may be as much 
 as 48 feet apart in the lighter soils. The drainage units or “ kottaks ” 
 range, therefore, from 24 by 100 feet to approximately 48 by 220 
 feet. The malang ditches are not so deep as the moedjoers. 
 
 Fifth operation .—The preparation of the soil for the cane is the 
 next operation. There are many systems of doing this, all designed 
 to expose the soil to the air as much as possible. A very large part 
 of the sugar cane in Java is grown in the lowlands, where the soil 
 is more or less heavy. It is cut from the ditches in blocks and re¬ 
 quires considerable time to dry, so that it can be broken to a powder. 
 
 Sometimes the ditches are dug “ two spades deep,” or approxi¬ 
 mately twice 9 inches, and when this is done it means that the whole 
 drainage system must be in accordance with the maximum depth of 
 the cane ditch; this also depends on the level of the subsoil water. 
 As the rice harvesting begins at about the same time as the cane 
 planting, labor is generally hard to get, and many compromises are 
 made in order to balance the labor supply with the best possible soil 
 conditions. The distance between centers of rows is from 3 to 5 
 feet, according to the quality of the soil and the variety of the 
 cane planted, and the width of ditch from 20 to 30 inches at the 
 top and the bottom. The object in using this form of ditch is to 
 expose as much soil as possible to the air, and as it is taken out it is 
 piled on the intervening land, called locally the “ goeloetan.” When 
 the ditch is to be two spades deep the first is allowed to lie ex¬ 
 posed to the air for five or six daj^s before the second one is 
 taken out. If the time and season permit there is a period of 30 
 days during which the soil is allowed to dry, as the oxygen in the 
 air must enter the wet blocks of soil. When but one “ spade ” has 
 been taken out the soil at the bottom of the ditch is worked over 
 with a patchoel (the heavy hoe used in this colony), which opera¬ 
 tion is called “kebroesan,” or with a four-tined fork, the “tjong- 
 kok” method. In the more sandy soils the ditch is made narrower 
 with a correspondingly wide goeloetan to hold the looser earth. Al¬ 
 most everywhere in Java before planting some prepared soil is 
 placed in the bottom of the planting ditch. This soil may be taken 
 from the vertical sides of the ditch or from the top of the goeloetans 
 or from both; it is always soil that has been exposed for a long time 
 to sun and air. 
 
 Sixth operation .—During the time after the ground is first turned 
 until the “ bebits ” or cuttings are finally planted the soil is carefully 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 77 
 
 weeded, so that when the planting begins the ground is entirely free 
 from weeds. 
 
 Seventh operation. —A heavy irrigation is given the ditches before 
 planting, so that the ground is thoroughly moist when the planting 
 takes place. 
 
 Eighth operation. —When feeding the soil with bean cake, phos¬ 
 phates, molasses, or filter-press cake, these are worked into the soil 
 some time before planting, a month in the case of the molasses and 
 about a week when the other fertilizers are being used. Molasses 
 is sometimes given to the rice fields (sawah). It works beneficially 
 on the rice and on the cane afterwards. 
 
 Ninth operation .—Planting takes place from May to August and 
 is done with the greatest care, but most of it is done in June, July, 
 and August. The soil is thoroughly powdered and the bottom shaped 
 into a shallow V, in the lower part of which the bebit is placed 
 lengthwise of the ditch and with just enough soil to cover it. Usu¬ 
 ally the distance from center to center of the bebits is from 15 to 18 
 inches, but sometimes in the lighter and very fertile soils they are as 
 much as 24 inches apart. On both ends of every row between the 
 malangs an extra bebit is planted as a reserve (for replanting the 
 dead ones). If the bebits are from the nurseries they have two to 
 three budding joints, but if they are cut from .the tops of growing 
 cane they may have as many as five budding joints, or “eyes.” 
 
 Tenth operation. —Weeding goes on continuously and with the 
 greatest care while the cane is sprouting, and the soil on the goeloe- 
 tans also is kept clean of weeds. In the first weeks after planting 
 the soil is several times lightly irrigated at short intervals (about 
 three days); gradually the intervals become longer. Much depends 
 on the proper application of water during the first month, and 
 great care is given to this operation. 
 
 Eleventh operation .—Twenty days after planting all the rows are 
 carefully examined and those bebits that have not sprouted and the 
 weak young plants are taken out and replaced by the reserves men¬ 
 tioned in the ninth operation. 
 
 Twelfth operation .—The first feeding of sulphate of ammonia 
 takes place immediately after the replanting is done. Women are 
 employed in this work, one making a hole with a pointed stick within 
 2 inches of the middle of the bebit; a second puts in the manure, a 
 third closes the hole, and a fourth pours water on it. If the bebit 
 is planted on the 15th of June, this first feeding would take place 
 about the 7th of July. 
 
 Thirteenth operation. —Following these dates, on about the 1st 
 of August additional soil is given the young plants from the goeloe- 
 tan or from the sides of the ditch. 
 
 Fourteenth operation. —At this time the second feeding of sul¬ 
 phate of ammonia is given to the ground in the same manner as de¬ 
 scribed above. 
 
 Fifteenth operation. —On September 1 more soil is given to the 
 plants, which are now growing rapidly. If a third feeding of ma¬ 
 nure is required, it is given at this time. 
 
 Light irrigation has been going on continuously, generally at six 
 or seven day intervals, and the ground is kept free from weeds. 
 Whether it is possible to go on with irrigation during the months of 
 
78 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 September and October depends on the quantity of water allowed 
 by the Government irrigation service. The natives also require 
 water for food plants. 
 
 Sixteenth operation .—When the rains begin the ground is leveled 
 off and gradually piled up against the cane. 
 
 As the crop develops differences of condition are noticed, and 
 water is fed more liberally to those parts showing the least progress. 
 Economy of water is practiced as much as possible so as to adapt 
 the plants to a small quantity of water during the driest month. 
 
 During all these operations the ditches are silting up, and these 
 have to be kept deef) enough to carry away the heavy rains of the 
 wet season. 
 
 From three to four months after planting there is sufficient shade 
 to kill any weeds that might sprout, but if the planting is “wide,” 
 as in the lighter soils, weeding must continue longer. The weeding 
 is one of the heaviest of the cultivation charges, but money spent for 
 this purpose is considered well spent. One of the finest plantations, 
 situated on soil recently reclaimed from the jungle, has given figures 
 for seven “ gardens,” or fields, which show an average weeding charge 
 of 41.77 florins (1 florin=$0.402 mint par) per bouw, or approxi¬ 
 mately $9 per acre, while’26 florins per bouw is given as a fair 
 average for the plantations in districts that have been cultivated for 
 rice for a long period. 
 
 COSTS OF PRODUCTION OF SUGAR. 
 
 There is a wide variation in costs of production for the various 
 mills throughout Java, due to many causes, chief of which are the 
 proximity to the port of export, variations in the cost of labor, varia¬ 
 tions in the rental of lands, variations in the productivity of the 
 land (whether the land can produce from “bebits” taken from the 
 growing cane or if they must be brought from the mountain nur¬ 
 series) , and differences in organization and management. No figures 
 of average costs can be obtained. Various published estimates exist, 
 but they are based on individual judgment rather than on actual 
 figures, and the following are given as rough estimates by the best 
 authorities available. The consensus of opinion is that before the 
 war some of the best-equipped factories produced Superior sugar 
 as low as 4.50 florins per picul (136 pounds), exclusive of interest on 
 capital. One of the largest mills^ owning the land on w T hich its cane 
 is grown, gave the cost of its 1919 crop delivered to the station of 
 the port, ready for shipment, as 6.02 florins, not including capital 
 charge. Another, less favorably situated and organized but more 
 representative of the w T hole industry, gave its cost for that crop as 
 8.83 florins, not including capital charge. There are manv reasons 
 why the mills should withhold their production costs, and these 
 statements should be taken with reservations. 
 
 There has recently been a considerable increase in costs of labor, 
 statements of cost varying so widely that they are worthless. This 
 is probably due to the desire on the part of the planters to keep the 
 real facts from the Government, which has placed increased taxes 
 on the industry. On August 13,1921, one of the most reliable bank¬ 
 ing authorities placed the maximum cost at 7 florins per picul of 
 136 pounds, exclusive of capital charge. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 79 
 
 CULTIVATION COSTS OF A SUGAR ESTATE. 
 
 One of the largest and best-equipped estates producing sugar in 
 Java has furnished figures on the production per bouw (1.7537 acres). 
 On this estate, in section 1, containing 37,289 bouws, the cost per 
 bouw was 129.73 florins; section 2, containing 57,087 bouws, 168.16 
 florins per bouw; section 8, containing 44,000 bouws, 153.84 florins per 
 bouw; section 9, containing 46,141 bouws, 150.88 florins per bouw; 
 section 10, containing 54,019 bouws, 166.92 florins per bouw; section 
 11, containing 53,039 bouws, 162.97 florins per bouw; and section 12, 
 containing 62,333 bouws, 179.38 florins per bouw. The production 
 costs of this estate are among the lowest in Java, but they are not 
 representative of those of other estates, for many reasons. This 
 estate was reclaimed from the jungle and is held under a long lease 
 direct from the Government. It has virgin soil, and for this reason 
 its weeding charge is much higher than the average, while its charge 
 for fertilizer is low. The maximum carry of the cane to the railway 
 is 50 meters, after which it is handled mechanically. Its large, 
 well-equipped mill is capable of producing sugar from the cane at an 
 exceptionally low cost per picul (1 picul = 136 pounds). 
 
 The following figures give the production of this plantation from 
 1906 (the first production year) to 1919. In 1912 the plantation 
 produced more cane than the mill could handle, so the following 
 year the planted area was decreased, and after that year the milling 
 season gradually reached normal, i. e., May to October. It is claimed 
 that the young land .does not produce cane with a high percentage of 
 sugar, which explains the low extraction of the earlier years. 
 
 [Java picul=136 pounds; 1 bouw=1.7537 acres.] 
 
 1906. 
 
 1907 
 
 1908. 
 
 1909 
 
 1910. 
 
 1911. 
 
 1912 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Number 
 
 ofbouws. 
 
 Production 
 of cane. 
 
 Cane per 
 bouw. 
 
 Sug&rper 
 
 bouw. 
 
 Total of 
 sugar. 
 
 Extrac¬ 
 
 tion. 
 
 Milling period. 
 
 Started. 
 
 Ended. 
 
 30 
 
 87 
 
 150 
 
 1,711 
 
 3,693 
 
 5,137 
 
 6,004 
 
 4,565 
 
 4,739 
 
 4,631 
 
 4,791 
 
 4,880 
 
 5,115 
 
 4,935 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 « 
 
 C 1 ) 
 
 0) 
 
 1,066,000 
 
 3,656,000 
 
 6,375,000 
 
 7,019,000 
 
 4,268,000 
 
 5,350,000 
 
 5,729,000 
 
 6,621,000 
 
 5,517,800 
 
 6,417,434 
 
 6,321,397 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 (}) 
 
 0 
 
 ( l ) 
 
 623 
 
 990 
 
 1,241 
 
 1,169 
 
 935 
 
 1,129 
 
 1,237 
 
 1,382 
 
 1,131 
 
 1,255 
 
 1,281 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 32.0 
 
 57.0 
 
 69.0 
 
 60.0 
 
 75.0 
 
 93.0 
 
 82.0 
 
 110.0 
 
 98.0 
 
 135.9 
 
 122.5 
 
 54,800 
 
 210.500 
 
 354.500 
 360,206 
 342,400 
 
 440.700 
 
 379.700 
 527,000 
 477,600 
 694,922 
 604,399 
 
 5.20 
 
 5.70 
 5.60 
 
 5.20 
 8.00 
 
 8.20 
 
 6.70 
 8.00 
 
 8.70 
 10.80 
 
 9.56 
 
 June 1 
 Apr. 3 
 Apr. 9 
 May 1 
 May 31 
 May 29 
 May 19 
 May 16 
 May 15 
 May 7 
 May 10 
 
 Oct. 6 
 Jan. 24 
 Jan. 11 
 Jan. 29 
 Nov. 24 
 Dec. 2 
 Dec. 10 
 Nov. 30 
 Oct. 12 
 Oct. 28 
 Oct. 27 
 
 1 Experimental planting. 
 
 Areas planted in sugar cane from 1913 to 1921 are given in the 
 following table. The figures were furnished by the Sugar Syndicate, 
 except those for the crop years 1920-21 and 1921-22, which were 
 taken from Government reports. There is a discrepancy in the 
 official figures, and all the figures should be taken as approximate 
 only. 
 
80 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 [1 bouw=l .7537 acres; 1 picul=l 36 pounds.] 
 
 Crop year. 
 
 Bouws. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Total pro¬ 
 duction of 
 cane. 
 
 Average 
 
 extrac¬ 
 
 tion. 
 
 Average 
 produce 
 "tion of 
 sugar per 
 gross 
 bouw. 
 
 1913-14. 
 
 207,800 
 
 213,013 
 
 364,418 
 
 373,561 
 
 389,011 
 
 396,480 
 
 402,984 
 
 340,177 
 
 385,186 
 
 317,773 
 
 328,755 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 245,952,228 
 
 245,020,090 
 
 233,359,258 
 
 263,045,062 
 
 280,979,315 
 
 257,160,606 
 
 Per cent. 
 9.78 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 116.00 
 
 1914-15. 
 
 9.34 
 
 109.45 
 
 1915-16.. 
 
 221,823 
 
 9.29 
 
 100.30 
 
 1916-17.:. 
 
 226,082 
 
 10.33 
 
 118.99 
 
 1917-18. 
 
 229;781 
 193,977 
 219,642 
 
 10.46 
 
 130.49 
 
 1918-19. 
 
 10.88 
 
 125.29 
 
 1919-20. 
 
 111.50 
 
 1920-21. 
 
 181,202 
 
 
 
 1921-221. 
 
 1-87; 464 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Area planted up to the end of September, 1921. 
 
 The following figures, which are official, show the distribution of 
 planted areas for the crop years 1920-21 and 1921-22 by residencies 
 and also the number of estates: 
 
 Residency. 
 
 Number of estates. 
 
 Estates belonging to 
 Sugar Syndicate. 
 
 Total bouws. 
 
 1920-21 
 
 1921-22 
 
 1920-21 
 
 1921-22 
 
 1920-21 
 
 1921-22 
 
 Cheribon. 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 11,422 
 23,515 
 9,713 
 6,476 
 
 9,492 
 
 Pekalongan. 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 18* 
 
 18 
 
 23,680 
 
 9,710 
 
 6,903 
 
 Semarang. 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 Banjoemas. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Ked'oe. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4,969 
 
 4,883 
 
 18,062 
 
 13,074 
 
 7,741 
 
 Djokjakarta. 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 14'933 
 
 Soer^karta. 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 9,644 
 
 Madioen. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 8' 152 
 
 Soerabaya. 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 3l' 103 
 
 33,997 
 22,776 
 28,878 
 8,268 
 
 Kediri. 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 23,947 
 29,072 
 8,255 
 
 Pasoeroean. 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 Besoeki. 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 185 
 
 184 
 
 183 
 
 181 
 
 181,202 
 
 1 187,464 
 
 
 i To Sept. 30, 1-921, only. 
 
 EXPORTS OF SUGAR. 
 
 Exports of head sugar (including “channel” and higher) and 
 sack and molasses, by countries, during 1913, 1914, and 1916 to 1919 
 were as follows: 
 
 Countries of destination. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1916 
 
 Head sugar. 
 
 Sack and 
 molasses. 
 
 Head sugar. 
 
 Sack and 
 molasses. 
 
 Head sugar. 
 
 Sack and 
 molasses. 
 
 Netherlands and for orders.... 
 
 England and for orders. 
 
 France and for orders._ 
 
 Metric tons. 
 117 
 306 
 
 Metric tons. 
 22 
 56 
 
 Metric tons. 
 86 
 
 515, 779 
 13, 719 
 866 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 6,060 
 
 Metric tons. 
 30,709 
 577, 424 
 62,291 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ttaly and for orders. 
 
 
 
 
 16, 579 
 12,232 
 
 
 Norway and for orders. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Turkey and for orders. 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 
 
 ftfhraltar and for orders. 
 
 
 2,122 
 70,669 
 43 
 
 
 
 
 Port Said and for orders. 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 35,073 
 12,109 
 6,139 
 
 
 Suez and for orders. 
 
 
 
 
 Canada. 
 
 5,989 
 
 
 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
 
 81 
 
 Countries of destination. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1916 
 
 Head sugar. 
 
 Sack and 
 molasses. 
 
 Head sugar. 
 
 Sack and 
 molasses. 
 
 Head sugar. 
 
 Sack and 
 molasses. 
 
 British India. 
 
 Penang and Malacca. 
 
 Singapore and for orders. 
 
 Siam. 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 Amoy and Swatow. 
 
 Shanghai. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Australia and New Zealand... 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 618,712 
 876 
 91, 539 
 3,495 
 190,326 
 7,506 
 24,820 
 261, 899 
 32, 764 
 307 
 
 Metric tons. 
 90,341 
 
 3,069 
 8,000 
 72,053 
 8,444 
 22, 736 
 24, 697 
 
 202 
 
 Metric tons. 
 346, 750 
 1,339 
 69,331 
 2, 813 
 109,646 
 5,937 
 14, 984 
 98, 271 
 8,471 
 331 
 
 Metric, tons. 
 108, 822 
 753 
 3,305 
 4,579 
 59, 741 
 17,176 
 8,479 
 17,258 
 577 
 33 
 
 Metric tons. 
 393,275 
 11,340 
 66,559 
 11,222 
 121,157 
 3, 780 
 2,233 
 48,923 
 5,699 
 1,030 
 
 Metric tons. 
 81,839 
 1,575 
 2,538 
 10,406 
 40,020 
 2,438 
 3,266 
 1,459 
 297 
 
 1, 238, 738 
 
 229, 620 
 
 1, 261,157 
 
 226, 783 
 
 1,417, 774 
 
 143, 838 
 
 Countries of destination. 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Head sugar. 
 
 Sack and 
 molasses. 
 
 Head sugar. 
 
 Sack and 
 molasses. 
 
 Head sugar. 
 
 Sack and 
 molasses. 
 
 Netherlands and for orders.... 
 United States. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 302, 225 
 24,442 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 22,386 
 1,928 
 212,624 
 80,974 
 5,053 
 23, 431 
 6,953 
 11, 715 
 318 
 
 81, 222 
 13,004 
 10, 881 
 25,160 
 15,619 
 5,347 
 508 
 1,017 
 140, 392 
 20, 111 
 10, 826 
 
 358,461 
 6,094 
 89, 641 
 51 
 
 206, 708 
 692 
 1,020 
 9,025 
 1, 397 
 364,246 
 114, 363 
 108 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 
 8,233 
 75,063 
 33,636 
 
 
 
 England and for orders. 
 
 
 
 
 France and for orders. 
 
 
 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 
 
 Italy and for orders. 
 
 
 
 2,986 
 
 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spain and for orders. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Norway and for orders. 
 
 20, 034 
 
 
 17, 708 
 5,483 
 
 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 Russia and for orders. 
 
 
 
 
 Turkey and for orders. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Greece and for orders. 
 
 8,138 
 
 
 5,746 
 
 
 
 Rumania. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Palestine. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cypress and Malta. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Port Said and for orders. 
 
 11, 265 
 10,3S5 
 
 
 18, 074 
 34,429 
 20, 784 
 7,679 
 376,874 
 11,620 
 184,979 
 769 
 296, 746 
 10, 502 
 6,445 
 9,403 
 2,999 
 364, 483 
 6,373 
 3,465 
 
 
 
 Suez and for orders. 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 Canada. 
 
 
 
 
 Argentina. 
 
 
 
 
 
 British India. 
 
 322, 827 
 17, 979 
 181,114 
 25, 409 
 142,005 
 670 
 1,055 
 3,578 
 
 54,394 
 787 
 2,100 
 10, 260 
 20,577 
 
 15,307 
 241 
 4,441 
 14, 426 
 30, 247 
 
 2,968 
 
 Penang and Malacca. 
 
 Singapore and for orders. 
 
 Siam. 
 
 499 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 13,936 
 
 Amoy and Swatow... 
 
 Shanghai. 
 
 1,547 
 
 3,171 
 
 275 
 
 Dairen ... 
 
 Vladivostok. 
 
 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 73, 243 
 21, 111 
 942 
 
 509 
 
 279 
 
 
 2,260 
 
 Australia and New Zealand... 
 
 All other. 
 
 251 
 
 31 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 1,166, 438 
 
 96, 485 
 
 1, 504, 479 
 
 68, 084 
 
 1, 841, 714 
 
 19, 969 
 
 
 GRADES OF SUGAR. 
 
 Superior sugar .—A crystallized, very white sugar, whiter than 
 No. 25 Dutch standard; polarization about 100° ; ready for European 
 consumption. It is sold according to sample. 
 
 Superior second sugar .—A white, fine-grained, slightly wet sugar, 
 whiter than ^No. 25 Dutch standard. The polarization is not fixed. 
 Sold according to sample. 
 
 Sugar No . 16 and higher , channel assortment .—A light-colored 
 dry sugar, corresponding in color with Nos. 16 and 18 of the Dutch 
 standard. It is sold on the basis of polarization at 98°. 
 
82 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Sugar Nos. 12 and H, muscovados , American assortment .—A dark- 
 colored, slightly wet, well-crystallized sugar, corresponding in color 
 with Nos. 12 and 14 of the Dutch standard. Polarization is based 
 on 96.5°. 
 
 Black strap , molasses sugar .—A dark sugar, corresponding in color 
 with Nos. 8 and 10 of the Dutch standard; no specified polarization. 
 Sold according to sample. 
 
 Centrifugaled sack sugar. —A dark after-product, corresponding in 
 color with No. 8 of the Dutch standard. No special analysis is 
 wanted, but at least 80° polarization is expected. 
 
 SUPERIOR HEAD SUGAR IN THE SOERABAYA MARKET. 
 
 JANUARY 1916 TO NOVEMBER 1921. 
 
 EXCHANGE FlUCTUATIOHS FOLLOW NEW YORK, LONDON CROSSRATE CLOSELY. 
 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Sack sugar .—A sticky mixture of fine crystals and adhering mo¬ 
 lasses, obtained by draining off in mat bags. It has to be of a good, 
 salable quality, and a polarization of at least 72° is expected. Sold 
 according to sample. 
 
 VEREENIGING JAVASUIKER PRODUCENTEN. 
 
 Conditions prevailing in 1916 led to the formation of the Javasche 
 Suiker Vereeniging (an association of factories representing ap¬ 
 proximately 65 per cent of the area under cane) to handle the sale 
 of the crop harvested in 1917. The sale of this crop opened in 
 May, 1916, with Superior at 13 florins and head sugar at 11.75 florins. 
 It reached its highest point in November, when Superior sold for 
 14.75 florins and head sugar and muscovados touched the 13-florin 
 mark. From that date there was a decline, which resolved itself 
 into a sudden slump in April and May, 1917, as the milling season 
 approached, in spite of the combination of sugar ihills. The last 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 83 
 
 sales of the Javasche Suiker Vereeniging were made at 10.25 florins 
 for Superior and 8.75 and 9.25 florins, respectively, for head sugar 
 and muscovados. Considerable stocks were carried over for sale 
 in 1918, and the failure of the combination to check the decline 
 brought about its dissolution at the end of 1917. 
 
 From the beginning of 1918 until August there was no association 
 of sugar mills, and the pessimistic tone of the market was shown 
 clearly in the prices. Dutch shipping had been withdrawn from 
 the Java trade and the frightened millers vied with each other to 
 get their sugar into the hands of the speculators. With large quan¬ 
 tities of the 1916-17 crop on hand the sales of the 1917-18 crop opened 
 under a disadvantage, and after holding fairly steady at 10.50 florins 
 for Superior and around 8 florins for head sugar and muscovados 
 until March, there was a panic to sell out, apparently at any price. 
 At the end of May muscovados went below 6 florins and in July 
 Superior and muscovados were on a level at 6 florins, with head 
 sugar at 25 cents above. Many of the speculators were in a precarious 
 position, some suffering heavy failures. The mill owners were driven 
 to effect a combination, which began operations in August. 
 
 The foregoing is an outline of the conditions leading up to the 
 reorganization—showing, in 1917, failure with partial organization; 
 in the beginning of 1918 a general panic, with conditions ripe for 
 reorganization and the formation of a combination. 
 
 On August 8,1918, the Vereeniging Javasuiker Producenten (Java 
 Sugar Producers’ Society) took charge of the selling of the product 
 of 160 mills, which included nearly all of the Dutch-owned mills and 
 some of the Chinese-owned mills; in all, about 90 per cent of the 
 production of Java. 
 
 FIRST AND SECOND HAND MARKETS. 
 
 The product of all the European-owned mills is sold through the 
 Vereeniging Javasuiker Producenten, which fixes a price limit for 
 the various grades at which they are sold until market conditions 
 demand a change. In normal seasons the crop is out of first hands 
 before the milling season is over, and in order to balance the year’s 
 output certain quantities are sold forward on “ remainder condi¬ 
 tions”; that is to say, if there is more sugar milled than is sold out¬ 
 right the remainder will be sold on the above conditions. 
 
 Since 1919 the first sellers have demanded that a 50 per cent mar¬ 
 gin be put up against all contracts of sale, but an exception is made 
 on contracts with a few first-class exporting houses. 
 
 The mills that do not sell their output through the Vereeniging 
 Javasuiker Producenten are all owned by Chinese, who are also 
 speculators in sugar. The product of these mills is generally con¬ 
 sidered to be in the second-hand market when milled. 
 
 There is a large speculator market in Java that buys forward, 
 figuring on a rise as the sugar becomes “ spot ” or ready stock. This 
 speculator market, composed of Chinese, British Indians, and some 
 European houses, is extremely excitable, and often holds sugar for 
 a rise at prices much above those of the world’s markets. 
 
 19878°—23-7 
 
84 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 CONTRACT OF SALE. 
 
 The following contract of sale is used in transactions in Java: 
 
 Messrs. 
 
 No. 
 
 Dear Sirs : I hereby certify that I have— 
 
 Bought from_ 
 
 Sold to_ 
 
 tons of 20 cwts-sugar, ex crop-packed in good, 
 
 strong gunny bags fit for export, measuring 44" x 26J" each, weighing about 
 2f English pounds and containing about 1.64 piculs of sugar. 
 
 Price _per picul of 136 English pounds net weight, de¬ 
 livered free on board export vessel at_port(s) at seller’s op¬ 
 
 tion, to be declared in due time to enable buyers to declare loading ports to 
 the steamer’s agents. 
 
 Shipment to be made during the month(s) of_by any steamer 
 
 at buyer’s option. Buyer to provide tonnage and to declare steamers’ names, 
 giving all necessary shipping instructions in due time. 
 
 Should the buyers have failed to take delivery of the sugar or part thereof 
 on_buyers shall on that day pay for the sugar not yet re¬ 
 
 ceived and indemnify sellers for all expenses which may be incurred by them 
 for store, rent, insurance, etc., up to the time that the sugar is received. In 
 case shipment is to be made to British India, buyers shall only engage freight 
 by the steamers of the Asiatic Steam Navigation Co., British India Steam 
 Navigation Co., and/or Java Bengalen Line. 
 
 Insurance .—Marine insurance W. A. including lighterage risk from shore to 
 the steamer to be effected by the buyers. 
 
 Payment .—Cash in_against clean mates’ receipts. 
 
 Any dispute arising under this contract to be settled by arbitration in 
 
 _, each party appointing an arbitrator, and should the 
 
 arbitrators be unable to agree the decision of the umpire selected by them to 
 be final. 
 
 The arbitrators and umpire are all to be commercial men and resident at 
 
 Yours faithfully, 
 
 Broker. 
 
 All transactions are made through brokers. (For brokerage rates 
 see “Brokers and brokerages,” p. 366.) 
 
 Before rubber became the principal agricultural crop of the Malay 
 Peninsula sugar was grown extensively, but to-day none is grown 
 for export, and the only production is by the natives for native 
 consumption. The areas formerly under sugar cane are now all 
 under rubber. It is claimed that there are large areas suitable to its 
 growth along the Burnham River, south of Telok Anson. 
 
 COPRA AND COCONUT OIL. 
 
 Coconuts are grown along the coasts of all the principal islands 
 of the Netherlands East Indies and in many parts of the interior. 
 The cultivation is almost all carried on by natives, although there are 
 a few plantations owned and operated by Europeans. Copra is the 
 dried meat of the coconut. 
 
 In all parts of British Malaya coconuts are grown to some extent, 
 but the largest part of the production is in the Non-Federated Malay 
 States (particularly in the State of Johore), the Federated Malay 
 States, and the Straits Settlements of the peninsula. The copra 
 produced in the Non-Federated Malay States is mostly grown and 
 
Special Agents Series No. 218 
 
 FIG. 9.—A FIELD OF YOUNG CANE, 
 
Special Agents Series No. 218. 
 
 FIG. 10—TYPICAL COCONUT VILLAGE IN CELEBES. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 85 
 
 prepared by the natives, while in the other districts mentioned there 
 are large European-owned estates. 
 
 There is a considerable trade in the Straits Settlements (particu¬ 
 larly Singapore) in copra produced in the Dutch possessions. In 
 1919 the Straits Settlements imported 29,700,829 Straits dollars’ 
 worth of copra and exported 33,776,114 Straits dollars’ worth, the 
 Singapore dollar being worth $0,567 at par exchange. 
 
 The value of copra imported into the Straits Settlements in 1919 is 
 shown in the following table: 
 
 Origin. 
 
 Imported through— 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Malacca. 
 
 Labuan. 
 
 China. 
 
 Straits 
 
 dollars. 
 
 3,220 
 521,426 
 3,321,935 
 2,218,831 
 21,400 
 3,741,018 
 4,145,787 
 445,007 
 827,019 
 
 Straits 
 
 dollars. 
 
 Straits 
 
 dollars. 
 
 Straits 
 
 dollars. 
 
 French Tndo-China . 
 
 
 
 
 Dutch Borneo. 
 
 
 
 
 Celebes and Molucca. 
 
 
 
 
 Java. 
 
 
 
 
 Sumatra. 
 
 2,072,892 
 
 
 
 Other Dutch possessions. 
 
 408 
 
 
 Philippines. 
 
 
 
 Siam"!. 
 
 85,575 
 90,190 
 
 
 
 British India and Burma. 
 
 
 
 North Borneo. 
 
 462,189 
 42,971 
 2,291,788 
 6,893,674 
 922 
 
 
 16,886 
 
 Sarawak. 
 
 
 
 Federated Malay States. 
 
 2,399,786 
 95,361 
 
 2,544 
 
 
 Non-Federated Malay States. 
 
 
 All other countries.. .. 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 24,937,187 
 
 4,743,804 
 
 2,952 
 
 16,886 
 
 
 The value of copra exported from the Straits Settlements in 1919 
 was as follows: 
 
 Destination. 
 
 Exported through— 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 Straits 
 
 dollars. 
 
 8,191,645 
 32,800 
 2,079,232 
 3,534,087 
 8,904,475 
 1,074,106 
 577,782 
 168,102 
 
 Straits 
 dollars. 
 1,920,800 
 50,300 
 23,500 
 4,607,580 
 471,486 
 29,600 
 27,100 
 
 British India and Burma . 
 
 Belgium . 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 199,500 
 
 Japan. 
 
 103,242 
 90,720 
 1,313,554 
 360 
 
 Java. 
 
 91,173 
 284,970 
 
 United States. 
 
 All other countries. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 26,070,105 
 
 7,706,009 
 
 
 The import figures show that about 60 per cent of the total im¬ 
 ports into the Straits Settlements come from the Netherlands East 
 Indies and 40 per cent come from the Malay Peninsula. Of the 
 exports, 30 per cent went to the United Kingdom, 5 per cent to the 
 
86 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 United States, and the balance to continental Europe, with some 
 very small amounts to Java and Japan. 
 
 Before the war continental European houses did most of the ex¬ 
 porting to Europe, according to a reliable authority, and the ship¬ 
 ments which went to London were on a speculative basis. To-day 
 most of the British export houses deal in this product, principally 
 for the account of continental European houses. One British con¬ 
 cern, with offices at Singapore, Penang, Colombo, London, and New 
 York, is the most important single unit in the trade. Its buying is 
 largely for the account of the mills at Aarhus, Denmark. 
 
 The imports from the Netherlands East Indies and the native 
 production of the Malay Peninsula are handled by the Chinese 
 houses, and transactions are between the Chinese and the exporters 
 without the intervention of brokers. 
 
 AREA AND EXTENT OF COCONUT CULTIVATION. 
 
 The following table, giving the areas under cultivation by regis¬ 
 tered companies, was taken from an official statement of the Colonial 
 Government, dated September, 1919: 
 
 Coconut plantations. 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 Planted. 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 Planted. 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 Unmixed with other cultures. 
 
 Planted with one other culture. 
 
 Planted with two other cultures. 
 
 Planted with three or more cultures. 
 
 Mixed with other cultures. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Hectares. 
 
 2,932 
 638 
 647 
 39 
 2,764 
 
 e 
 
 Hectares. 
 
 1,028 
 124 
 36 
 11 
 502 
 
 Hectares. 
 
 9,379 
 
 3,908 
 
 662 
 
 348 
 
 2,348 
 
 Hectares. 
 
 1,773 
 
 904 
 
 54 
 
 256 
 
 6,920 
 
 1,701 
 
 16,545 
 
 2,987 
 
 
 Business men in the trade have expressed some surprise at the 
 small area listed above, and doubt has been expressed as to the ac¬ 
 curacy of the figures. * It is possible that some of the controlling 
 companies are not registered under the laws of the colony and there¬ 
 fore are not included in these figures. 
 
 In 1918 the Government published a pamphlet on oilseeds, written 
 the preceding year by B. Streefland, who, until his death in 1918, was 
 the manager of the Oliefabrieken Insulinde. While this pamphlet 
 bears the stamp of the Government, it is not, strictly spealdng, an 
 official document. The Government gave Mr. Streefland great as¬ 
 sistance in compiling the figures, and it stands to-day as the most 
 authoritative document on this subject in the Netherlands East In¬ 
 dies. 
 
 The following figures on the number of coconut trees planted in 
 this colony are taken partly from Mr. Streefland’s publication and 
 partly from supplementary figures supplied by the Government: 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 87 
 
 Residency. 
 
 Bearing. 
 
 Not bearing. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Java and Madoera: 
 
 Bantam. 
 
 Number. 
 1,942,315 
 606,706 
 
 Number. 
 1,020,990 
 
 Number. 
 2,963,305 
 1,424,133 
 8,314,294 
 1,436,805 
 1,557,178 
 5,854,366 
 
 Batavia... 
 
 * 817^427 
 4,274,733 
 637,885 
 511,753 
 2,106,099 
 
 Preanger. 
 
 4,039' 561 
 
 Cheribon. 
 
 798,920 
 1,045,425 
 3,748,267 
 2,394,134 
 2,039,347 
 1,037,487 
 1,549,087 
 1,402,350 
 
 Pekalongan. 
 
 Semarang. 
 
 Rembang.. 
 
 l'380'814 
 
 3,774,948 
 
 3,000,689 
 
 1,805,399 
 
 2,598,356 
 
 2,263,306 
 
 4,953,812 
 
 Soerabaya. 
 
 96l'342 
 
 Madoera. 
 
 767,912 
 
 1,049,269 
 
 860,956 
 
 1,667,400 
 
 3,174,932 
 
 Pasoeroean. 
 
 Besoeki. 
 
 Banjoemas. 
 
 3,286' 412 
 
 Ked'oe. 
 
 4^629; 453 
 
 7,804,385 
 
 3,128,032 
 
 2,011,389 
 
 Djokjakarta. 
 
 1,893,758 
 
 1,078,752 
 
 2,989,416 
 
 I', 234; 274 
 932,637 
 2,367,839 
 
 Soerakarta. 
 
 Madioen. 
 
 5; 357', 255 
 5,680,081 
 
 Kediri. 
 
 2' 991;822 
 
 2' 688' 259 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 37,473,212 
 
 26,454,521 
 
 63,927,733 
 
 
 Outer Possessions: 
 
 Sumatra West Coasfe. 
 
 2,009,583 
 548,069 
 876,131 
 100,561 
 1,254,821 
 2,704,348 
 
 1,355,760 
 610,343 
 
 3,365,343 
 
 1,158,412 
 
 1,366,026 
 
 294,938 
 
 3,123,394 
 
 5,750,142 
 
 949,800 
 
 Tapanoeli. 
 
 Lainpongs and Palembang. 
 
 489', 895 
 194,377 
 1,868,573 
 3,045,794 
 612,300 
 2,864,691 
 775,993 
 5,380,240 
 1,732,992 
 1,038,093 
 768,238 
 638,154 
 
 Djambi.~. 
 
 Sumatra East Coast. 
 
 Riouw. ... . 
 
 Banka. . 
 
 '337i 500 
 3,123,826 
 844,351 
 4,517,958 
 1,921,237 
 
 Western Borneo. 
 
 5,988i 517 
 1,620,344 
 
 South and East Borneo. 
 
 Menado. 
 
 9,898,198 
 3,654,229 
 2,324,118 
 1,743,572 
 3,099,322 
 
 Celebes. 
 
 Amboina. 
 
 h 286', 025 
 975,334 
 2,461,168 
 
 Timor. 
 
 Bali and Lombok. 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 22,960,912 
 
 21,375,443 
 
 44,336,355 
 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 60,434,124 
 
 47,829,064 
 
 108,264,088 
 
 
 
 It would be unsafe to attempt any exact deductions from the 
 figures just given, as the method of procuring them was not as exact 
 as might be desired. They are submitted as the best available figures 
 on the subject. 
 
 In connection with these figures Mr. Streefland gives the following 
 data: 
 
 The monthly nut production per tree is not everywhere equal, but lessens 
 according to the elevation of the plantation. 
 
 In the lowlands, in soil suited to the production of coconuts, a tree will yield 
 six coconuts per month, while in the Preanger Residency not more than three 
 nuts per month may be expected from each tree, and the nuts will be smaller 
 and copra made from' them will not be so good. 
 
 Under average conditions it may be expected that 300 nuts will yield 1 picul 
 (136 pounds) of copra. 
 
 In reckoning copra production it can be assumed that six full-grown trees 
 will produce 1 picul of copra per year, or, roundly, 100 trees will give 1 ton 
 of copra per year. 
 
 Mr. Streefland estimates that the production of Java and Madoera 
 in 1917 was 323,913 tons of copra, and that of the Outer Possessions 
 (not including Benkoelen, Ternate, Timor, and Bali and Lombok, for 
 which no figures were available at that time) 165,345 tons, which 
 would bring the production of the Outer Possessions up to 200,000 
 tons. 
 
88 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 COPRA GRADES. 
 
 Grades of copra vary according to whether the year is a dry or a 
 w T et one, and, as no very definite standard is maintained throughout 
 the archipelago, there is considerable variation in the different dis¬ 
 tricts of the Outer Possessions. Copra is bought by the exporters 
 on its general appearance, but as these buyers are experts in their 
 line they are able to keep the grades to fairly definite qualities. 
 
 Export dry .—This term applies to all grades of copra exported. 
 This means that there shall not be more than 5 per cent of water 
 content. 
 
 Sun-dried and mixed .—Copra is classified as either “sun-dried” 
 or “ mixed.” “ Sun-dried ” is not supposed to contain more than 5 
 
 PRICES OP COCOANUT OIL. 
 
 SOERABAYA MARKET 
 CALENDAR YEARS Bl* 1920,1921 
 
 I FLORIN*#.402 I PICUL* 136 LBS. 
 
 EXCHAN6E FLUCTUATIONS FOLLOW NEW YORK. LONDON CROSSRATE CLOSELY 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
 per cent of smoked, and “ mixed ” contains everything that does not 
 go into the higher grades. 
 
 Java F . M. S .—■“ Java fair merchantable sun-dried” tops the mar¬ 
 ket and is probably the best-known grade in the world’s markets. 
 It is “ export dry ” and may contain, roughly, 2 per cent of smoked 
 and 5 per cent of young nuts, which have a lower oil content than 
 the mature nuts. This grade is produced in Java. 
 
 Bali sun-dided .—In the Residency of Bali and Lombok the Govern¬ 
 ment exercises a strict control of the quality going out under this 
 grade, and it is very highly regarded on the Soerabaya market. 
 Owing to a bad reputation in the past, this grade does not bring the 
 top price, although it is considered as good as the “Java F. M. S.” 
 locally, and generally finds a ready sale in Soerabaya. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 89 
 
 Macassar sun-dried. —This grade may contain up to 5 per cent of 
 smoked copra, but, unlike “Java F. M. S.,” it does not contain many 
 young nuts. There is a difference of opinion among authorities as 
 to the value of this grade, and the reputation of the seller has much 
 to do with the price the product will bring. It is considered to be 
 slightly under “Java sun-dried ” in quality. 
 
 Pontianak mixed .—This had been going to Singapore until the 
 route of the K. P. M. (Royal Dutch Inter island Steamship Line) 
 was changed to provide an easy channel for it to reach the Java 
 ports. Under this name it is not a well-known grade in the world’s 
 markets, and the local oil mills have been buying it. It is a grade 
 between “ sun-dried ” and “ mixed ” and may contain from 60 to 80 
 per cent of “sun-dried.” 
 
 Java mixed. —Although this grade exists, there is so small a quan¬ 
 tity on the market that it is not worth considering, especially in a 
 discussion of export grades. 
 
 Macassar mixed ( Molucca mixed). —This grade may contain any¬ 
 thing that is not in the “ Macassar sun-dried ” grade. One exporter 
 stated that buyers should designate “ Macassar mixed fair mer¬ 
 chantable.” 
 
 Padang copra “ tel quel.” —This is a very poor grade that before 
 the war was bought principally by the Marseille (France) mills at 
 a very low price. “ Tel quel ” means “ everything allowed.” The 
 Chinese of Padang make a cheap soap of it for the native trade. 
 
 Kring Biassa .—This is an old local grade and, while it still exists, 
 is not at all common. Copra at one time was brought to Soerabaya 
 half dried, and there it was put into shape for' the export markets. 
 This half-dried copra was “ Kring Biassa.” 
 
 Molucca sun-dried. —The copra coming from Molucca is not care¬ 
 fully graded as a rule. It comes into the Macassar market in small 
 lots and there is a wide variation in quality, due to the lack of the 
 close contact with the exporting houses that exists in the Celebes and 
 Menado Residencies. Some local authorities state that the grades 
 “ Macassar sun-dried ” and “ Molucca sun-dried ” are the same, but 
 the term “ Molucca ” in connection with sun-dried should be avoided. 
 The “ Molucca mixed ” grade is the same as “ Macassar mixed.” 
 
 SALES AND EXPORT METHODS. 
 
 Sales are made through brokers. Brokerage charges cover buying 
 only, and the more reliable brokers refuse to have anything further 
 to do with the transaction. In Soerabaya alone there are over 60 
 
 brokers. .-1 ad llmla 9Dinri£j8£ri iuM—. sownimtl 
 
 The “ veems ” are institutions similar in some respects to American 
 forwarding companies, but their functions are much wider. They 
 receive, inspect, pack, and ship, and their charges are standardized 
 for the ordinary transactions. They usually have quite an invest¬ 
 ment in plant and equipment, are operated by joint-stock companies, 
 and bear a good reputation for executing their commissions properly. 
 
 All copra for export is “ export dry,” as before stated. It is not 
 unusual to sell f. o. b., n. o. g., which means free on board, net de¬ 
 livered weights, and guarantee of the quality sold as delivered to the 
 buyer. Considerable trickery has crept into the trade through this 
 custom, and some exporters refuse to handle business in this way. 
 
90 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Where both exporter and importer are concerns of high character 
 it works out satisfactorily, but where one or the other is inclined to 
 take unfair advantage there is room for expensive disagreements. 
 It is claimed by exporters that an advance of from 7 to 8 per cent 
 on the original cost price is made for copra sold in this way. It is 
 the custom in these transactions to draw against the credit estab¬ 
 lished with the Java banks for 95 per cent of the invoice price, the 
 5 per cent being left open for adjustment of weights at the point of 
 delivery. 
 
 The Netherlands has been the market for Dutch East Indian 
 copra for many decades, and it is the custom, based upon the ex¬ 
 perience of years, to take certified samples from every such ship¬ 
 ment immediately on arrival, which samples are field with the 
 Netherlands board of arbitration, making at the same time an ap¬ 
 plication for arbitration. When the copra is delivered and found 
 satisfactory, this application is withdrawn. 
 
 CONTRACT FOR SALE OF COPRA. 
 
 The following is a contract for the sale of “ fair merchantable 
 Java sun-dried” copra: 
 
 Purchased from_ 
 
 Sold to _ 
 
 _tons of 1,000 kilos shipping weight, “ fair merchantable Java sun-dried ” 
 
 copra (2 per cent more or less, at the choice of the sellers), at the price of 
 
 _florins, Dutch East India currency, per picul of 61.76 kilos, f. o. b. Java 
 
 harbor, to be ascertained as net w r eight delivered in the harbor of destination 
 under the following additional conditions: 
 
 Shipment .—Shipment shall be made to Amsterdam, and/or Rotterdam, 
 and/or Hamburg, and/or Bremen, and/or Marseille at the option of the buyer 
 
 during the months of-, 192 , by one or more conference steamers to be 
 
 designated by the sellers, from one or more Javanese ports, at the option of 
 the sellers. 
 
 The sellers shall accordingly provide ship space at current rates. 
 
 At least eight days before loading the sellers shall notify the buyers of the 
 name of the steamship by which the shipment is to be made and the quantity 
 to be shipped. 
 
 Within two times 24 hours before the loading of the copra the buyers shall 
 indicate to the sellers the destination and markings. 
 
 Each shipment shall be at least 25,000 kilos. 
 
 Quality .—Should the copra not satisfy the specifications for “ fair merchant¬ 
 able quality sun-dried,” then the compensation eventually due therefor and the 
 costs of arbitration to be determined by the arbitration bureau at Amsterdam, 
 and/or London, and/or Marseille at the buyers’ option (at the last-named place 
 alone, eventually, for the lots shipped to Marseille) shall be at the expense of 
 the sellers. If no compensation be allowed, the costs of arbitration shall be at 
 the expense of the buyers. The bonus shall be credited to the buyers. 
 
 Insurance .—Marine insurance shall be paid by the buyers. The sellers must 
 see to it that such proas be employed as will permit insurance of cargo at the 
 ordinary premium (rate). 
 
 Payment .—Where the buyers have an office in India, payment shall be made 
 for 95 per cent of the quantity shipped, against surrender of master’s receipt. 
 
 After the weight has been determined in the port of destination, the balance 
 due shall be liquidated on surrender of the respective documents. 
 
 In case of a total or partial loss of the lots shipped by a marine disaster or 
 otherwise, the buyers shall pay the remainder according to the usual insur¬ 
 ance conditions. 
 
 Arbitration .—'Arbitration must be asked for within 14 days after the unload¬ 
 ing of a shipment in one of the ports named in the contract; no arbitration can 
 be had after that term has expired. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 91 
 
 The buyers are bound to notify the sellers in time before the checking of the 
 weight and quality in one of the ports named in this contract, and the sellers 
 are then bound immediately to appoint their checkers. 
 
 In case deliveries made under this contract should be received and weighed 
 by the buyers in Europe without an invitation by the buyers to the sellers to 
 join in the checking of the weight and quality, then the buyers must pay the 
 sellers the value, under this contract, of the quantity shipped, respectively, of 
 the quantity indicated in the consignments or in the master’s receipts. 
 
 Claims based on inferior quality will not be recognized by the sellers in such 
 a case. However, if it should appear that there was no bad faith, the sellers 
 shall accept the weights as found by sworn weighers. 
 
 No delivery .—In case eight days before the maturity of the contract the 
 sellers have not indicated any steamer by which the copra would be shipped in 
 whole or in part, and, after a notice in writing by the buyers, no steamer has 
 been indicated within six hours, then this contract is definitely broken that 
 day, and the buyers have the right to seek a supply elsewhere. All damages 
 arising therefrom shall be charged against the sellers. 
 
 Thus agreed on by the parties at Batavia,_, 192_ 
 
 Broker. 
 
 EXPORTS OF COPRA AND COCONUT OIL. 
 
 Like many other products of the Netherlands East Indies, the 
 shipments of copra have been diverted to countries which had not 
 before the war been importing, but, unlike most of the other prod¬ 
 ucts, the underlying conditions of the trade have also undergone a 
 change. The milling of copra was in its infancy in 1913, the follow¬ 
 ing year being the first in which the exports of coconut oil were suf¬ 
 ficiently large to be given a separate place in the customs returns. 
 As the exports of copra decreased those of coconut oil increased, but 
 not in the same ratio. In considering the exports of these two prod¬ 
 ucts they should be taken together in order to get a correct idea of 
 the amounts made available to the world’s uses. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of copra and coconut oil 
 from the Netherlands East Indies: 
 
 Countries of destination. 
 
 Copra: 
 
 Netherlands.. 
 
 United States.. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany.. 
 
 France.. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Switzerland.. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 Other European 
 Port Said for orders. 
 
 British India. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Singapore.. 
 
 British Borneo. 
 Philippine Islands. 
 Japan. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Coconut oil, reduced to copra 
 at 0.9259 specific gravity 
 and at 54 per cent extraction. 
 
 1908 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 85,485 
 
 1,193 
 18,076 
 69,195 
 
 8,671 
 
 7,070 
 
 39,767 
 
 1913 
 
 Metric 
 tons. 
 74,024 
 
 494 
 28,811 
 59,952 
 
 8,115 
 
 10,764 
 47,007 
 
 1914 
 
 Metric 
 tons. 
 109,420 
 
 1,937 
 12,837 
 47,134 
 
 2,490 
 
 11,824 
 57,823 
 
 44 
 
 1915 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 113,765 
 
 164 
 
 417 
 
 9,563 
 
 4,568 
 
 8,142 
 38,033 
 
 1916 
 
 Metric 
 tons. 
 77,834 
 8,273 
 1,153 
 
 11,705 
 
 3,116 
 
 316 
 
 8,465 
 39,039 
 23 
 
 1917 
 
 Metric 
 tons. 
 16,824 
 29,346 
 3,037 
 3 
 
 3,414 
 
 151 
 
 4,498 
 33,368 
 60 
 103 
 15,726 
 
 1918 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 11,044 
 
 3,459 
 23,383 
 188 
 
 1919 
 
 Metric 
 tons. 
 149,254 
 7,842 
 7,442 
 25,409 
 10,956 
 7,799 
 202 
 3,133 
 23,230 
 
 8,475 
 
 126 
 
 7,952 
 
 50,796 
 
PRICES OP COPRA 
 
 FAIR MERCHANTABLE SUNDRIED 
 SOERABAYA MARKET 
 CALENDAR YEARS 1918, 1919, 1920,1921- 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 5591 su iv 9Nixng 
 agwn53a ssawigng 919 
 
 0NVW30 9KI0819 nil 91 d IV 
 9HJIAflg 03dd019 SNVWM39 
 
 110 inMVODOO 33S 
 
 l(vin039V NV3dOdH3 
 dOd 9KIIM1S 03iilViS 
 5d31dOdX3 -A1IAV3H 9KII 
 -xng a3xavi5.3aNnnswi.N3vi 
 ■3li«V33nO- - 5in9ld ooo'oos'i 
 
 JO QNVH Nl 9HOOXS HJJM 
 SwiXng agddoxs 9 NVWd 30 
 
 SIZ 1 Sid IV 
 SMIAng WV939 5NVHd39 
 
 ni saoiad 
 
 I FLORIN = $402 I PICUL = 136 LBS. 
 
 EXCHANGE FLUCTUATIONS FOLLOW NEW YORK, LONDON CROSS RATE CLOSELY. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 93 
 
 Exports of coconut oil from the Netherlands East Indies, by 
 countries of destination, are shown in the following table: 
 
 [In thousands of liters.] 
 
 Countries of destination and origin of ship¬ 
 ments. 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Netherlands: 
 
 Tava and Madoera..... 
 
 462 
 
 75 
 
 12 
 
 4,168 
 
 1,927 
 
 438 
 
 7 
 
 197 
 
 1 
 
 654 
 
 
 
 5,723 
 
 42,004 
 
 960 
 
 13,175 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 United States: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 3,793 
 
 146 
 
 800 
 
 22,654 
 1,977 
 
 127 
 
 16,130 
 
 379 
 
 170 
 
 Ontpr Possessions. 
 
 Great Britain: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 811 
 
 1,048 
 
 847 
 
 France: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Italy: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 126 
 
 4,661 
 
 
 
 Scandinavia: 
 
 Java and Madoera_. . 
 
 
 2,422 
 
 647 
 
 28 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 1,225 
 
 552 
 
 274 
 
 8 
 
 715 
 
 1,063 
 
 395 
 
 14,162 
 
 4,867 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 Singapore and Penang: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 14 
 
 630 
 
 
 Outer Possessions_ . . 
 
 1,414 
 
 475 
 
 36 
 
 4 
 
 Hongkong: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 73 
 
 3,805 
 
 60 
 
 
 Japan: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 11 
 
 
 1,068 
 
 843 
 
 99 
 
 
 Ont.er Possessions. 
 
 5 
 
 
 China: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 All other countries. 
 
 35 
 
 57 
 
 1,104 
 
 694 
 
 5,683 
 
 Total . 
 
 2,820 
 
 8,098 
 
 13,115 
 
 30,665 
 
 28,528 
 
 82,750 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 1,300 
 
 1,520 
 
 5,475 
 
 2,623 
 
 10,869 
 2,246 
 
 26,727 
 3,938 
 
 26, 896 
 1,632 
 
 76,890 
 
 5,860 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 Metric tons of oil exported (0.9259 specific 
 gravitv). 
 
 2,611 
 
 7,498 
 
 12,143 
 
 28,393 
 
 26,414 
 
 76,618 
 
 
 The following table gives an idea of the relative importance of 
 the various ports in the exportation of copra from the Netherlands 
 East Indies, and of the widespread value of the culture to the colony, 
 although the official figures covering the ports of export of copra 
 have not been carefully compiled and the totals do not compare ex¬ 
 actly with the totals of the preceding tables: 
 
 Ports. 
 
 1908 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Java and Madoera: 
 
 Batavia. 
 
 Cheribon. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 17,216 
 79 
 4,139 
 22,918 
 47, 579 
 958 
 277, 
 3,553 
 
 Metric 
 tons. 
 16,096 
 145 
 3,409 
 11,111 
 42,110 
 2,337 
 511 
 3,422 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 14,116 
 77 
 2,205 
 11, 226 
 37, 708 
 1, 328 
 242 
 3,926 
 
 Metric 
 tons. 
 7,976 
 33 
 437 
 15,758 
 23,347 
 453 
 363 
 3,190 
 
 Metric 
 tons. 
 6,164 
 17 
 355 
 8,809 
 18, 397 
 991 
 91 
 3,668 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 8,333 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 1,130 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 47,859 
 
 Semarang. 
 
 Soerabaya. 
 
 Tjilatjap. 
 
 Tegal. 
 
 959 
 5,759 
 7,784 
 505 
 40 
 1, 542 
 
 1,855 
 510 
 
 7,504 
 31,442 
 15,647 
 
 Pekalongan. 
 
 Banjoewangi. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 96,719 
 
 79,141 
 
 70,828 
 
 51,557 
 
 38,492 
 
 24,922 
 
 3,495 
 
 102, 452 
 
94 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 Ports. 
 
 1908 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Celebes: 
 
 Macassar. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 21,764 
 9,417 
 8,453 
 
 8, 803 ' 
 1, 072 
 3,440 
 
 Metric 
 
 ions. 
 
 29,560 
 8,107 
 8,178 
 7,362 
 1,787 
 
 1, 650 
 1,918 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 35,560 
 
 7.841 
 9,123 
 7,597 
 
 1.842 
 
 1, 721 
 
 1,656 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 28,830 
 3,620 
 6,574 
 5,950 
 
 1,107 
 
 Metric 
 tons. 
 22,205 
 6,078 
 6,081 
 5,894 
 1,668 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 29,239 
 4,116 
 
 1,350 
 3,567 
 1,248 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 13, 413 
 15,284 
 
 Metric 
 tons. 
 126,355 
 19,148 
 1,939 
 2,115 
 
 Menado. 
 
 Gnrontalo . 
 
 Taroena. 
 
 7,442 
 
 Amoerang . _ . 
 
 Oelne Si arm 
 
 
 
 T a aofil an d an g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dnnggala . _ 
 
 1,977 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 
 
 2,252 
 
 1, 368 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 54,926 
 
 58, 562 
 
 65,340 
 
 48, 333 
 
 43, 294 
 
 39, 521 
 
 36,139 
 
 149, 557 
 
 Borneo: 
 
 Pontianak. 
 
 13,172 
 
 20, 238 
 3,568 
 
 20, 437 
 4,298 
 5,161 
 1,915 
 
 10, 723 
 3,310 
 3,455 
 
 15, 278 
 4,056 
 4,864 
 
 10,158 
 4,425 
 4,128 
 
 2,399 
 
 2,861 
 
 2,181 
 
 314 
 
 5,525 
 
 3,891 
 
 2,998 
 
 Pamangkat. 
 
 Singkawang. 
 
 3,712 
 
 3,435 
 
 Bandjermasin. 
 
 4,539 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 20, 319 
 
 28, 345 
 
 31, 811 
 
 17,488 
 
 24,198 
 
 18, 711 
 
 7,755 
 
 12,414 
 
 Sumatra: 
 
 Padang. 
 
 11,251 
 
 13, 804 
 
 16,153 
 
 17,546 
 
 14,116 
 
 8,506 
 
 692 
 
 30,012 
 1,554 
 
 Goenoengsitoli. 
 
 Tandjoengtirem. 
 
 i, 743 
 1,682 
 705 
 
 1, 549 
 2,772 
 1, 588 
 
 2,358 
 
 3,080 
 
 2,035 
 
 1, 353 
 2,470 
 1,677 
 
 1, 665 
 1,648 
 1, 476 
 
 1,602 
 1,189 
 1,149 
 395 
 383 
 
 1,016 
 1,745 
 734 
 
 Tandjoengbalai. 
 
 1,453 
 
 2,762 
 
 2,908 
 
 Lho Seumawe. 
 
 Tandjoengpoera. 
 
 Laboean Balik. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 342 
 
 Senabang. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,154 
 
 Tapanoeli. 
 
 3,214 
 
 749 
 
 551 
 
 2,615 
 1,303 
 
 2,544 
 1,128 
 
 1,324 
 
 1,986 
 
 
 
 Poeloe Tello. 
 
 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 
 
 
 343 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19, 895 
 
 23, 631 
 
 27, 298 
 
 24,370 
 
 20, 891 
 
 13,224 
 
 4,872 
 
 39, 843 
 
 Riouw Archipelago: 
 
 Penoeba... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 364 
 
 920 
 
 3,511 
 
 1,667 
 
 7,306 
 
 1, 295 
 
 
 
 Serasan. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 836 
 
 4,266 
 
 2,794 
 
 4,715 
 
 903 
 
 
 Tandjoeng Blitoeng. 
 
 
 
 6,519 
 
 8,611 
 
 1,457 
 
 
 Prigi Radja.T. 
 
 
 
 3,840 
 12, 437 
 1,368 
 
 Terampali. 
 
 
 3,961 
 1, 480 
 
 7,582 
 1, SOS 
 
 3,819 
 1,177 
 
 3,061 
 
 1, 278 
 
 Tandj oengpandan. 
 
 1, 280 
 105 
 
 Tandjoengbalai. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,385 
 
 5,441 
 
 15,909 
 
 13,607 
 
 5,796 
 
 15, 063 
 
 13, 514 
 
 17,645 
 
 Bali and Lombok: 
 
 Benoa. 
 
 
 4,137 
 
 1,572 
 
 2,170 
 
 4,190 
 
 2,053 
 
 2,323 
 
 1, 348 
 1,132 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ampenan. 
 
 2,371 
 
 2,353 
 
 1,127 
 
 
 
 
 Leboean Hadji. 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,724 
 
 7,879 
 
 8,566 
 
 2,480 
 
 1,127 
 
 
 
 
 Other ports: 
 
 Ternate. 
 
 
 
 
 1,944 
 270 
 17, 569 
 10, 606 
 
 2,339 
 
 2,632 
 
 1,553 
 
 2,340 
 
 
 
 
 Amboina. 
 
 
 
 
 Merauke. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 6,428 
 
 5,480 
 
 2,473 
 
 1, 607 
 
 
 386 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 30, 389 
 
 8,767 
 
 8,112 
 
 4,026 
 
 3,947 
 
 
 386 
 
 
 
 
 
 Local consumption of copra and coconut oil is a very important 
 factor and one about which very little definite information can be 
 secured. Streefland estimates that the annual consumption of vege¬ 
 table oils throughout the colony averages 2f kilos per capita, against 
 10 kilos for the population of continental Europe and 2 kilos for 
 the population of England before the war. The latest figures of 
 >opulation places the number of natives at 46,000,000. 
 
 OIL MILLS. 
 
 [ilse eds (principally the meat of the coconut) by 
 |ands East Indies dates back to 1907, when 
 £ Padang, in Sumatra; one at Kediri, 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 95 
 
 in Java; and one at Pontianak, in Borneo. Two of those mills were 
 permanently closed shortly after starting, while the one at Pontianak 
 is still in existence. Three years later the first hydraulic presses 
 were brought to the colony from Europe, and their arrival marked 
 the real beginning of an industry which, on February 25, 1920, had 
 16 important mills, with approximately 55 presses or expellers in 
 the less important mills. 
 
 The Oliefabriehen Insulinde has mills at Blitar and Kediri, in the 
 Residency of Kediri; at Banjoewangi, in the Residency of Besoeki; 
 at Keboemen, in the Residency of Kedoe; at Sentolo, in the Residency 
 of Djokjakarta; at Rangkasbitoeng, in the Residency of Bantam; 
 at Macassar, on the island of Celebes; and at Padang, in the Sumatra 
 West Coast Residency. It is claimed that these mills have a total 
 capacity of 700 tons of copra per day. The company has tank in¬ 
 stallations at Tandjoengpriok (Batavia’s harbor); at Tjilatjap, in 
 southern Java; at Banjoewangi; and at Emmahaven (Padang’s 
 port). 
 
 The Nederlandsch Indische Oliefabriehen (popularly known as 
 the Jurgens mills) has one large mill at Macassar and another at 
 Padang, and is reported to have gained control of the three mills of 
 the United Java Oil Mills (Ltd.), located at Den Pasar, on the island 
 of Bali; at Banjoewangi; and at Soerabaya. 
 
 The Oliefabriehen van Dongen has one small mill at Blitar, and 
 a large mill, which has not yet been put into operation (location 
 unknown). 
 
 The Oliefabrieh Sedijo Madjoe has one mill at the town of the 
 same name, in western Java. Other mills are the u Wilhelmma ” 
 at Pontianak; Tang Seng Hie’s mill at Pontianak; Oliefabrieken 
 Bandjaran at Bandjaran, in Java; Ho Djiang’s mill at Kediri, Java; 
 Oliefabrieken Djepoean at Toeloengagoeng, Java; Tan Kiong Liang’s 
 mill at Kertosono, Java; Rowenhorst, Mulder & Co.’s mill at Kroja, 
 Java; and a mill (ownership unknown) at Soerabaya. 
 
 In April, 1921, there were two oil mills in Singapore, two in 
 Penang, one in Kuala Selangor (Federated Malay States), and an 
 experimental mill at Kent Station, Selangor (Federated Malay 
 States). The Singapore mills are owned and operated by a Chinese 
 company and have a daily capacity of approximately 40 tons of oil. 
 The Penang mills are owned by two Chinese companies and have a 
 capacity of about 18 tons per day. The mill at Kuala Lumpur is 
 owned by an English corporation. Its capacity is very small. 
 
 The development of the vegetable-oil milling industry in the 
 Netherlands East Indies was stimulated by the conditions created 
 by the World War. The shortage of tonnage, high freight rates, 
 and high prices of vegetable oils worked against the shipment of 
 copra, and the long duration of these favorable conditions encour¬ 
 aged investors to put large sums of money into the industry until 
 the milling capacity of the colony was close to its total producing 
 capacity. When the heavy demand on shipping space ceased and 
 rates permitted the shipping of copra, the European mills entered 
 the market in competition with the mills of the colony, and until the 
 present time (January, 1922) have been able to pay prices that local 
 mills could not meet, with the result that most of these local mills 
 have ceased to operate. 
 
96 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The shares of one of the principal oil-milling concerns, in which 
 over 30,000,000 florins (approximately $12,000,000) had been in¬ 
 vested, sold in 1920 at 252, and dropped to 85 before the end of that 
 year. On October 29, 1921, they were quoted at 9, but revived to 
 121 on November 22. 
 
 Several factors seem to favor the milling of the copra near the 
 point of consumption. Copra contains approximately 65 per cent 
 of oil as it reaches the world’s market cities, and extraction averages 
 about 55 per cent, leaving 10 per cent in the cake besides the fiber, 
 nitrogen, proteids, and other contents. The residue finds a good 
 market as oil cake for cattle feed in European countries, but there 
 is no adequate market in oriental countries. Therefore, the whole 
 product must be shipped to the world’s markets either as oil and 
 oil cake or as copra. The shipment of oil as such involves the use of 
 containers, for which freight must be paid for the outward as well 
 as the homeward voyage, and thus far no wood has been found in 
 the Tropics suitable for making barrels that will hold vegetable oil. 
 
 MARKET FOR COPRA CAKE. 
 
 There is no adequate market for copra cake in the colony, and very 
 little movement is reported in the Soerabaya market. Some sales 
 have been made to the agricultural industries for fertilizer, and the 
 United States has entered the market from time to time, but only 
 for short periods. The following table shows the quotations on the 
 Soerabaya market since 1919 in florins per picul (1 florin=$0.402; 
 1 picul=136 pounds) : 
 
 Date. 
 
 Florins 
 per picul. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Florins 
 per picul. 
 
 Date. 
 
 Florins 
 per picul. 
 
 1919. 
 
 November 4. 
 
 5.30 
 
 1920. 
 
 August 5. 
 
 4.00 
 
 1921. 
 
 June 14. 
 
 3. 25 
 
 'NTnvamhpr 1C* 
 
 5.50 
 
 August 12. 
 
 2.50 
 
 June 28. 
 
 3.25 
 
 3.25 
 
 Nnvfimbw 19. 
 
 5.00 
 
 August 24. 
 
 4.00 
 
 July 12. 
 
 November 26. 
 
 4.50 
 
 November 16. 
 
 5.00 
 
 July 26. 
 
 4. 50 
 
 December 3. 
 
 Dppp.mhpr 10 
 
 4 50 
 4. 50 
 
 1921. 
 
 August 2. 
 
 August 9. 
 
 3.50 
 4.00 
 
 Dftcpmbpr 17.. 
 
 4. 50 
 
 January 25. 
 
 1.50 
 
 August 16. 
 
 4. 50 
 
 Dpppmhpr 94 . 
 
 4.50 
 
 February 15. 
 
 2. 25 
 
 August 23. 
 
 4.50 
 
 
 February 24. 
 
 April 26. 
 
 3. 75 
 3.00 
 
 September 13. 
 
 October 11. 
 
 5.50 
 4. 50 
 
 OIL-CONTAINING SEEDS. 
 
 SESAME SEED. 
 
 The exports of sesame seed for the whole colony during the period 
 1916 to 1919 and for Java and Madoera only for 1920 and the first 
 nine months of 1921, by countries, are shown in the following table: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 1921 
 
 (9 months). 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,660 
 300 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 ATI 
 1,452 
 
 Metric tons. 
 178 
 1,032 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 721 
 
 15 
 
 560 
 
 14 
 
 590 
 
 All other. 
 
 347 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,307 
 
 736 
 
 574 
 
 1,929 
 
 1,210 
 
 590 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 97 
 
 In his book on the oil industry, Mr. B. Streefland estimates the 
 production of Java at 2,500 tons. This estimate must be taken with 
 reservations. He gives a partial analysis as follows: Water, 7 per 
 cent; fat, 53 per cent; ash, 6.9 per cent; nitrogen, 3.6 per cent. 
 Several varieties are grown, the inferior qualities having thick 
 skins and a low percentage of oil. The white and red-brown ( Sesa- 
 mum indicum L.) are the best varieties and are exported chiefly to 
 Singapore. 
 
 SOYA BEANS. 
 
 Mr. B. Streefland, in his book on the oil industry, estimates the 
 production of Java at 68,730 tons of soya beans, there being no pro¬ 
 duction in the Outer Possessions. This estimate must be taken with 
 reservations. In the same publication a partial analysis is given, 
 based oil soya beans containing 12 per cent shell and 88 per cent 
 kernel. Analysis of the shell: Water, 7.8 per cent; fat, 3.4 per cent; 
 ash, 2.3 per cent; nitrogen, 1.4 per cent. Analysis of the kernel: 
 Water, 10 per cent; fat, 19.2 per cent; ash, 2.2 per cent; nitrogen, 
 6.1 per cent. 
 
 Soya beans have been imported extensively by or for the oil-milling 
 companies. Imports into Java and Madoera for the first nine months 
 of 1921 more than doubled those for 1920, imports for the latter 
 year amounting to 32,128 tons, as compared with 67,273 for the nine 
 months of 1921. 
 
 KAPOK SEEDS. 
 
 The following extracts from the Exporters’ Directory is an official 
 statement of the Netherlands Indies Government regarding kapok 
 seeds and their use: 
 
 Undecorticated kapok seeds contain 23 per cent of a nondrying, yellow oil, 
 free from any rancid taste or smell, and which bears great similarity to refined 
 cotton oil. 
 
 A part of the kapok-seed crop is used in Java. If hydraulic presses are used, 
 18 per cent of oil can be produced, and by extraction 22 per cent. 
 
 The residue is used in Java as a manure, which contains between 4 and 4^ 
 per cent of nitrogen. In Europe it is used as a cattle food, and 7 per cent of 
 fat is in that case left in the cakes, so that the total contents of proteins 
 amount to 28 per cent. 
 
 Exports of kapok seeds from Java and Madoera for the years 
 1916 to 1920, by countries, are shown in the following table: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 6,198 
 31 
 2,334 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,282 
 32 
 
 Metric tons. 
 4,075 
 
 Metric tons. 
 626 
 62 
 11,284 
 21 
 524 
 456 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 4,536 
 360 
 
 Norway. 
 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 
 
 Japan.. 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 29 
 
 All other. 
 
 395 
 
 3 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 8,958 
 
 1,317 
 
 9,047 
 
 12,973 
 
 
 In 1918 all of the seeds were milled in the colony or held for 
 export in 1919, as shipping operations were interrupted by the war. 
 
 Mr. Streefland estimates the production at 21,800 tons, or 146 
 pounds of seed to 100 pounds of kapok produced. These production 
 
98 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 figures may be questioned, but the percentage of seeds to kapok is a 
 fair estimate for rough calculation. 
 
 CASTOR BEANS. 
 
 There is but a limited production of castor beans, due princi¬ 
 pally to uncertain rainfall. A great many varieties are cultivated, 
 but only a few of these are suitable for export. In the following 
 table are shown the exports by countries: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Netherlands .... 
 
 Metric tons. 
 898 
 
 Metric tons. 
 101 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 519 
 
 Metric tons. 
 134 
 
 Franep. . 
 
 40 
 
 
 "British Tndia. 
 
 
 
 225 
 
 
 Anstralia. . 
 
 774 
 
 347 
 
 194 
 
 287 
 
 863 
 
 All other. . .. 
 
 1 
 
 334 
 
 366 
 
 186 
 
 51 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,713 
 
 782 
 
 660 
 
 1,217 
 
 1,048 
 
 
 
 These figures show Australia to be a consistent purchaser, taking 
 almost the entire export in 1920, successfully competing with the 
 European markets during that year. 
 
 In his book on the oil industry, written in 1917, Mr. B. Streefland 
 gives the production of castor beans as 5,500 metric tons, but this 
 figure should be taken with reservations. That publication contains 
 a partial analysis based on castor beans containing 20 per cent shell 
 and 80 per cent kernel. Analysis of the shell: Water, 9.5 per cent; 
 fat, 3.3 per cent; ash, 5.3 per cent; nitrogen, 0.9 per cent. Analysis of 
 the kernel: Water, 4.2 per cent; fat, 59.1 per cent; nitrogen, 4 per 
 cent. 
 
 PEANUTS. 
 
 Small quantities of peanuts are grown for export in Sumatra and 
 Bali and Lombok, but by far the greater quantity is grown in Java. 
 The culture is entirely a native one. The crops are grown on dry 
 fields and on sugar lands immediately after the sugar crop is off and 
 before the rice crops are put in. When the oil mills are operating, 
 considerable quantities are pressed in Java. According to an official 
 Dutch statement, it takes approximately 100 pounds of unshelled 
 nuts to yield from 75 to 79 pounds of shelled nuts. 
 
 The exports of shelled peanuts in 1913 and from 1917 to 1920, by 
 countries, were as follows: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920» 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 16 
 1,024 
 294 
 25 
 1,187 
 3,485 
 
 Metrietons. 
 
 352 
 
 301 
 
 436 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,919 
 967 
 1,298 
 
 Metrietons. 
 
 1,293 
 
 2,140 
 
 1,211 
 
 United States. 
 
 46 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 France. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 4,929 
 25 
 
 4,584 
 100 
 
 4,505 
 
 3,806 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 
 
 164 
 
 62 
 
 All other. 
 
 317 
 
 209 
 
 309 
 
 128 
 
 Total. 
 
 6,348 
 
 6,252 
 
 5,039 
 
 8,827 
 
 8,676 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 6,277 
 
 71 
 
 6,223 
 
 29 
 
 5,012 
 
 27 
 
 8,811 
 
 16 
 
 8,676 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 i Java and Madoera only. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 99 
 
 Exports of unshelled peanuts in 1913 and from 1917 to 1920, by 
 countries,'were as follows: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 i 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 93 
 
 Metric tons. 
 149 
 25 
 25 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 2,459 
 75 
 609 
 
 Metric tons. 
 6,144 
 50 
 360 
 
 United States. 
 
 
 Great, Britain. 
 
 143 
 1,202 
 6,393 
 1,310 
 61 
 42 
 4,541 
 
 
 Germany and Austria -.-__ 
 
 
 France. 
 
 
 
 
 203 
 
 186 
 
 Italy. 
 
 
 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 
 
 
 Othp.r "R n rope. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Singapore, Penang, and Hongkong. 
 
 3,891 
 
 471 
 
 21 
 
 2,636 
 
 234 
 
 5,102 
 131 
 37 
 
 2,612 
 
 144 
 
 Australia. 
 
 New Zealand. 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 165 
 
 6 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 8 
 
 26 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 Total. 
 
 13,793 
 
 4,608 
 
 3,041 
 
 8,436 
 
 9,726 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 11,244 
 
 2,549 
 
 3,656 
 
 952 
 
 2,170 
 871 
 
 6,091 
 2,345 
 
 9,726 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 i Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The shortage of tonnage during the latter years of the war was 
 responsible for the falling off in 1917 and 1918. The unusual ex¬ 
 port of decorticated nuts in 1919 was due in part to the need of econ¬ 
 omizing freight space. Normally considerable quantities of the 
 decorticated nuts find a market in the United States and but minor 
 quantities of the unshelled nuts. Continental Europe took a large 
 share of both grades in pre-war years, but in the war years Singapore 
 was the principal port of first destination for both grades. 
 
 The total area m peanuts in Java and Madoera is given by Mr. 
 B. Streefland, in his treatise on the oil industry, as 270,082 bouws 
 (472,643 acres) and the production as approximately 3,078,227 piculs 
 (189,945 metric tons). As he gives no year for this acreage and for 
 other reasons, these figures should be taken with reservations. There 
 is, nevertheless, a considerable consumption of this product, and 
 large quantities have been pressed by the oil mills during the years 
 succeeding the outbreak of the war. 
 
 RUBBER. 
 
 In British Malaya rubber is grown on the western slope of the 
 mountains, which divide the peninsula in two unequal portions, the 
 most extensive cultivation being in the States of Perak, Selangor, 
 and Negri Sembilan and the Crown colonies of Penang, Province 
 Wellesley, Malacca, and Singapore. The areas under rubber in 
 Johore and Kedah are growing in extent. There are some planta¬ 
 tions in Pahang, Trengganoe, and Kelantan, but they are few as 
 compared with the western part of the peninsula. 
 
 In British North Borneo are some well-developed plantations, 
 there being two in Sarawak, near Kuching, the capital of that State. 
 
 In the British possessions, especially on the peninsula, there is a 
 large native production of rubber, which generally comes to market 
 in the form of “ blankets,” or smooth-rolled sheets and only sun dried. 
 This is remilled and enters the world’s markets as “ blanket crepe.” 
 
 19878°—23-8 
 
100 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 CULTIVATION OF RUBBER. 
 
 Hevea rubber was planted in the botanical gardens at Buitenzorg 
 as early as 1875 from seeds brought from Brazil", and at several pe¬ 
 riods later seeds were brought from Kew Gardens and planted in an 
 experimental way, but the first serious efforts of Dutch planters were 
 with the varieties known as Ficus elastica , Ceara (Manihot glaziovii ), 
 and Castilloa. About 1905 it was realized that the variety known 
 as Hevea was better suited to the soil and climate, and by 1910 con¬ 
 siderable areas of this rubber were under cultivation. 
 
 At that time but little was known about the tree and no serious 
 attempt was made at seed or nursery selection, but since 1913, under 
 the direction of Dr. J. P. S. Cramer, Chief of the Division of Seed 
 Selection of the Department of Agriculture, serious efforts have 
 been made to evolve a practical knowledge of the tree, with consid¬ 
 erable success. Several planters’ societies have been formed and sci¬ 
 entific staffs and proof stations have been developed for the study of 
 the Hevea tree. To-day there are stations at Djember, in Besoeki 
 Residency; at Malang, the center of a large rubber-producing dis¬ 
 trict; at Buitenzorg and Batavia, in west Java; knd one at Medan, 
 in the East Coast district of Sumatra. Most of these stations are 
 working independently of each other, but there is an interchange of 
 the knowledge gained. They are supported by a voluntary tax on 
 the acreage planted and by a subsidy from the Government. 
 
 The seed division of the Government has extended its work to the 
 plantations, and many of the planters, through the impetus given by 
 their societies, have taken an active interest in the development of 
 plants with known high production and resistance to the various dis¬ 
 eases. Experiments in grafting and marcotting are being carried 
 on, and it is hoped that these will produce larger yields of latex and 
 afford greater security against the many diseases, but this work is at 
 present in the experimental stage. 
 
 In the earlier years there was an apparent effort to plant as many 
 trees as possible in a given area. This resulted in depriving the trees 
 of air and the development of diseases, due to dampness. A reaction 
 from this caused a very wide planting, as much in some cases as 
 20 by 32 feet, but this very wide planting did not gain many advo¬ 
 cates, and to-day the most popular width in Java is 12 by 24 feet. 
 This system allows for the elimination of poor or sickly trees during 
 the time of the development of the plantation and is recommended by 
 the proof stations until such time as plants are developed of a known 
 quality. 
 
 Tapping begins as soon as a sufficient number of the trees reach 6 
 inches in diameter, measured 3 feet from the ground. This generally 
 is during the sixth year. By this time many of the trees have been 
 cut out, and from then on a thinning-out process must be continued 
 to give the better producing trees sufficient light and air. 
 
 Many theories regarding the source of life of the Hevea rubber tree 
 have been entertained, some planters claiming that the tree gets its 
 greatest sustenance through the leaves. Scientific experiments, how¬ 
 ever, have demonstrated that its root system is quite as important 
 to the Hevea as to other trees. Seedlings always have one tap root, 
 the length of which depends on the depth to which it has to go for 
 water. The other roots lie near the surface of the ground, and care 
 must be taken so as not to injure these surface roots in cultivating. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 101 
 
 There is little cultivation of the soil, and such as is done is with a 
 “patchoel” (a heavy native hoe). In the hilly sections the most 
 serious problem is to prevent erosion of the soil, and as plowing or 
 u patchoeling ” tends to increase the erosion it is not done on these 
 hill estates. Lateral drains or pits are dug to retard the flow of water 
 during the heavy rains, in some cases legumes and other vegetation 
 being planted to hold the soil in place. On steep inclines terracing 
 is resorted to. 
 
 In Java it is the custom to interplant coffee between the rows of 
 rubber trees soon after they are set out. The coffee trees quickly 
 provide sufficient shade to make weeding unnecessary. The returns 
 from the coffee trees begin about 30 months after planting, and in 
 this way the capital charge of the plantation is kept at a minimum. 
 The ground is only partly cleared, leaving the large logs and stumps 
 to rot before being removed. 
 
 In the Government of Sumatra East Coast, where large areas are 
 under rubber, it is the custom to clean the ground more thoroughly, 
 and, on account of scarcity of labor, interplanting is seldom done. 
 In the Residencies of Sumatra West Coast, Palembang, and the Lam- 
 pong districts, where labor is more plentiful, coffee is interplanted as 
 in Java. 
 
 In Java and the Sumatra East Coast there is no native cultivation, 
 and in the Sumatra West Coast Residency there is but little. In the 
 Residencies of Djambi and Riouw, in Sumatra, and in the Residency 
 of West Borneo, however, there is considerable native production, 
 which goes to the factories at Singapore for remilling into qualities 
 suitable for the world markets. 
 
 In British Malaya the land is seldom cleared clean, and it is not the 
 custom to plant a “ catch crop ” (a crop that will yield returns during 
 part of the time required for the rubber trees to mature). There are 
 considerable areas under rubber in the low-lying districts, where 
 drainage is one of the chief problems, while in the hill districts one 
 of the most serious problems is the prevention of soil erosion. Turn¬ 
 ing the soil has only been done in an experimental way on a few 
 estates, and it has not been announced that any beneficial effects have 
 been found. 
 
 PLANTERS’ SOCIETIES. 
 
 The following societies in the Netherlands East Indies have been 
 formed for the purposes indicated: 
 
 Nederlandsch Indische Vereeniging voor den Rubberhandel, Batavia, Java.— 
 Directors of Het Rubber Veem; packers and forwarders of rubber for members. 
 
 Gentraal Rubber station, Buitenzorg, Java.—Scientific research and analysis 
 of product of estates. 
 
 Proefstation, Malang, Java.—Scientific research, especially with respect to 
 cultivation and to prevention and cure of diseases. 
 
 Rubber Plantersvereeniging, Bandoeng, Java.—Am association of rubber 
 planters for protection of mutual interests. 
 
 Rubber proef station West Java, Batavia, Java.—Scientific research. 
 
 Algemeene Vereeniging van Rubberplanters ter Oostkust van Sumatra (A. 
 V. R. 0 . &.), Medan, Sumatra.—An association of planters in the Sumatra East 
 Coast for protection of mutual interests and to carry on research work through 
 its subsidiary, called Algemeen Proefstation der A. V. R. O. S. 
 
 The Rubber Growers’ Association of London, England, is an as¬ 
 sociation of owners of v estates located principally in British Malaya. 
 Its Far Eastern office is in Kuala Lumpur. 
 
102 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The Planters’ Association of Malaya is a British Malayan organi¬ 
 zation with offices in Kuala Lumpur. Its constituent associations 
 are: 
 
 Bahau-Kuala Pilah District Planters’ Association. 
 
 Batang Padang District Planters’ Association. 
 
 Batu Tiga District Planters’ Association. 
 
 Central Pahang Planters’ Association.* 
 
 Central Perak Planters’ Association. 
 
 Johore Planters’ Association. 
 
 Kajang District Planters’ Association. 
 
 Kapar District Planters’ Association. 
 
 Kedah Planters’ Association. 
 
 Kelantan Planters’ Association. 
 
 Klang District Planters’ Association. 
 
 Kuala Langat District Planters’ Association. 
 
 Kuala Lumpur District Planters’ Association. 
 
 Kuala Selangor District Planters’ Association. 
 
 Lower Perak Planters’ Association. 
 
 Malay Peninsula Agricultural Association. 
 
 Negri Sembilan Planters’ Association. 
 
 Taiping Planters’ Association. 
 
 Ulu Selangor District Planters’ Association. 
 
 The Malacca Planters’ Association is not affiliated with any of 
 the preceding associations. Its offices are at Malacca, in the Straits 
 Settlements. 
 
 The Incorporated Society of Planters, founded “to secure and 
 promote the personal and professional interests of all planters in 
 Malay,” is not affiliated with the above organizations. 
 
 The Klang Chinese Rubber Dealers and Growers’ Associations, 
 of Klang, Selangor, Federated Malay States, is not affiliated with 
 the preceding organizations. 
 
 There is little or no research work carried on by the Malay Penin¬ 
 sula planters’ societies, their object being to protect their economic 
 interests rather than to develop the scientific phases of the industry. 
 
 AREAS PLANTED IN RUBBER. 
 
 The following table shows the total acreage in the Dutch East 
 Indies planted in rubber, the total areas in bearing, and a subdivision 
 of these areas in the various kinds of trees. The prices of Ficus 
 elastica ruling during the past three year have not been high enough 
 to pay for tapping, and it is doubtful if this quality will ever again 
 be brought on the market. The acreage in Ceara and Castilloa are 
 rapidly being replanted in Hevea. The areas in Hevea are the only 
 ones to be considered. These figures are official, but are of doubt¬ 
 ful value for close figuring, as the Department of Agriculture, under 
 whose direction they were compiled, acknowledges that they are 
 incorrect. They were published as of May, 1920. More reliable 
 ^figures for the whole area are not available. 
 
Agricultural products. 
 
 103 
 
 Acres planted in— 
 
 Territories. 
 
 Total 
 
 acres 
 
 planted. 
 
 Acres 
 
 pro¬ 
 
 ducing 
 
 rubber. 
 
 Hevea. 
 
 Ficus 
 
 elastics. 
 
 Ceara 
 
 (Mani- 
 
 hot). 
 
 Castillos. 
 
 JAVA AND MADOERA. 
 
 On estates exclusively in rubber.. 
 
 Mixed with one other culture but not in- 
 
 terplanted.. 
 
 Mixed with two other cultures but not in- 
 
 terplanted.. 
 
 Mixed with three other cultures but not 
 
 interplanted.. 
 
 On estates cultivating part of area in rub¬ 
 ber exclusively and part interplanted: 
 
 Rubber exclusively.. 
 
 Rubber interplanted.. 
 
 Total.. 
 
 OUTER POSSESSIONS. 
 
 On estates exclusively in rubber.. 
 
 Mixed with one other culture but not in¬ 
 terplanted.. 
 
 Mixed with two other cultures but not in¬ 
 terplanted.. 
 
 Mixed with three other cultures but not 
 
 interplanted. 
 
 Rubber on estates cultivating part of areas 
 exclusively in rubber and part inter¬ 
 planted: 
 
 Rubber exclusively. 
 
 Rubber interplanted. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 94,362 
 36,087 
 2,140 
 4,554 
 
 60,121 
 20,418 
 581 
 3,162 
 
 92,427 
 33,384 
 1,710 
 4,490 
 
 1,428 
 
 2,414 
 
 360 
 
 62 
 
 505 
 
 292 
 
 69 
 
 80,615 
 154,976 
 
 372,734 
 
 337,048 
 
 39,687 
 
 8,164 
 
 872 
 
 45.942 
 
 37.943 
 
 469,656 
 
 842,390 
 
 55,776 
 76,575 
 
 216,633 
 
 211,640 
 24,822 
 3,852 
 687 
 
 28,385 
 11, 332 
 
 280,718 
 
 497,351 
 
 75,572 
 153,303 
 
 360, 886 
 
 335,716 
 39,514 
 8,154 
 872 
 
 44,044 
 
 37,903 
 
 466,203 
 
 827,089 
 
 4,260 
 329 
 
 8,853 
 
 1,263 
 
 173 
 
 10 
 
 1,898 
 
 3,344 
 12,197 
 
 781 
 
 556 
 
 2,135 
 
 69 
 
 27 
 
 96 
 
 2,231 
 
 788 
 
 857 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 872 
 
 The areas planted in rubber in the Government of Sumatra East 
 Coast, which are shown in the following table, are included in the 
 preceding table; but as they were published by the Medan Merchants’ 
 Association (Handelsvereeniging), which has full access to the cor¬ 
 rect details, they are given as supplementary but reliable figures: 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 Acres 
 
 planted. 
 
 Per 
 
 cent. 
 
 Dutch. 
 
 114,212 
 
 30 
 
 British. 
 
 105,838 
 
 28 
 
 Netherlands East Indian. 
 
 26,390 
 
 7 
 
 American. 
 
 63, 390 
 
 17 
 
 Belgian and French. 
 
 42, 710 
 
 12 
 
 Japanese. 
 
 8, 525 
 
 2 
 
 Nationality. 
 
 Acres 
 
 planted. 
 
 Per 
 
 cent. 
 
 German. 
 
 4,315 
 
 1 
 
 Swiss. 
 
 3,555 
 
 1 
 
 Shanghai companies. 
 
 5,188 
 
 2 
 
 Total. 
 
 374,123 
 
 100 
 
 There are differences in the opinions of the various authorities 
 on rubber as to the acreage planted in British Malaya. The Govern¬ 
 ment’s figures are seriously challenged. The following table is taken 
 from The Planter, the official journal of the Incorporated Society of 
 Planters, and is given as of December 31, 1919. These figures are 
 submitted not as an authoritative statement but as a carefully pre- 
 
 g ared estimate. They do not include the plantations of British North 
 orneo, but those estates of British Malaya comprising over 100 acres. 
 
104 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 Federated 
 
 Malay 
 
 States. 
 
 Straits 
 
 Settle¬ 
 
 ments. 
 
 Johore. 
 
 Kelantan, 
 Kedan, and 
 Trengganoe. 
 
 m- 
 
 Total. 
 
 Acreage in possession. 
 
 Acreage planted. 
 
 Acreage producing. 
 
 1,167,043 
 736,742 
 490,372 
 
 273,353 
 178,524 
 114,516 
 
 364,270 
 174,820 
 96,324 
 
 286,869 
 146,720 
 50,774 
 
 2,091,535 
 1,236,806 
 751,986 
 
 For estates of less than 100 acres, The Planter gives the total 
 acreage as 390,000, consisting of 220,000 acres bearing and 170,000 
 acres not bearing. 
 
 THE WORLD’S RUBBER ACREAGE. 
 
 According to the “ World’s Rubber Position,” which is considered 
 to be the standard authority on world conditions in the rubber mar¬ 
 ket, there were 116,500 acres under plantation rubber in 1905, 
 2,181,050 acres in 1914, and 3,069,750 acres in 1921. These areas 
 are roughly divided into the holdings of the “ sterling companies,” 
 the “ dollar companies,” and the Chinese and natives in a proportion 
 of one-third, or 1,000,000 acres each. The Chinese holdings are prin¬ 
 cipally on the Malay Peninsula, with small areas in British Borneo, 
 while the native holdings are on the Malay Peninsula and in the 
 Dutch Residencies of Palembang, Djambi, and Riouw. 
 
 For the year ended December 31, 1921, approximately 92 per cent 
 of the total rubber produced in the world came from the plantations 
 of the Orient, while 7 per cent came from Brazil and 1 per cent from 
 all other sources. Of this the United States bought 59 per cent, the 
 United Kingdom 14 per cent, Germany 7 per cent, Franee 5 per cent, 
 and the rest was scattered. 
 
 CHEMICALS USED IN THE PREVENTION AND CURE OF DISEASES. 
 
 The diseases known to attack Hevea trees in Java are generally of 
 no importance. There is only one disease which has recently caused 
 alarm. This is known as “brown bark” or “bruine binnenbast.” 
 When trees are attacked the bark near the tapping cut shows brown¬ 
 ish specks and ceases to yield. A certain number of the diseased 
 trees later on develop wood burs in the bark, by which the tapping 
 surface is deformed in such a way that tapping becomes impossible. 
 
 This disease has lost much of its alarming aspect since it is proved 
 that it is a physiological disease caused by too severe tapping. It 
 can be prevented by tapping on alternate days or by reducing the 
 number of tapping cuts and the length of the cuts. Resting the 
 trees for about six weeks during the “wintering season,” when they 
 drop their leaves, has also been found to be a successful means of 
 preventing this disease. Diseased trees are cured by scraping away 
 the diseased bark to prevent the formation of burs and by covering 
 the scraped portion with hot tar. 
 
 Another disease which causes some trouble, especially during a 
 period of wet weather, is a fungus, a species of phytophthora, known 
 as “ stripe canker.” This fungus attacks the newly tapped surface, 
 appearing in black lines or patches, and kills the bark if not treated, 
 or at least prevents an even bark renewal. It can be prevented 
 absolutely by applying to the newly tapped surface a solution of 5 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 105 
 
 per cent creolin, carbolineum, or some other disinfectant every day 
 during wet weather. Diseased trees are treated with a 20 per cent 
 solution of the same disinfectants. 
 
 If an attack of “ stripe canker ” is neglected, the phytophthora 
 may spread in the bark not yet tapped, killing it and causing what 
 is known as “ patch canker.” This form of the disease is cured by 
 cutting away all diseased bark and applying tar to the wound. 
 
 The different root diseases, the “white” fungus ( Fomes lignosus) 
 and the “brown” fungus ( Fomes lamcensis ), occur only on young 
 fields where, when clearing the land, the stumps of the forest trees 
 have been left or where the soil is not properly drained. “ Wet rot” 
 (Fomes pseudoferreus) and “dry rot” ( Ustulina zonata) are only 
 seldom met with. All root diseases are dealt with in the same way. 
 The diseased trees are isolated from the healthy ones by a trench 
 2 to 3 feet deep. If the attack has not advanced too far the diseased 
 roots are bared, scraped, and treated with tar. 
 
 A leaf disease caused by mildew (Oidium sp.) was discovered two 
 years ago. It causes the newly developed young leaves to fall. In 
 some years this disease may become troublesome, while in others 
 there is hardly any trace of it. 
 
 Corticium salmonicolor (“pink disease” or “djamoer cepas”) is a 
 fungus which attacks the tree where the branches divide, but it is 
 easy of control by the application of tar to the diseased surface. 
 
 Thyridaiia tarda (“die back” or “ instervingszickte ”) is a disease 
 which attacks young trees and is sometimes fatal. It causes a “ die 
 back ” at the top of the branches and is easily controlled by cutting 
 away the diseased portions. 
 
 Gloeosporium alborubrum kills young shoots and causes a leaf fall 
 during very wet weather. 
 
 Phyllosticta ramicola kills the young shoots. 
 
 Pestalozzia plamarum (Helminthosporium heveoe) causes small 
 dead spots to form on the leaves. 
 
 Chemicals used in combating diseases in rubber trees are: Carbo¬ 
 lineum (soluble) or carbolineum plantarium; carbolineum heveaum 
 (an English product); Creoline (trade name for a chemical imported 
 usually from Australia); Jeyes’ Fluid (the trade name of a British- 
 made disinfectant widely used throughout the Orient); Izal (also 
 the trade name of an English product) ; Brunoleum (trade name of 
 an English product) ; Solignum (trade name) ; and tar (ordinary 
 coal tar), which is bought from the gas works in various cities. 
 
 The curative qualities in these products are the phenols and cre- 
 sols contained therein. When these chemicals are for preventive 
 purposes a 5 per cent solution is used and when for curing diseases 
 from 10 to 30 per cent is used, a fair average being stated as 20 
 per cent. Of late years prevention and cure are receiving more at¬ 
 tention than formerly, and considerable quantities of these chemicals 
 are used annually. Formerly it was the practice to cut out diseased 
 trees, but to-day thinning out is most carefully done and planters 
 go to great lengths to save good producing trees. 
 
106 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF A RUBBER, COFFEE, AND SISAL ESTATE IN 
 
 EAST JAVA. 
 
 In the Sumatra East Coast the estates depend for most of their 
 labor on the transfer of coolies from the thickly settled portions 
 other by the planter of the East Coast Residency of Sumatra—the 
 planter handling free labor and the planter handling contract 
 labor. There are almost as many variations of these two systems 
 as there are estates, but they are all influenced by the basic differ¬ 
 ences of the terms of employment of the labor. 
 
 In the Sumatra East Coast the estates depend for most of their 
 labor on the transfer of coolies from the thickly settled portions 
 of Java under a three-year contract, and by the terms of this con¬ 
 tract the laborers are subject to laws which compel them to work 
 and prevent them from leaving the estate until the expiration of 
 the contract. No attempt is made by the planters to learn the 
 various languages spoken by the contract coolies, all orders being 
 given in the Malay tongue, and the laborer is looked upon as a 
 pawn to be moved at the will of the administrators. In Java the 
 planters are dealing with laborers who are free to work or not, 
 as their whims dictate, and the success of estate administration 
 depends on the manager’s knowledge of the customs and language 
 of the natives and his ability to weld them into an effective or¬ 
 ganization. 
 
 In describing labor conditions in Java but few generalizations 
 may be safely made, as the character of the population varies, and 
 even in the strictly Javanese districts there are many variations in 
 custom and character. The organization described in this article 
 is on an estate within the boundaries of the Javanese country, but 
 not entirely uninfluenced by the immigration from Madoera. The 
 manager of this estate, having had full control for 20 years, knows the 
 adat 1 of his people and the individual peculiarities of the heads of 
 families. This estate has been described by Government officials in 
 contact with the cultivation of rubber as having the most perfect 
 organization in Java. It consists in all of 3,449 bouws (about 6,125 
 acres) divided into two sections, of which 2,500 bouws are in rub¬ 
 ber and coffee and 550 bouws in sisal, the balance including rice 
 fields, timber, nurseries, bamboo, teak forests, pasture, villages, 
 roads, canals, etc. 
 
 The organization and duties of the staff were described by the 
 general manager of the estate as follows: 
 
 Accounting department .—One bookkeeper, a man of mixed blood, bandies all 
 the general accounting, accumulating the reports sent in by the various assist¬ 
 ants. 
 
 Garden assistants .—The two head garden assistants are responsible to the 
 manager for all of the work outside of the factory, except new construction of 
 buildings, which is in charge of the chief factory assistant. 
 
 The estate is divided into two parts, one of four and one of three agricultural 
 sections, each of which is in full charge of an assistant. One of these sections 
 may include rubber, coffee, sisal, teak, bamboo, a coagulation station, and nur¬ 
 series; and the assistant’s duties include the supervision of garden work, road 
 building and repair, building repair, transportation, paying the labor, and keep¬ 
 ing the section accounts. 
 
 1 Tribal customs which have become laws to the people. The “ adat ” of the people la 
 recognized in the law of the colony and is largely responsible for the necessity of one 
 law for the native and another for the foreigner. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
 
 107 
 
 Factory assistants .—The factory includes a water-power plant delivering, 
 through an American (Pelton) water wheel and by cable, 250 horsepower to 
 the main shafting, and an auxiliary steam plant of 150 horsepower as a reserve. 
 It also includes a rubber mill, a coffee mill, three sisal-stripping machines, 
 smokehouses, drying fields and houses for sisal, drying floors and houses for 
 coffee, sorting rooms, a blacksmith shop, a machine shop, a brass-fitting foundry, 
 packing houses, warehouses, and other factory equipment. It is in charge of a 
 first assistant (a machinist), with a European staff consisting of a machinist 
 and an apprentice assistant. The apprentice assistant is destined to take 
 charge of a garden section either on this estate or another one owned by the 
 same company. 
 
 Native staff .—The Javanese staff is the backbone of the organization. Many 
 of the “mandoers” (foremen) are fully capable of managing a section and but 
 for their unreliability in money matters would be promoted to assistant posi¬ 
 tions. When the assistants are absent for short periods, the section work 
 goes on without serious friction or slacking down. 
 
 The tappers are highly skilled and only the more intelligent men and 
 women can qualify for this work, which requires a light touch and a judgment 
 that is almost instinctive. Tapping begins at daybreak and is finished before 
 noon. The latex brought in by each tapper is weighed and a sample of 50 
 grams is coagulated, mangled, and weighed. Payment is made on the basis 
 of the actual rubber brought in, according to the analysis and taking into con¬ 
 sideration the age of the trees and the configuration of the land on which the 
 tapper has worked. An expert tapper earns from 70 to 80 florin cents per day, 
 while beginners get 50 cents. Tapping schools are maintained, and coolies 
 entering this school are paid while learning. 
 
 Coffee harvesters .—Coffee harvesters are generally women and children. 
 They are paid from 60 florin cents to 1.20 florins per picul (136 pounds) of 
 berries delivered to the factory or central station. Many of the pickers are 
 rapid workers and the best of them are able to earn u*> to 1 florin per day, 
 especially when there is a heavy crop. 
 
 Sisal harvesters .—The harvesting of sisal is work that is not sought by the 
 Javanese. Harvesters are paid 7 florin cents per picul of leaves delivered to 
 the factory. They work in groups of four and generally harvest 40 piculs per 
 day. This gives about 70 florin cents daily per man. 
 
 It is the intention of the management to put as much of the work 
 as possible on a “task” basis. Weeding, digging, planting of sisal, 
 and what plowing is done are all on a “ task ” basis, as is much of the 
 road work. Nursery work (which requires a high degree of skill), 
 disease fighting, and other work demanding a maximum of care and 
 skill are paid for at a higher rate on a day basis. 
 
 There is complaint throughout Java and Sumatra of a shortage of 
 competent assistants. Various methods of bonus payments are in 
 force, generally based on the dividends paid by the companies, but 
 these bonuses are not paid on all of the estates. Young Dutchmen 
 did not come to the colony during the war years in sufficient num¬ 
 bers to fill the vacancies, and they are not usually satisfied with the 
 wages paid when they do come. The manager of the estate under 
 review has drawn on the local mixed-blood population to fill the 
 shortage of assistants, and he claims that these men when handled 
 intelligently are equal in efficiency to the young Dutchmen from the 
 Netherlands. They have the advantage of knowing all of the native 
 dialects and customs and are better able to understand the Javanese 
 character. 
 
 Planters in districts far removed from the ports speak highly of 
 native labor, especially for work which is of a routine nature. The 
 Javanese are not physically strong and are best suited to agricultural 
 
108 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 pursuits, while the Madoerese are stronger physically and more alert 
 mentally. Both of these types are found on this estate. 
 
 AREA, CLIMATE, PRODUCTION, AND PRODUCTION COSTS. 
 
 Comparatively few rubber estates have reached a point of full 
 development, either in the Dutch East Indies or British Malaya. The 
 estate under review was converted from coffee to rubber, begining in 
 the earliest years of Hevea planting in the Orient, and to-day is 
 completely developed and brought to a high state of organization. 
 In 1918 it had the highest production in Java of both rubber and 
 coffee. While the production of rubber is the first consideration in 
 this plantation, coffee has been used as a catch crop—an interplanted, 
 temporary culture producing during the years in which the ultimate 
 culture is maturing. There still remain about 1,000,000 coffee trees, 
 which are gradually being cut out. 
 
 The planting of rubber trees on the estate in question began in 1902 
 and has developed as follows: 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bouws. 1 
 
 Trees. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bouws. 1 
 
 Trees. 
 
 1902 to 1905. 
 
 2 
 
 71 
 
 503 
 
 264 
 
 296 
 
 219 
 
 823 
 
 233 
 9,599 
 70,950 
 39,680 
 37,964 
 32,015 
 113,575 
 
 1911 to 1912. 
 
 41 
 
 101 
 
 144 
 
 11 
 
 2,475 
 
 7,569 
 19,105 
 1 30,579 
 
 1Q05 t.n 1906. 
 
 1912 to 1913. 
 
 1906 to 1907. 
 
 1915 to 1916. 
 
 1907 to 1908. 
 
 1908 to 1909. 
 
 Destined for rubber, 1918 to 
 1919. 
 
 1909 to 1910. 
 
 1910 to 1911. 
 
 Total. 
 
 361.269 
 
 
 
 i Bouw equals 1.7537 acres; gross acreage including paths and roads; 146 trees to the bouw or 83 trees to 
 the acre. 
 
 * Part in bearing. 
 
 Sisal planting on the estate under review has been carried on as 
 follows: 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bouws. 
 
 Plants. 
 
 1915-16. .. 
 
 OC 
 
 • 
 
 93,'555 
 286,380 
 242,403 
 237,000 
 151,192 
 
 1916—17. 
 
 154 
 
 1917-18 . 
 
 130 
 
 1918-19. 
 
 130 
 
 1919-20. 
 
 80 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 542 
 
 1,010,530 
 
 
 The various cultures of the estate are distributed as follows: 
 
 Rubber- 
 
 Sisal_ 
 
 Timber_ 
 
 Rice fields_ 
 
 Teak forests. 
 Bamboo_ 
 
 Bouws. 
 
 
 2, 475 
 
 Nurseries _ 
 
 542 
 
 Pasture 
 
 IS 
 
 Buildings and villages 
 
 216 
 
 Forest _ 
 
 13 
 
 
 25 
 
 Total _ 
 
 Bouws. 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 70 
 
 81 
 
 3, 449 
 
 Coffee is interplanted with the rubber, while sisal is planted on soil 
 not suited to the cultivation of rubber. The area in rice is given over 
 to the natives to cultivate for their own benefit, while the teak is 
 grown for the timber, which is used on the estate, and the bamboo is 
 cultivated for use in building houses for the natives on the estate. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 109 
 
 This estate is located at an altitude of from 1,000 to 1,125 feet, and 
 in view of its high production the following record of rainfall is 
 interesting: 
 
 Years. 
 
 Rainy 
 
 days. 
 
 Total fall, 
 in milli¬ 
 meters. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Rainy 
 
 days. 
 
 Total fall, 
 in milli¬ 
 meters. 
 
 Average for 36 years prior to 
 
 
 
 1916. 
 
 169 
 
 2,976 
 
 1913 . 
 
 123 
 
 2,333 
 
 1917. 
 
 203 
 
 3,634 
 
 1913. 
 
 95 
 
 2,320 
 
 1918. 
 
 111 
 
 1,844 
 
 1914. . 
 
 91 
 
 2,121 
 
 1919. 
 
 149 
 
 2,913 
 
 1915. 
 
 140 
 
 2,662 
 
 
 
 
 PRODUCTION STATISTICS. 
 
 The production per tree for the period since 1913 shows a constant 
 increase, which is not due to the varying climatic conditions but to 
 better methods of cultivation, the improvement in the organization 
 and skill of the labor, and the increasing maturity of the trees. The 
 annual production per tree since 1913 has been as follows: 1913, 
 2.3122 pounds; 1914, 2.7004 pounds; 1915, 2.9655 pounds; 1916, 
 3.1975 pounds; 1917, 3.5561 pounds; 1918, 4.6449 pounds; and 1919, 
 5.5117 pounds. 
 
 The total production of 1919 was 1.645,509 pounds of dry rubber, 
 1,974 piculs (268,464 pounds) of coffee, and 1,596 piculs (217,000 
 pounds) of sisal hemp. 
 
 The 1919 production of the various grades of rubber on this estate 
 is shown in the following table: 
 
 0 
 
 Grades. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Grades. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 First quality: 
 
 Smoked sheets— 
 
 No. I. 
 
 No. II. 
 
 No. Ill. 
 
 P... 
 
 860,938 
 73,069 
 18,689 
 425,197 
 45,850 
 6,316 
 14,779 
 
 1,444,838 
 
 52.32 
 4.44 
 
 1.14 
 25.84 
 2. 79 
 .38 
 .90 
 
 87.81 
 
 Second quality: 
 
 D • D• G................. 
 
 D. D. G. red. 
 
 D. D. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,354 
 
 47,823 
 
 3,737 
 
 87,711 
 
 0.08 
 
 2.90 
 
 .23 
 
 5.33 
 
 P. red. 
 
 140,625 
 60,046 
 
 8.54 
 
 3.65 
 
 L. B. 
 
 T. "R rftrl » 
 
 Third grade or “scrap”. 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,645,509 
 
 100.00 
 
 In 1918 the percentage of first-quality rubber was 84.07, while 
 11.55 per cent was second-quality rubber and 4-38 per cent was 
 “scrap.” The percentages of second and third qualities were lower 
 in 1919 for the reason that there was better weather for tapping— • 
 less rain in the mornings between 6 and 11 o’clock. 
 
110 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA 
 
 ESTATE EXPENDITURES. 
 
 The following table shows the expenditures on this estate on ac 
 count of rubber during the year 1919: 
 
 Items. 
 
 Cash 
 
 expendi¬ 
 
 ture. 
 
 Cost per 
 pound of 
 rubber. 1 
 
 Weeding, including digging 
 and plowing. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 34,002 
 
 3,406 
 
 3,081 
 
 1,080 
 
 9,256 
 
 1,652 
 
 4,291 
 
 248 
 
 944 
 
 1,658 
 
 Florin 
 
 cents. 
 
 Forking alang-alang 2 . 
 
 
 Pruning. 
 
 
 Upkeep^ of terraces. 
 
 
 Fighting pests and diseases... 
 
 Manuring (principally trans¬ 
 portation of manure from 
 the villages to the “gar¬ 
 dens”) . 
 
 
 
 Thinning out trees. 
 
 
 Fencing^. 
 
 
 Nurseries. 
 
 
 Sundries. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 59,618 
 
 3.623 
 
 Tanning. 
 
 134,729 
 
 19,817 
 
 1,808 
 
 1,260 
 
 31 
 
 5,739 
 
 1,050 
 
 
 Native supervision. 
 
 
 Tapping school. 
 
 
 Marking and numbering trees. 
 Placing cups. 
 
 
 
 Transport to factory. 
 
 
 Wages of police. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 164,434 
 
 9.993 
 
 Labor... 
 
 9,987 
 29,300 
 1,100 
 40 
 5,083 
 6,414 
 435 
 858 
 3,100 
 
 
 Chemicals. 
 
 
 European supervision. 
 
 
 Oil, grease, and waste. 
 
 
 Upkeep of machinery. 
 
 
 Upkeep of buildings'.. 
 
 
 Drying houses. 
 
 
 Smokehouses. 
 
 
 Firewood. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 56,317 
 
 3. 423 
 
 Depreciation of cups, pails, etc. 
 Tapping knives. 
 
 4,500 
 
 30 
 
 237 
 
 9 
 
 2,274 
 
 
 
 Latex spouts. 
 
 
 Coconut shells. 
 
 
 Repairs and sundries. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 7,050 
 
 .428 
 
 Cases, hoop iron, and nails.... 
 Making cases. 
 
 27,767 
 1,231 
 2,228 
 
 
 
 Packing. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 31,226 
 
 1. 897 
 
 Cartage to station. 
 
 2,782 
 307 
 
 
 Commission to Malang agent.. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 3,089 
 
 .188 
 
 Railway freight and cartage 
 to Soerabaya. 
 
 12,835 
 
 24,683 
 
 .780 
 
 1.500 
 
 Gratuities to garden assist¬ 
 ants and mandoers. 
 
 GENERAL EXPENSES. 
 
 European salaries and allow¬ 
 ances . 
 
 63,796 
 
 
 
 
 Items. 
 
 GENERAL EXPENSES—COll. 
 
 Native staff. 
 
 Government “verponding” 
 tax, retroactive to 1918 
 (29,211.75 florins per year)... 
 
 Upkeep of roads. 
 
 Upkeep of bridges. 
 
 Upkeep of watercourses and 
 
 reservoir. 
 
 Contribution to Government 
 for building public paths 
 useful to the estate. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Sundry expenditure as esti¬ 
 mated. 
 
 Emergencies for which esti¬ 
 mate was exceeded... 
 
 Changing money locally 4 . 
 
 Extra contribution to Plant¬ 
 ers’ Association. 
 
 Extra contribution to hospital. 
 Telephone connection with 
 Government lines for Barek 
 
 section... 
 
 Photographs. 
 
 Extra cost for watchmen. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Plague precautions. 
 
 Upkeep of buildings: 
 
 Manager’s bungalow. 
 
 Assistant’s bungalow. 
 
 Factory buildings. 
 
 Native houses. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Upkeep of tram line: 
 
 Upkeep of 22 kilometers 
 (13.7 miles) light rail¬ 
 way . 
 
 Cleaning and weeding. 
 
 Repairs to rolling stock... 
 
 Total. 
 
 Fire insurance. 
 
 Local directors and visiting 
 agent...'.. 
 
 Total general expenses.. 
 
 General expenses charge¬ 
 able to rubber (75 per 
 cent). 
 
 Grand total expenditure on 
 account of rubber. 
 
 Cash 
 
 Cost per 
 
 expendi- 
 
 pound of 
 
 ture. 
 
 rubber. 1 * * 4 5 
 
 
 Florin 
 
 Florins. 
 
 cents. 
 
 7,220 
 
 
 69,509 
 
 - 
 
 5,672 
 
 
 731 
 
 
 1,974 
 
 
 750 
 
 
 9,127 
 
 
 9,658 
 
 
 500 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 283 
 
 
 310 
 
 
 400 
 
 
 148 
 
 
 427 
 
 
 13,726 
 
 
 2,416 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 834 
 
 
 819 
 
 
 3,803 
 
 
 5,468 
 
 
 2,001 
 
 
 343 
 
 
 452 
 
 
 2,796 
 
 
 1,504 
 
 
 5,400 
 
 
 180,962 
 
 
 2 135,722 
 
 8.248 
 
 494,974 
 
 •30.080 
 
 1 Exclusive of capital charge. 
 
 * This is the rank tiger grass, called “lalang” in British Malaya and “cogone” in the Philippine Islands. 
 It is the greatest enemy of planters in all cultures in the oriental Tropics. 
 
 * No fencing is done except around nurseries and other areas from which cattle are excluded. 
 
 4 Owing to scarcity of subsidiary coin after July the banks sent only paper money to the estate, which 
 had to be changed in the local money shops, and the charge was excessive although unavoidable. 
 
 5 The balance was charged to coffee ana sisal as follows: 1,974 piculs of coffee at 13.80 florins per picul, 
 27,241 florins; and 1,597 piculs of sisal at 11.27 florins per picul, 17,999 florins; total, 45,240 florins. 
 
 •Cost per pound of rubber produced delivered for snipment at Soerabaya. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 The cost shown in the preceding table is exclusive of interest on 
 capital. The capitalization is combined with that of another estate, 
 the two together having an area of 6,009 bouws (10,658 acres), and 
 the issued stock amounts to £248,000. This is a very low figure, and 
 in estimating the capital charge it would be safer to consider an esti¬ 
 mate given by a competent authority, who places the capitalization 
 per bouw, inclusive of costs of factory, buildings, roads, and other 
 equipment, at 600 florins for first-class estates and 1,000 florins for 
 mediocre estates. 
 
 As this estate is considered to be one of the first estates in Java, the 
 minimum figure may be taken. Using this figure, the valuation of 
 the estate alone would be 2,099,400 florins. Interest at 6 per cent 
 (125,964 florins) would increase the cost by 7.65 cents, making the 
 total cost of production 37.73 florin cents per pound. 
 
 The same authority gives the estimated production per bouw from 
 the twelfth, year of age as 900 pounds for first-class estates and 600 
 pounds for mediocre estates, giving a production cost per pound 
 (exclusive of interest) of 30 and 50 florin cents, respectively, for the 
 two classes of estates. 
 
 EXPORTATION OF RUBBER. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of Hevea rubber by coun¬ 
 tries of destination from the Netherlands East Indies: 
 
 Countries of destination and 
 divisions from which shipped. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Netherlands: 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 ions. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 1,006 
 
 1,268 
 
 1,289 
 
 153 
 
 
 
 2 851 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 423 
 
 733 
 
 1,164 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 3,944 
 
 United States: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 % 20 
 
 186 
 
 3,336 
 
 8,069 
 
 14,840 
 
 5,844 
 
 18,887 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 92 
 
 2,928 
 
 7,924 
 
 14,804 
 
 7,646 
 
 14,649 
 
 Great Britain: 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,755 
 
 2,029 
 
 3,234 
 
 2,193 
 
 1,659 
 
 7,223 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 760 
 
 1,736 
 
 5,111 
 
 5,306 
 
 3,847 
 
 1, S95 
 
 5, 022 
 
 Germany: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 France: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 S6 
 
 
 94 
 
 215 
 
 Italy: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 Russia: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 174 
 
 
 
 
 Scandinavia: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 94 
 
 Belgium: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 277 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 187 
 
 192 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Singapore, Penang, and Malacca: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 40 
 
 101 
 
 451 
 
 2,003 
 
 1,728 
 
 7,551 
 
 5,365 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 1,909 
 
 2,753 
 
 1,575 
 
 3,901 
 
 8,092 
 
 16,977 
 
 30,424 
 
 Hongkong: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 167 
 
 Japan: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 118 
 
 31 
 
 63 
 
 729 
 
 183 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 Australia: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java afnd Madoera. 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 
 7 
 
 724 
 
 244 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 184 
 
 Canada: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 711 
 
 77 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 60 
 
 British India: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 
112 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Countries of destination and 
 divisions from which shipped. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 All other countries: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 Metric 
 
 to'ns. 
 
 13 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total exports from Java and 
 
 Madoera. 
 
 Total exports from Outer Pos¬ 
 sessions. 
 
 
 
 
 5,625 
 
 9,118 
 
 18,101 
 
 30,938 
 
 45,618 
 
 41,050 
 
 89,622 
 
 2,345 
 
 3,280 
 
 3,607 
 
 5,509 
 
 7,313 
 
 10,788 
 
 13,763 
 
 17,175 
 
 18,843 
 
 26,775 
 
 17,311 
 
 26,739 
 
 35,162 
 
 54,460 
 
 As previously noted, considerable attention was given in the early 
 years of rubber planting in the colony to the cultivation of Ficus 
 elastica , Ceara, Castilloa, and other varieties. The areas in these rub¬ 
 bers have either been replanted or the owners have ceased to tap. 
 Their disappearance in the returns is shown in the following table, 
 1916 being the last year in which the export returns on these varieties 
 have appeared: 
 
 Varieties. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 Ficus elastica. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 896 
 11 
 44 
 511 
 
 Metric tons. 
 800 
 77 
 45 
 199 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,471 
 36 
 54 
 274 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,824 
 69 
 41 
 759 
 
 Ceara. 
 
 Castilloa.. 
 
 All other... 
 
 
 RUBBER EXPORTS FROM THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 Exports of plantation rubber from the Straits Settlements are 
 shown in the following table: 
 
 Countries of destination. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 United States. 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 Ceylon. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 2,549 
 
 7,285 
 
 67 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 44 
 
 3 
 
 111 
 
 477 
 
 Tons. 
 
 4,584 
 
 13,595 
 
 224 
 
 59 
 
 33 
 
 294 
 
 16 
 
 598 
 
 571 
 
 418 
 
 44 
 
 Tons. 
 21,420 
 13,034 
 
 Tons. 
 37,549 
 12,446 
 11 
 150 
 
 Tons. 
 
 70,300 
 
 15,166 
 
 Tons. 
 
 80,717 
 
 9,631 
 
 Tons. 
 
 139,767 
 
 24,551 
 
 46 
 
 168 
 
 33 
 
 Tons. 
 
 113,747 
 
 24,541 
 
 Australia. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 169 
 
 211 
 
 1,042 
 
 430 
 
 361 
 
 822 
 
 1,400 
 
 2,916 
 
 5,976 
 
 4,649 
 
 211 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Italy...T. 
 
 Other European. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 102 
 
 1,928 
 
 1,250 
 
 961 
 
 44 
 
 136 
 
 5,388 
 
 2,196 
 
 572 
 
 22 
 
 995 
 
 3,264 
 
 3,225 
 
 4,984 
 
 47 
 
 3,364 
 
 2,027 
 
 7,696 
 
 6,815 
 
 92 
 
 392 
 
 3,511 
 
 8,122 
 
 2,968 
 
 100 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 3 
 
 10,577 
 
 20,436 
 
 38,908 
 
 58,470 
 
 98,192 
 
 111,384 
 
 179,658 
 
 155,053 
 
 The grand divisions of the Malay Peninsula are the Straits Settle¬ 
 ments, the Federated Malay States, and the Non-Federated Malay 
 States. The Straits Settlements have three ports—Singapore, 
 Penang, and Malacca. The Federated Malay States have a number 
 of ports, but Port Swettenham is the only one where ocean steamers 
 call frequently. The Non-Federated Malay States have no ports 
 where ocean steamers call, all their produce being shipped through 
 Singapore and Penang. Most of the exports of the Federated Malay 
 States go through the ports of the Straits Settlements. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 113 
 
 The statistics of the Federated Malay States and the Straits Settle¬ 
 ments are acknowledged by the authorities to be very inadequate, 
 and they are so involved that it requires careful study to understand 
 them. 
 
 Transshipments from the Federated Malay States through the 
 Straits Settlements ports are not included in the main body of the 
 Straits Settlements returns, but are given in a supplement. They 
 are, however, included in the official returns of exports of the Fed¬ 
 erated Malay States, but without any indication as to whether they 
 were exported direct from the ports of the Federated Malay States or 
 transshipped through Straits Settlements ports. In order to arrive 
 at the net exports from the Federated Malay States to consuming 
 countries it is necessary to deduct from the total given in the returns 
 of the Federated Malay States the exports to the Straits Settlements 
 from those States, as well as the rubber sent to the Straits Settle¬ 
 ments for transshipment. 
 
 Imports into the Straits Settlements from the Federated Malay 
 States lose their identity and go out as Straits Settlements rubber, 
 and are so considered in the following statement. 
 
 Transshipments through Singapore and Penang of rubber from 
 Malacca and the Non-Federated Malay States are not included in the 
 main body of the Straits Settlements returns, but are given in the 
 supplement mentioned above. 
 
 The following method of arriving at the exports from the Malay 
 Peninsula is being used by the principal American rubber exporter 
 in Singapore after many years of study of this most perplexing 
 problem. The exports for 1919, the last year for which full returns 
 are available, are given as an example, the figures being taken from 
 
 official statistics: 
 
 Long tons. 
 
 Total exports from the Federated Malay States_ 106, 453 
 
 Less imports from the Federated Malay States into— 
 
 Singapore (855,520 piculs)_ 49,733 
 
 Penang (140,751 piculs)_ 8,378 
 
 Malacca (79,431 piculs)_ 4,728 
 
 62, 839 
 
 Add transshipments from Federated Malay States via Straits 
 
 Settlements (301,609 piculs)_ 17,953 
 
 - 80,792 
 
 Remainder equals direct exports from Port Swettenham, Federated 
 
 Malay States_ 25, 661 
 
 Total exports from— 
 
 Singapore (2,642,535 piculs)_ 157,294 
 
 Penang (193,346 piculs)_ 11,509 
 
 Malacca (133,871 piculs)_ 7,969 
 
 176, 772 
 
 Less imports from all countries outside Malay Peninsula_ 31, 867 
 
 - 144, 905 
 
 Add transshipments at Singapore and Penang from all other 
 parts of the Malay Peninsula: 
 
 Federated Malay States (301,609 piculs)_ 17,953 
 
 Non-Federated Malay States (76,205 piculs)_ 4,536 
 
 Malacca (110,175 piculs)_ 6,558 
 
 - 29,047 
 
 Grand total net exports from Malay Peninsula_199, 613 
 
114 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The total net exports of rubber from British Borneo possessions 
 amounted in 1919 to 6,053 long tons, as follows: From British North 
 Borneo, 3,939 long tons; from Sarawak via Singapore, 2,000 long 
 tons; and from Brunei and Sarawak via Labuan, 114 long tons. 
 Since the total net exports from the Malay Peninsula amounted in 
 1919 to 199,613 long tons and those from the Netherlands East 
 Indies totaled 88,180 long tons (an import duty of 6 per cent effec¬ 
 tively prevents the importation of rubber into the Netherlands East 
 Indies), the total net exports of rubber from this district in 1919 
 amounted to 293,846 long tons. 
 
 To arrive at the total quantity of rubber shipped to consuming 
 countries from all producing countries in the Orient there should 
 be added the net exports from French Indo-China, the Philippine 
 Islands, Siam, British India, Burma, and Ceylon. 
 
 GRADES OF RUBBER. 
 
 The following tabulation shows the grades of rubber on the New 
 York market, compared with those of Singapore and Batavia, and 
 the grades manufactured on one East Java plantation designed to 
 get the best prices on the London market: 
 
 New York grades. 
 
 Singapore grades. 
 
 Batavia grades. 
 
 East Java planter’s 
 grades. 
 
 CRfiPE. 
 No equivalent.., 
 
 CRfiPE. 
 No equivalent.. 
 
 CRfiPE. 
 
 Fine pale crfipe (see note 
 1 )* 
 
 CRfiPE. 
 
 Prime pale crfipe. 
 
 Standard quality first 
 latex cr£pe. 
 
 Off-standard latex cr^pe.. 
 Off-color latex. 
 
 Prime, clean, light-brown 
 crSpe. 
 
 Medium-color brown crfipe 
 (thick and/or thin). 
 Good, dark-brown cr§pe 
 (thick and/or thin). 
 
 No. 1 amber. 
 
 No. 2 amber... 
 
 No. 3 amber (medium 
 color). 
 
 No. 4 amber (darkish 
 color). 
 
 Specky brown crepe. 
 
 Massed or rolled crfepe 
 
 No equivalent 
 
 Singapore standard, 
 quality pale. 
 
 Off-color latex 
 Palish crSpe... 
 
 Fine brown 
 
 Brovm 
 Dark.. 
 
 Type A blanket crfipe... 
 Type B blanket crepe... 
 Type C blanket cr6pe... 
 
 Type D blanket cr6pe... 
 
 Bark or barky. 
 
 Earth crfepe or rolled 
 bark crSpe. 
 
 No equivalent. 
 
 No equivalent (see note 
 
 2 ). 
 
 joff-color crfipe 
 
 Lump 
 
 ■Clean scraps 
 
 |no equivalent. 
 
 ( Barky or specky scrap 
 or bark cr6pe. 
 
 Earth.. 
 
 Estate output (see note 
 
 5 ). 
 
 No equivalent. 
 
 (“P. red” prime crfipe of 
 grayish color made 
 from latex that has 
 been diluted with rain 
 water. 
 
 “ L. B.” cr&pe made from 
 samples taken from 
 tappers to determine 
 quality of rubber 
 brought in. 
 
 “L. B. red” made from 
 latex coagulated in the 
 cups. 
 
 (“D” dark crepe made 
 from sorted scraps. 
 
 “D. G.” dark-gray cr6pe 
 made from lumps and 
 skimmings. 
 
 “D. D. G. red” second 
 quality, ditto. 
 
 /Not plantation grades 
 
 \ (see note 3). 
 
 Scrap, unsorted scraps 
 and scrapings from the 
 earth, trees, and 
 sprouts (see note 4). 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 115 
 
 New York grades. 
 
 Singapore grades. 
 
 Batavia grades. 
 
 East Java planter’s 
 grades. 
 
 SHEET. 
 
 SHEET. 
 
 SHEET. 
 
 SHEET. 
 
 Standard quality smoked 
 sheets. 
 
 Singapore standard, 
 quality ribbed smoked 
 sheets'. 
 
 Prime ribbed or dia¬ 
 mond smoked sheets 
 (see note 6). 
 
 No. 1 smoked sheet. 
 
 No equivalent. 
 
 Off-quality ribbed 
 smoked sheets. 
 
 Off-quality ribbed 
 smoked sheets. 
 
 fNo. 2 smoked sheet. 
 
 (No. 3 smoked sheet. 
 
 Standard quality smooth 
 smoked sheets. 
 
 Plain smoked sheets.... 
 
 No equivalent. 
 
 No equivalent. 
 
 Standard quality un¬ 
 smoked sheets. 
 
 (See note 7). 
 
 
 Not a plantation grade. 
 
 Note 1.— This grade is higher than the present best New York and Singapore 
 standards and now sells at the same price, as New York’s “ standard first qual¬ 
 ity latex crepe ” and “ Singapore standard, quality pale.” In the attempt of the 
 Batavia association to standardize its grades with those of Singapore, there was 
 opposition from the owners of plantations making extra fine crepe to the lower¬ 
 ing of the standard of first-grade crepe to the equivalent of New York and 
 Singapore. It has been decided to allow this supergrade to remain, but it is 
 believed that it will shortly be eliminated by marketing conditions existing in 
 Batavia. 
 
 Note 2.—A new grade is shortly to be established in Batavia equivalent to 
 New York’s “ standard quality first latex cr£pe ” and Singapore’s “ Singapore 
 standard, quality pale.” This will be known as “ Batavia standard, first latex 
 crepe.” 
 
 Note 3.—There is no native production in Java equivalent to that of British 
 Malaya sufficient to place upon the market unsmoked sheets from which are 
 made the grades known as “ ambers ” in New York and “ blanket crepe. ” in 
 Singapore. 
 
 Note 4.—The following statement was made by the manager of an estate on 
 being questioned about this grade: “We have no grade called ‘earth.’ Our 
 most inferior grade, is called ‘scrap,’ made from (1) unsorted scraps (bark 
 rubber from the shavings), (2) scrapings from the trees and sprouts, and (3) 
 drippings on the ground (earth rubber). We are taking good care that the 
 scrapings and earth rubber are collected in time to prevent their getting tacky, 
 frail, and weak. All these inferior grades are mixed up together and thor¬ 
 oughly cleaned, so that our ‘ scrap ’ can be turned out in a fairly better quality 
 than the grade called ‘ bark crepe.’ ” 
 
 Note 5.—Batavia has established a grade called “ estate output,” for which 
 there is no New York or Singapore equivalent. This grade consists of about 
 75 per cent “ fine pale cr§pe ” or “ prime smoked sheet ” and 25 per cent of 
 the lower grades from “ off-color cr£pe ” and “ off-quality ribbed smoked sheet ” 
 to “earth.” 
 
 Note 6.—In Singapore the first grade of smoked sheet is “ Singapore standard, 
 quality ribbed smoked sheet,” which includes all first-quality smoked sheet with 
 markings, either ribbed or marked with a diamond or other figure. The Ba¬ 
 tavia market makes a difference in that the markings are designated “ ribbed ” 
 or “ diamond,” as the case may be. 
 
 Note 7.—There is no standard quality of unsmoked sheet, on the Singapore 
 market. The New York grade “ standard quality unsmoked sheet ” corre¬ 
 sponds to Singapore’s “ clean dry pale ” to “ light brown ” unsmoked sheet. 
 This is generally bought on sample, and qualities have a variation in price up 
 to 20 cents per pound at times. 
 
 These grades come from the small native holdings and are generally routed 
 from the producers through the local Chinese shopkeepers and their Chinese 
 connections in the larger towns. The closest knowledge of these, grades is 
 requisite for safe dealings, as there are many ways in which dishonest sellers 
 may deceive the uninitiated. The principal subgrades are designated by the 
 district or town from which they reach Singapore and are as follows: Kuala 
 Lumpur, Klang, Kuala Kangsar, Ipoh, Muar, Batu Pahat, Penang, Malacca, 
 Kelantan, Indragiri, and Djambi. 
 
 19878°—23 - 9 
 
 l 
 
116 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Kuala Lumpur, Klang, and Kuala Kangsar send strong qualities, which 
 usually go to make up the types A and B blanket crgpe. The shrinkage ranges 
 from 5* to 8 per cent. 
 
 Ipoh sheets compare favorably with the above, as far as strength is con¬ 
 cerned, but the shrinkage will run toward the higher extreme mentioned above. 
 
 Muar sheet has about the same color as that of Ipoh, but is found to darken 
 more rapidly after creping and drying. The cr§pe produced from this grade is 
 of good strength, but it is inclined to be somewhat softer than crepe from the 
 above-mentioned grades.' The shrinkage is about the same as that from Ipoh. 
 
 Batu Pahat sheet varies in color from light to dark and, after cr£ping, is 
 inclined to darken and to become somewhat soft, with a strength usually less 
 than the others mentioned. It makes up into type C of the Singapore standard 
 blanket crepe. 
 
 Penang sheet is infrequently found on the Singapore market. It is of a 
 darkish color with a shrinkage about equivalent to the sheets from Kuala 
 Lumpur and Klang. The strength is very fair and when craped will produce 
 a good type C blanket crepe. 
 
 Indragiri native rubber appears in Singapore as dry sheets and wet sheets. 
 The dry sheets are of very good strength and on creping give a firm B and G 
 blanket crepe. The wet sheets have a shrinkage of from 7 to 10 per cent on 
 craping. The crepe produced is of good strength of type O but inclined to be 
 less firm than that made from the dry sheets. 
 
 Malacca sheet is also in two qualities, dry and wet, although the wet sheets 
 do not appear in quantity in the Singapore market. The dry sheets run from 
 a good pale color to brown and will crSpe up to form types A and B blanket 
 crepe, of about the same color as the original sheet. This type of sheet is the 
 best to be obtained and tests stronger than any other on the market. Malacca 
 wet sheet or “ mixed Malacca sheet ” is dark in color and makes a good, firm 
 type C blanket crepe, with a shrinkage of from 3 to 5 per cent. 
 
 DjamM sheet is usually rather soft and dark with a high moisture content 
 showing a shrinkage of from 8 to 11 per cent on creping. In quality it averages 
 a soft dark blanket crepe of types C and D, with the. bulk in D grade. 
 
 Kelantan sheet does not appear frequently on the Singapore market, but the 
 quality, when it does come in, follows closely that given for Penang sheet. 
 
 SINGAPORE AUCTION SALES. 
 
 The following table shows the quantities of rubber of all grades 
 sold at the auctions conducted annually by the Singapore Chamber 
 of Commerce Rubber Association in Singapore. It was from these 
 sales that the prices shown in the succeeding section were taken. 
 
 Year. 
 
 January. 
 
 February. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 1912. 
 
 Pounds. 
 54,114 
 
 Pounds. 
 87,816 
 152,486 
 
 Pounds. 
 91,148 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 98,676 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 60,048 
 
 Pounds. 
 69,112 
 
 Pounds. 
 108,976 
 290,747 
 447,164 
 
 1913. 
 
 148,971 
 
 244!475 
 571,022 
 1,188,908 
 
 206'683 
 
 253,134 
 
 210,382 
 497,820 
 
 1914. 
 
 557,657 
 
 436!665 
 
 414,197 
 
 374,051 
 890,544 
 
 1915. 
 
 675,195 
 1,845,111 
 
 570,619 
 
 2,082,636 
 
 668' 123 
 
 1,609,779 
 
 1,233,384 
 
 2,800,727 
 
 4,378,942 
 
 1916. 
 
 3,452,657 
 
 2,161' 891 
 
 2,716,665 
 
 5,196,640 
 
 4,920,316 
 
 4,524,296 
 
 2' 669' 289 
 
 1917. 
 
 4,595,721 
 
 4'396'013 
 
 4, '695, 542 
 6,251,947 
 
 4,700,677 
 
 6,605,157 
 
 6,695,389 
 
 3,558,592 
 
 3,876,916 
 
 1918. 
 
 7,244,051 
 7,464,543 
 5,836,465 
 
 4, 639!449 
 
 7,312,110 
 
 7,468,228 
 
 4,481,500 
 
 3,644,461 
 
 1919. 
 
 5'991'426 
 
 5,793,182 
 6,059,303 
 
 4,571,215 
 
 5,225,288 
 
 4,135,647 
 
 1920. 
 
 5' 853' 405 
 
 5,161,831 
 
 3,641,162 
 
 1921. 
 
 4,759,935 
 
 4,374,894 
 
 5,872,464 
 
 3'091'396 
 
 3,402,095 
 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 August. 
 
 September. 
 
 October. 
 
 November. 
 
 December. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1912. 
 
 Pounds. 
 92,385 
 242,661 
 76,404 
 1,283,886 
 3,546,711 
 5,458,022 
 
 Pounds. 
 92,362 
 303,944 
 434,149 
 
 Pounds. 
 153,661 
 
 Pounds. 
 115,068 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 145,896 
 
 456,908 
 
 849,848 
 
 2,700,506 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1,169,262 
 
 3,379,168 
 
 1913. 
 
 406'632 
 
 462' 145 
 
 1914. 
 
 621,677 
 
 2,008,804 
 
 4,438,251 
 
 6,216,910 
 
 692,525 
 
 1,645,039 
 
 5,178,003 
 
 3,090,962 
 
 5,479,038 
 
 6,905,387 
 
 2,749,341 
 
 5,973,179 
 
 16,401,788 
 
 37,419,573 
 
 54.469.168 
 70,930,382 
 78,626,086 
 59,460,715 
 
 55.239.169 
 
 1915. 
 
 1,927,001 
 3,609,997 
 6,065,797 
 5,793,138 
 6,462,102 
 
 1916. 
 
 2,917,635 
 
 1917. 
 
 2!415^350 
 4,979,541 
 7,309,958 
 5,057,723 
 
 1918. 
 
 4, 963', 755 
 6,109,815 
 4,771,207 
 4,720,274 
 
 8' 864' 964 
 
 1919. 
 
 9,330,545 
 4,766,495 
 4,842,090 
 
 1920. 
 
 5,856,995 
 4,660,081 
 
 1921. 
 
 6' 185'010 
 
 5,551,822 
 
 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
 
 117 
 
 PRICES OF LATEX CREPE. 
 
 The following table shows the monthly high and low prices per 
 pound of latex crepe at the Singapore auctions from 1912 to 1921. 
 These prices are compiled from the returns of the Singapore Cham¬ 
 ber of Commerce Rubber Association’s weekly returns and are given 
 in Singapore cents (1 Singapore cent = 0.57 U. S. cent). 
 
 Months. 
 
 1912 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 January. 
 
 1210.00 
 
 189.75 
 
 183.75 
 
 165. 00 
 
 *101. 25 
 
 86.25 
 
 88.50 
 
 81.75 
 
 3 157. 50 
 
 135.75 
 
 February. 
 
 207.00 
 
 199. 50 
 
 174. 75 
 
 161.25 
 
 *104. 25 
 
 94. 50 
 
 90.00 
 
 84.00 
 
 147. 75 
 
 111.75 
 
 March. 
 
 225.00 
 
 201. 75 
 
 162. 75 
 
 141. 75 
 
 <103. 50 
 
 4 96. 75 
 
 96. 75 
 
 90.00 
 
 141. 75 
 
 135.75 
 
 April. 
 
 213.75 
 
 192.00 
 
 146. 25 
 
 119. 25 
 
 109. 50 
 
 99.00 
 
 96. 75 
 
 92. 25 
 
 137. 25 
 
 129. 75 
 
 May. 
 
 193. 50 
 
 180.00 
 
 138.75 
 
 117. 75 
 
 102. 75 
 
 94. 50 
 
 100. 50 
 
 90.00 
 
 120. 75 
 
 101. 25 
 
 June. 
 
 190. 50 
 
 180.00 
 
 124.50 
 
 112. 50 
 
 93. 75 
 
 89. 25 
 
 99.00 
 
 90. 75 
 
 105. 00 
 
 90.75 
 
 July. 
 
 192.00 
 
 177.00 
 
 116. 25 
 
 96. 75 
 
 87. 75 
 
 81.75 
 
 106. 50 
 
 98.25 
 
 96. 75 
 
 87.75 
 
 August. 
 
 195.00 
 
 177.00 
 
 108.00 
 
 97.50 
 
 56. 25 
 
 55. 50 
 
 101. 25 
 
 95.25 
 
 88.50 
 
 84.75 
 
 September. 
 
 192.00 
 
 173. 25 
 
 99. 00 
 
 75.00 
 
 75.00 
 
 68.25 
 
 99. 75 
 
 95. 25 
 
 95. 25 
 
 86.25 
 
 October. 
 
 183. 75 
 
 156. 75 
 
 88.50 
 
 76.50 
 
 86 . 25 
 
 75. 75 
 
 103. 50 
 
 97.50 
 
 98. 25 
 
 93.00 
 
 November. 
 
 174.00 
 
 148. 50 
 
 101. 25 
 
 81.00 
 
 97. 50 
 
 79.50 
 
 126. 75 
 
 101. 25 
 
 117. 00 
 
 99.75 
 
 December. 
 
 181. 50 
 
 160. 50 
 
 90.00 
 
 84.00 
 
 88 . 50 
 
 81. 75 
 
 156. 75 
 
 120.00 
 
 123. 75 
 
 102.00 
 
 Months. 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 1921 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 January. 
 
 114.00 
 
 102.00 
 
 80.25 
 
 68.25 
 
 77.50 
 
 72.00 
 
 5112. 00 
 
 107. 00 
 
 37.00 
 
 34.00 
 
 February. 
 
 127.50 
 
 112. 50 
 
 70.50 
 
 63.75 
 
 78.50 
 
 73.50 
 
 114. 00 
 
 106. 00 
 
 39.00 
 
 35. 50 
 
 March. 
 
 130. 50 
 
 112. 50 
 
 72.75 
 
 65. 25 
 
 79.00 
 
 73. 50 
 
 107. 00 
 
 88 . 00 
 
 39.00 
 
 36.50 
 
 April. 
 
 123.75 
 
 116. 25 
 
 84.00 
 
 55.50 
 
 79.50 
 
 75.00 
 
 90. 50 
 
 83. 50 
 
 34. .50 
 
 34.50 
 
 May. 
 
 117. 75 
 
 108.00 
 
 78. 75 
 
 66.00 
 
 77. 50 
 
 75.00 
 
 84.50 
 
 71.50 
 
 33.00 
 
 32.50 
 
 June. 
 
 110.25 
 
 95.25 
 
 59.25 
 
 49.50 
 
 76.50 
 
 64.00 
 
 82.00 
 
 72.00 
 
 28. 00 
 
 25.00 
 
 July. 
 
 99. 75 
 
 95.25 
 
 54. 50 
 
 48.00 
 
 73.00 
 
 64.00 
 
 76.50 
 
 70. 00 
 
 32.00 
 
 30.00 
 
 August. 
 
 97.50 
 
 90.00 
 
 47.50 
 
 37.00 
 
 82.00 
 
 73." 00 
 
 83.00 
 
 67.00 
 
 29.50 
 
 27.50 
 
 September. 
 
 98. 25 
 
 90.00 
 
 55.00 
 
 43.00 
 
 112.00 
 
 83.50 
 
 68.50 
 
 53.50 
 
 30.50 
 
 27.50 
 
 October. 
 
 93. 75 
 
 88.50 
 
 64.50 
 
 42.00 
 
 96,00 
 
 85.50 
 
 60.00 
 
 55.00 
 
 31.50 
 
 29.50 
 
 N ovember. 
 
 89.25 
 
 74.25 
 
 76.50 
 
 66.00 
 
 99.00 
 
 95.00 
 
 45. 50 
 
 38. 00 
 
 37. 50 
 
 32.00 
 
 December. 
 
 76.50 
 
 71.25 
 
 77.00 
 
 73.00 
 
 110 . 00 
 
 96.50 
 
 39.50 
 
 30.50 
 
 39.50 
 
 36.00 
 
 
 1 Cr 6 pe No. 1. 
 
 1 January and February quotations are for fine pale thin, good pale thin, and good pale blanket cr§pe 
 combined; other 1914 quotations are for fine pale thin crfipe only. 
 
 3 Cr@pe, fine pale. 
 
 4 Last three sales in month. 
 
 6 Singapore standard first latex crepe. 
 
 The following prices per pound of latex crepe on the London 
 market, given in shillings and pence, are from the World’s Rubber 
 Position: 
 
 Months. 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 1913 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 
 5. 
 
 d. 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 
 
 5. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 January. 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 44 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 104 
 
 4 
 
 64 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 February. 
 
 5 
 
 5* 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 84 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 34 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 March. 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 44 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 71 
 
 April. 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 54 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 7J 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 May. 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 54 
 
 11 
 
 114 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 64 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 84 
 
 3 
 
 44 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 June. 
 
 6 
 
 5J 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 84 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 July. 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 74 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 04 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 104 
 
 2 
 
 81 
 
 August. 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 84 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 04 
 
 4 
 
 94 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 71 
 
 September. 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 34 
 
 5 
 
 74 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 94 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 71 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 October. 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 94 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 64 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 04 
 
 November. 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 84 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 December. 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 5 10 
 
 4 
 
 84 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 For year. 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 64 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Average. 
 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 54 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 01 
 
 
118 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA 
 
 Months. 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 5. 
 
 d. 
 
 5. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 
 
 January. 
 
 2 
 
 5* 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 11? 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 114 
 
 3 
 
 04 
 
 2 
 
 104 
 
 February. 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 1? 
 
 3 
 
 94 
 
 2 
 
 114 
 
 3 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 li 
 
 March. 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 3* 
 
 2 
 
 6? 
 
 2 
 
 3| 
 
 3 
 
 84 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 3 
 
 04 
 
 April. 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6* 
 
 2 
 
 4} 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4? 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 li 
 
 May. 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 3* 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 0? 
 
 2 
 
 64 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 114 
 
 June. 
 
 2 
 
 4J 
 
 2 
 
 2* 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 July. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 74 
 
 2 
 
 5? 
 
 2 
 
 4? 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 7? 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 August. 
 
 2 
 
 5J 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 84 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 September. 
 
 2 
 
 2* 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 3? 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 104 
 
 2 
 
 8? 
 
 October. 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 64 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 94 
 
 2 
 
 74 
 
 November. 
 
 2 
 
 5* 
 
 2 
 
 l 
 
 3 
 
 74 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 2 
 
 104 
 
 2 
 
 64 
 
 2 
 
 8? 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 December. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 H4 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 54 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 64 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 For year. 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 H4 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 114 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 2| 
 
 Average. 
 
 
 2 
 
 CO 
 
 wit- 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 104 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 9| 
 
 
 Months. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 1921 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low 
 
 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 8. 
 
 d. 
 
 5. 
 
 d. 
 
 January. 
 
 2 
 
 64 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 2? 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 104 
 
 2 
 
 74 
 
 1 
 
 34 
 
 0 
 
 114 
 
 February. 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 <u 
 
 1? 
 
 2 
 
 04 
 
 2 
 
 94 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 04 
 
 March. 
 
 2 
 
 6? 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 74 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 o? 
 
 0 
 
 114 
 
 April. 
 
 2 
 
 64 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 04 
 
 1 
 
 104 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 H4 
 
 0 
 
 104 
 
 May. 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 114 
 
 1 
 
 104 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 104 
 
 0 
 
 104 
 
 0 
 
 8f 
 
 June. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 104 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 104 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 July. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 n? 
 
 1 
 
 94 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 94 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 84 
 
 August. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 l 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 94 
 
 0 
 
 9-4 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 September..'. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 94 
 
 0 
 
 84 
 
 October. 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 4| 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 64 
 
 1 
 
 •4 
 
 0 
 
 104 
 
 0 
 
 84 
 
 November. 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 04 
 
 0 
 
 11? 
 
 0 
 
 94 
 
 December. 
 
 2 
 
 4? 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 
 1 
 
 i? 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 114 
 
 0 
 
 104 
 
 For year. 
 
 2 
 
 64 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 104 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 34 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 Average. 
 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 l 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 104 
 
 
 The New York prices per pound (in cents) of first latex crepe, as 
 published in the India Rubber World, are given in the following 
 table: 
 
 Months. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 • 
 
 January. 
 
 103 
 
 Ill 
 
 55 
 
 61 
 
 59 
 
 64 
 
 70 
 
 103 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 February.. 
 
 96 
 
 103 
 
 58 
 
 64 
 
 57 
 
 63 
 
 72 
 
 90 
 
 75 
 
 85 
 
 March. 
 
 88 
 
 96 
 
 58 
 
 65 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 83 
 
 88 
 
 82 
 
 90 
 
 April. 
 
 76 
 
 88 
 
 64 
 
 72 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 74 
 
 82 
 
 81 
 
 83 
 
 May. 
 
 78 
 
 84 
 
 57 
 
 65 
 
 59 
 
 61 
 
 61 
 
 74 
 
 83 
 
 834 
 
 80 
 
 June. 
 
 70 
 
 77 
 
 54 
 
 57 
 
 60 
 
 63 
 
 56 
 
 62 
 
 654 
 
 654 
 
 66 
 
 July. 
 
 66 
 
 70 
 
 54 
 
 57 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 52 
 
 57 
 
 67 
 
 August. 
 
 66 
 
 70 
 
 60 
 
 105 
 
 59 
 
 61 
 
 53 
 
 56 
 
 67 
 
 September. 
 
 52 
 
 64 
 
 52 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 58 
 
 54 
 
 60 
 
 664 
 
 634 
 
 57 
 
 674 
 
 654 
 
 61 
 
 October. 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 54 
 
 62 
 
 61 
 
 63 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 N ovember. 
 
 52 
 
 60 
 
 58 
 
 65 
 
 63 
 
 78 
 
 60 
 
 69 
 
 December. 
 
 53 
 
 55 
 
 73 
 
 87 
 
 76 
 
 99 
 
 68 
 
 82 
 
 54 
 
 60 
 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 119 
 
 Months. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 1921 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 Low. 
 
 High. 
 
 January. 
 
 53 
 
 58 
 
 52 
 
 58 
 
 51 
 
 55} 
 
 19 
 
 21} 
 
 February. 
 
 52} 
 
 57 
 
 56 
 
 58 
 
 45} 
 
 51} 
 
 19} 
 
 20 
 
 March. 
 
 55* 
 
 60 
 
 51 
 
 56 
 
 46 
 
 48} 
 
 46} 
 
 18 
 
 19} 
 
 April. 
 
 591 
 
 70 
 
 47 
 
 50} 
 
 42} 
 
 18} 
 
 19} 
 
 May. 
 
 63 
 
 6S} 
 
 45} 
 
 48 
 
 38 
 
 43} 
 
 17} 
 
 19} 
 
 17} 
 
 J une. 
 
 60 
 
 63 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 37} 
 
 39 
 
 13} 
 
 July. 
 
 63 
 
 
 39} 
 
 42} 
 
 30 
 
 35} 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 August. 
 
 63 
 
 
 41} 
 
 45} 
 
 29} 
 
 33} 
 
 HI 
 
 17 
 
 September. 
 
 60} 
 
 63 
 
 45} 
 
 52} 
 
 24} 
 
 29 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 October. 
 
 59 
 
 60} 
 
 49} 
 
 55 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 November. 
 
 41 
 
 63 
 
 53 
 
 54} 
 
 18} 
 
 21 
 
 16 
 
 19} 
 
 December. 
 
 54 
 
 63 
 
 51 
 
 ' 54} 
 
 16f 
 
 19} 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 MARKET REVIEW—IMPORT DUTY. 
 
 The growth of the cultivation of rubber followed closely the 
 development of the automobile industry. In April, 1909, the price 
 of plantation rubber on the London market reached 12s. 9d., in re¬ 
 sponse to a heavy consumer and speculator demand, and the profits 
 from the industry which seemed to be promised by these high prices 
 led to a great amount of speculation in rubber shares. The drop in 
 price to 6s. Id. in December, 1910, brought about a sudden deflation 
 in estate values and large losses were absorbed by the speculators. 
 
 Since 1910 there has been a marked growth in the acreage planted 
 in rubber, not only in the Malay Peninsula but in Java, Sumatra, 
 Ceylon, British India, and French Indo-China. Until 1920 rubber 
 brought prices ranging from 2 shillings upward, which yielded 
 handsome profits to the estate owners, but in the latter part of that 
 year the price dropped below 2 shillings and continued to fall until 
 it reached 9 pence in June, 1921. 
 
 The increase of producing acreage under rubber was apparently 
 greater than the growth of consumption. The war demand kept the 
 market up as long as it lasted, and the speculator demand later 
 counteracted the natural tendency to seek an economic level, but 
 with the tightening up of the money markets the unsound position 
 of the market became very apparent. From a strong sellers’ posi¬ 
 tion the market by 1921 changed very decidedly in favor of the 
 buyers, and since then it has been strongly a buyers’ market. 
 
 Before the war London and, to a lesser degree, Amsterdam were 
 the markets for rubber, but the war condition shifted the base to 
 Singapore, where it remained until 1919, when planters were or¬ 
 dered by their European directors to sell through pre-war channels. 
 The slump in prices has again shifted the market back to Singapore 
 in a considerable measure. 
 
 The rubber estates in Java and the Government of Sumatra East 
 Coast are, almost without exception, owned abroad, either in the 
 Netherlands, Great Britain, Belgium, France, or Shanghai or (in 
 the case of Sumatra) in the United States. While some rubber is 
 sold direct to manufacturer consumers and some is sold to local 
 speculators, the bulk of the product is shipped to European market 
 cities, principally to Amsterdam and London. 
 
 In order to discourage the development of a speculator market in 
 the Netherlands Indies an import duty of 6 per cent has been im- 
 
120 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 posed. This effectively prevents the import of rubber to cover short 
 forward sales. 
 
 PUBLICATIONS ON RUBBER. 
 
 The following publications are of importance in the study of the 
 world’s production of plantation rubber: 
 
 The World’s Rubber Position. Published monthly by W. H. Rickinson & Son, 3 
 Great Winchester Street, London, Wall, E. C. 
 
 Rubber Companies’ Position. Published monthly by W. H. Rickinson & Son, 3 
 Great Winchester Street, London, Wall, E. C. 2. 
 
 Rubber Producing Companies. Published yearly by Mincing Lane Tea and 
 Rubber Share Brokers’ Association, 6 Mincing Lane, London, E. C. 3. 
 
 The Financier Handbook. Published in London. 
 
 The Ceylon Greenbook. Published by the Times of Ceylon. 
 
 Facts and Figures of Dollar Rubber Companies. Issued monthly by Frazer & 
 Co., exchange and share brokers, Singapore. 
 
 India Rubber World. Published monthly by the India Rubber World Publish¬ 
 ing Co., 25 West Twenty-fifth Street, New York, N. Y. 
 
 India Rubber Review. Published monthly by the India Rubber Review Co., 
 1034 Second National Building, Akron, Ohio. 
 
 COFFEE. 
 
 The following extracts, relating to the cultivation of coffee, are 
 from the Yearbook of the Netherlands East Indies, edition of 1916: 
 
 Of the products of forced cultivation under the “ cultuur system ” coffee has 
 been the longest under the control of the Government. It was not until 1915 
 that the Government began to give up the cultivation in Java, although it was 
 abandoned in the Celebes as early as 1899 and in Sumatra in 1902. 
 
 Since 1870 the cultivation of coffee by private enterprise has increased, es¬ 
 pecially on the slopes of the volcanoes in east Java. When the cultivation was 
 in its infancy the so-called Java coffee (coffee Arabica) was almost the only 
 kind planted, but after 1875 Liberia coffee began gradually to take its place. 
 
 At the present time Liberia as well as Java coffee has been outclassed by 
 Robusta, which was imported from Africa in 1901 and now occupies quite one- 
 half the area planted with coffee. 
 
 All coffee in Java is sold f. a. q., meaning fair average quality of 
 the season’s crop. When there is a serious difference of opinion be¬ 
 tween buyer and seller the dispute is settled by two arbitrators, one 
 appointed by the buyer and the other by the seller, and if these two 
 can not come to an agreement a superarbitrator is selected. Prac¬ 
 tically all sales in Java are made through brokers. 
 
 GRADES OF COFFEE. 
 
 In the customs returns for Java and Madoera, Robusta, Java, 
 and Liberia coffees grown in Java are listed separately. In Java 
 the coffees are almost all grown on estates under European super¬ 
 vision, but there is some native production which is sold for native 
 consumption and does not appear in the production figures submitted 
 herewith. 
 
 Robusta .—In 1919 the following production of Robusta coffee is 
 given in the annual report of a leading firm of brokers of Soerabaya 
 and Batavia, and the figures are considered to be the most reliable 
 on this subject: 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 121 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 West Java_ 14, 041 
 
 Middle Java_ 33, 836 
 
 East Java_ 457,125 
 
 Celebes_ 3, 210 
 
 Sumatra_ 204, 019 
 
 Government estates_ 10, 668 
 
 Total piculs_ 722,899 
 
 Total pounds_ 98, 314, 264 
 
 Fermented beans in Robusta, called “ stinkers” by the trade, have 
 given that coffee a bad name in the American market, and a first 
 requisite is that this grade shall be entirely free from fermented 
 beans. One-half per cent of broken and black beans are allowed in 
 the grade exported to the United States. “ Export quality ” is 
 “ double picked.” Single-picked (sorted) Robusta and other coffees 
 are often found in the markets, but these are always repicked before 
 exporting. Local buyers judge the quality of coffees by the estate 
 marks, and some of those brands are ready for export as they come 
 from the estate, while others are not in good order. These differences 
 are always leveled by the middleman or the exporter. 
 
 The varieties known as Canephora, Uganda, Baukobensis, Sanku- 
 rensis, Kwiluensis, Quillou, Bukobensis, and Roodbessige Stenophylla 
 are similar to Robusta and are exported under that name, but they 
 are known in the local markets as the “ Robusta achtigen.” In 1919 
 the total production of these varieties was under 9,000 piculs. 
 
 Liberia .—Liberia coffee is the third in point of acreage and in 
 production. The 1919 crop is given as follows: 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 West Java_ 1, 369 
 
 Middle Java_ 3,433 
 
 East Java_ 337 
 
 Celebes_ 817 
 
 Sumatra_ 4, 707 
 
 Government_ 2 
 
 Total piculs_ 10, 665 
 
 Total pounds_ 1, 450, 440 
 
 The varieties known as Excelsa, Abeocuta, Dewevrei, Arnoldiana, 
 Aruwimiensis, Dybowsky, and “ Hybride ” are related to the Liberia 
 and are similar in appearance. These all go into the export grades 
 as Liberia, but are known to the local trade as the “ Liberia achti¬ 
 gen.” The total production of these varieties in 1919 was 1,200 piculs. 
 
 Java (Arabica ).—Java coffees are second in point of acreage and 
 in production. In 1919 the estate production of this variety was as 
 follows: 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 West Java_ 15 
 
 Middle Java_ 736 
 
 East Java_ 37, 045 
 
 Government estates_ 19, 352 
 
 Celebes__ 40, 298 
 
 Bali_ 35, 000 
 
 Sumatra_ 25, 735 
 
 Total piculs- 
 Total pounds 
 
 158,181 
 21, 512, 616 
 
122 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 “ Java ” coffee is the best of the Netherlands East Indian product. 
 At low altitudes it is subject to the leaf disease that made it neces¬ 
 sary to introduce Liberia and Robusta, and to-day it is seldom seen 
 below an altitude of 3,500 feet. As shown in the above figures, the 
 larger part of “Java” (Arabica) coffee is grown outside of Java. 
 The two eastern residencies, Besoeki and Pasoroean, produced 87 
 per cent of the Java supply. 
 
 Fancy coffees .—The fancy coffees are most largely grown by the 
 natives in Sumatra, Bali, and Celebes. Arabica coffees, which go 
 into the American and European markets under the name of Ankola, 
 Sibolga, Ajer Banjies, and Mandahling, come from the highland 
 districts in the Residencies of Tapanoeli and Sumatra West Coast. 
 These grades seldom get into the hands of the Java speculators, 
 as they bring fancy prices from the exporters. 
 
 Boengie coffee comes from the Moluccas and Celebes and is 
 above the grades just mentioned in quality and price. It is excellent 
 coffee, superior in quality to the Java Arabica. 
 
 Timor coffee, grown on the island of the same name, in the Smaller 
 Soenda Group, is equal to the Boengie coffee and brings about the 
 same price on the Soerabaya market. 
 
 Kroe coffee is grown in the highlands of the Residencies of Palem- 
 bang and Benkoelen, in southern Sumatra. In quality and price it 
 is under the other Sumatra coffees, being about equal to the coffees 
 of Timor, the Moluccas, and Celebes. 
 
 Bali coffee is grown on the island of Bali, east of the southeastern 
 extremity of Java. It is a very good coffee, almost equal to the 
 three preceding grades. 
 
 Most of these fancy coffees are of native production and their 
 superiority is due to climatic and soil conditions. Sorting is often 
 poorly done at the point of production, and it is re-sorted before ex¬ 
 portation. 
 
 During the past two years there has been considerable mixing of 
 grades in western Sumatra at the instigation of Batavia dealers. 
 This has tended to lower the best grades in the American market, 
 and the line of demarcation between the various high grades is be¬ 
 coming somewhat obscure. 
 
 ACREAGE AND VARIETIES OF COFFEE GROWN. 
 
 According to statistics issued in September, 1919, by the Dutch 
 East Indian Government, there were 144,663 hectares (357,462 acres) 
 planted to coffee in the Dutch East Indies. The following figures 
 are taken from that statement, showing, in hectares, the coffee planted 
 and in production: 
 
 
 Robusta. 
 
 Java 
 
 (Ara¬ 
 
 bica). 
 
 Liberia. 
 
 All 
 
 others. 
 
 Total. 
 
 In pro¬ 
 duction. 
 
 Coffee alone. 
 
 With one other culture. 
 
 With two other cultures. 
 
 With three or more. 
 
 Unmixed with others. 
 
 Mixed with various cultures. 
 
 Hectares. 
 9,654 
 5,346 
 3,003 
 1,948 
 19, 744 
 81,215 
 
 Hectares. 
 3,221 
 929 
 653 
 111 
 2,178 
 913 
 
 Hectares. 
 625 
 881 
 92 
 149 
 1,202 
 3,618 
 
 Hectares. 
 
 518 
 
 835 
 
 382 
 
 788 
 
 4,024 
 
 2,634 
 
 Hectares. 
 14,018 
 7,991 
 4,130 
 2,996 
 27,148 
 88,380 
 
 Hectares. 
 11,527 
 6,189 
 3,316 
 2,687 
 20,005 
 52,749 
 
 Total in hectares. 
 
 Total in acres. 
 
 120,910 
 298,769 
 
 8,005 
 19,780 
 
 6, 567 9,181 
 
 16,228 1 22,687 
 
 144, 663 
 357,462 
 
 96, 473 
 238,387 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 123 
 
 The above figures show that 84 per cent of the total acreage was in 
 Robusta, 5|- per cent in Java (Arabica), 4J per cent in Liberia, and 
 the balance in the various minor varieties of coffee, most of which 
 were in the experimental stage. Official area figures of the various 
 crops are not exact and should be used only for broad deductions. 
 
 As will be noted, by far the largest part of the acreage under Robusta 
 coffee is mixed with other cultures. It is grow T n principally as a 
 catch crop with rubber, and in such cases is destined to be cut out 
 as the rubber matures. This is also true of a considerable proportion 
 of Liberia and the new, partly experimental varieties. Java coffee is 
 usually a major crop, and when interplanted with rubber the rubber 
 is for shade and for a secondary crop. 
 
 Robusta plants were introduced in Java in the year 1901, after 
 Java and Liberia coffees had become so badly infected with the 
 prevailing leaf disease that the cultivation of coffee was in great 
 danger of being abandoned. At about the same time a new shade 
 tree (lamtoro) was found to take the place of the u dadap ” tree, 
 which had been used formerly and had suffered from disease. Since 
 then the planters have given more and more attention to Robusta. 
 Before the war most of this coffee went to Europe, very little of it 
 finding a market in the United States, and even during the war 
 American buyers bought reluctantly. 
 
 Java coffee (Arabica) is to-day the second in point of acreage as 
 it is in export. This variety was driven out of the lowlands by 
 disease, but in the higher levels, around 1,100 meters and higher, it 
 resists the diseases and is found to be a profitable crop. 
 
 Liberia coffee has suffered heavily from the leaf disease that drove 
 Java coffee from the lowlands and is decreasing in favor with the 
 planters. In the early years of its introduction (in the eighties) it was 
 hoped that Liberia would resist the leaf disease, but it was soon 
 shown that in most districts it was as vulnerable as the Java variety. 
 
 Excelsa coffee, which was discovered in Africa in 1905, is related 
 to Liberia, but resists the leaf diseases well and stands long droughts 
 and heavy rains. It is growing in favor with the planters, as it pro¬ 
 duces abundantly and is of a quality that is acceptable in the markets. 
 Other varieties grown are Canephora, Uganda, and Quillou, but as 
 yet these are in the early stages of adaptation to Java’s climate and 
 soil conditions. There are many other varieties being grown in the 
 Government’s experiment gardens, and the Division of Plant Breed¬ 
 ing of the Department of Agriculture of the Dutch East Indian 
 Government is confident that ample preparation has been made to 
 meet any emergencies that an unexpected growth of coffee diseases 
 may develop. A series of articles by Dr. P. J. S. Cramer, chief of tliis 
 division, has been written for an American coffee journal, describing 
 his work and giving a detailed description of the many varieties of 
 coffee used in plant breeding, as well as further information about 
 the above-mentioned types. A. copy of these articles is on file with the 
 Bureau of Eoreign and Domestic Commerce, in Washington. (See 
 “ Organization of a rubber, coffee, and sisal estate in east Java,” 
 under “ Rubber.”) 
 
124 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 CULTIVATION OF COFFEE. 
 
 The following is an outline of the steps necessary in the cultiva¬ 
 tion of coffee in Java: 
 
 Clearing jangle .—When a coffee estate is being developed from 
 the jungle, clearing is done as completely as may be at a reasonable 
 price. In Java this means that all big stumps are left in the field 
 and large logs are left as they fall. 
 
 Preparation of soil .—No plowing is done, but holes are made for 
 planting. On side hills, where much of the coffee is raised, ter¬ 
 races are made 10 by 10 feet square, with a slope of 1 in 10 to 15. , 
 This is to prevent erosion, which is the greatest enemy of the 
 upland planters. When labor costs 25 cents per day terracing costs 
 from 5 to 6 cents per plant. To-day in the coffee districts 40 cents is 
 
 PRICE OF ROBUSTA COFFEE. 
 
 FAIR AVERAGE QUALITY 
 SOERABAYA MARKET 
 CALENDAR YEARS 1919,192Q, 1921. 
 
 I FLORIN * * 402 I PICUL = 136 LBS 
 
 EXCHANGE FLUCTUATIONS FOLLOW NEW YORK, LONDON CROSSRATE CLOSELY. 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
 the ruling wage. The edges of the terraces are planted with lamtoro 
 (a green manure). In the lowlands ditching is done, but as coffee 
 is essentially an uplands product, very little coffee is planted on the 
 plains. In Besoeki Residency 400 feet is the lowest altitude, and at 
 Malang 1,000 feet, while “ Java ” coffees are grown at an elevation of 
 3,500 feet and more. 
 
 Planting .—Ten by ten feet is the usual interval for planting, but 
 on some estates an 8 by 8 interval is the rule. From two to three 
 months after planting the ground around the young plants is patch- 
 oeled (hoed), after which no further cultivation of the soil is done. 
 Planting usually takes place from October to December. 
 
 Shade ,—The lamtoro has proven to be the most satisfactory shade 
 tree. These are planted at the same time as the coffee, one lam¬ 
 toro tree to each coffee plant. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 125 
 
 Maturity .—At the end of two and one-half years, in the case of 
 Robusta, the coffee trees begin to bear and are in full bearing at six 
 years. 
 
 Pruning .—Trees are pruned or “ topped ” so that they will not 
 grow higher than 6 feet. This is to keep them within reach of the 
 pickers and not to benefit the growth of the tree. Young shoots are 
 cut so that the strength will go into the producing branches. 
 
 Weeding .—It is necessary to keep the gardens as clean as possible 
 at a reasonable cost. The first year the charge is the heaviest, run¬ 
 ning from 24 to 40 florins per bouw (1 bouw=1.7537 acres), as the 
 “canopy” (foliage) is not dense enough to prevent weeds from 
 growing. An annual weeding charge of from 16 to 18 florins per 
 bouw is considered normal. 
 
 Harvesting .—Picking usually begins in May and is finished in 
 September. In the district to the south and east of Ivloet Volcano, 
 where the soil is sandy, picking continues during the 12 months, but 
 the heaviest yield is during the months named. 
 
 Yield .—From 10 to 12 piculs (1 picul=:136 pounds) to the bouw 
 is considered a fair average yield from the sixth year on for Ro- 
 busta, which is a very uneven producer. Some varieties of coffee 
 yield from 15 to 20 piculs under favorable conditions. 
 
 Manuring .—No artificial manure is used in growing coffee. The 
 lamtoro, which is grown on the edges of the terraces and for shade, 
 is an excellent green manure, said to supply all the needed soil food. 
 
 Pests .—A small beetle, called the “branch bubock,” bores holes in 
 the branches, killing them. This beetle has a natural enemy in the 
 wasp, which lives in the coffee gardens, and it is not necessary to 
 do more than cut away the branches. 
 
 A leaf louse attacks the trees yearly in most districts, which stops 
 the growth of the tree. When normal rains come the lice are killed 
 by their natural enemy, a fungus which does not develop until the 
 rains set in. No preventive has been found. This tree louse is the 
 chief cause of low production, as it prevents the strength going from 
 the leaves to the buds. 
 
 COST OF COFFEE PRODUCTION ON AN ESTATE IN EAST JAVA. 
 
 Before rubber became an important crop in Java coffee growing 
 was the chief plantation crop next to sugar, and when the rubber 
 culture developed coffee was naturally looked to for a catch crop, 
 as the machinery and other equipment, as well as an ample supply 
 of trained labor, was already at hand. The following figures are 
 actual costs of the 1919 crop of coffee on an estate in east Java: 
 
 [Florin=$0,402 mint par; picul=136 pounds.] 
 
 Details of expenditure. 
 
 Total cost. 
 
 Cost 
 
 per picul. 
 
 Upkeep of coffee garden (principally pruning). 
 
 Florins. 
 
 7,854.80 
 11,866.47 
 4,09122 
 1,262.00 
 493. 50 
 2,092 44 
 27,241.12 
 
 Florins. 
 3.98 
 6.01 
 2.07 
 .64 
 .25 
 1.06 
 13.80 
 
 Plucking, supervision, and extra watchmen. 
 
 Manufacturing, sorting, upkeep of machinery and drying houses, and firewood. 
 
 Sacking. . 
 
 Transportation from estate to station. 
 
 Transportation from station to Soerabaya. 
 
 25 per cent of general charges.. 
 
 Total actual cost of production of 1,974 piculs of coffee, exclusive of interest on 
 capital. 
 
 54, 901.61 
 
 # 
 
 Actual cost per picul laid down at Soerabaya, exclusive of interest on capital. 
 
 27.81 
 
 
 
126 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 This coffee was planted as a catch crop for rubber, and there¬ 
 fore the larger part of the interest is chargeable against rubber. 
 The weather conditions in 1919 were unfavorable to coffee produc¬ 
 tion, and the above crop was 1,000 piculs (136,000 pounds) under 
 the estimate. 
 
 Harvesting .—Coffee crops vary largely from year to year, ac¬ 
 cording to the quantity and timeliness of the rainfall. When there 
 is a large crop the harvesters are paid less per picul than when the 
 crop is small, ranging from 60 florin cents to 1.20 florins for 1 picul 
 of berries delivered at the factory or receiving station. 
 
 Factory charges .—The charge for milling, air drying, kiln dry¬ 
 ing, hulling, and fine sorting will vary from 2.50 to 3 florins per 
 picul, according to the organization and availability of expert 
 labor. 
 
 ESTIMATED COST OF DEVELOPMENT OF A COFFEE ESTATE. 
 
 The following estimate of costs of development of 1,000 bouws 
 (1,754 acres) from native jungle to a full producing Kobusta coffee 
 plantation at the end of eight years, and estimate of revenue based 
 on a price of 40 florins per picul (136 pounds), relates to a Java 
 coffee estate under favorable weather conditions and based on labor 
 prices prevailing in June, 1920: 
 
 FIRST YEAR. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Cost of cutting and clearing the jungle, holing and plant¬ 
 
 ing, all-in charges at the time of completion of planting, 
 
 400 bouws, at 125 florins_ 50, 000 
 
 Upkeep of garden for the last two or three months of the 
 
 year, 400 bouws, at 25 florins_,_10, 000 
 
 European bungalows and native houses_ 20, 000 
 
 Overhead charges, including managers’ salaries, super¬ 
 vision, taxes, and all other expenditure_ 30, 000 
 
 Total 
 
 110, 000 
 
 SECOND YEAR. 
 
 Clearing and planting, 400 bouws, at 125 florins_ 50,000 
 
 Upkeep 400 bouws young gardens, at 25 florins_10, 000 
 
 Upkeep 400 bouws gardens 1 year old, at 50 florins_ 20,000 
 
 European bungalows and native houses_ 20, 000 
 
 Overhead charges_ 30, 000 
 
 Total_ 130, 000 
 
 THIRD YEAR. 
 
 Clearing and planting, 200 bouws, at 125 florins_ 25, 000 
 
 Upkeep 200 bouws young gardens, at 25 florins_ 5, 000 
 
 Upkeep 800 bouws garden 1 and 2 years old, at 50 florins_ 40, 000 
 
 European bungalows and native houses_10, 000 
 
 Overhead charges_•_ 30, 000 
 
 Total_ 110, 000 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
 
 127 
 
 FOURTH YEAR. 
 
 Upkeep 600 bouws gardens 1 and 2 years old, at 50 florins— 30, 000 
 
 Upkeep 400 bouws gardens 3 years old, at 40 florins_16, 000 
 
 Establishment (factories, warehouses, etc.)_ 25,000 
 
 Overheard charges- 35, 000 
 
 Total_ 
 
 Total expenditure at the end of the fourth year- 
 
 Cost of harvesting 1,000 piculs (400 bouws producing 21 piculs per 
 bouw) at a cost of 11 florins per picul (plucking, 6 florins; manu¬ 
 facture, 3 florins; packing, 0.65 florin; transport to harbor, 1.35 
 florins)_ 
 
 FIFTH YEAR. 
 
 Upkeep of 400 bouws of garden 4 years old, at 30 florins 
 
 per bouw_12, 000 
 
 Upkeep of 400 bouws of garden 3 years old, at 40 florins_16, 000 
 
 Upkeep of 200 bouws of garden 2 years old, at 50 florins_10, 000 
 
 Establishment_ 25, 000 
 
 Overhead_ 40, 000 
 
 Total_ 
 
 Cost of harvesting 4,000 piculs (400 bouws producing 21 piculs per 
 bouw; 400 bouws producing 71 piculs per bouw), at 9.50 florins 
 per picul (plucking, 5 florins; manufacture, 2.50 florins; packing, 
 0.65 florin; transport, 1.35 florins)- 
 
 SIXTH YEAR. 
 
 Upkeep 800 bouws gardens 4 and 5 years old, at 30 florins_ 24, 000 
 
 Upkeep 200 bouws gardens 3 years old, at 40 florins_ 8, 000 
 
 Establishment_10, 000 
 
 Overhead charges- 40, 000 
 
 Total_ 
 
 Cost of harvesting 7,500 piculs (200 bouws producing 21 piculs per 
 bouw, 400 bouws producing 71 piculs and 400 bouws producing 10 
 piculs per bouw), at 9 florins per picul (plucking, 4.50 florins; 
 manufacture, 2.50 florins; packing, 0.65 florin; transport, 1.35 
 florins) _ 
 
 SEVENTH YEAR. 
 
 Upkeep gardens, 1,000 bouws, at 30 florins_ 30, 000 
 
 Overhead charges___ 50, 000 
 
 Total_ 
 
 Cost of harvesting 9,500 piculs (800 bouws producing 10 piculs per 
 bouw and 200 bouws producing 71 piculs per bouw), at 8.50 
 florins per picul (plucking, 4 florins; manufacture, 2.50 florins; 
 packing, 0.65 florin; transport, 1.35 florins)_ 
 
 EIGHTH AND FOLLOWING YEARS. 
 
 Upkeep gardens, 1,000 bouws, at 30 florins___ 30, 000 
 
 Overhead charges_ 60, 000 
 
 Total_ 
 
 Cost of harvesting 10,000 piculs (1,000 bouws producing 10 piculs 
 per bouw), at 8.50 florins per picul, specification as above_ 
 
 i 
 
 106, 000 
 456, 000 
 
 11, 000 
 
 103, 000 
 
 38, 000 
 
 82, 000 
 
 67, 500 
 
 80, 000 
 
 80. 750 
 
 90. 000 
 85, 000 
 , 093, 250 
 
 1 This does not include interest on capital investment. 
 
128 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 ESTIMATE OF BEVENUE. 
 
 Fourth-year sale of 1,000 piculs, at 40 florins- 
 
 Fifth-year sale of 4,000 piculs, at 40 florins- 
 
 Sixth-year sale of 7,500 piculs, at 40 florins- 
 
 Seventh-year sale of 9,500 piculs, at 40 florins- 
 
 Eighth-year sale of 10,000 piculs, at 40 florins_ 
 
 Florins. 
 40, 000 
 160, 000 
 300, 000 
 380, 000 
 400, 000 
 
 Total revenue_ 1, 280, 000 
 
 The total costs of European bungalows and native houses are esti¬ 
 mated at 50,000 florins, and the total costs of the establishment, 
 machinery, and factory buildings at 60,000 florins. 
 
 Clearing and planting of 1,000 bouws at once would be too large 
 an undertaking. It is better to divide this work over three years. 
 
 The results of this scheme can easily be reached when no prolonged 
 droughts are prevailing. 
 
 For Sumatra and the other islands it is necessary to increase the 
 estimates by 25 to 30 per cent under existing conditions. 
 
 About March of each year Messrs. Gijselman & Steup, brokers, 
 of Batavia and Soerabaya, publish a statement giving the most au¬ 
 thoritative figures obtainable of the production of the previous year 
 and an estimate of the forthcoming crop. Their estimates are made 
 on a wide and thorough knowledge of conditions and are considered 
 to be very reliable. 
 
 SHIPMENTS OF COFFEE. 
 
 The ports of shipments of coffee during 1919 and quantities ex¬ 
 ported were as follows: 
 
 Ports. 
 
 Robusta. 
 
 lava 
 
 (Ara- 
 
 bica). 
 
 Liberia. 
 
 All 
 
 others. 
 
 Soerabaya. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 58,716 
 6,117 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 8,139 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 1,025 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 3,909 
 
 Tandjoengpriok, Batavia. 
 
 3' 643 
 
 '472 
 
 4,075 
 
 Semarang. 
 
 5,834 
 
 
 631 
 
 222 
 
 Pasoeroean. 
 
 3' 774 
 
 318 
 
 Banjoewangi. 
 
 l' 348 
 
 
 
 Probolinggo. 
 
 1,208 
 
 
 
 
 Panaroekan. 
 
 1,098 
 
 351 
 
 
 
 Belawan Deli, Sumatra. 
 
 1,715 
 
 519 
 
 858 
 
 
 Tandjoengbalai, Sumatra. 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 Palembang, Sumatra. 
 
 6,543 
 
 70 
 
 99 
 
 
 Sibolga, Sumatra. 
 
 402 
 
 78 
 
 
 Padang, Sumatra. 
 
 1,722 
 
 3,965 
 
 33 
 
 
 Benkoelen, Sumatra. 
 
 127 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 Macassar, Celebes. 
 
 2,187 
 
 42 
 
 16 
 
 
 Menado, Celebes. 
 
 265 
 
 184 
 
 
 Pabeau/Bali. 
 
 715 
 
 
 Benoa, Bali. 
 
 
 104 
 
 
 
 Not shown. 
 
 772 
 
 289 
 
 48 
 
 24 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 89,641 
 
 20,420 
 
 3,398 
 
 i 8,230 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Exported as follows: Netherlands. 1,271 tons; United States, 918 tons; Great Britain, 
 117; France, 897; Scandinavia, 4,795'; Singapore, 230; and all others, 2. 
 
 These ports draw on a very wide hinterland, and the figures indi¬ 
 cate only in a broad way the localities of production. 
 
 In pre-war years and up to 1915 the coffee crops were shipped 
 within the year following production, but the lack of tonnage in 
 1917 and 1918 made it impossible to ship in those years. The 1917 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
 
 129 
 
 crop was not off the market until 1919, and some of the 1918 crop was 
 held over to 1920. 
 
 EXPORTS OF ROBUSTA COFFEE. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of Robusta coffee, by coun¬ 
 tries, and also that part shipped from Java and Madoera and from 
 the Outer Possessions: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 4,270 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 2,917 
 
 260 
 
 218 
 
 Metric tons. 
 18,335 
 44 
 12 
 
 Metric tons. 
 3,747 
 280 
 
 Metric tons. 
 34,225 
 23,754 
 3,818 
 9,343 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 France. 
 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 194 
 
 154 
 
 5,346 
 1,944 
 249 
 1,462 
 8,718 
 29 
 15 
 62 
 165 
 331 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Canada. 
 
 
 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 90 
 
 25 
 
 597 
 
 74 
 
 3,370 
 
 21 
 
 311 
 
 1,571 
 783 
 434 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 243 
 
 902 
 
 33 
 
 240 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 8,943 
 
 19,529 
 
 10,671 
 
 89,461 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 8,437 
 
 506 
 
 16,807 
 2,722 
 
 9,890 
 
 781 
 
 78,522 
 10,939 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 EXPORTS OF JAVA (ARABICA) COFFEE. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of Java (Arabica) coffee, 
 by countries, for Java and Madoera and for the Outer Possessions 
 separately: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Netherlands: 
 
 Java and Madoera . 
 
 Metric tons. 
 2,639 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,320 
 
 Metric tons. 
 339 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 2 350 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 1, 539 
 
 3, 353 
 
 26 
 
 
 3,245 
 
 United States: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 93 
 
 505 
 
 21 
 
 2,707 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 1,068 
 
 410 
 
 1,419 
 
 851 
 
 2' 243 
 
 Great Britain: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 214 
 
 7 
 
 75 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 59 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 118 
 
 France: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 923 
 
 
 
 96 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 215 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Germany: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 51 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 85 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scandinavia: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 75 
 
 
 145 
 
 348 
 
 6,485 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 601 
 
 
 l' 043 
 
 Other Europe: 
 
 Java ana Madoera. 
 
 521 
 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 64 
 
 
 
 
 Singapore: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 396 
 
 61 
 
 402 
 
 142 
 
 659 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 1,064 
 
 434 
 
 560 
 
 460 
 
 995 
 
 Penang: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 6 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 8 
 
 Hongkong: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 66 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
130 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Japan: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 8 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1 
 
 Metric tons. 
 27 
 
 Metric tons. 
 15 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 Australia: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 69 
 
 
 229 
 
 99 
 
 120 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 11 
 
 Canada: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 All other: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 391 
 
 1 
 
 54 
 
 6 
 
 137 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 53 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 38 
 
 67 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 10,107 
 
 5,702 
 
 3,801 
 
 1,994 
 
 20,420 
 
 
 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 Java and Madoera.. 
 
 5,293 
 4,814 
 
 1,489 
 
 1,703 
 
 2,098 
 
 645 
 
 12,678 
 7,742 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 4; 213 
 
 1,349 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EXPORTS OF LIBERIA COFFEE. 
 
 In the following table are shown the exports of Liberia coffee, by 
 countries, and also that part shipped from Java and Madoera and 
 from the Outer Possessions: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,292 
 141 
 
 Metric tons. 
 629 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 4 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,225 
 
 United States. 
 
 43 
 
 73 
 
 162 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 166 
 
 12 
 
 
 France. 
 
 4 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 Germany. 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 3 
 
 
 390 
 
 108 
 
 1,211 
 
 3 
 
 757 
 
 137 
 
 Other European. 
 
 82 
 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 415 
 
 321 
 
 190 
 
 116 
 
 Penang. 
 
 416 
 
 49 
 
 32 
 
 15 
 
 Hongkong.. 
 
 3 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 49 
 
 65 
 
 2 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 2,592 
 
 1 119 
 
 716 
 
 402 
 
 3,378 
 
 
 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 1,457 
 
 510 
 
 574 
 
 280 
 
 2,150 
 1,228 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 l' 135 
 
 609 
 
 142 
 
 122 
 
 
 
 Coffee was formerly grown to some extent on the Malay Penin¬ 
 sula, but suffered from the diseases that attacked the coffee of Java 
 and the Philippine Islands. The success of the cultivation of rub¬ 
 ber on the peninsula crowded out this culture, and although there 
 are some few planters who grow it for local consumption, cultiva¬ 
 tion may be said to have ceased. 
 
 TEA. 
 
 The successful cultivation and manufacture of tea dates from 1878 
 (after the Government had given up the monopoly), wdien private 
 planters imported seed from Assam, British India. In 1882 the 
 Soekaboemische Landbouwvereeniging (Soekaboemi Agricultural 
 Society) was organized to further the interests of the member tea 
 planters, and 10 years later the Government established a tea experi¬ 
 mental garden and a laboratory, where scientific research is carried 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 131 
 
 on. Later the planters formed an association under the name of the 
 Thee Expert Bureau, to which samples of tea are sent to be tested 
 and reported upon. 
 
 The Government official statement of areas under tea in Septem¬ 
 ber, 1919, gives the total acreage as 232,813, of which 210,694 acres 
 were in Java and 22,119 in the Outer Possessions. 
 
 There are approximately 350 tea estates in western Java and the 
 Government of Sumatra East Coast, but many of these are grouped 
 in such a way that one factory serves several estates. Most of these 
 estates in Ja<va are in the mountain districts in the Preanger Regen¬ 
 cies and the Residency of Batavia, but there are a few on the higher 
 slopes of the volcanoes in central and eastern Java. In the Sumatra 
 East Coast district are a number of estates in the vicinity of Siantar. 
 
 GRADES OF TEA. 
 
 The grades of tea in the Batavia market are shown in the follow¬ 
 ing list. The prices quoted on the Batavia market on August 14, 
 1919, are given to indicate, roughly, the relative values of these 
 grades. 
 
 [Florin=SO.402; florin cent= of a florin.] 
 
 Grade. 
 
 Price per \ 
 kilo (1.102 
 pounds). 
 
 Orange pekoe, fair to good. 
 
 Florin cents. 
 50 to 60 
 
 Pekoes, fair to good. 
 
 43 to 55 
 
 Pekoe souchongs and souchongs, fair to good. 
 
 43 to 48 
 
 Broken orange pekoes, fair to good... 
 
 45 to 64 
 
 Broken pekoes, fair to good. 
 
 41 to 61 
 
 Broken teas, fair to good. 
 
 32 to 52 
 
 Fannings and dust, clean, colory. 
 
 20 to 50 
 
 
 This range of prices can not be taken as an exact estimate of rela¬ 
 tive values, as it is not natural for broken pekoes to sell at a higher 
 price than the pekoes, but the stronger market for broken teas often 
 puts the price of the poorer styled teas (which are just as good in 
 quality as the whole leaves) at a higher figure than the fancy grades. 
 
 Tea is sold on sample in the Batavia market. The agreement of 
 sale specifies the quantity, estate mark, grade, and price. Quality 
 is specified “ as sample ” unless some other arrangement has been 
 made, which is unusual. Packing is specified, giving the type of 
 chests in which the tea is packed, time and place of delivery, and 
 terms of payment. 
 
 THE TEA MARKET. 
 
 Before the war very little tea was sold on the Java market on firm 
 orders, the custom being to consign, usualty through Java export 
 houses, to Amsterdam and London commission houses. On its arrival 
 in Europe it Avas put into the auctions, which were attended toy all 
 the principal buyers for the world’s markets. Direct shipments 
 were also made to European Russia on orders placed in Holland or 
 in England, and considerable quantities of fannings and dust were 
 
 19878°—23-10 
 
132 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 shipped to China, where they were put into blends of block tea for 
 the Russian markets. This distribution was maintained with varia¬ 
 tions in selling arrangements until early in 1917, when shipping was 
 thoroughly disorganized and the Russian market disappeared en¬ 
 tirely. Early in that year the tea expert in charge of the Thee 
 Expert Bureau was sent to the United States to dispose of 10,000 
 cases which were consigned to him at San Francisco. The success 
 of this venture led to consignments to the United States in 1918 of 
 over 55 per cent of the entire year’s export. The returns from these 
 consignments were satisfactory, considering that all grades of teas 
 were offered on a market accustomed only to whole leaf and nor¬ 
 mally not well disposed to Java teas. The heavy overstocks in 
 America, however, closed that market to the 1919 crop, except for 
 the finest grades of whole leaf, but such sales as were made for actual 
 consumption and the speculator market kept prices at a fairly 
 profitable level until April, 1920, when a sudden break occurred, 
 with a gradual drop from 57-80 florin cents per half kilo for broken 
 orange pekoe on March 25, f. o. b. Java ports, to 35-53 cents on July 1, 
 after which prices were nominal, with but little business offering, the 
 nominal quotations on the Soerabaya market going to 25-38 in De¬ 
 cember. 
 
 While some of the plantations continued to manufacture and con¬ 
 sign to Europe, many of the plantations were forced to stop picking 
 until the latter part of March, 1921, when a market developed for 
 the finest qualities of orange pekoes, pekoes, and broken orange 
 pekoes. These prices induced some of the estates to resume picking 
 pekoe leaves. On April 7, 1921, ordinary to good broken orange 
 pekoes and fine broken orange pekoes were quoted on the Soerabaya 
 market 28-40 and 42-65, respectively, and for these and better grades 
 there was a gradual rise, with slight fluctuations, to 40-50 and 60-85 
 as the year closed, with a reasonable demand. The total export of 
 Java up to September 30, 1921, is shown in the monthly customs 
 returns as 21,755 metric tons, against 33,300 tons for the same period 
 in 1920 and 36,644 tons in 1919. 
 
 The deflation period outlined above was more serious in the tea 
 industry than in any of the other major products of the colony, as 
 prices went far below cost of production. Improvement plans for 
 factories and in methods of transportation that would have involved 
 heavy expenditures for materials were indefinitely postponed and 
 the life of the industry was seriously threatened. As the market 
 recovers and estates resume normal production at profitable prices 
 these plans will be revived, and the expenditure of considerable 
 sums will be necessary for repairs and improvements. 
 
Special Agents Series No. 218. 
 
 FIG. 14—TEA PICKERS, BUITENZORG, JAVA. 
 
Special Agents Series No. 218. 
 
 MENANGKABAU MALAY CHIEF’S HOUSE. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
 
 133 
 
 EXPORTS OF TEA. 
 
 The exports of tea, by countries, are given in the following table, 
 covering the period prior to 1914, showing the gradual growth of 
 the industry and of the markets up to that date: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1905 
 
 1906 
 
 1907 
 
 1908 
 
 1909 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 1913 
 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 United States and Canada... 
 Great Britain. 
 
 6,586 
 
 28 
 
 6,935 
 
 7,107 
 
 9,100 
 
 9,234 
 
 8,529 
 88 
 
 10,273 
 183 
 
 12,770 
 
 172 
 
 12,180 
 
 205 
 
 4,114 
 
 4,962 
 
 4,158 
 
 5,729 
 
 5,572 
 
 5,930 
 
 7,032 
 
 9,620 
 
 7,524 
 
 Russia. 
 
 508 
 
 281 
 
 369 
 
 585 
 
 620 
 
 48 
 
 909 
 
 665 
 
 2,122 
 
 Australia. 
 
 106 
 
 80 
 
 328 
 
 153 
 
 318 
 
 579 
 
 2,531 
 
 2,947 
 
 2,014 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 All other. 
 
 1147 
 
 102 
 
 896 
 
 935 
 
 441 
 
 1,803 
 
 1,398 
 
 827 
 
 283 
 
 145 
 
 93 
 
 425 
 
 90 
 
 452 
 
 1,456 
 
 518 
 
 866 
 
 2,219 
 
 Total. 
 
 11,634 
 
 12,453 
 
 13,283 
 
 16,592 
 
 16,637 
 
 18,433 
 
 22,844 
 
 27,867 
 
 26,547 
 
 1 Probably largely for transshipment to China. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of tea during the period of 
 disorganization of markets and the partial readjustment in 1919: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 Dust. 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 Dust. 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 Dust. 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Netherlands . 
 
 13,653 
 
 19 
 
 19,668 
 
 66 
 
 14,928 
 
 20 
 
 United States. 
 
 231 
 
 5 
 
 358 
 
 35 
 
 348 
 
 15 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 10,139 
 
 46 
 
 13,932 
 
 143 
 
 13,050 
 
 127 
 
 Frannfi .... 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 Other Europe 
 
 111 
 
 8 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 Russia.\. 
 
 1,317 
 
 27 
 
 4,784 
 
 19 
 
 10,923 
 
 27 
 
 China. 
 
 560 
 
 1,638 
 
 1,411 
 
 1,858 
 
 354 
 
 2,903 
 
 British Tndia... 
 
 
 
 137 
 
 
 
 
 Singapore and Penang . 
 
 5io 
 
 
 1,415 
 
 25 
 
 1,018 
 
 
 Australia and New Zealand. .. 
 
 3,386 
 
 31 
 
 3,568 
 
 51 
 
 3,217 
 
 
 Canada. 
 
 121 
 
 3 
 
 192 
 
 14 
 
 51 
 
 
 .All other. 
 
 90 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 30,129 
 
 1,777 
 
 45,541 
 
 2,211 
 
 43,965 
 
 3,092 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 29,932 
 
 1,777 
 
 44,867 
 
 2,211 
 
 42,394 
 
 3,092 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 197 
 
 
 674 
 
 
 1,571 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 vOiuibriv/w* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 Dust. 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 Dust. 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 Dust. 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Netherlands . 
 
 639 
 
 
 
 
 26 968 
 
 35 
 
 United States. 
 
 ' 14,541 
 
 123 
 
 16,5S9 
 
 140 
 
 2,342 
 
 320 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 2,134 
 
 6 
 
 44 
 
 
 14, 043 
 
 120 
 
 France. 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 292 
 
 
 Other Europe. 
 
 9 
 
 
 85 
 
 
 305 
 
 
 Russia. 
 
 8,519 
 
 7 
 
 452 
 
 
 
 
 China. 
 
 369 
 
 2,985 
 
 373 
 
 406 
 
 259 
 
 864 
 
 British India . 
 
 72 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 101 
 
 
 Singapore and Penang . 
 
 630 
 
 i 
 
 2,097 
 
 
 1,213 
 
 
 Australia and New Zealand ... 
 
 5,190 
 
 92 
 
 5,180 
 
 
 6; 624 
 
 666 
 
 Canada . 
 
 2,555 
 
 
 4,161 
 
 
 633 
 
 1 
 
 All other . 
 
 137 
 
 
 391 
 
 
 294 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total . 
 
 34.795 
 
 3,214 
 
 29,411 
 
 546 
 
 53,074 
 
 2,006 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoora . 
 
 33,253 
 
 3,214 
 
 27,189 
 
 546 
 
 48,622 
 
 2,006 
 
 Outer Possessions . 
 
 1,542 
 
 
 2,222 
 
 
 4,452 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3 34 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 TOBACCO. 
 
 Java tobacco is distinct from Sumatra tobacco in quality and in 
 the conditions surrounding its growth and marketing, although 
 there are many points in common. Java tobacco is grown by natives 
 working independently of foreign supervision; by natives working 
 under the supervision of European companies that supply them 
 with seed and contract for their crops in advance; by European 
 planters who lease the land from the natives and hire them to work 
 at day wages; and by European companies leasing large tracts of 
 land from the native sultans and princes, together with the right to 
 the labor of the natives of the district. 
 
 In Sumatra the tobacco is grown on large European-owned es¬ 
 tates, where the labor is recruited from the surrounding country, 
 from China, and especially from Java. (See “Contract labor law, 
 popularly known as Poenale Sanctie,” p. 30.) The contract-labor 
 system permits of the most rigid control of every operation, and 
 tobacco culture there has reached a high stage of development. 
 
 TOBACCO CULTIVATION. 
 
 The cultivation of tobacco by the natives of Java, like most of the 
 native agricultural effort, is carried on with no conscious effort to 
 improve the quality of the product. There may be some indirect 
 influence on the native culture from the “ proof stations ” and Euro¬ 
 pean plantations, but the consensus of opinion in Java is that such 
 differences in quality as exists in the native production are due to the 
 influences of the climate and soil. 
 
 The cultivation of tobacco by Europeans or under their supervi¬ 
 sion is centered in the Residency of Besoeki, the easternmost political 
 division of Java, and in the “Vorstenlanden,” which includes the 
 principalities of Djokjakarta and Soerakarta. While the general 
 process of cultivation is the same in both districts, the underlying 
 conditions of climate, soil, labor, and land tenure are not the same, 
 and the product is of different qualities. 
 
 Land tenure .—The tobacco lands in the Vorstenlanden lie at the 
 foot of the Mirapi Mountain on the south and east of that volcano, 
 with the slope of Mount Lawoe rising on the eastern side. The State 
 Railways and the Netherlands Indies Railways run through the dis¬ 
 trict, and the shorter haul to tidewater at Semarang gives the latter 
 road the bulk of the transportation. 
 
 These lands all belong to the Sultans of Solo and Djokjakarta and 
 to their princes, who have leased them to the plantation companies 
 on terms covering from 12 to 25 years, together with the right to 
 the labor of the native population in exchange for the rice lands 
 which they cultivate. This arrangement is much involved and has 
 been the subject of so much political agitation that the Government 
 has enacted regulations forbidding new leases or extension of present 
 leases under this system. Under the new laws the companies pay 
 rent to the princes for the land actually cultivated and pay cash for 
 their labor, while the natives hire their lands from the princes under 
 regulations designed to relieve them of the injustices to which it was 
 claimed they had been subjected. In Besoeki the land is leased from 
 the natives in the same manner that the sugar growers get their land. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 135 
 
 
 The local population is employed when possible, and a large annual 
 influx of Madurese gives them a convenient reserve for the rush 
 seasons. 
 
 Rotation of crops .—The preparation of the soil begins in April, 
 as soon as the rice crop is off, and is turned back to the natives, theo¬ 
 retically, by January 1. In the Yorstenlanden, under the new regu¬ 
 lations, the companies are given a rebate on their land rental if they 
 turn the land back before that date, and are subject to a heavy fine 
 if they hold it longer. A further strong incentive to finish at this 
 time is the fact that when the lands are held beyond this date the 
 whole cycle of rotation is retarded and the planters will be delayed 
 in putting in their succeeding tobacco crops. This cycle includes one 
 crop of tobacco from April to December and three rice crops requir¬ 
 ing from four to five months to mature, making 24 months in all. In 
 Besoeki three crops of rice are not usually possible, and one crop of 
 maize, beans, or other “poloewidjo” is raised instead. 
 
 SYSTEM OF CULTIVATION IN THE VORSTENLANDEN. 
 
 First operation. —The rice straw remaining on the fields is collected 
 and burned. 
 
 Second operation. —A main drainage ditch is made around the 
 field, leaving space on each side for roadways. These ditches are 
 connected with the Government canal system, or, if the land is on a 
 sharp incline, it is drained into the lower rice fields. 
 
 Third opei'ation. —Secondary ditches are made 150 feet apart, the 
 full length of the field. These are called the 150-foot ditches. 
 
 Fourth operation. —Between the 150-foot ditches cross ditches are 
 made at an interval of 30 feet, called the 30-foot ditches. The small¬ 
 est unit of cultivation is a bed 30 by 50 feet, 16 of which make one 
 bouw (1 bouw=1.7537 acres). 
 
 Fifth operation ( A ).—Two systems of soil working are followed. 
 Under one system the land is plowed with a native plow fitted with 
 an iron point to an approximate depth of 6 inches. 
 
 Sixth operation (A). —As soon as plowing is finished a fertilizer, 
 consisting of cattle manure, leaves, wood ashes, and other village 
 waste (no human manure is contained in this fertilizer), is put on 
 the land in a proportion of 24 cubic meters to a bouw (about 18 
 cubic yards per acre). The supply usually equals the demand. This 
 mixture has about six-tenths of 1 per cent of nitrogen, and a full 
 analysis shows little that will feed the soil. Its peculiarly beneficial 
 qualities are supposed to be in the bacteria which it contains. No 
 artificial manure can take its place, but a combination with sulphate 
 of ammonia produces excellent results when the soil is poor, although 
 on the better soils this manure is all that is required for the best 
 results. 
 
 Seventh operation (A). —After the fertilizer is put on the ground 
 a 15-incli hole is made in one corner of the field and the soil from the 
 adjoining area is patchoeled 1 into it, the native working back and 
 forth across the 30-foot width until the section is finished. 
 
 Fifth operation ( B ).—No plowing is done under this system. The 
 30-foot width is marked off in 3-foot sections. A patchoel depth 
 
 1 A derivative of the word “ patchoel.” a heavy hoe universally used by the natives in 
 place of a spade, rake, or hoe. 
 
136 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 of soil is taken from each alternate section and laid on the adjoining 
 area, after which the subsoil is worked to a depth of 15 inches. 
 When the soil on the adjoining area is thoroughly dry, it is returned 
 to its original place and the operation is repeated on the other half. 
 
 Sixth operation ( B ).—Some estates apply the village manure be¬ 
 fore replacing the soil, while others wait until leveling off, after 
 which it is turned under to a patchoel depth. 
 
 This latter system is preferred by many planters, as it is easier to 
 supervise the workmen. 
 
 Seed beds. —The size of the seed beds is 3 by 10 feet, and for 
 very bouw (If acres) to be planted there are 30 of these beds, one 
 workman taking care of one-third of a bouw, including 10 seed beds. 
 The preparation of these seed beds begins before any other work is 
 done, and by the end of July they are ready for the seed. From 10 
 to 14 days later all or a part of the balance is seeded, according to the 
 plan for transplanting. 
 
 Before seeding, the soil of each bed is given 100 grains of sulphate 
 of ammonia mixed with 100 grains of double superphosphates, or, 
 if it is impossible to get this, with 200 grains of “ JEnkel ” super¬ 
 phosphates. On the poorer soil the use of sulphate of ammonia 
 alone acts as a poison, which is shown in a poorer growth than if none 
 were used. 
 
 Planting—Eighth operation. —The first transplanting is done early 
 in September, 35 days after the first seed beds are set out. The 
 young plants are placed 19 in a row across the 30-foot width and 49 
 rows to the 150 feet of length. Extra plants are put in between the 
 permanent rows for a reserve. 
 
 Tobacco grows quickly, and it is most successful when it receives 
 its moisture at the right time. An effort is made to plant a short 
 time before the rains begin so that the root system will be developed 
 before the rains bring on a rapid leaf growth. In order to have a 
 part of the crop reasonably certain to meet these favorable conditions, 
 planting is done in two and sometimes three sections. In the latter 
 case the last planting is either a fifth or a tenth of the whole, as it 
 has the smallest chance of getting the best weather conditions. 
 
 Ninth operation. —Within 15 days of planting the weak or dead 
 plants are replaced b}^ the reserves, and at this time from 4 to 6 
 grams of dry sulphate of ammonia are given to each plant. This 
 work is done by women, one of whom makes a hole near the plant 
 with a pointed stick, while another measures the fertilizer and puts 
 it in the hole, covering it with soil. No phosphates are used except 
 in the seed beds. 
 
 Tenth operation. —Continued cultivation of the soil is done after 
 the young plants are set, and as they grow the soil is banked against 
 them to stimulate root development. 
 
 The only serious pest is the caterpillar. In Besoeki the leaves, 
 while still in the nursery, are given a wash of lead arsenate, which 
 is usually sufficient protection. In the Vorstenlanden the caterpillars 
 are picked from the leaves by women and children. 
 
 Sulphate of copper is used to cure root diseases. 
 
 Labor. —In the Vorstenlanden an area equal to the area under 
 tobacco cultivation is set aside for native cultures. The laborer is 
 required to give an amount of time to the tobacco culture equal to 
 that used in the cultivation of rice. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 137 
 
 In the Residency of Besoeki the population is largely Madoerese. 
 Men are paid according to their skill in the work they have to do. 
 
 JAVA TOBACCO GRADES. 
 
 Java leaf wrapper tobacco is either consigned to the estates’ agents 
 in Holland or sold direct by the estates. American buyers have 
 shown an interest in Java leaf during the past few years and visit 
 the principal centers yearly to make their selections. The “Amer¬ 
 ican assortment ” contains only the largest leaves of fine texture and 
 light color. This grade is not sold on the Soerabaya market, as it 
 is only grown by the estates under European control. Each estate 
 growing wrapper tobacco has its own trade-mark, which is recog¬ 
 nized in the markets. 
 
 American buyers are interested in only the finest of the wrapper 
 tobaccos, and practically everything in Java that comes within the 
 specifications of the “American assortment ” goes to the United 
 States, while the balance goes principally to Holland. 
 
 Krossak, or scrubs, is leaf tobacco of grades lower than wrapper 
 tobaccos. It is mostly of native cultivation and is graded exactly 
 according to size, texture, and color. 
 
 Krossak grades .—Grade A A comprises only the longest leaves, 
 excluding moist and unsound qualities; grade A, long leaves, with 
 some shorts permitted, and slightly thicker and darker colors; and 
 grades B B, B, C C, and C are graduated in size and quality down 
 to D grades. The minimum length of leaves in these lowest grades, 
 D D and D, is a span. There is no definite limit to the thickness or 
 shade; it is only when the leaves are nearly black that they may be 
 rejected. 
 
 Assortments must have 65 per cent up to grade, while 35 per cent 
 may be of lower grades. Within these grades are many subdivisions, 
 so that there are literally hundreds of grades known to the buyers 
 The above grades are qualified as a whole by the district in which 
 they are grown. 
 
 Gekorven is a stripped and cut tobacco used by the natives and 
 when exported goes either to Holland or to the near-by oriental 
 countries. It is made up of leaves that will not go into the krossak 
 grades to good advantage, but are of fairly good quality. It is 
 stripped and cut; hence the name “ gekorven,” meaning cut. There 
 is considerable labor attached to its preparation, which is account¬ 
 able for the higher price at which it is appraised by the customs. 
 
 Madoera tobacco is grown on an island of the same name, lying 
 east of Java and separated from it by a narrow strait. Tobacco 
 from Madoera stands as high as any in the krossak grades. The 
 superior quality is due to the climatic and soil conditions. During 
 the past few j^ears it has brought better prices than formerly, as 
 some of its grades are used for the manufacture of cigarettes. 
 
 Besoeki Residency, including Djember district, is the most eastern 
 of Java’s political divisions. The tobacco from this residency, 
 which bears its name, is grown in the lowlands between Mount 
 Raoeng and Mount Argopoero and is among the best of the “ scrubs.” 
 Besides the native cultivation there are large areas under European 
 control which produce the finer types of leaf tobacco. An important 
 
138 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 tobacco proof station is located at Djember, in the center of the 
 tobacco district. 
 
 Loemadjang tobacco takes the name of a town in the eastern part 
 of the Residency of Pasoeroean, which is the center of a tobacco- 
 growing district lying at the foot of the southeastern slope of Smeroe 
 Mountain. The quality of the tobacco raised here ranks with that 
 of Madoera and with the lower grades of Besoeki. 
 
 Malang tobacco comes from the district lying to the east of Smeroe 
 Mountain, the center of which is the town of Malang. The eleva¬ 
 tion of this land is somewhat higher than that on which the above- 
 named tobaccos are grown. The quality is poorer, which is undoubt¬ 
 edly partly due to climatic differences. 
 
 Kediri tobacco is grown on the lower stretches of the Kloet and 
 Wilis Mountains. It ranks with Malang tobacco, among the poorest 
 of the “scrubs.” 
 
 Rembang tobacco is grown in almost every part of the residency 
 of that name. The bulk of the krossak going through the Soera- 
 baya market comes from this district and is of the lowest grade. 
 
 Kedoe tobacco is grown on the lower slopes of Merapi and Merbaboe 
 Mountains on the east and Soembing and Sendoro Mountains on the 
 west, in the Residency of Kedoe. Its quality is between that of the 
 first-named group and of those of Rembang, Kediri, and Malang. 
 The better grade produced here has been attributed to a favorable 
 climate and soil and to better seed being used. 
 
 In the principalities of Djokjakarta and Soerakarta very exten¬ 
 sive cultivation of tobacco is carried on by European-controlled 
 estates operating in an association which maintains a proof station 
 with a scientific staff. 
 
 EXPORTS OF TOBACCO. 
 
 Exports of tobacco from Java and Madoera, exclusive of Deli 
 leaf, are shown in the following table: 
 
 Countries of destination. 
 
 1913 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Netherlands: 
 
 Leaf . 
 
 Metric tons. 
 17,759 
 42,551 
 
 Metric tons. 
 17,644 
 53,579 
 
 Metric tons. 
 770 
 4,835 
 
 497 
 
 85 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 28,433 
 47,045 
 
 329 
 
 Krossak . 
 
 
 United States: 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 400 
 
 108 
 
 Krossak . 
 
 
 
 Germany: 
 
 Krossak. 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 Great Britain: 
 
 Leaf . 
 
 
 
 
 419 
 3,445 
 
 886 
 
 1,133 
 
 840 
 8,517 
 
 69 
 
 1,046 
 
 31 
 
 165 
 
 565 
 
 Krossak. 
 
 
 
 
 
 France: 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 
 
 562 
 
 
 Krossak. 
 
 
 
 
 Belgium: 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Krossak.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Italy: 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Krossak. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Switzerland: 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Krossak . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spain: 
 
 Krossak . 
 
 
 
 
 858 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 139 
 
 Countries of destination. 
 
 1913 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Scandinavian countries: 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 294 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 488 
 
 Krossak. 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 1,043 
 
 4,045 
 
 Port Said for orders: 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 
 
 791 
 
 Canada: 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 Krossak. 
 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 Japan: 
 
 Krossak. 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 Singapore: 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 
 227 
 
 64 
 
 Krossak. 
 
 46 
 
 
 54 
 
 26 
 
 Hongkong: 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 Krossak. 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 China: 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 Krossak. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 Australia: 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 32 
 
 49 
 
 37 
 
 Krossak... 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 27 
 
 73 
 
 All other: 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 Krossak. 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 34 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 60,409 
 
 71,229 
 
 6,890 
 
 3,242 
 
 98,459 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total exports of: 
 
 Leaf. 
 
 17,792 
 42,617 
 
 17,650 
 53,579 
 
 1,878 
 
 1,061 
 2,181 
 
 32,392 
 
 Krossak. 
 
 5,012 
 
 66,067 
 
 Gekorven 1 . 
 
 381 
 
 771 
 
 354 
 
 202 
 
 339 
 
 
 Grand total. 
 
 60,790 
 
 72,000 
 
 7,244 
 
 3,444 
 
 98,798 
 
 
 
 
 1 The details of the exports of “gekorven” are not given; this trade is with the Netherlands and oriental 
 
 ports. 
 
 Inspection .—Many fires at sea have been caused by spontaneous 
 combustion of insufficiently dried or fermented tobacco, and worm- 
 infected tobacco has damaged much sound tobacco in transit, so the 
 insurance and steamship companies have effected an organization to 
 inspect and fumigate all tobacco exported from Java. 
 
 Brokers .—In the Soerabaya market, where most of the lower 
 grades are sold, transactions are usually routed through brokers. 
 (For brokerage rates see “Brokers and brokerages,” p. 36G.) 
 
 DELI LEAF. 
 
 • • # 
 
 Deli leaf is raised in and near the district of Deli, in the Govern¬ 
 ment of Sumatra East Coast. Ninety per cent of the total produc¬ 
 tion is on estates owned or controlled by the Deli Maatschappij, a 
 Dutch company, and under its direct management. In normal times 
 the whole product is shipped to Holland, where it is sold to buyers 
 offering the highest prices in sealed bids, and practically all of the 
 best grades go ultimately to the United States. The war seriously 
 disturbed this system of marketing, and during 1917, 1918, and 1919 
 shipments were made direct from Belawan Deli to the United States, 
 but in 1920 and 1921 the old market conditions were reestablished. 
 
140 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The production of Deli leaf, in metric tons and in bales of 80 kilos, 
 and the exports from 1914 to 1920 were as follows: 
 
 Year. 
 
 Production 
 in bales. 
 
 Production 
 in metric 
 tons. 
 
 Exports, 
 
 metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 1914. 
 
 246,538 
 
 232,900 
 
 0) 
 
 259,525 
 
 266,000 
 
 2 153,000 
 
 2 146,520 
 
 19,723 
 18,633 
 0) 
 
 20,762 
 21,289 
 212,240 
 
 211,721 
 
 16,730 
 20,811 
 20,750 
 4,888 
 3,969 
 37,226 
 0) 
 
 1915. 
 
 1916. 
 
 1917. 
 
 1918.... 
 
 1919. 
 
 1920. 
 
 
 1 Not known. J Approximately. 
 
 The Deli Maatschappij maintains a large scientific establishment 
 at Medan for experimental work and for analysis of soils and sup¬ 
 plies. 
 
 Grades of Deli tobacco (Sumatra leaf ).—The following grades 
 were submitted by the Deli Maatschappij for Sumatra leaf, the 
 figure 1 representing more than 15 inches and the figure 2 repre¬ 
 senting 12 to 15 inches: LY, VI, and Y2, light fallow (grayish) ; 
 VV1 and VV2, dark fallow (grayish) ; Ll and L2, light; LBl and 
 LB2, light brown; Fl and F2, dead fallow; Bl and B2, brown; 
 K1 and K2, dead. 
 
 CROP RESTRICTION, COSTS, AND SELLING PRICES. 
 
 The normal tobacco crop of the Sumatra East Coast district is 
 approximately 250,000 bales of 80 kilos each. In 1919 and 1920 it 
 was agreed by the planters to restrict production to 150,000 bales, 
 but the high prices received for those crops w T ere so satisfactory 
 that a decision was reached to resume normal production. 
 
 The cost of production of the 1920 crop was estimated at $0.54 
 (1.40 florins) per half kilo laid down at Belawan Deli, exclusive 
 of taxation, and the cost laid down at Amsterdam, all in, at $0.80. 
 The 1920 crop brought from 7 to 8 florins per half kilo at Amster¬ 
 dam for average American assortments and the finer grades went 
 at 10 florins and higher. 
 
 In 1920 .there were 41,003 acres under cultivation in the district, 
 of which 38,620 were under the control of the Deli Maatschappij. 
 
 Following are the exports of tobacco from the Outer Possessions 
 and Deli leaf shipped from Java and Madoera: 
 
 Countries of destination. 
 
 1913 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Deli leaf: 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 24,553 
 
 Metric tons. 
 20,740 
 
 Metric tons. 
 2,870 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 26,055 
 2,209 
 2,567 
 3,505 
 164 
 
 United States. 
 
 1,214 
 
 1,896 
 
 530 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 
 309 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 
 Seandinavia. 
 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 410 
 
 8 
 
 43 
 
 1,314 
 
 27 
 
 1,060 
 
 1,451 
 
 48 
 
 Penang. 
 
 782 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 28 
 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Australia. . .. 
 
 
 
 69 
 
 64 
 
 All other. 
 
 3 
 
 
 26 
 
 11 
 
 103 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Deli leaf. 
 
 25,776 
 
 239 
 
 20,750 
 
 4,487 
 
 3,969 
 
 37,226 
 
 Other than Deli leaf_ 
 
 ' 757 
 
 355 
 
 Gekorven (cut tobacco). 
 
 1,025 
 
 869 
 
 769 
 
 637 
 
 774 
 
 
 
 
 Total exports . 
 
 27,040 
 
 22,376 
 
 5,611 
 
 4,606 
 
 38,000 
 
 
 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 141 
 
 All of the Deli leaf is grown in the Government of the East Coast 
 of Sumatra. A tobacco of poor quality is grown in Padang, on the 
 West Coast, and in the Residency of Palembang, all of which is 
 cut and shipped out as “ gekorven,” mostly to near-by countries. 
 The islands of Bali and Lombok, both in the Outer Possessions, grow 
 tobacco, most of which finds its market through Soerabaya and is 
 included in the export returns of Java and Madoera. Tobacco is 
 grown on other islands of the archipelago, and it is either consumed 
 locally or finds its way to outside markets through Java or the ports 
 mentioned above. 
 
 TAPIOCA. 
 
 The volcanic soils of Java are particularly suited to the cultivation 
 of the cassava plant from which tapioca is made, and a large exten¬ 
 sion of its cultivation is possible. The cassava root is one of the 
 native foods and is generally grown throughout Java as well as in 
 a large part of Sumatra. 
 
 The cultivation of tapioca is very largely carried on by natives, 
 who sell that part of their product not wanted for their own consump¬ 
 tion to Chinese millers. The mills are all known to the brokers, 
 exporters, and other buyer’s in Batavia and Soerabaya, and samples 
 of their products are on file w T ith the larger dealers for comparison 
 with lots coming forward for export. Tapioca is sold on the mill 
 mark and the quality is checked by these standard samples. 
 
 The Preanger Regencies, the mountain residency of west Java, 
 produce the largest quantity of flour tapioca, which finds its outlet 
 through Batavia’s port. This is almost entirely a native culture and 
 is milled by Chinese. A few very large plantations have been de¬ 
 veloped in east Java with mills in connection. 
 
 GRADES. 
 
 In the local markets are dozens of qualities known to the trade, 
 based on the factory mark, and graded according to color, grit, and 
 fineness. The first manufacture of tapioca is into a fine flour, from 
 which flake and pearl tapioca are made. 
 
 The principal grade divisions of flour, which is the staple tapioca 
 product, are as follows: 
 
 Prime .—A white flour with a very distinct “ grit.” 
 
 Seconds .—Distinctly inferior to “ prime ” in both color and grit. 
 The larger mills make only these two grades, lower grades being 
 given or sold to the natives for food. American buyers are inter¬ 
 ested in the above grades only. 
 
 Thirds —Still poorer in color and have none of the grit which is 
 a test for the good flours. 
 
 Grade B3 .—The lowest grade of flour salable in European mar¬ 
 kets. An embargo has been placed on the export of this grade, but 
 it is said that it has generally been evaded by the smaller mills. 
 
 The last two grades mentioned went to Europe before the war. 
 
 Kampong .—This is the very lowest grade and is sold locally for 
 native consumption. 
 
 Each mill’s product is valued by the buyers on its past output, 
 and a lowering of grade is noticed at once and reflects on the price 
 offered for future deliveries. 
 
142 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The finest grades are produced by the Hanclelsvereeniging Am¬ 
 sterdam’s two mills at Malang and Kediri, under the mark “ Boemi 
 Ajoe I”; by the Apacar & Co.’s mill at Kediri, under the mark 
 “ Galoean XXX ”; and by the Chinese-owned mill at Malang, 
 under the mark “ Krebet Xo. 1.” 
 
 CULTIVATION AND MILLING OF TAPIOCA. 
 
 In east Java tapioca is cultivated by European companies operating 
 large estates and mills. The product of these estates is very much 
 superior to that produced in the Preanger Regencies. The following 
 is a description of the process of cultivation and manufacture as 
 seen on one of the largest tapioca estates in Java making one of the 
 standard grades. 
 
 Tapioca is planted throughout the year. Plowing to a depth of 
 about 6 inches is done with a native plow shod with an iron point 
 or with a two-handled English plow of light iron construction, suited 
 to the native physique. 
 
 Many varieties of plants are cultivated, selected to suit the quality 
 of the soil. Pieces of the stalk are cut about 10 inches long and 
 planted upright in rows at intervals of ~3 by 4 feet. The soil is 
 lightly cultivated until the plants are too large for the cattle to 
 walk between the rows. It takes from 11 to 13 months for tapioca 
 to mature in the lowlands of Java, and the planters leave it from 2 
 to 3 months longer, as the best flour is made from roots that are 
 overripe. 
 
 When the roots are pulled they are transported by carts and a 
 light railway to the mill, where they are first put into the rasper, 
 a circular grater revolving at high speed, which grinds them to a 
 powder. After leaving the rasper the product is carried by a 
 stream of water through two revolving cylinders of about 5 feet in 
 diameter by 15 feet long with a slight downward pitch. The first 
 of these is covered with brass wire screen through which the flour 
 passes, while the coarser particles pass out of the lower end of the 
 cylinder and are carried away by a stream of water to the refuse 
 heap. The flour then is separated into two grades by passing through 
 a cylinder similar to the first but covered with coarse cotton cloth 
 and goes to settling tanks as Xo. 1 and Xo. 2 flour. The success of 
 this screening process depends on the regulation of the flow of water. 
 
 First-grade flour settles in about four hours, while the second 
 grade takes longer. From the settling tanks the first grade is taken 
 to an agitator tank, where it goes through a washing process, and 
 after resettling is taken to the drying room, which is kept at a tem¬ 
 perature of 42° C. When dry it falls through the wire tra} 7 s on 
 which it is placed and is taken by conveyors to the flour room, where 
 it passes through a silk screen and is then ready for sacking. 
 
 It was claimed that no chemicals were used except ordinary wash¬ 
 ing soda for cleaning the tanks. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
 
 143 
 
 EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF TAPIOCA. 
 
 The following table shows the exports from Java and Madoera of 
 flour tapioca by countries: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 4,497 
 22,372 
 15,056 
 1,504 
 190 
 
 Metric tons. 
 227 
 31,473 
 7,549 
 58 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 20,401 
 44,020 
 16,147 
 3,016 
 46 
 
 Metric tons. 
 6,600 
 30,354 
 18,824 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 7,577 
 
 France. 
 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 *. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 
 2,073 
 
 236 
 
 
 Other European. 
 
 168 
 
 26 
 
 6,020 
 1,710 
 1,2S2 
 369 
 43 
 
 96 
 
 563 
 
 292 
 
 6,992 
 
 1,602 
 
 
 British India. 
 
 20 
 
 4,984 
 
 2,419 
 
 181 
 
 306 
 
 452 
 
 Penang and Singapore. 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 7,093 
 
 2,896 
 
 476 
 
 321 
 
 109 
 
 5,816 
 2,781 
 1,132 
 85 
 92 
 
 China. 
 
 149 
 
 146 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total, Java and Madoera. 
 
 53,237 
 
 50,298 
 
 19,792 
 
 93,374 
 
 64,140 
 
 Java and Madoera export figures for flake tapioca are shown in 
 the following table: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,036 
 2,210 
 4,734 
 2,134 
 209 
 82 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,055 
 1,776 
 5,679 
 >9,479 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 412 
 
 342 
 
 2,446 
 
 105 
 
 365 
 
 United States. 
 
 6,236 
 2,770 
 3,540 
 
 2,514 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 France. 
 
 893 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Other European. 
 
 
 2 
 
 45 
 
 1,119 
 
 10 
 
 106 
 
 108 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 1 
 
 460 
 
 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 77 
 
 1,671 
 
 86 
 
 69 
 
 129 
 
 37 
 
 55 
 
 Hongkong... 
 
 All other. 
 
 5 
 
 
 Total, Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 10, 487 
 
 13,007 
 
 4,797 
 
 19,815 
 
 3,891 
 
 
 Exports of pearl tapioca from Java and Madoera were as follows: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918- 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric ions. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 151 
 
 
 
 323 
 
 1, 409 
 
 United States... 
 
 58 
 
 2,751 
 
 829 
 
 1, 767 
 
 862 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 414 
 
 1,129 
 
 324 
 
 3,449 
 
 2,704 
 
 France. 
 
 91 
 
 
 126 
 
 306 
 
 17 
 
 Germany. 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 Other Enronean_ 
 
 
 
 107 
 
 2,613 
 
 77 
 
 Australia. 
 
 587 
 
 676 
 
 1, 482 
 
 Janan__ 
 
 
 66 
 
 1, 460 
 
 
 Penang and Singapore. 
 
 28 
 
 325 
 
 814 
 
 580 
 
 622 
 
 Honekon?_ _ 
 
 
 20 
 
 84 
 
 96 
 
 68 
 
 All other'_ 
 
 
 370 
 
 
 89 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 778 
 
 4, 812 
 
 3, 396 
 
 11, 594 
 
 7,354 
 
 Brokers .—Exporters buy through brokerage houses, some of which 
 specialize in tapioca, and their knowledge of the qualities enables 
 them to render a valuable service to the trade. 
 
144 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The following table shows the imports of tapioca into the Straits 
 Settlements for 1919 in Singapore dollars ($0,567 at mint par U. S.) : 
 
 Countries of origin. 
 
 Flake, 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Pearl. 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Federated Malay States. 
 
 Non-Federated Malay States. 
 
 Java. 
 
 S$103, 494 
 1, 445, 077 
 410, 423 
 1,550 
 
 S$131,124 
 321,648 
 357, 897 
 
 S$l, 656 
 654,256 
 
 S$2, 552 
 4,128 
 1,108,739 
 
 S$18,692 
 387, 520 
 35, 042 
 3, 530 
 
 All other. 
 
 36,655 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 1, 960, 544 
 
 810, 669 
 
 692, 567 
 
 1,115, 419 
 
 444,784 
 
 The Non-Federated Malay States, chiefly Johore and Kedah, pro¬ 
 duced 56 per cent of the total exports, the Federated Malay States 
 5 per cent, and 39 per cent was imported from the Netherlands East 
 Indies. 
 
 The Malay Peninsula is not so important in the production of 
 tapioca as formerly. Like many other products, tapioca has given 
 away to rubber culture to a large extent in the Malay Peninsula. 
 
 Formerly there was a large production in the country tributary to 
 Muar, on the west coast of the State of Johore, in Malacca, and in 
 the neighborhood of Penang. To-day there is a remnant of the once, 
 extensive culture of this product in the Muar district and some cul¬ 
 tivation on a large scale in Kedah, besides a small native cultivation 
 throughout the peninsula. The quality of the Johore tapioca is su¬ 
 perior to that grown in other parts of the peninsula. 
 
 Exports of tapioca from the Straits Settlements for 1919 by ports 
 and countries, in Straits dollars, were as follows: 
 
 Countries of destination. 
 
 Flake, 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Pearl. 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 United States. 
 
 S$74,912 
 
 2,066,893 
 
 10,365 
 
 1,079 
 
 SJ184.851 
 
 1,186,735 
 
 3,824 
 
 S*l,170^300 
 3,548,300 
 1,488,148 
 45,488 
 10,311 
 
 SS62,632 
 41,927 
 194,370 
 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 SS43,376 
 255,497 
 
 British India and Burma. 
 
 Ceylon. 
 
 Federated Malay States. 
 
 1,016 
 
 58,299 
 14,486 
 
 19,996 
 
 1,507 
 
 Non-Federated Malay States. 
 
 5,429 
 
 2,040 
 
 1,127 
 
 11,250 
 
 Canada..*. 
 
 46,869 
 46,357 
 33,009 
 8,030 
 2,274 
 3,498 
 7,282 
 75,558 
 81,321 
 14,280 
 8, S6S 
 
 364,440 
 433,528 
 
 Australia. 
 
 6,017 
 
 
 Union of South Africa. 
 
 
 New Zealand. 
 
 27,465 
 92,3S7 
 
 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 
 223,336 
 
 116,399 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 7,846 
 8,400 
 180,733 
 28,560 
 7,696 
 
 7,500 
 
 
 
 Denmark.. 
 
 
 
 France. 
 
 
 40,863 
 
 
 Italy. 
 
 
 
 N etherlands. 
 
 
 
 
 Norway. 
 
 48,700 
 2,400 
 3,622 
 
 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 
 
 
 
 China. 
 
 1,200 
 
 1,510 
 
 26,436 
 19,963 
 10,831 
 3.625 
 9,5S1 
 11,220 
 19,170 
 37,869 
 22,569 
 
 8,410 
 
 Japan. 
 
 French Indo-China. 
 
 
 22,780 
 
 2,056 
 
 41,973 
 
 4,678 
 
 
 Borneo. 
 
 
 
 Java. 
 
 
 
 
 Sumatra. 
 
 
 15,840 
 
 5,460 
 
 Philippines. 
 
 
 5,594 
 
 64,794 
 
 4,891 
 
 Siam*. *.. 
 
 
 3,139 
 
 306 
 
 4,180 
 
 25 
 
 All other. 
 
 1,737 
 
 Total. 
 
 2,409,267 
 
 1,847,370 
 
 7,266,552 
 
 803,194 
 
 454,850 
 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 145 
 
 Great Britain took 85 per cent of the flake, 53 per cent of the 
 pearl, and 7 per cent of the flour; the United States took less than 
 one-half per cent of the flake, 15 per cent of the pearl, and less than 
 one-half per cent of the flour; continental Europe bought consider¬ 
 able quantities of both flake and pearl; and Hongkong and British 
 India and Burma were the principal purchasers of flour. 
 
 SAGO. 
 
 The larger Dutch ports do very little business in sago. It is a 
 product of fresh-water swamps or wet lands, and the exports are 
 grown in eastern Sumatra, western Borneo, and the islands of the 
 Riouw Archipelago lying between those main islands. The sago 
 palm grows in all parts of the colony and is the staple food product 
 in the islands lying to the east of Celebes, but, as the supplies avail¬ 
 able in the neighborhood of Singapore are sufficient for the world’s 
 demands, little of the products of the eastern islands is exported. 
 
 Exports of sago from the Netherlands Indies for 1913, 1915, 1918, 
 and 1919 are shown below. Practically all of the export is taken 
 to the Singapore refineries in small Chinese-owned steamers or in 
 sailing vessels. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1915 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Raw. 
 
 Refined. 
 
 Raw. 
 
 Refined. 
 
 Raw., 
 
 Refined. 
 
 Raw. 
 
 Refined. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 560 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 10 
 
 51 
 
 99 
 
 7,360 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 United States. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 393 
 
 3,805 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 9,122 
 
 8,938 
 
 6,953 
 
 3,633 
 
 108 
 
 1 
 
 13,704 
 
 11,145 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 83 
 
 14 
 
 97 
 
 
 462 
 
 117 
 
 10 
 
 9,205 
 
 4,772 
 
 9,035 
 
 7,520 
 
 7,415 
 
 3,742 
 
 13, 821 
 
 11,155 
 
 The following table shows the imports of raw and washed sago 
 into the Straits Settlements for 1919 in Straits dollars ($0,567 at 
 mint par U. S.) : 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Pearl, 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Raw. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Labuan. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Labuan. 
 
 British North Borneo. 
 
 S$2,400 
 
 S$273,610 
 
 S$78, 512 
 32, 097 
 13, 595 
 
 
 
 Brunei. 
 
 
 S*l, 384 
 
 Sarawak. 
 
 
 3,442,132 
 17,140 
 157, 464 
 4,536 
 3, 870,044 
 8,000 
 1,050 
 494 
 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 1,200 
 
 6,940 
 
 2,350 
 
 722 
 
 
 
 Non-Federated Malay States.*.. 
 
 
 S$77,564 
 
 
 China. 
 
 
 
 Dutch possessions. 
 
 
 459,385 
 
 
 Japan.*.. 
 
 
 
 Siam. 
 
 
 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 722 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 14, 334 
 
 7,774, 470 
 
 124, 204 
 
 536,949 
 
 1,384 
 
 
 The production of sago on the Malay Peninsula is negligible. 
 Sarawak and the Dutch islands lying between Borneo and Sumatra 
 
146 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 to the south of Singapore (the Riouw Archipelago) are the principal 
 sources of imports. Sarawak sago is shipped either direct to Singa¬ 
 pore or via Labuan, and is received ready for export as flour. Riouw 
 sago is received either raw or in a partially prepared condition and 
 has to be rewashed before being exported as flour. 
 
 Sago is collected from the producers through the Chinese retailers 
 in the districts of production and then goes to the larger dealers at 
 the ports, who consign it to their connections in Singapore. Such 
 sago as has to be rewashed for export is sold to the sago millers, some 
 12 to 15 of whom were operating in 1921, who prepare it for export 
 either as flour or pearl sago. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of sago from the Straits 
 Settlements for 1919 in Straits dollars: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Pearl, all 
 ports. 
 
 Flour, all 
 ports. 
 
 United States. 
 
 S$7,050 
 733,506 
 89,818 
 25,876 
 9,022 
 18,341 
 1,428 
 1,105 
 1,620 
 44,017 
 6,653 
 2,089 
 50,444 
 
 S$201,691 
 6,146,579 
 1,028,270 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 British India and Burma. 
 
 Ceylon. 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 44,471? 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 18,693 
 
 Mauritius. 
 
 Union of South Africa. 
 
 
 French Indo-China. 
 
 6,052 
 32,752 
 1,288 
 12,241 
 221,476 
 178,703 
 501,090 
 1,086,675 
 215,618 
 18,480 
 40,064 
 107,451 
 30,836 
 
 Netherlands Indies. 
 
 Philippines. 
 
 Siam... 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 
 France. 
 
 
 Italy. 
 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 
 Norway. 
 
 
 Spain... 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 350 
 
 Total. 
 
 991,319 
 
 9,892,431 
 
 
 Of the total exports the United Kingdom took 63 per cent, British 
 India and Burma 10 per cent, and the United States less than 2 per 
 cent. Continental Europe was a large buyer of flour, Italy alone 
 taking 11 per cent of the total exports. 
 
 QUININE AND CINCHONA BARK. 
 
 In the Netherlands East Indies the cultivation of the cinchona tree 
 dates from about the middle of the nineteenth century. The home of 
 this tree is in Peru and Bolivia, but the supply from those countries 
 was so uncertain and the importance of the product so great that 
 experiments in its cultivation were made in Algeria by the French, 
 in British India, and in the Netherlands East Indies. In Algeria 
 the experiments were a failure and those in British India met with 
 only indifferent success, but in this colony the soil and climatic con¬ 
 ditions were found to be very favorable at altitudes of from 5,000 
 to 6.000 feet in western Java. 
 
 Cultivation .—The young plants are raised from seeds of proven 
 “mother” trees. When 6 months old they are transferred to other 
 nursery beds, and in another 2 months are again transferred. They 
 remain in these latter beds until they are from 2 to 3 feet high, when 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 147 
 
 they are finally planted in the gardens, a term applied in this colony 
 to cultivated plots. Owing'to the steepness of the hills at these high 
 altitudes and to the heavy rains, the land is terraced to aid in plant¬ 
 ing and to retard the erosion of the soil. There is also a system 
 of multiplication by grafting which is preferable, as it better pre¬ 
 serves the type, but even this does not always secure the indentical 
 chemical constitution of the bark, owing to the varying influences 
 of the soil conditions. 
 
 Harvesting .—At the present time the following method of harvest¬ 
 ing is generally in use: Either parts of the plantation containing 
 trees of from 3 to 4 } 7 ears old are cut down, replanting taking place 
 immediately, or on older plantations a thinning-out process is fol¬ 
 lowed. The harvesting of the bark differs according to whether it is 
 to be used for pharmaceutical purposes or for the manufacture of 
 quinine. In the first instance a ring of bark is removed near the 
 base of the stem, and after felling the tree the bark is taken off in 
 pieces of from 10 to 40 inches in length and 10 inches in wddth, care 
 being taken not to disturb the moss with which it is covered, as this 
 gives it a higher commercial value. When it is not necessary to 
 preserve the moss the bark is beaten with a mallet, by which process 
 it is freed from the stem. The cylinders of bark are dried for a time 
 on poles in a shady spot, after which they are put in the sun and 
 finished in a drying room at a temperature of 100° C. Great care 
 is necessary in drying in order to retain the silvery white color 
 desired by the trade. This grade is sold as “ pipe bark,” and that 
 which is taken from the roots and branches is known as “ broken 
 bark.” 
 
 When harvested for manufacturing purposes the bark is removed 
 from the stem, branches, and roots by beating it with a mallet. 
 
 Grades .—The trade recognizes the following grades: Stem bark 
 pipes, first and second quality; damaged pipes; broken pipes and 
 chips. Pipes are packed in cases and the other grades in bags. 
 
 Number of plantations .—The total number of private cinchona 
 plantations in the colony in 1919 was 131, of which 5 were in Su¬ 
 matra and the balance in Java, mostly in the Preanger Regencies. 
 The total area in that year in hectares was as follows (1 hec- 
 tare=2.471 acres) : 
 
 Items. 
 
 Area 
 
 planted. 
 
 ^.rea in pro¬ 
 duction. 
 
 Planted alone. 
 
 Hectares. 
 
 4,768.4 
 7,070.4 
 617.7 
 642.2 
 951.9 
 
 Hectares. 
 4,047.2 
 4,454.3 
 
 609.1 
 
 445.2 
 665.0 
 
 Planted with one other culture. 
 
 Planted with two other cultures. 
 
 Planted with three other cultures. 
 
 Planted with other cultures, mixed. 
 
 Total. 
 
 14,050.6 
 
 11,220.8 
 
 
 Besides the above areas there are large Government-owned plan¬ 
 tations. 
 
 19878°—23-11 
 
148 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 SELLING METHODS. 
 
 Auctions for cinchona bark, held in Amsterdam, show the follow¬ 
 ing results: 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity of bark 
 offered. 
 
 Average 
 per cent of 
 quinine 
 sulphate. 
 
 Quantity of bark sold. 
 
 Average 
 unit 1 of the 
 factory 
 barks 
 officially 
 sold. 
 
 Kilos of 
 bark 
 offered. 
 
 Containing 
 kilos of 
 quinine 
 sulphate. 
 
 Kilos of 
 bark. 
 
 Containing 
 kilos of 
 quinine - 
 sulphate. 
 
 1910. 
 
 8, 841, 753 
 
 532,230 
 
 6.38 
 
 8,573,912 
 
 516,639 
 
 3.15 
 
 1911. 
 
 9,139,662 
 
 569, 954 
 
 6.59 
 
 8, 325,365 
 
 518,624 
 
 3.11 
 
 1912. 
 
 10, 078, 950 
 
 608, 051 
 
 6.33 
 
 6,635, 401 
 
 398,535 
 
 3.81 
 
 1913. 
 
 12, 600,218 
 
 741, 066 
 
 6.12 
 
 7,671,050 
 
 449, 673 
 
 4.91 
 
 1914. 
 
 9, 994, 948 
 
 576, 596 
 
 6.03 
 
 7,375, 874 
 
 418, 739 
 
 6.20 
 
 1915. 
 
 10,609, 610 
 
 635, 296 
 
 6.25 
 
 6,902, 427 
 
 408,691 
 
 6.20 
 
 1916. 
 
 10, 932, 364 
 
 632,670 
 
 6.17 
 
 8,101, 351 
 
 493, 766 
 
 11.40 
 
 1917. 
 
 8, 359, 764 
 
 491, 096 
 
 6.17 
 
 5, 821,250 
 
 353, 251 
 
 
 1918. 
 
 36, 585 
 
 i;364 
 
 4.80 
 
 34:902 
 
 1' 306 
 
 
 1919. 
 
 181' 044 
 
 7; 289 
 
 5.81 
 
 177,434 
 
 7,131 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 The unit is the amount of cents (Netherlands currency) paid per cent quinine sulphate and per half 
 kilo of bark. (The Division of Commerce of the Department of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce 
 states that “ owing to circumstances the average unit for the years 1917-1919 can not be given.”) 
 
 Sale .—Until July, 1913, cinchona bark was sold by public auction 
 in Amsterdam, but, as the war disturbed the supply and demand and 
 prices fell, the producers held a conference with the buyers, “ about 
 eight quinine factories,” which resulted in a combination whereby 
 the factories bound themselves to take up the Java production to a 
 guaranteed quantity of bark containing 525 tons of quinine sulphate 
 at a minimum price of 5 cents (Netherlands currency) per unit, the 
 manufacturers to apply at Amsterdam ten times a year for the 
 quantity of bark each of them desires to receive. A “ control office ” 
 controls the receipts, analyses, and deliveries of bark and fixes the 
 quotations. 
 
 Factory in Java .—The Bandongsche Kinniefabriek at Bandoeng, 
 Java, is the only manufacturer of quinine in the Netherlands Indies. 
 The quantities of quinine sulphate exported from the colony all 
 came from this factory. The following figures show the total exports 
 of quinine from Java since 1910 (kilo=2.204 pounds) : 
 
 1910.. . 
 
 1911.. 
 
 1912.. 
 
 1913. . 
 
 1914. . 
 
 1915. . 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 118, 731 
 100, 459 
 74, 510 
 72, 507 
 61, 964 
 82, 868 
 
 1916 . 
 
 1917 . 
 
 1918 . 
 
 1919 . 
 
 1920 . 
 
 1921 (9 months) 
 
 115,175 
 129, 890 
 252, 626 
 640, 283 
 *418, 861 
 1 389, 000 
 
 The exports of quinine and cinchona bark from Java, by countries, 
 for the years 1913, 1916, and 1918 to 1921 were as follows: 
 
 1 Taken from the monthly returns of Java and Madoera. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
 
 149 
 
 [In metric tons.] 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1916 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 1921 
 
 (9 months 
 only). 
 
 Qui¬ 
 
 nine. 
 
 Bark. 
 
 Qui¬ 
 
 nine. 
 
 Bark. 
 
 Qui¬ 
 
 nine. 
 
 Bark. 
 
 Qui¬ 
 
 nine. 
 
 Bark. 
 
 Qui¬ 
 
 nine. 
 
 Bark. 
 
 Qui¬ 
 
 nine. 
 
 Bark. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 37 
 
 7,829 
 
 29 
 
 8,225 
 
 
 
 202 
 
 679 
 
 20 
 
 3,350 
 
 146 
 
 2,807 
 
 United States. 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 41 
 
 1,156 
 
 66 
 
 J, 743 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 262 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 744 
 
 163 
 
 2,313 
 
 102 
 
 643 
 
 13 
 
 518 
 
 Italy. 
 
 15 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 37 
 
 16 
 
 21 
 
 33 
 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 36 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Greece. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 14 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 South America. 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 7 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 125 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 British South Afiica. 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 British India. 
 
 5 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 60 
 
 18 
 
 74 
 
 223 
 
 55 
 
 39 
 
 161 
 
 168 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 24 
 
 107 
 
 6 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Siam. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 French lndo-China. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Japan... T.. 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 33 
 
 29 
 
 415 
 
 45 
 
 409 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 562 
 
 Philippines. 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 2 
 
 473 
 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 China. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 All other... 
 
 2 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 43 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 \7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 72 
 
 8,127 
 
 115 
 
 8,258 
 
 253 
 
 2,440 
 
 640 
 
 5,404 
 
 418 
 
 4,526 
 
 389 
 
 4,072 
 
 FIBERS. 
 
 KAPOK. 
 
 The following extract is from the Exporters’ Directory and is an 
 official statement of the Netherlands Indies Government relating to 
 kapok and its uses: 
 
 The kapok tree (belonging to the family Bombacete) is to be found through¬ 
 out the ^Netherlands East Indies, but principally in Java, which island is respon¬ 
 sible for about seven-eighths of the total export of kapok from the whole 
 archipelago. 
 
 Java kapok, the well-known vegetable dowrn (also named tree cotton), is ob¬ 
 tained from the fruits of the Ceiba pentranda, L. (Eridendron anfractuosum, 
 I). C.), and is superior to the product from other origins. 
 
 Although the greatest part of the cultivation of this tree is native owned, 
 there are a number of estates under European management interested in it. On 
 these estates the kapok tree is most largely interplanted with cacao and coffee. 
 
 After the pods have been harvested the contents are thoroughly dried and 
 afterwards separated from the seeds. When ready for export the product is 
 usually marked with the district of origin. 
 
 The chamber of commerce at Semarang annually fixes standard samples of 
 superior Java kapok, first quality Java kapok, and fair average Java kapok.' 
 
 Kapok is put to many uses. It is extremely suitable for stuffing of mat¬ 
 tresses, life belts, bandages, etc., but it is also employed for spinning purposes, 
 in the manufacture of felt hats, and in guncotton factories. 
 
 The following extract, also relating to kapok, is from the Nether¬ 
 lands East Indies official brochure, published for distribution at the 
 Panama-Pacific Exposition: 
 
 The kapok tree requires very little care and thrives well when planted in any 
 soil; * * * the common method of propagating is by setting out cuttings 
 
 from the older trees. * * * The kapok trade in Java is almost entirely in 
 
 the hands of European exporters In the principal ports. * * * Kapok is 
 
 also sold and shipped directly to foreign purchasers by European planters, but 
 this represents a very small percentage of the total exports. * * * 
 
150 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 A single mattress of 3 by 6J feet requires: Java kapok, 17.6 to 19.8 pounds; 
 horsehair, 26.4 to 28.6 pounds; seaweed, 33 to 35.2 pounds; crin vegetal, 26.4 to 
 28.6 pounds; wood shavings, 33 to 38 pounds; alpine grass, 25.4 to 28.6 pounds; 
 straw, 28.6 to 82 pounds. 
 
 Kapok absorbs very little moisture, owing to which a mattress stuffed with 
 this material when it becomes damp is soon dried, while the covering stands 
 less chance of rotting away. * * * Java kapok, having great buoyancy, 
 
 can carry twenty to thirty times its own weight in the water. 
 
 Grades .—The Soerabaya Handelsvereenigin^ recognizes the fol¬ 
 lowing broad descriptions: Good clean prime Madoera; good clean 
 prime Porrong; good clean prime East Java, fair average quality 
 of the crop. Within these descriptions are Japara and Siloewak 
 Sawangan, and they are further divided as to quality and freedom 
 from foreign matter as follows: 
 
 First contract .—Fancy grade, with a maximum of \\ per cent of 
 seeds and dirt. 
 
 Second contract .—A good marketable quality, with a maximum of 
 5 per cent of seeds and dirt. 
 
 Third contract .—Lowest quality, with a maximum of 6 per cent 
 of seeds and dirt. 
 
 There are 134 estates in the Netherlands East Indies, nearly all 
 of which are in central and eastern Java, producing some kapok. 
 Some of these estates in the neighborhood of Semarang produce a 
 very fine quality, while others produce inferior qualities. Their 
 product is known in the Semarang and Soerabaya markets and is 
 bought on the “ estate mark.” 
 
 Exporters state that America requires first qualities only, while 
 medium grades go to Europe and the lowest to Australia. 
 
 EXPORTS OF KAPOK. 
 
 In the following table are shown the exports of kapok, by coun¬ 
 tries, from the Netherlands Indies: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 France. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 Other European. 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 Hongkong.. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 New Zealand. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 China. 
 
 Philippines. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Exports from: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 For the whole colony. 
 
 1913 
 
 Metric tons. 
 5,028 
 1,377 
 25 
 10 
 208 
 42 
 19 
 23 
 6S0 
 
 2,110 
 
 617 
 
 10,145 
 
 9,017 
 
 1,128 
 
 1917 
 
 Metric tons. 
 125 
 5,690 
 1,519 
 
 40 
 
 21 
 
 1,094 
 
 2,537 
 
 508 
 
 61 
 
 8 
 
 335 
 
 1 
 
 11,939 
 
 11,690 
 
 249 
 
 1918 
 
 Metric tons. 
 50 
 4,440 
 34 
 
 31 
 
 406 
 
 9 
 
 2,509 
 757 
 88 
 16 
 632 
 56 
 
 9,031 
 
 8,844 
 187 
 
 1919 
 
 Metric tons. 
 3,569 
 9,110 
 1,165 
 
 176 
 
 58 
 
 115 
 1,3S5 
 
 1,688 
 
 61 
 
 147 
 
 54 
 
 17,528 
 
 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 1920 
 
 Metric tons. 
 2,528 
 5,545 
 183 
 ' 33 
 
 95 
 
 17,082 
 446 
 
 34 
 
 268 
 
 3,415 
 
 *"'34' 
 
 70 
 
 12,205 
 
 1921 
 
 (9 months). 
 
 Metric tons. 
 2,996 
 7,071 
 81 
 
 68 
 
 235 
 
 i,034 
 
 183 
 
 54 
 
 11,722 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 151 
 
 The bulk of the exports of kapok is shipped from the ports of 
 Semarang and Soerabaya, shipments from the former port totaling 
 4,081 metric tons in 1913 and 5,686 tons in 1918, while from the lat¬ 
 ter port were shipped 3,580 metric tons in 1913 and 2,950 tons in 
 1918. 
 
 KAPOK CROP SEASONS AND PRINCIPAL PRODUCING DISTRICTS. 
 
 Picking begins in August^September and finishes in February- 
 March of the following year. The first of the new kapok crop 
 reaches the market early in December in normal years. An estimate 
 made by a prominent'exporter for the crop of 1919-20 divided the 
 production as follows: Mid-Java estates, 15,000 piculs, and native, 
 95,000 piculs; east Java estates, 5,000 piculs, and native, 50,000 
 piculs. 
 
 Preparation and packing. —Most of the native kapok crop is 
 bought in the pods from the natives by the Chinese, who prepare it 
 for the market. After being taken from the pods the fiber is beaten 
 with bamboo sticks until it is thoroughly ginned. Some machines are 
 used, but they have not been entirely a success, as it is claimed 
 that the staple is broken in the process. 
 
 Before the war kapok was pressed by hand, about 2^ piculs 
 (340 pounds) to the cubic meter, but the high freight rates brought 
 about power pressing, with 4rJ piculs (612 pounds) to the cubic 
 meter. American buyers at first objected to this heavy pressing, 
 but later their objections were withdrawn. 
 
 Marketing of kapoks —Theoretically, kapok goes from the: 
 Chinese miller to the exporter, but in fact it is handled very largely 
 by brokers in the speculator market, going into warehouse in Sem¬ 
 arang or Soerabaya, the warehouse receipt often changing hands 
 many times. 
 
 There has been a good demand from America, Europe, and Aus¬ 
 tralia for many years, and apparently the product is being appreci¬ 
 ated by manufacturers. A considerable extension of production is 
 possible with slight outlay of effort on the part of the natives. 
 
 AGREEMENT USED ON SOERABAYA KAPOK MARKET. 
 
 The following agreement is used in the transfer of kapok on the 
 Soerabaya market under the ruling of the Soerabayach Handels- 
 vereeniging (Merchants’ Association) : 
 
 Dear Sir: I beg to confirm that I have bought from_ 
 
 and sold to_ 
 
 - bales/piculs 
 
 Well-refined Prima Madoera_ 
 
 Well-refined Prima Porrong_ 
 
 Well-refined Prima East Java F. A. Q_out of crop 
 
 19_on the following conditions: 
 
 1. Price and payment .—The price is fixed on_per picul net. Payments 
 
 cash after weighing each transport (consignment, lot). 
 
 2. Delivery .—The delivery to take place during the month of_, 
 
 19_, at seller’s option. The seller will be considered in default by failure 
 
 of delivery within the time (term) fixed. 
 
 3. Packing .—Packing to consist of strong frails (mats) used in export 
 packing. 
 
 4. Tare .—Tare to be estimated at 4 Amsterdam pounds for mats, increased 
 by the weight of bands (Rattanbandsche). 
 
152 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 5. Adjustments .—For kapok not corresponding to the stipulations of this 
 contract, arbitration can be applied for, to be held by the commission men¬ 
 tioned (clause 8), which commission will fix the indemnity to be paid. If this 
 indemnity exceeds 1.50 florins per picul, the buyer has a right to refuse the lot 
 and the seller is obliged to replace same. 
 
 6. Testing. —The buyer is obliged to start weighing and testing as soon as 
 possible, at the latest two days after receiving. The seller is obliged to remove 
 disapproved lots from buyer’s stores as soon as possible, i. e., at the latest 
 three clays after the disapproval. 
 
 7. Risk .—From the moment of delivery the goods are for account and risk of 
 buyer, even if not yet paid for. The fire risk is for account of buyer from the 
 moment of moving into his stores. Should seller fail to remove disapproved 
 lots from buyer’s store within the time fixed in clause 6, then the fire risk will 
 be for account of seller; after expiration of that time, to be counted from the 
 moment of disapproval. 
 
 8. In case of any disputes arising as to quality (and for pressing which can 
 not be settled amicably, as well as the indemnity to be fixed in view of the 
 above), parties bind themselves to submit to the decision of the commission 
 for arbitration of kapok business, appointed by the managing board of the 
 “ Trading Society ” at Soerabaya. Said commission will pronounce the final 
 judgment according to the “ Regulations for Arbitration in Kapok Business ” 
 stipulated by the managing board referred to. 
 
 Parties bind themselves to be subject to this judgment unconditionally as 
 pronounced in highest resort and, with regard to eventual arbitration, to con 
 form themselves to the stipulations of aforesaid regulations. 
 
 In case of doubt as to how the stipulations read on the date of this contract, 
 same will be made only by a copy of these stipulations to be issued by the 
 secretary of the Trading Society at Soerabaya. 
 
 Thus agreed upon in good faith by parties at Soerabaya. 
 
 __ 19_ 
 
 Broker. 
 
 Following are the regulations for arbitration in the kapok 
 business: 
 
 Article 1. 
 
 1. The arbitration commission is to be appointed by the managing board 
 of the Trading Society (Merchants’ Association) at Soerabaya from the mem¬ 
 bers and persons holding a proxy from one of the members. 
 
 2. The commission consists of three members and as many substituting mem¬ 
 bers as will be thought necessary by the managing board of the Trading 
 Society. 
 
 3. The secretary of the commission will be the secretary of the Trading 
 Society, to whom all letters, documents, and money destined for the commission 
 must be addressed. 
 
 Article 2. 
 
 1. The commission delivers judgment only in those cases concerning disputes 
 about quality and of pressing. 
 
 2. If any buyer or seller applies for arbitration about quality and for press¬ 
 ing of kapok, he has to give notice to the secretary of the commission and 
 must state the seller’s name, the size of the lot in question, and where same 
 can be examined. 
 
 3. The secretary requests the buyer to indicate some bales of the lot not 
 yet opened, without delay, and to take these to some store to be indicated by 
 the secretary. 
 
 4. For a lot not exceeding 100 bales the number of bales to be indicated by 
 the buyer will be at least 5 and at most 10 at his option; for a lot from 100 
 to 300 bales, at least 10 and at most 20; for bigger lots, at least 3 per cent 
 and at most G per cent of the number of bales, rounded off upward. 
 
 5. The arbitration will take place in such a way that the names of the 
 parties will not be known to the arbitrators; in view of this the secretary will 
 remove or cover the markings. 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 153 
 
 Abticle 3. 
 
 1. As soon as the bales to be examined have arrived at the place of destina¬ 
 tion (to be indicated by the secretary) the secretary shall give notice to the 
 members and substituting members of the commission who will have to decide 
 in the dispute, and fixes with them the hour of meeting and testing. 
 
 2. If one of the members of the commission is or mighL be interested in 
 the decision of the dispute or if one of them might be prevented from attending 
 the secretary has to appoint so many substitute members as will be necessary 
 to make the number of arbitrators three. 
 
 Article 4. 
 
 1. In case of dispute about quality the arbitrators will have to judge only 
 whether the quality corresponds to the following definitions: (1) Well-refined 
 prima Madura, or (2) well-refined prima Porrong, or (3) well-refined prima 
 East Java F. 4- Q- 
 
 2. In case of inferior quality, arbitrators fix the indemnity to be paid by the 
 seller to the buyer. 
 
 3. If the indemnity exceeds 1.50 florins per picul, the seller has a right to 
 take back the lot offered and the buyer has a right to refuse it. In either 
 case the seller is obliged to replace same. 
 
 * i ’ • y i \ l 
 
 Article 5. 
 
 1. The dost of arbitration is chargeable to the party declared in fault and 
 amounts to 75 florins, which will be equally divided amongst the arbitrators. 
 
 2. Over and above these costs the charges incurred for transporting the bales 
 referred to in art. 2, par. 3) and other expenses necessarily incurred for the 
 arbitration will be put to the account of the party in failure. 
 
 Article 6. 
 
 1. The fulfilling of these stipulations by parties or by the secretary will have 
 to be commenced within 48 hours after the statement referred to in the second 
 paragraph of article 2 or the actions following thereafter. 
 
 2. Within 4 X 24 hours (4 days, exclusive of Sundays or other days on which 
 the office of the Trading Society is closed) after the hour of meeting of arbi¬ 
 trators the result of the arbitration will have to be submitted in writing to the 
 office of the Trading Society. 
 
 3. The secretary of the commission will hand a copy of same to both parties, if 
 desired. 
 
 There is practically no trade in kapok in the Straits Settlements 
 and no production of consequence. 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 There has been some production of cotton in the Netherlands East 
 Indies since early in the nineteenth century. It is cultivated exclu¬ 
 sively by natives in the Palembang Residency of Sumatra, in central 
 Java, in Bali and Lombok, and in the Celebes. The Palembang 
 product goes largely to Singapore, while that of the other districts 
 is sent to Java for export. Japan takes the larger part, but some 
 small quantities of the cleaned product go to Europe. 
 
154 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Exports of cotton for the colony during the period 1917-1920, by 
 countries, were as follows: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1917 
 
 1913 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 % Raw. 
 
 Cleaned. 
 
 Raw. 
 
 Cleaned. 
 
 Raw. 
 
 Cleaned. 
 
 Raw. 
 
 Cleaned. 
 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 81 
 
 
 1 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 22 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 626 
 
 252 
 
 1,471 
 
 599 
 
 379 
 
 134 
 
 581 
 
 18 
 
 All other. 
 
 9 
 
 29 
 
 
 70 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 33 
 
 61 
 
 Total. 
 
 657 
 
 323 
 
 1, 471 
 
 669 
 
 382 
 
 226 
 
 614 
 
 80 
 
 SISAL, CANTILLA, AND MANILA HEMP. . 
 
 Most of the plantations cultivating fibers in the Dutch East Indies 
 are in Java, the only exception being a company in the Lampong 
 Residency of Sumatra growing manila hemp (abaca) which it manu¬ 
 factures into rope. 
 
 In Java there were 10,178 hectares (25,150 acres) planted in 1919, 
 of which 7,979 hectares (19,716 acres) were producing. Of this 
 area approximately 72 per cent was in sisal, all of the remainder, ex¬ 
 cept about 200 acres in manila hemp in Sumatra, being in cantilla 
 fiber. The cultivation of cantilla fiber was confined chiefly to the 
 Principality of Soerakarta and of sisal to the Residencies of Ivediri 
 and Pasoeroean. 
 
 Cultivation of sisal .—In Java the cultivation of sisal is compara¬ 
 tively simple. It is generally planted on land that is not suited to 
 rubber, on which coffee or some other crop has previously been 
 planted, or on land not fit for any other culture. In some districts 
 “ lamtoro ” is planted between the rows. This plant provides the 
 additional nitrogen that the sisal requires. Every new planting 
 is done in soil on which the lamtoro was previously grown. 
 
 Young plants are raised in nurseries, where they stay until 1J to 
 2 years old, when they are transferred to the field, usually from 
 October to January. Planting is done in rows 12 feet apart, the 
 distance between plants being 3 feet. The soil is kept as free from 
 weeds as possible within a reasonable cost during the first three }^ears, 
 and during the same period the soil between the lamtoro and sisal is 
 deeply hoed. The plants are constantly casting leaves throughout 
 their growth, and during the growing period these are cut away and 
 hoed under. 
 
 Harvesting of sisal .—When the plants are 2 years old the mature 
 leaves are about 24 inches long and harvesting begins and continues 
 until the plant blossoms, when it is 6 years old. When the lower 
 leaves reach an angle of 45° from the ground they are cut by the 
 natives with the “arit” (a knife) and carried to the light railway, 
 where they are loaded on cars and conveyed to the factory. 
 
 Manufacturing and packing of sisal .—Several makes of stripping 
 machines are in use. The heavier work of feeding and offcarrving 
 is done by men and the lighter work by women. Erom the machines 
 the fiber is taken to the drying racks in a field reserved for that 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 155 
 
 purpose, where it is exposed to the sun for from one to two days, 
 after which it is sorted by women and baled in hand presses. 
 
 Packing , grades, and selling conditions .—Sisal and cantilla fibers 
 are packed m 100-kilo bales without burlap or other covering and 
 bound with iron hoops. Bales are pressed so that there will be from 
 7 to 8 piculs (952 to 1,088 pounds) to the cubic meter. 
 
 There is no fixed standard of quality, and buying on the open 
 L_arket requires an expert knowledge not only of the requirements 
 of the manufacturers lout of the qualities coming from the various 
 estates. Brokers state that it is impossible to fill firm orders to the 
 satisfaction of buyers abroad, as a guaranty of quality is impossible. 
 
 Some of the “uultuur companies” doing an export business have 
 established their marks on the American and European markets. 
 
 PRODUCTION AND COSTS OF SISAL ON AN ESTATE IN EAST JAVA. 
 
 Production figures and costs of sisal from the clearing of the land 
 until delivery at the station were given by an estate in east Java, 
 which may be said to be fairly representative of those of other 
 estates. This estate is particularly well organized and the costs 
 are probably as low as any in Java. 
 
 Production .—Following are the production figures of the estate 
 under review (1 picul=136 pounds; 1 bouw=1.7537 acres) : 
 
 Items. 
 
 Piculs to 
 bouw. 
 
 Fiber. 
 
 First Year of harvesting, from 2 to 3 years old. 
 
 5 
 
 2 per cent. 
 
 [Average for period, 3 i 
 
 Second vear, from 3 to 4 vears. 
 
 20 
 
 Third year, from 4 to 5 vears. 
 
 40 
 
 Fourth year, from 5 to 6 years. 
 
 25 
 
 ( per cent. 
 
 
 
 The six years of growing, or four years of harvesting, produce 90 
 piculs per bouw, an average of 15 piculs for each year. 
 
 Costs .—The cycle of planting is 24 years, which covers four plant¬ 
 ings, averaging, under present labor costs (April, 1920), 62.50 florins 
 per bouw for each planting. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Planting per bouw- 62. 50 
 
 Upkeep for first 3 years, including weeding and hoeing, at 40 florins 
 
 per year-120. 00 
 
 Upkeep for second 3 years, at 20 florins per year_ 60. 00 
 
 Six years’ cost- 242. 50 
 
 Cultivating cost per bouw per year___ 40. 40 
 
 Harvesting and manufacturing charge for 15 piculs (the average pro¬ 
 duction per bouw) is estimated at 6 florins per picul_ 90.00 
 
 Annual cost of planting and harvesting 1 bouw of land produc¬ 
 ing 15 piculs of sisal per year_130. 40 
 
 Per picul cost of cultivation and harvesting_ 8. 70 
 
 In 1919 the costs of harvesting and manufacture were high, due to 
 the fact that all the fields were in young sisal. In that year the costs 
 were as follows: 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Cutting and transportation per picul_2.14 
 
 Manufacturing and drying_1. 03 
 
 Cleaning and making bundles__ . 22 
 
 Pressing and packing___1. 89 
 
 Repairs to machinery_1.18 
 
156 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Oil and fuel-0. 64 
 
 Upkeep of motor_ . 26 
 
 Transport from estate to railway station_ .07 
 
 Cost per picul in 1919_7. 43 
 
 Cost per picul in 1918 (fourth year of harvesting and fifth of grow¬ 
 ing) _5. 09 
 
 Cost per picul in 1917 (third year of harvesting and fifth of grow¬ 
 ing) _4. 22 
 
 There are no fibers grown in British Malaya on a large enough 
 scale for export. Some experiments are being made in a small way 
 by the Federated Malay States Government in the cultivation of 
 manila hemp and cantilla and other fibers, but none of them have 
 been put into cultivation by private planters. 
 
 COIR. 
 
 While there is a very large quantity of coconuts produced in the 
 Netherlands East Indies, there is no production of coir. For a time 
 there was a small native production at Bandjermasin, Borneo, which 
 was sold throughout Java, but the Java trade has been discontinued. 
 There has been no foreign trade in the product, and advices from the 
 Merchants’ Association of Batavia and Soerabaya indicate that there 
 is no interest in a possible trade in this product. 
 
 No coir is made in British Malaya in exportable quantities, nor are 
 there factories for making rope or other commodities from coir. 
 There is a considerable import of coir rope from British India and 
 Ceylon, amounting to 14,079 and 10,261 piculs, respectively, in 1919 
 (1 picul=133-J pounds). 
 
 This is sold to the native and Chinese mariners and is reexported 
 to surrounding countries.. 
 
 SPICES. 
 
 Spices produced in the Netherlands East Indies are pepper, nut¬ 
 megs, mace, cinnamon, cloves, and chilies. The exports for 1913 
 to 1920 are shown in the following table: 
 
 Year. 
 
 Pepper. 
 
 Cultivated 
 
 nutmegs. 
 
 Wild 
 
 nut¬ 
 
 megs. 
 
 Mace. 
 
 Cinna¬ 
 
 mon 
 
 bark. 
 
 Cloves. 
 
 Chili 
 
 pep¬ 
 
 pers. 
 
 White. 
 
 Black. 
 
 In 
 
 husk. 
 
 Decor¬ 
 
 ticated. 
 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 1913: 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 2,058 
 
 5,300 
 
 97 
 
 84 
 
 
 30 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 656 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 2, 424 
 
 9' 182 
 
 1,752 
 
 1,158 
 
 26 
 
 567 
 
 862 
 
 47 
 
 
 1914: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 1,947 
 
 8,394 
 
 133 
 
 91 
 
 
 42 
 
 70 
 
 
 614 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 3'262 
 
 7,906 
 
 1,204 
 
 1,042 
 
 
 502 1 
 
 803 
 
 70 
 
 
 1915: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera.. 
 
 789 
 
 6, 789 
 
 88 
 
 118 
 
 
 38 
 
 40 
 
 4 
 
 764 
 
 Outer Possessions... 
 
 4,097 
 
 10' 574 
 
 1,391 
 
 1,324 
 
 7 
 
 1,727 
 
 1,215 
 
 105 
 
 
 1916: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 1,340 
 
 7, 999 
 
 132 
 
 149 
 
 
 45 
 
 171 
 
 16 
 
 1,350 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 5'242 
 
 8,778 
 
 1,937 
 
 1,990 
 
 52 
 
 668 
 
 1,825 
 
 102 
 
 1917: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera.. 
 
 2,371 
 
 9, 869 
 
 141 
 
 984 
 
 
 45 
 
 188 
 
 
 522 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 4,900 
 
 10' 875 
 
 1,594 
 
 155 
 
 74 
 
 454 
 
 754 
 
 98 
 
 
 1918: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 1,716 
 
 10,135 
 
 114 
 
 101 
 
 
 39 
 
 399 
 
 2 
 
 148 
 
 Outer Possessions.. 
 
 4, 154 
 
 9' 894 
 
 1,464 
 
 649 
 
 59 
 
 347 
 
 465 
 
 57 
 
 
 1919: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 3,653 
 
 20, 354 
 
 177 
 
 136 
 
 
 57 
 
 574 
 
 38 
 
 486 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 4*061 
 
 12* 043 
 
 1,902 
 
 1,736 
 
 42 
 
 605 
 
 1,804 
 
 167 
 
 
 1920‘. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 1,661 
 
 7,515 
 
 124 
 
 189 
 
 
 50 
 
 336 
 
 42 
 
 771 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 157 
 
 PEPPER. 
 
 Black and white pepper are products of a creeper which is culti¬ 
 vated in Sumatra, Borneo, and the surrounding islands and to a 
 small extent in Java. Cultivation in the Netherlands Indies is done 
 exclusively by natives and Chinese. 
 
 The pepper berries grow in bunches and ripen irregularly. In 
 making black pepper the bunches are piled in heaps to induce fer¬ 
 mentation and are afterwards dried in the sun. During this process 
 the berries are separated from each other by trampling. When thor¬ 
 oughly dry they are sorted and sifted. 
 
 White pepper is made from selected berries of the best varieties. 
 These are put into bags or baskets and immersed in slowly running 
 water. After about eight days the fruit bursts or becomes so soft 
 that the outside flesh can be removed by trampling. After separa¬ 
 tion they are thoroughly washed in clear, running water and dried, 
 when they are ready for the market. 
 
 BLACK PEPPER. 
 
 Java, which at one time was a most important center of pepper 
 cultivation, to-day supplies but small quantities. The principal 
 producing districts, with the quantites in metric tons, in 1919 were as 
 follows: 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Southern Sumatra: 
 
 
 Eastern Borneo: Kota Baroe. 
 
 2,495 
 
 Palembang. 
 
 2,074 
 
 Southern Borneo: Bandjermasin. 
 
 224 
 
 Telokbetong. 
 
 1,161 
 
 Western Borneo: 
 
 
 Atjeh: 
 
 
 Pontianak. 
 
 119 
 
 Langsa. 
 
 1,657 
 
 Sambas. 
 
 153 
 
 Idi.T. 
 
 718 
 
 Singkawang. 
 
 97 
 
 Sigli. 
 
 692 
 
 Pemangat. 
 
 32 
 
 Pangkalanbrandan. 
 
 594 
 
 Celebes: Macassar. 
 
 67 
 
 Oelee Lheue. 
 
 391 
 
 Banka: 
 
 
 Lho Seuinawe. 
 
 371 
 
 Soengailiat. 
 
 188 
 
 Meulaboh. 
 
 206 
 
 Muntok. 
 
 121 
 
 Tjalang. 
 
 176 
 
 Blinjoe. 
 
 87 
 
 Belawan Deli. 
 
 46 
 
 Pangkalbalem. 
 
 336 
 
 Tandjoengbalai. 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 There is some production of pepper in Java, but most of the 20,079 
 tons shipped from Tandjoengpriok (Batavia's port) was grown in 
 the Lampong district, whence it was shipped to Batavia through its 
 port, Telokbetong. During the same year there were 232 tons shipped 
 from Semarang. 
 
 The black pepper from northern Sumatra (Atjeh), and from 
 Palembang to a slightly lesser extent, *is collected from the growers 
 in the first instance by Chinese shopkeepers or buying agents acting 
 for exporters in the larger towns, who have their principal business 
 connections in Singapore or Penang. The shipments to the Straits 
 cities are generally in the form of consignments and depend on the 
 consignees to take advantage of the market fluctuations. 
 
 Palembang pepper also goes to Batavia, and practically all of the 
 Lampong crop goes to that market. While the Chinese are important 
 in the trade in the Lampongs, the bulk of the business is done by 
 Dutch houses and one large German concern. These firms make 
 
158 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 advances to the growers and intrust their traveling agents with large 
 sums of money during the buying season. 
 
 Pepper from western Borneo goes most largely to Singapore 
 through the Chinese organization, which is closely connected with 
 Singapore Chinese. Poeloe Laoet (Kota Baroe) pepper comes from 
 the island of that name off the southeast coast of Borneo and is 
 marketed through Singapore and Batavia. 
 
 Exports of black pepper, by countries, are given in the following 
 table: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 (9 
 months). 1 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Netherlands.. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany and Austria 
 
 Other European. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Penang.. 
 
 Hongkong.. 
 
 Japan.. 
 
 China.. 
 
 Australia.. 
 
 All other.. 
 
 4, 218 
 390 
 31 
 294 
 265 
 3,844 
 4,973 
 
 234 
 
 230 
 
 8,517 
 
 212 
 
 14 
 6, 084 
 5,346 
 89 
 126 
 287 
 33 
 36 
 
 8,902 
 
 21 
 5,181 
 4,983 
 53 
 456 
 257 
 35 
 141 
 
 5,151 
 6,644 
 4,986* 
 
 1, 011 
 9,618 
 3,581 
 655 
 
 599 
 
 45 
 
 107 
 
 590 
 1,626 
 408 
 
 37 
 
 3,986 
 
 266 
 
 504 
 
 22 
 
 76 
 
 435 
 6,119 
 
 830 
 
 552 
 
 122 
 
 Total 
 
 14, 479 
 
 20, 744 
 
 20,029 
 
 32, 397 
 
 7, 515 
 
 8,058 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 Java and Madoera 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 5,297 
 
 9,182 
 
 9,869 
 10, 875 
 
 10,135 
 9,894 
 
 20, 354 
 12, 043 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Singapore and Penang have always been the important pepper 
 markets, although but little is grown in the British possessions, a 
 large part of the imports reaching the United States through those 
 ports. 
 
 The 1920 and 1921 returns of the trade of the Outer Possessions, 
 from which most of the pepper is shipped, are not available, so no 
 safe conclusions may be drawn as to the readjustments in favor of 
 the European markets to pre-war conditions, but the indications are 
 that the American buyers are getting considerable quantities in di¬ 
 rect shipments. 
 
 WHITE PEPPER. 
 
 The islands of Banka and Poeloe Laoet and the mainland of west¬ 
 ern Borneo produce the largest quantities of white pepper, most of 
 which is shipped to Singapore. White Muntok pepper from the 
 island of Banka is the best of the white peppers, but this grade has 
 been deteriorating during the past few years, probably due to mix¬ 
 ing or “bulking” in the Singapore market. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of white pepper for 1913 
 and for 1917 to 1921, as far the returns are available: 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
 
 159 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 (9 
 months). 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 74S 
 
 Metric tons. 
 351 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 795 
 
 Metric tons. 
 355 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 224 
 
 61 
 
 1,207 
 
 349 
 
 
 Germany and Austria. 
 
 1,065 
 
 
 
 96 
 
 590 
 
 France. 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 47 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 331 
 
 
 
 Other European. 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 United States. 
 
 16 
 
 1,631 
 
 965 
 
 733 
 
 417 
 
 515 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 2,382 
 
 2 
 
 4, 887 
 
 4,134 
 
 4,260 
 
 58 
 
 Penang. 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 127 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 10 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 
 251 
 
 425 
 
 306 
 
 329 
 
 175 
 
 All other. 
 
 5 
 
 131 
 
 113 
 
 28 
 
 115 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 4,482 
 
 7,271 
 
 5, 870 
 
 7,714 
 
 1, 661 
 
 1,352 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 2, 058 
 
 2,371 
 
 4,900 
 
 1,716 
 4,154 
 
 3,653 
 4,061 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 2, 424 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Contracts of sale .—Three contract forms are used in Batavia in 
 the sale of pepper—one for sales of “ black Lampong pepper ” ex- 
 warehouse, one for its sale “ free on board,” and one for the sale of 
 white Muntok pepper. 
 
 PEPPER TRADE OF BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The 1920 imports of black and white pepper into Singapore and 
 Penang, by countries, were as follows: 
 
 From— 
 
 ' To (port of entry)— 
 
 Black 
 
 pepper. 
 
 White 
 
 pepper. 
 
 Sarawak. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 256 
 
 7 
 
 610 
 23 
 1,136 
 4,389 
 
 6 
 
 1,805 
 2,267 
 398 
 83 
 40 
 228 
 
 4 
 
 Metric tons. 
 857 
 
 Federated Malay States. 
 
 .do. 
 
 Non-Federated Malay States. 
 
 .do. 
 
 
 Borneo. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 1,519 
 
 7 
 
 Java. . . 
 
 _.do. 
 
 Sumatra. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 45 
 
 1 
 
 2,240 
 
 40 
 
 Other Dutch islands. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Siam. 
 
 .do. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 10 
 
 
 11,252 
 
 4,719 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 
 8,910 
 
 2,342 
 
 4,718 
 
 1 
 
 Penang. 
 
 
 
 
160 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Exports of pepper from the Straits Settlements, by countries, for 
 1920 were as follows: 
 
 United States. 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 British India and Burma 
 
 Ceylon.. 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Australia... 
 
 New Zealand. 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Other British. 
 
 Belgium.; 
 
 Denmark. 
 
 France.. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 China. 
 
 All other.... 
 
 Total 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Black 
 
 pepper. 
 
 White 
 
 pepper. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 93 
 
 632 
 
 1,613 
 
 2,621 
 
 170 
 
 332 
 
 19 
 
 
 2,510 
 
 6 
 
 93 
 
 236 
 
 83 
 
 202 
 
 13 
 
 6 
 
 1,564 
 
 79 
 
 150 
 
 202 
 
 34 
 
 
 76 
 
 10 
 
 356 
 
 326 
 
 1,169 
 
 35 
 
 10 
 
 
 1,640 
 
 326 
 
 696 
 
 47 
 
 10,289 
 
 5,060 
 
 The At] eh pepper trade is almost entirely in the hands of the Chi¬ 
 nese, whose principal connections are with Singapore and Penang 
 importers. 
 
 White pepper comes principally from the island of Banka, taking 
 the name of “ Muntok ” pepper from the principal port of that 
 island. It goes to Singapore or to Batavia, as the market prices 
 or trade connections dictate. The best of the white pepper comes 
 from this island, while a second quality comes from Poeloe Laoet, 
 a third quality from Bandjermasm and Pontianak, and a fourth 
 from Sarawak. These gradings are in the general run of the output, 
 although there are some subgrades. 
 
 CHILI PEPPERS. 
 
 Chili peppers are grown for local consumption, and a few hun¬ 
 dred tons are exported to Singapore via Semarang. 
 
 NUTMEGS AND MACE. 
 
 The nutmeg is indigenous to the Moluccas and the production at 
 one time was limited to Amboina and Banda Neira, but under a less 
 rigid culture system it has extended somewhat. 
 
 A century or more ago other tropical countries undertook the cul¬ 
 ture, but disease and pests, combined with low prices resultant from 
 overproduction, made it unprofitable, and it is now limited to the 
 Moluccas, northeast Celebes, and the islands to the north, and, for 
 very inferior qualities, to Sumatra West Coast and Java. 
 
 Except in Banda Neira, Amboina, and Java, where the nutmeg is 
 grown on European-owned estates, it is cultivated by natives in the 
 vicinity of their houses. The trees bear fruit throughout the year, 
 but the crop is larger in some months than in others. In Banda 
 Neira half the crop is harvested in July and August. 
 
 Mace is the closely adhering aril of the shell which contains the 
 nutmeg. After the mace has been removed the nuts, are slowly dried 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 161 
 
 in kilns, the process requiring from four to six weeks, after which 
 they are decorticated. The kernels, or nutmegs, are then graded 
 into three qualities—the full and sound nutmegs, the wrinkled nut¬ 
 megs (generally from unripe fruit), and broken, damaged, and 
 worm-eaten nutmegs. These are again graded according to size, 
 ranging, in the Moluccas, from 60 to 250 nuts to the half kilo (1.102 
 pounds). After grading for size the twin nuts (flattened on one side) 
 are separated into two grades according to the depth of the wrinkles. 
 After the sorting the nutmegs are placed in baskets and dipped in 
 limed water, and after drying are again inspected for defects, which 
 become more apparent after this process. 
 
 In Sumatra West Coast only two grades are made—sound and 
 defective nutmegs. 
 
 Menado and the islands to the north ship most of their crop in the 
 shell. These go principally to Singapore. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of nutmegs, by countries: 
 
 [In metric tons.] 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 1921 (9 
 months;. 1 
 
 In the 
 shell. 
 
 De¬ 
 
 corti¬ 
 
 cated. 
 
 In the 
 shell. 
 
 De¬ 
 
 corti¬ 
 
 cated. 
 
 In the 
 shell. 
 
 De¬ 
 
 corti¬ 
 
 cated. 
 
 In the 
 shell. 
 
 De¬ 
 
 corti¬ 
 
 cated. 
 
 In the 
 shell. 
 
 De¬ 
 
 corti¬ 
 
 cated. 
 
 In the 
 shell. 
 
 De¬ 
 
 corti¬ 
 
 cated. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 131 
 
 1,008 
 
 
 
 
 
 69 
 
 456 
 
 49 
 
 156 
 
 19 
 
 76 
 
 United States. 
 
 4 
 
 127 
 
 79 
 
 1,079 
 
 
 623 
 
 28 
 
 1,193 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 16 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 Other European. 
 
 26 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 Singapore.. 
 
 ] 540 
 
 2 
 
 17516 
 
 37 
 
 1,475 
 
 73 
 
 1,846 
 
 165 
 
 59 
 
 5 
 
 43 
 
 
 Penang. 
 
 128 
 
 20 
 
 132 
 
 
 96 
 
 13 
 
 ' 110 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 2 
 
 44 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,849 
 
 1,242 
 
 1,735 
 
 1,139 
 
 1, 578 
 
 750 
 
 2,079 
 
 1,872 
 
 124 
 
 189 
 
 73 
 
 92 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 97 
 
 84 
 
 141 
 
 984 
 
 114 
 
 101 
 
 177 
 
 136 
 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 1,752 
 
 1,158 
 
 1, 594 
 
 155 
 
 1,464 
 
 649 
 
 1,902 
 
 1,736 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Before the war decorticated nutmegs were shipped almost exclu¬ 
 sively to the Netherlands, from whence they entered the world’s 
 markets, but since that period they have been shipped principally 
 to the United States, until 1920, when many of the shipments of the 
 best grades were again sent to the Netherlands. 
 
 After being carefully detached from the shell of the nutmeg the 
 mace is flattened and dried in the sun, which causes it to turn to an 
 orange or yellow color. It is graded according to color, and the 
 broken pieces go into a lower grade. 
 
162 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Exports of mace, by countries, are shown in the following table: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 1921 (9 
 months). 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tors. 
 358 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 171 
 
 Metric tons. 
 36 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 16 
 
 United States. 
 
 41 
 
 301 
 
 126 
 
 194 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 
 1 
 
 Other European. 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 Singapore. .. 
 
 151 
 
 174 
 
 234 
 
 261 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 Penang. 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 6 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 597 
 
 499 
 
 386 
 
 662 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 39 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 567 
 
 454 
 
 347 
 
 605 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Mace exports of first grades in pre-war years went to the Nether¬ 
 lands, from which country they, entered the world’s markets, while 
 the low grades went to Singapore. During the war the first grades 
 were shipped to the United States, but the indications are that in 
 1920 and 1921 the first grades again went to the Netherlands. 
 
 Nutmegs were formerly grown to a considerable extent on the 
 island of Penang. The cultivation has been abandoned to a large 
 extent. 
 
 In 1919, 30,929 piculs, valued at S$792,676, were received at Singa¬ 
 pore, and 2,451 piculs, valued at S$45,525, at Penang (1 picul=133i 
 pounds; 1 Straits dollar=$0.5678 mint par U. S.). These are all 
 credited to Celebes and the Moluccas, Java, and Sumatra and in¬ 
 clude both shelled and unshelled nuts. According to the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies customs returns, the exports to Singapore and Penang 
 were approximately 33,500 piculs, divided as follows: Java, 1,000 
 piculs, of which 71 per cent were unshelled and 29 per cent shelled, 
 and 32,500 piculs from the Outer Possessions, of which 2,500 piculs 
 were shelled and 30,000 piculs unshelled. Of the unshelled nutmegs 
 approximately 53 per cent came from the Sangir Islands, 25 per 
 cent from Menado, 11 per cent from Amboina, 6 per cent from 
 Sumatra, and 5 per cent from Ternate. 
 
 The unshelled nutmegs are received on consignment by the Chi¬ 
 nese merchants from their connections near the point of produc¬ 
 tion and are shelled, graded, limed, and packed for shipment in 
 Singapore. The better grades of nutmegs come from Ambon and 
 Banda Neira and are usually limed, graded, and packed at those 
 points or at Macassar. They are sometimes imported direct by the 
 European exporters at Singapore, either as consignments or as direct 
 purchases, but the Chinese importers also figure in this trade, always 
 receiving their supplies on consignment. Padang nutmegs are re¬ 
 ceived in Singapore and Penang limed and graded in two qualities, 
 no grading for size being done. 
 
 The exports from Singapore during 1919 were 18,768 piculs, 
 valued at S$707,586, and Penang exported 3,624 piculs, valued at 
 S$154,969. These exports were divided by countries of destination 
 as follows: Great Britain, S$278,527; British India and Burma, 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 163 
 
 S$296,427; Hongkong, S$42,683; Canada, S$5,779; Australia, S$62,- 
 397; New Zealand, S$5,400; Egypt, S$2,060; South African Union, 
 S$4,043; continental Europe, S$58,935; Siam, S$l,278; United 
 States, S$87,967; and other countries, S$17,059. 
 
 Like nutmegs, mace comes almost exclusively from the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies. In 1919 Singapore imported 3,525 piculs, valued at 
 S$198,870, and Penang received 324 piculs, valued at S$16,353. The 
 Chinese merchants, acting for their connections near the points of 
 production, figure largely in this trade, but there are also transac¬ 
 tions between the Dutch merchants at Macassar, Ambon, and other 
 points with European merchants in Singapore. 
 
 In 1919 there were exported from Singapore 2,851 piculs of mace, 
 valued at S$167,346, and from Penang 1,402 piculs, valued at S$93,- 
 088. These exports were divided by countries of destination as 
 follows: Great Britain, S$80,794; British India and Burma, S$lll,- 
 106; Australia, S$25,146; New Zealand, S$l,927; continental Europe, 
 S$9,740; Siam, S$3,276; United States, S$26,780; and all others, 
 S$l,665. 
 
 CLOVES. 
 
 Exports of cloves from Java and Madoera and the Outer Posses¬ 
 sions, by countries, are shown below. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 (9 
 months). 1 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 136 
 
 13 
 
 
 United States. 
 
 
 95 
 
 41 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 Other European. 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 Singapore.. 
 
 42 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 41 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Penang. 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 9 
 
 All other. 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 Total. 
 
 48 
 
 98 
 
 59 
 
 205 
 
 41 
 
 11 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 47 
 
 98 
 
 57 
 
 167 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The principal producing district is the island of Amboina and 
 vicinity, although there is a small production on the island of Java. 
 The clove is indigenous to the Moluccas, but it has been cultivated 
 in Zanzibar, and Madagascar has also had some success. As in 
 other spices the United States took the largest part of the exports, 
 but the Netherlands regained the market later. 
 
 In 1919 Singapore imported 10,135 piculs of cloves, valued at 
 S$650,933, and Penang imported 427 piculs, valued at S$30,057 (1 
 picul=133^ pounds; 1 Straits dollar=$0.5678 mint par U. S.). Most 
 of these imports came from British India, and but 788 piculs, valued 
 at S$70,682, from the Netherlands East Indies. 
 
 Exports of cloves from Singapore in 1919 were 12,411 piculs, val¬ 
 ued at S$749,993. Of this amount 669 piculs, valued at S$70,040, 
 went to Great Britain; 2.368 piculs, valued at S$119,177, to Plong- 
 kong; 368 piculs, valued at S$27,331, to other British possessions; 148 
 piculs, valued at S$ll,131, to Siam; 152 piculs, valued at S$8,160, to 
 
 19878°—23 - 12 
 
164 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 China; 284 piculs, valued at S$27,400, to Japan; 8,093 piculs, valued 
 at S$455,042, to the Netherlands Indies; 188 piculs, valued at 
 S$20,712, to the United States; and 141 piculs, valued at S$11,000, 
 to all other countries., 
 
 The best cloves are grown in the Netherlands Indies, and inferior 
 cloves are grown in British India and Penang. British Indian and 
 Penang cloves are imported into Singapore. A large part of these 
 inferior cloves goes to Java and to the clove-growing districts of the 
 Outer Possessions, from whence they find their way to the consum¬ 
 ing markets as Netherlands Indies cloves, either by direct export or 
 through the Netherlands market cities. 
 
 CINNAMON BARKS. 
 
 Cinnamon barks are listed in the export returns as kaneel (cinna¬ 
 mon) and kaneelkassie (cassia vera). The Exporters’ Directory, 
 published by the Netherlands Indies Government, gives the follow¬ 
 ing description of these barks, which are grown principally in Java: 
 
 Cinnamon barks occupy a fairly important position among the spices pro¬ 
 duced by this colony. The barks are obtained from trees of the cinnamon spe¬ 
 cies, the noblest representative of which, the G. zeylanicum, is, however, only 
 cultivated at present on a small scale on some European-owned plantations. 
 Other good species are also grown, and in addition thereto the Netherlands 
 East Indies possess a cinnamon tree of high value, viz, the G. burmanni, which 
 is found in a wild state throughout the Malay Archipelago. 
 
 The G. cassia or genuine Chinese cinnamon tree contributes a trifling quan¬ 
 tity only to the total crop. 
 
 In the following table are shown the exports of cassia, or cinnamon, 
 from the Netherlands Indies, by countries: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 (9 
 months). 1 
 
 Netherlands . 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 6 
 
 33 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 2 
 
 United States. 
 
 1 
 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 85 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 
 Other F.nropean._. 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 97 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 40 
 
 Penang and" Signaporc. 
 
 All other. 
 
 55 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 36 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 33 
 
 36 
 
 149 
 
 145 
 
 50 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Kaneelkassie or cassia vera .—This is an important crop of the 
 Residency of Sumatra West Coast, where it is grown in the high¬ 
 lands. It is separated into A, B, and C grades for export, A and B 
 grades coming from the trunk of the tree and C grade from the 
 branches and twigs. The best qualities of all grades come in small 
 quantities from the Mandailing and Korintji districts tributary to 
 Padang, while the bulk of the export comes from the districts in 
 the neighborhood of Fort de Ivock and Padangpandjang, a slightly 
 inferior quality being grown, in the Fort van der Capellan and 
 Payu Koemboeh districts. The A quality is packed in 100-pound 
 bales, B quality in 70-pound bales, and C quality is pressed into bales 
 of 1 cubic meter, weighing approximately 200 pounds. The relative 
 production is 50 per cent A grade, 40 per cent B grade, and 10 per 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 165 
 
 cent C grade. There is a tendency on the part of the native growers 
 to mix the various qualities and even to put in barks of similar ap¬ 
 pearance with no oil content whatever. 
 
 Exports of cassia vera, by countries, are given below. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 1921 (9 
 months). 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 421 
 371 
 
 Metric tons. 
 909 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,023 
 834 
 20 
 331 
 
 Metric tons. 
 157 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 United States. 
 
 465 
 
 49 
 
 5 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 19 
 
 Other European. 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 Penang and Singapore. 
 
 
 15 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 All other.T.T. 
 
 17 
 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 862 
 
 909 
 
 481 
 
 2,212 
 
 191 
 
 54 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The export is practically all grown in the Sumatra "V^est Coast, 
 but a considerable portion is shipped to Batavia for export. 
 
 Cinnamon .—The customs returns of the Straits Settlements show 
 an import in 1919 of only 714 piculs of true cinnamon, valued at 
 S$10,891, 119 piculs of which came from British India, and an export 
 of 480 piculs, valued at S$9,491, most of which went to British India, 
 Egypt, and Siam. The customs returns for the Netherlands Indies 
 show an export to the Straits Settlements of over 85 tons, equivalent 
 to over 1,300 piculs. These customs figures can not be relied upon, as 
 the officials apparently do not draw a strict line between true cinna¬ 
 mon and cassia vera. 
 
 Ceylon is the home of this product, but small quantities are grown 
 in the Netherlands Indies, most of which is sold through the Dutch 
 markets, either in the Netherlands Indies or in the Netherlands. 
 Singapore is unimportant in. the trade. 
 
 Cassia .—The trade in cassia (cassia vera, a false cinnamon) in the 
 Straits Settlements is very small, as the trade in the Netherlands 
 Indies, where it is produced, is well organized for direct export. In 
 1919 the imports amounted to 898 piculs, valued at S$20,962, all at 
 Singapore. Java and Sumatra supplied 776 piculs of this amount. 
 Denmark is given as the destination of 1,680 piculs of the exports. 
 
 CARDAMOMS. 
 
 The trade in cardamoms (a sort of ginger) in the Straits Settle¬ 
 ments is very small. Practically all the imports, which amounted in 
 1919 to 1,842 piculs, valued at S$241,425, were from Java and Su¬ 
 matra, and the exports, amounting to 1,726 piculs, valued at S$156,- 
 435, went chiefly to Hongkong, where they are preserved and used 
 in the local trade and reexported. 
 
 ARECA NUTS. 
 
 Areca nuts (Penang nuts or betel nuts) are used by the natives of 
 the tropical Orient for chewing with lime, gambier, or some other 
 astringent. The trade in these nuts is limited to the countries where 
 the natives are addicted to their use. In 1919 Singapore imported 
 533,592 piculs (1 picul=133^ pounds), valued at S$4,399,038, and 
 exported 578,842 piculs, valued at S$5,524,825; Penang imported 
 
166 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 305,615 piculs, valued at S$l,962,881, and exported 368,173 piculs, 
 valued at S$3,022,695. The districts producing the bulk of the im¬ 
 ports were the Non-Federated Malay States and Java, Sumatra, and 
 Bali and Lombok, and the destinations of most of the exports were 
 British India and Burma, Hongkong, oriental French possessions, 
 and Siam. This trade is wholly in the hands of the Chinese, Arabs, 
 and other orientals. 
 
 MEDICINAL PLANTS. 
 
 CUBEBS. 
 
 Cubebs are grown principally in Java, annual exports of this 
 product ranging from 100 tons and upward. 
 
 No cubebs are grown in British Malaya. In 1919, 1,984 piculs, 
 valued at S$207,209, were imported, all from the Netherlands Indies 
 and through Singapore. The exports were 1,652 piculs, valued at 
 S$278,333. Of these, 67 piculs, valued at S$9,400, went to Great 
 Britain; 867 piculs, valued at S$109,043, to British India and 
 Burma; 339 piculs, valued at S$37,592, to Japan; 360 piculs, valued 
 at S$120,218, to the United States; and 19 piculs, valued at S$2,080, 
 to other countries. 
 
 Practically all of the Netherlands Indies production of cubebs was 
 marketed in Singapore in 1919. 
 
 COCA LEAVES AND COCAINE. 
 
 There are 47 estates, all in Java, which cultivate the plant Ery- 
 throxylum coca , from which cocaine is made. The total area in 
 1919, according to a statement by the Netherlands Indies Govern¬ 
 ment, was 5,661 acres, mostly interplanted or planted as a minor 
 crop. 
 
 The quantities of coca leaves and dust sold at the Amsterdam auc¬ 
 tions and the alkaloid content are shown in kilos (1 kiloi=2.204 
 pounds) in the following table: 
 
 Year. 
 
 In auction. 
 
 Outside of auction. 
 
 Coca. 
 
 Total 
 
 alkaloid 
 
 content. 
 
 Coca. 
 
 Total 
 
 alkaloid 
 
 content. 
 
 1913. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 846.255 
 903,638 
 
 114.255 
 40,172 
 
 5, 610 
 Nil. 
 157,740 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 13,062 
 14,918 
 1,717 
 650 
 103 
 Nil. 
 2,147 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1914. 
 
 87,674 
 277,165 
 224,699 
 316,302 
 23,588 
 196,429 
 
 i, 455 
 4,580 
 4,022 
 4, 562 
 286 
 2,495 
 
 1915. 
 
 1916. 
 
 1917. 
 
 1918. 
 
 1919. 
 
 
 Exports of coca leaves, by countries, were as follows: 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 167 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,234 
 
 Metric tons. 
 14 
 235 
 
 4 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 756 
 l 25 
 
 6 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,393 
 11 
 3 
 
 United States. 
 
 408 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 92 
 
 9 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 254 
 
 107 
 
 269 
 
 Australia. 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,335 
 
 272 
 
 662 
 
 904 
 
 1,676 
 
 
 CACAO AND VANILLA BEANS. 
 
 There are about 29 European-owned estates in Java cultivating 
 approximately 14,000 acres of cacao to some extent as a subsidiary 
 crop, according to an official statement. There was a small produc¬ 
 tion in the Sumatra West Coast Residency, all of which went to the 
 Netherlands in 1920. 
 
 The Java product is much better than that grown in Sumatra, 
 although both qualities are of a lighter color than that of most of 
 the cacao grown in other producing countries. In Java the areas 
 under cultivation remain practically the same year by year, but in 
 Sumatra, while the production is small, there is a tendency to in¬ 
 crease. 
 
 The following table gives the exports of cacao by countries: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 1921 (9 
 months). 
 
 Netherlands.r. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain.. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 i.11 other. 
 
 Total.. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1, 774 
 68 
 131 
 227 
 60 
 
 Metric tons. 
 142 
 1,132 
 65 
 29 
 187 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 153 
 
 243 
 
 79 
 
 331 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,083 
 747 
 270 
 167 
 141 
 
 Metric tons. 
 631 
 42 
 53 
 165 
 104 
 
 Metric tons. 
 481 
 140 
 129 
 150 
 10 
 
 2,260 
 
 1,555 
 
 806 
 
 2,408 
 
 995 
 
 910 
 
 Before the war the bulk of the crop went to the Netherlands for 
 sale, but the war conditions upset' the old-established system, and in 
 1917 over 70 per cent went direct to the United States. The resump¬ 
 tion of regular steamship service in 1919 and the good markets pre¬ 
 vailing until the middle of 1920 aided in restoring pre-war marketing 
 conditions. 
 
 There are but small quantities of vanilla beans grown in the col¬ 
 ony, principally in Java. The export is negligible, the local trade 
 consuming most of the product. 
 
 NATURAL INDIGO. 
 
 Indigo is grown on about 40 estates in Java and by the natives. 
 The estate indigo, which is grown in the Residencies of Djokjakarta 
 and Soerakarta, contains from 60 to 80 per cent of indigotine. The 
 native product averages only three-fourths to 1 per cent of indigo¬ 
 tine, and is for the greater part used in the island, principally for 
 batik work, while the overproduction usually finds a market in 
 Singapore. 
 
168 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Exports of natural indigo, in metric tons and by countries, are 
 shown in the following table: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 
 
 (9 months). 1 
 
 Wet. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Wet. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Wet. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Wet. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Wet. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Wet. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 United States. 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 35 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 39 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 442 
 
 117 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 157 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 
 164 
 
 
 Japan... T.. 
 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 39 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 All other. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 34 
 
 447 
 
 48 
 
 119 
 
 43 
 
 164 
 
 39 
 
 157 
 
 31 
 
 2 
 
 42 
 
 
 1 Taken from the monthly returns for Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Before the war most of the dry indigo went direct to the Nether¬ 
 lands and the wet product to Singapore. In 1917 Japan entered the 
 market for both qualities and in the two following years took the 
 bulk of the dry product. The exports for 1921 dropped far below 
 normal, with Japan as the principal buyer up to the end of Sep¬ 
 tember. 
 
 The United States bought a small quantity of dry indigo in 1917, 
 increasing the purchases in the following year, but has since been 
 out of the market. 
 
 During 1919 dry indigo brought from 7 to 11 florins per pound 
 and in 1920 the price rose to 14 florins, dropping by the end of the 
 year to 5 florins. 
 
 PINEAPPLE INDUSTRY. 
 
 « 
 
 Before the outbreak of the World War the growing of pineapples 
 on the island of Singapore, in the State of Johore, and on the Dutch 
 islands near Singapore was an important industry, the pineapple 
 canneries at Singapore shipping large quantities of their product to 
 the European and American markets. But even in 1913 the indus¬ 
 try was declining, as the cultivation of rubber gradually crowded out 
 all the minor agricultural products. In the above-mentioned dis¬ 
 tricts, however, pineapples were grown as a “catch crop,” inter- 
 planted among the rubber trees during the developing period. 
 
 Early in the war period an embargo on the import of pineapples 
 into the United Kingdom eliminated an important part of the mar¬ 
 ket and the factories w T ere closed. In 1918 the embargo was removed, 
 and since then some of the factories have been reopened. 
 
 In 1913, S$4.80 was considered to be a fair price for a case of forty- 
 eight Impound tins. In 1918, on the resumption of production, the 
 price ranged around S$8 per case and advanced gradually to S$18 
 per case in April, 1920, after which there was a sharp decline, reach¬ 
 ing S$7.50 per case in February, 1921. In the latter part of August, 
 1921, prices ranged around S$13 per case. 
 
 Canners claim that it does not pay to pack at S$7.50 per case, due 
 to the higher cost of sugar and tin plate, and at the low prices for 
 pineapples growers refuse to harvest their crops. Packing is in 
 cases of 4 dozen 1-pound tins, 4 dozen lj-pound tins, 3 dozen 2-pound 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 169 
 
 tins, 2 dozen 2-J-pound tins, 2 dozen 3-pound tins, six 6-pound tins, 
 and six 8-pound tins (gross weight). The basic case is 4 dozen 
 lj-pound tins. 
 
 The American market uses Singapore pineapples for making glace 
 fruits, and buys 2, 2-|, 3, 6, and 8 pound tins only. London and Liv¬ 
 erpool are the principal markets, although there is a regular but 
 comparatively small demand from France and Holland and in nor¬ 
 mal times from Germany. 
 
 The principal pineapple packer of Singapore, according to his 
 own statement, is pessimistic regarding the future of the industry. 
 He believes the Hawaiian packs will be successful competitors for 
 the business offering and sees no way for the improvement of the 
 quality of the Singapore product. Some 12 Chinese-owned factories 
 handle the Singapore packs, and they are not organized on the basis 
 of cooperative effort to improve the quality of the fruit produced. 
 The growers are Chinese, cultivating small plots over a widely ex¬ 
 tended area. These growers can not be interested in planting better 
 stock or in using more scientific methods of cultivation. 
 
 In 1920 exports of pineapples, with values stated in Straits dol¬ 
 lars (1 Straits dollar=$0.5678 mint par U. S.), were as follows: 
 United States, 13,232 cases, S$234,684; United Kingdom, 320,241 
 cases, S$5,122,041; British India and Burma, 22,126 cases, S$415,895; 
 Hongkong, 4,186 cases, S$64,106; Canada, 52,742 cases, S$862,885; 
 Australia, 1,286 cases, S$19,342; New Zealand, 6,579 cases, S$67,291; 
 Egypt, 4,079 cases, S$67,226; other British possessions, 3,775 cases, 
 S$47,057; Denmark, 2,397 cases, S$36,791; France, 6,381 cases, 
 S$85,208; Italy, 200 cases, S$l,800; Netherlands, 5,993 cases, 
 S$93,414; Japan, 2,407 cases, S$43,441; all other countries, 1,269 cases, 
 S$16,835; total, 446,893 cases, valued at S$7,178,016. 
 
 ESSENTIAL OILS. 
 
 CITRONELLA. 
 
 Citronella oil is a product distilled from the leaves of the tree 
 Cymbopogon nardus , which differs in the quality of the oil produced 
 from the tree of the same name grown in Ceylon. This tree is grown 
 in Java, and a large number of small distilleries are engaged in the 
 extraction of citronella and other essential oils. 
 
 The market value of citronella oil depends on the percentage of 
 the geraniol and citronella! content. According to an official state¬ 
 ment of the Netherlands Indies Government the Java product con¬ 
 tains from 80 to 90 per cent of these properties. It is much in 
 demand by soap manufacturers on account of the high percentage 
 of geraniol, which is one of the constituents of rose oil. Packing is 
 in 300-liter drums weighing approximately 560 pounds net. 
 
170 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Exports of citronella oil, by countries, are given as follows: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 1921 
 
 (9 months). 
 
 
 Metric ton s. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 
 233 
 
 124 
 
 21 
 
 United States. 
 
 7 
 
 205 
 
 84 
 
 85 
 
 77 
 
 32 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 214 
 
 
 91 
 
 75 
 
 3 
 
 Germany. 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Other European. 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 
 75 
 
 81 
 
 15 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 
 13 
 
 40 
 
 24 
 
 44 
 
 8 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 50 
 
 80 
 
 10 
 
 19 
 
 53 
 
 Australia. 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 Total. 
 
 75 
 
 516 
 
 228 
 
 529 
 
 434 
 
 142 
 
 Prices offering have caused a marked increase in production since 
 1913, and the United States has appeared as a direct buyer, as well 
 as Japan. 
 
 CAJEPUT OIL. 
 
 Cajeput oil is distilled from the leaves of the plant Malaleuca 
 leucodendron (Linn), a large tree which grows in the Moluccas, 
 particularly on the islands of Boeroe and Ceram. There is no pro¬ 
 duction in Java. Cultivation and preparation are done entirely by 
 the natives of those islands. The following table shows the exports, 
 by countries: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 6 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 46 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 65 
 
 8 
 
 United States... 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 112 
 
 2 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 Japan.. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 All other. 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 124 
 
 79 
 
 35 
 
 112 
 
 
 PATCHOULI LEAVES AND OIL. 
 
 Patchouli is grown on the Malay Peninsula, in northern Sumatra, 
 in Ceylon, and in Japan. In the Netherlands Indies it is grown 
 principally in Atjeli and the Sumatra East Coast district in northern 
 Sumatra, and most of the leaves are shipped to Penang and Singa¬ 
 pore, although some of the Dutch factories distill the oil. The leaves 
 yield by distillation a peculiar heavy brown oil, disagreeably 
 odoriferous, which requires extreme dilution for perfumery pur¬ 
 poses. 
 
 No export figures for either the leaves or the oil are given in the 
 customs returns, but as most of the leaves are sent to the Straits 
 Settlements the imports of that colony from the Dutch colony, shown 
 below, are interesting. 
 
 Following are the imports of patchouli leaves from the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies to Singapore and Penang: 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 171 
 
 Year. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 1917. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 36 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 386 
 
 1918. 
 
 76 
 
 465 
 
 1919. 
 
 50 
 
 778 
 
 1920. 
 
 41 
 
 846 
 
 
 OTHER ESSENTIAL OILS. 
 
 Cananga oil .—This oil is distilled from the flowers of the tree 
 Cananga ordorata , which grows principally in west Java. This oil 
 resembles in many respects the ylang-ylang oil of the Philippine 
 Islands, and was distilled by the natives for their own use until the 
 last few years, when it has been prepared for export, with a good 
 demand from Europe and America. It is used in the manufacture 
 of perfume. 
 
 Lemon-grass oil. —This is the product of the leaves and bulbs of 
 the plant CymJbopogon citratus , extracted by means of distillation. 
 The value of this oil depends on the content of citral, which, in the 
 case of the Java product, is from 75 to 85 per cent. Packing is the 
 same as for citronella oil. 
 
 Palmarosa oil .—This product is distilled from the leaves of the 
 tree Cymbopogon martini (Stapf). It has the odor of roses and is 
 used in making fine perfumes. There is but a small production. 
 
 HIDES AND SKINS. 
 
 The cattle of the Netherlands East Indies are raised primarily as 
 draft animals for agricultural purposes, and the killing in normal 
 times is of cattle which have become useless as draft animals. Stocks 
 available for shipment can not be ascertained with even an approxi¬ 
 mate degree of accuracy, as they are held by small dealers, who are 
 the original purchasers from the natives, or Chinese or Arab traders, 
 who only reveal their holdings when an attractive price brings about 
 their sale. 
 
 In east Java the killing of calves is quite a common practice, and 
 calf hides go into the market as cow hides. During the past few 
 years the high prices have tempted the owners to kill younger cattle, 
 which is the cause of the general decline in average heights of both 
 buffalo and cow hides shipped from Java. 
 
 In its yearbook for 1920 the Government states: 
 
 The importation of high-class thoroughbreds is continued. As in 1917, 
 also in 1918 and 1919, thoroughbred bulls and cows were bought in Ongole 
 (Madras Presidency, British India) and were sold for breeding purposes to 
 the native population, chiefly of the Residencies of Kedoe and Rembang. Taken 
 as a whole, the results are very good. From the island of Sumba, where in 
 3914 about 500 thoroughbred cows and some bulls were imported for the pur¬ 
 pose of producing breeding bulls for Java and elsewhere, over 200 young bulls 
 were obtained. From Guyrat (Bombay Presidency, British India) were im¬ 
 ported some thoroughbred bulls and cows for the needs of native cattle breed¬ 
 ing on Sumatra West Coast. 
 
 To improve the cattle stock of various dairies in Java, the number of which 
 is gradually increasing, and where milkers of European blood are much needed, 
 thoroughbred black-spotted Dutch bulls are used on the “General de Wet” 
 farm at Tjisaroea, Preanger Regencies. In the Provinces of Bali and Lombok 
 
172 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 and in Madoera good results are obtained by pure breeding with native bulls. 
 By selection and castration the improvement of cattle stock is also promoted 
 as much as possible. 
 
 Notwithstanding the above, one of the largest exporters states that 
 it is not to be expected that the quality of the hides will improve. A 
 more careful grading has developed during the past few years, since 
 American buyers have been in the market. The export is very 
 largely in the hands of a few exporters, who have exercised a large 
 influence, through the Chinese and Arab dealers, for more careful 
 handling of the hides by the native butchers. Shipments are care¬ 
 fully sorted and baled according to the requirements of the Ameri¬ 
 can market. As this group ships the larger part of the hides ex¬ 
 ported, their grades may be taken as standard and are given below. 
 
 Cow hides, including calf. —First quality without serious defects, own prep¬ 
 aration : Up to 6 pounds; 6 to 10 pounds; 10 to 11 ^ pounds; 11^ to 15 pounds; 
 15 pounds and up; 111 and up, thick neck. First quality own preparation 
 mixed with first quality native preparation: Up to 6 pounds; 6 to 10 pounds; 
 101 pounds and up; 111 pounds and up. thick neck. Second quality with some 
 minor defects, own preparation: Up to 6 pounds; 6 to 10 pounds; 101 pounds and 
 up. Second quality, native preparation: Up to 6 pounds; 6 to 10 pounds; 101 
 pounds and up. Third quality rejects, native preparation: All weights. 
 
 Buffalo hides. —First quality free from serious defects: Light up to 13 
 pounds; medium, 13 to 211 pounds; heavy, 211 to 27 pounds; very heavy, 271 
 pounds and up. Second quality with some minor defects: Same weights as 
 first quality. Third quality rejects: Up to 191 pounds; 191 pounds and up. 
 
 Locally the grades for both cow and buffalo hides are somewhat 
 the same, running “ fully prime,” “ prime,” and “ hides with faults.” 
 
 In 1919 hides from Java and Madoera were shipped chiefly from 
 the following ports: 
 
 Ports. 
 
 Cow hides. 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 hides. 
 
 Batavia. 
 
 Number. 
 72,704 
 736,206 
 275,741 
 
 Number. 
 209,127 
 99,469 
 277,106 
 
 Soerabaya.. 
 
 Semarang. 
 
 
 As before stated, the hide business is largely in the hands of a few 
 of the larger export houses, the principal ones being British firms. 
 Neither hides nor skins are dealt in by brokers, and the nature of the 
 business keeps speculation down to the minimum necessary for collec¬ 
 tion and delivery. While Soerabaya figures most largely in the ex¬ 
 port, Semarang is the chief collection center, with Soerabaya a close 
 second. The business requires the utmost care of experts, and the 
 greatest caution should be exercised in dealing with houses not spe¬ 
 cializing in the trade. 
 
 The exports of buffalo hides from Macassar during the month of 
 May, 1920, w T ere as follows: Netherlands, 16 metric tons; Great Brit¬ 
 ain, 40 tons; United States, 5 tons; Singapore, 1 ton; and Australia, 
 one-half ton. The shipments of buffalo hides to Soerabaya during 
 the same period amounted to 17 tons. A large part of the Macassar 
 product goes into the export figures of Soerabaya, as do those of Bali 
 and Lombok. 
 
 Hides from the East Coast of Sumatra (Tandjoengbalai) go direct 
 to the Netherlands and, to a small extent, to Singapore and Penang, 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. 173 
 
 and from Palembang, Djambi, and Padang (Sumatra West Coast) 
 to Batavia. 
 
 No data are available as to the local consumption of leather. There 
 are three tanneries of importance in Soerabaya, two of which have a 
 considerable capacity and are planning extensions. 
 
 Because of the high prices paid for hides, some exporters have 
 stated that during the past few years so many cattle have been killed 
 that the breeding stock is materially decreased, but this is not cor¬ 
 roborated by the Government department controlling the slaughter. 
 
 A statement of the veterinary division of the Department of Agri- 
 culturej Industry, and Commerce of the Netherlands Indies Govern¬ 
 ment gives the following census of draft animals in the colony as of 
 December 31, 1919: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Water 
 
 buffaloes. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Hogs. 
 
 Goats. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 3,699,108 
 641,161 
 
 • 
 
 2,128,4S3 
 958,800 
 
 296,410 
 306,558 
 
 66,098 
 600,415 
 
 2,267,791 
 309,305 
 
 738,700 
 114,069 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 Total. 
 
 4,340,269 
 
 3,087,283 
 
 602,968 
 
 666,513 
 
 2,577,096 
 
 852,769 
 
 
 There is a large predominance of water buffaloes in Bantam, 
 Batavia, the Preanger Regencies and Cheribon, in western Java, 
 and in Kedoe and Madioen Residencies, in central Java, while 
 in eastern Java there is a predominance of cattle of the Bangkok 
 and Bengal types. The totals for Java and Madoera show that 
 58 per cent of the horned draft animals are Bengal type cattle and 
 42 per cent water buffaloes. 
 
 In Sumatra the differences are not so definitely marked, but 
 in the Celebes there is a predominance of water buffaloes in the 
 southern part and of Bangkok and Bengal cattle in the Menado 
 Residency in the north. In the Residency of Timor, in the Smaller 
 Soenda Islands, there is a very large predominance of water buf¬ 
 faloes, while joining this residency on the west, in the islands of 
 Bali and Lombok, Bangkok and Bengali cattle are bred almost 
 exclusively. 
 
 The slaughter of animals during the period 1913-1919 is shown 
 in the following table: 
 
 Animals. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Cattle: 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 348,550 
 
 329,462 
 
 357,090 
 
 398,150 
 
 445,159 
 
 431,202 
 
 530,554 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 42,984 
 
 42, 534 
 
 42,642 
 
 63,080 
 
 99,460 
 
 98,550 
 
 116,995 
 
 Water buffaloes: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 316,107 
 
 231,262 
 
 256,670 
 
 302,575 
 
 325,888 
 
 269, 572 
 
 277,481 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 42,442 
 
 47,233 
 
 51,857 
 
 60,762 
 
 67,904 
 
 58,660 
 
 71,971 
 
 Horses: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 3,518 
 
 3,276 
 
 3,344 
 
 3,072 
 
 3,388 
 
 3,640 
 
 3,998 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 783 
 
 1,211 
 
 * 989 
 
 1,078 
 
 2,255 
 
 2,093 
 
 2,375 
 
 Hogs: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 79,443 
 
 85,030 
 
 107,108 
 
 112,901 
 
 107,817 
 
 100,103 
 
 111, 6*14 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 149,781 
 
 164,820 
 
 185,085 
 
 251,274 
 
 262,425 
 
 150,037 
 
 227,185 
 
174 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 COW AND BUFFALO HIDES. 
 
 The following tables show the exports of cow and buffalo hides 
 since 1913 in number of hides, with the total weights and the average 
 weights in the footings: 
 
 COW HIDES. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Number. 
 397,290 
 
 Number. 
 243,788 
 12,607 
 16,433 
 9,650 
 7,656 
 
 Number. 
 225,254 
 188,464 
 12,050 
 
 Number. 
 143,286 
 323,632 
 34,514 
 
 Number. 
 29,738 
 363,172 
 46,473 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 325,910 
 582,095 
 46,879 
 
 Number. 
 146, .503 
 166,336 
 2,601 
 400 
 68,250 
 2,200 
 
 United States. 
 
 300,345 
 2,650 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 Germany. 
 
 19,308 
 9,614 
 835 
 2,976 
 2,210 
 
 France.”. 
 
 1,650 
 
 2,025 
 
 
 
 
 127,413 
 
 Italy. 
 
 
 
 
 Austria. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spain. 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,100 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,140 
 17,240 
 34, 752 
 
 Australia. 
 
 3,162 
 5,739 
 817 
 
 8,485 
 9, 815 
 3,517 
 67 
 
 41,620 
 Jl, 570 
 331 
 2,495 
 55,950 
 1,059 
 
 30,600 
 7,863 
 993 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 12, 857 
 3,330 
 
 8,827 
 
 1,224 
 
 • 12,336 
 1,860 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 Canada. 
 
 
 
 
 
 950 
 
 4,274 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 3,690 
 
 991 
 
 1,145 
 
 817 
 
 686 
 
 1,614 
 
 Total. 
 
 452,110 
 
 303,176 
 
 445,884 
 
 511,967 
 
 461,963 
 
 416,020 
 
 1,126,977 
 
 445,036 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 Java and Madoera 
 Outer Possessions 
 
 Total weight: 
 
 Java and Madoera 
 Outer Possessions 
 Average weight: 
 
 Java and Madoera 
 Outer Possessions 
 
 418,633 
 33,477 
 
 273,174 
 30,002 
 
 406, 570 
 39,314 
 
 465,458 
 46,509 
 
 423,054 
 38, 899 
 
 403, 241 
 12,779 
 
 1, 085, 711 
 41,266 
 
 
 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 2,032,741 
 163,763 
 
 4.85 
 4.91 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1,342,901 
 152, 229 
 
 4.91 
 
 5.07 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1,853,636 
 193,272 
 
 4. 55 
 4.91 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 2,132,026 
 239,755 
 
 4.58 
 5.15 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1,878,459 
 212,613 
 
 4.44 
 
 5.46 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1,611,697 
 78,246 
 
 3.99 
 6.12 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 4, 730,177 
 225,640 
 
 4.35 
 5.48 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 2,078,619 
 
 4.67 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 BUFFALO HIDES. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Number. 
 290,902 
 1,454 
 8,372 
 8,913 
 11,010 
 1,350 
 11,684 
 616 
 500 
 19,039 
 4,070 
 
 Number. 
 194,573 
 11,371 
 25,568 
 5,516 
 3,969 
 
 Number. 
 197,412 
 63,652 
 46,121 
 
 Number. 
 108,067 
 226,166 
 128,212 
 
 Number. 
 12,140 
 217,951 
 112,852 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 404,064 
 107,579 
 127,095 
 
 Number. 
 141,364 
 152,509 
 34,795 
 
 United States. 
 
 113,604 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 France. T. 
 
 12,423 
 2,950 
 
 13,801 
 
 6,500 
 
 
 37,996 
 
 300 
 
 no 
 
 29,640 
 1,350 
 
 Italy... 
 
 
 Austria. 
 
 7,920 
 1, 535 
 3,927 
 6,932 
 3,130 
 
 
 
 
 Spain. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Other European. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,996 
 
 1,900 
 
 Singapore..”. 
 
 14,817 
 3,516 
 35 
 
 19,439 
 3,265 
 2,038 
 
 8,488 
 2,522 
 11,528 
 2,655 
 1,269 
 
 14,589 
 779 
 17,528 
 323 
 11,054 
 
 35,680 
 1,577 
 14,117 
 3,552 
 9,944 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Japan.”. 
 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 2,894 
 
 1,500 
 
 4,048 
 
 4,545 
 
 7,612 
 
 Total. 
 
 360,804 
 
 265,961 
 
 344,974 
 
 505, 533 
 
 375,905 
 
 157, S77 
 
 742,014 
 
 372.166 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 Java and Madoera 
 Outer Possessions 
 
 Total weight: 
 
 Java and Madoera 
 Outer Possessions 
 Average weight: 
 
 Java and Madoera 
 Outer Possessions 
 
 263,7S4 
 97,020 
 
 187,810 
 78,151 
 
 269,122 
 75, 852 
 
 399,107 
 106,426 
 
 303,70S 
 72,197 
 
 110,423 
 47,454 
 
 5S6,233 
 155,781 
 
 
 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 2,801,551 
 1,247,334 
 
 10.60 
 12. S5 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 2,016,712 
 1,024,315 
 
 10. 73 
 13.10 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 2,733,783 
 964,144 
 
 lb. 15 
 12.71 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 3,932,133 
 1,401,138 
 
 9.85 
 13.16 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 3,143,601 
 933,974 
 
 10. 35 
 12.93 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1,128,6S3 
 555,343 
 
 10.20 
 11. 70 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 5,752,139 
 
 1,993, 591 
 
 9. 81 
 12.80 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 3,825,827 
 
 10.28 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The imports of hides and skins into the Straits Settlements ports 
 and exports from the same, by countries, are shown in the following 
 table (1 picul=133J pounds): 
 
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS 
 
 175 
 
 Countries from which im¬ 
 ported. 
 
 British North Borneo. 
 
 Brunei. 
 
 Sarawak. 
 
 British India and Burma. 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 Federated Malay States. 
 
 Non-Federated Malay States.. 
 
 Other British possessions. 
 
 China. 
 
 French Indo-China. 
 
 Netherlands Indies. 
 
 Philippines. 
 
 Siam. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Imported into: 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Malacca. 
 
 Labuan. 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Countries to which ex¬ 
 ported. 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 1,755 
 
 876 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 26,484 
 
 23,789 
 
 295 
 
 238 
 
 British India and Burma. 
 
 58 
 
 
 662 
 
 731 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 150 
 
 224 
 
 10,439 
 
 13,194 
 
 Canada. 
 
 1,079 
 
 528 
 
 21,757 
 
 31,959 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 3,522 
 
 5,390 
 
 5,735 
 
 5,701 
 
 Other British possessions. 
 
 385 
 
 11 
 
 3,237 
 
 3,211 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 185 
 
 151 
 
 7 
 
 34 
 
 France. 
 
 5,208 
 
 3,906 
 
 32 
 
 87 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 159 
 
 34 
 
 5,926 
 
 4,814 
 
 China. 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 8,678 
 
 3,876 
 
 Japan. 
 
 1,108 
 
 826 
 
 261 
 
 252 
 
 Borneo. 
 
 456 
 
 
 33,106 
 
 16,977 
 
 United States. 
 
 2,893 
 
 1,355 
 
 260 
 
 120 
 
 All other. 
 
 189 
 
 723 
 
 92,150 
 
 82, 070 
 
 Total. 
 
 41,892 
 
 36,967 
 
 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 
 
 59,631 
 
 35,703 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 35,706 
 
 27,920 
 
 31,612 
 
 45,836 
 
 Penang. 
 
 6,187 
 
 9,047 
 
 164 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 743 
 
 487 
 
 
 
 
 There are several tanneries in Penang and Singapore, the product 
 of which is consumed locally. 
 
 SHEEPSKINS. 
 
 Sheepskins in the Netherlands East Indies are of a poor quality, 
 being papery in texture. The best skins come from the highlands 
 (Preanger Regencies) and the poorer qualities from the lowlands of 
 Java and Madoera and the Outer Possessions. 
 
 Sheepskins are sold by measurement, as are goatskins, and graded 
 for quality in firsts and seconds in sizes from 100 centimeters square 
 to 70 centimeters square, and below 70 centimeters no grading for 
 quality is done. Most of the skins are between 80 and 90 centimeters 
 square. A fair average of weight is 145 pounds to the hundred. Sta¬ 
 tistics of exports are not shown separately. 
 
 GOAT AND KID SKINS. 
 
 Exports of goat and kid skins, by countries, for the period 1913- 
 1919 were as follows: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 19191 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Number. 
 653,893 
 275, 281 
 
 195,960 
 
 Number. 
 361,045 
 202,375 
 23,694 
 94,045 
 16,000 
 107 
 196 
 
 Number. 
 
 112,458 
 1,725,4S0 
 53,000 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 125,353 
 2,595,951 
 87,000 
 280,341 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 France. 
 
 2,148,8^9 
 533,780 
 63,050 
 
 2,163,042 
 395,230 
 
 917,150 
 
 65,000 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 9,900 
 
 Penang. 
 
 444 
 
 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 
 
 4,300 
 
 28, 894 
 5,000 
 10, 447 
 1,008 
 
 
 Canada. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 All other... 
 
 Totaj. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Average lots. 
 
 20,034 
 
 1,925 
 
 757 
 
 738 
 
 3,133 
 
 4,077 
 
 1,145,612 
 
 699,387 
 
 1,891.695 
 
 2,746,407 
 
 2,565,705 
 
 1,028,099 
 
 3,102,622 
 
 Kilos. 
 470,197 
 0.41 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 301,823 
 
 0.43 
 
 Kilos. 
 750,376 
 0.40 
 
 Kilos. 
 1,031,168 
 0.38 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 952, 576 
 0.37 
 
 Kilos. 
 379,625 
 0.37 
 
 Kilos. 
 1,138,507 
 0.36 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 It will be observed that during the above period the average 
 weight of the skins dropped from 0.41 kilo to 0.36 kilo (1 kilo= 
 2.204 pounds). 
 
176 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Qualities .—Very few skins were produced in the Outer Posses¬ 
 sions, and it may be taken that the whole of the exports are from 
 Java and Madoera. The best qualities come from “the Preanger” 
 or mountain residency, which, on account of the altitude, produces 
 a skin of finer grain, but very little heavier than those of the low¬ 
 lands. 
 
 The second preference is for skins from the Residency of Pekalon- 
 gan. These are mostly light skins with a big spread and fine hair 
 and with a grain slightly inferior to those of “ the Preanger.” 
 
 Goats are kept by the agricultural population throughout the 
 islands of Java and Madoera and are collected through the same 
 agencies as are the hides—the small shopkeeper, who takes them in 
 trade, and the Arab traders—going into larger parcels through the 
 Chinese and Arab jobbers, and finally to the big export houses. 
 
 Like hides, goatskins are not sold through brokers, but are handled 
 by exporters on firm offers from abroad, based on grades established 
 by contact with the world’s markets. 
 
 Grading for sizexis done on the basis of the square of the skin, 
 running from 100 centimeters square to 50 centimeters square in 
 grades of 10 centimeters. The average runs between 70 and 80 centi¬ 
 meters square. 
 
 DEERSKINS. 
 
 Deerskins are exported almost exclusively from the Outer Pos¬ 
 sessions. Most of the exports are handled through Macassar, but 
 important quantities are also shipped from Bandjermasin, the prin¬ 
 cipal port of the Southern and Eastern Residency of Borneo, and 
 minor quantities from other Borneo ports and from Sumatra. Ex¬ 
 ports for the period 1913-1919 were as follows: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Number. 
 37,738 
 63,066 
 5,538 
 4,353 
 
 Nuviber. 
 
 673 
 
 62,210 
 
 Number. 
 8,700 
 107,965 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 
 11,939 
 
 88,169 
 
 United States. 
 
 94,605 
 600 
 
 113,198 
 
 65,622 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1,401 
 711 
 17,304 
 
 
 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 3,640 
 26,067 
 
 11,120 
 37,620 
 
 10,084 
 33,453 
 296 
 
 32, 779 
 55,059 
 
 6,390 
 45,698 
 476 
 72,340 
 475 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 31,715 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 
 
 
 
 11,980 
 1,552 
 
 All other. 
 
 1,005 
 
 3,186 
 
 1,194 
 
 379 
 
 452 
 
 Total. 
 
 143,415 
 
 85,485 
 
 147, 566 
 
 144,324 
 
 157,4S3 
 
 166,992 
 
 225,487 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 244,211 
 
 1. 70 
 
 Kilos. 
 151,578 
 1. 77 
 
 Kilos. 
 259,935 
 1.76 
 
 Kilos. 
 264,177 
 1.83 
 
 Kilos. 
 284,679 
 1.80 
 
 Kilos. 
 280,315 
 
 1.67 
 
 Kilos. 
 378,584 
 
 1.68 
 
 Average lots. 
 
 
 The average number of skins shipped annually during the period 
 was 152,964, the returns showing a gradual increase, with the excep¬ 
 tion of 1914, from 143,415 to 225,487. . ! 
 
 Deerskins are brought in to the first collection points in the in¬ 
 terior of the less settled islands by the natives who live in the forests. 
 They are not, primarily, hunters of game, but may be collectors of 
 copal, gutta-percha, or rattans. The market' price for any one of 
 these products being relatively high may draw the labor away from 
 the others, although this is less marked in the deerskin trade than 
 that of the other forest products. 
 
FOREST PRODUCTS 
 
 RATTANS. 
 
 The following extract regarding rattans is by Dr. F. W. Fox¬ 
 worthy, research officer of the Forest Department of the Federated 
 Malay States: 
 
 The best account which has been written of the rattans of the Malay Penin¬ 
 sula is that by H. N. Ridley, F. R. S., in the Agricultural Bulletin of the Straits 
 Settlements and the -Federated Malay States. (Vol. II, 1903, pp. 127-160.) 
 These plants are erect in their early youth until they attain a height of several 
 feet, after which the stem needs support, which is secured by the aid of a long 
 flagellum armed with hooked thorns, by means of which the plant clings to 
 tree trunks or other supports. 
 
 Rattan stems attain great length, sometimes more than 200 yards, and are 
 among the longest plants known. In plants with very long intermedes the 
 stems are sometimes used for walking sticks. The best known of these are 
 the Malacca canes, which are produced by Calavms scipionum , and probably 
 by a few other species. In certain forms of rattans the whole stem is used. 
 These forms are usually of small size and are used in the weaving of furniture. 
 In many other forms of larger size the stem is split, and often only the harder 
 part of the stem is used. The lightness, elasticity, and strength of rattan 
 render it unequaled for certain classes of work. The working of rattan has 
 been an industry in Singapore and Hongkong for many years. During the past 
 generation the industry has extended to parts of Europe and America. 
 
 The number of forms of rattans recognized is considerable, and much con¬ 
 fusion exists with regard to the common names. Ridley has called attention 
 to the fact that there may be as many as three recognized names for a single 
 rattan, the first being the one known to the collector in the jungle, the second 
 the name used by the buyer at Singapore, and the third the one used when the 
 rattan is exported to Europe or America. Further, in the article by Ridley, 
 common names are given for about 40 species of rattan found in the forests 
 of the peninsula. Besides these there are given the names used by the trade 
 for a considerable number of grades. Nearly 300 species of rattan have been 
 described. It is altogether probable that there exists a considerable number of 
 species not yet described. Certain products besides the flexible stem are occa¬ 
 sionally derived from the rattan plant. In some cases the leaves are used as 
 thatch for temporary shelters in the jungle. A number of forms have the seed 
 surrounded by an edible pulp. This fruit is sweet and is popular with Malays 
 and Sakais. In some species of Dsemonorops the scales of the fruit contain 
 a red resin, known as dragon’s blood, which is used in medicine and in various 
 arts as a coloring matter. (See Ridley, Agr. Bull. S. S. and F. M. S.) 
 
 Rattans are occasionally cultivated, both in the peninsula and the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies. It is said that the cultivation is most common in certain parts 
 of southern Borneo and the Palembang region of Sumatra. It is also stated 
 that some of the better forms of rattan will furnish stems suitable for cutting 
 within 6 to 15 years after planting. Details of the system of planting used in 
 Borneo are given in Volume I of Heyne’s De Nuttige Planten Van Neder- 
 landsch-Indie. It is altogether probable that the natural supply of rattans 
 will decrease in the future because of the increased demand, and because it 
 is the native practice in many places to cut the palm without any adequate 
 care for its reproduction. This will probably necessitate the establishment of 
 a number of rattan plantations in the future; 
 
 The standards by which commercial rattans are judged are various and 
 involved. They depend upon the appearance, uniformity in color and texture, 
 
 177 
 
178 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 and the size and purpose for which the rattan is intended. In general, rattans 
 which are one-fourth inch in diameter, uniform in size and color, and possess¬ 
 ing a hard outer circle are the most valuable. These rattans may be used 
 entire, or they may be put through various machines to obtain what is known 
 as rattan cane of various sizes. The cane is cylindrical in shape, and quite a 
 number of sizes, varying from one-sixteenth to one-fourth inch in diameter, 
 are recognized. These different sizes are used for special manufactures, and 
 the better grades are shipped to the European and American markets. Some 
 of the inferior grades are used in the manufacture of woven furniture in 
 Singapore and some are shipped to Hongkong for similar purposes. The 
 manufacturers use rattan for making clips, baskets, chairs, corsets, mats, mat¬ 
 tresses, bent-wood furniture, and fancy rattan furniture. The better the color 
 of any rattan the better the quality and the more expensive it is. 
 
 Exports of rattan from the Netherlands East Indies for 1913 and 
 1918 to 1921, by countries, are shown in the following table: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 i 
 
 19211 
 
 Netherlands . 
 
 Metric tons. 
 4,238 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 4,355 
 414 
 952 
 72 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,070 
 14 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 United States. 
 
 153 
 
 2 
 
 95 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 3,178 
 17,987 
 344 
 
 Germany. 
 
 452 
 
 762 
 
 France.'. 
 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 87 
 
 194 
 
 19 
 
 25,079 
 5,565 
 762 
 176 
 664 
 180 
 
 6 
 
 
 Other European. 
 
 151 
 30,380 
 2, 903 
 682 
 33 
 129 
 468 
 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 20,658 
 2,949 
 260 
 370 
 611 
 351 
 
 
 
 Hongkong . 7 . 
 
 
 
 China. .. ‘. 
 
 
 
 Japan . 
 
 22 
 
 51 
 
 7 
 
 
 Australia . 
 
 62 
 
 81 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 60, 559 
 
 25,441 
 
 38,432 
 
 1 , 622 
 
 1,000 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 101 
 60,458 
 
 200 
 25,241 
 
 1,100 
 37,332 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *Java and Madoera only. 
 
 It will be noted that the bulk of the exports goes to Singapore. 
 But small quantities find their way to the Java market cities, 
 although the production is all in the Outer Possessions of the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies. 
 
 Rattans grow wild in the forests of all the islands and are cut 
 by the natives, who, when the prices of guttas, or copal, or damar 
 are relatively high, turn their efforts to those products. The cutting 
 of rattans is done in the forests nearest transportation, and when 
 the product is ready for local markets it is taken to the nearest port 
 and sold to the Chinese or Arab dealers, who forward it to the larger 
 shipping centers or direct to Singapore. Macassar is the principal 
 market m the Netherlands Indies making direct shipments to Europe 
 and America. Pontianak, Bandjermasin, and Samarinda, in Borneo, 
 and Palembang, Djambi, and Padang, in Sumatra, are the principal 
 central collection points within the colony. The accompanying map 
 shows the principal ports of export for rattans. 
 
 GRADES OF RATTAN. 
 
 Mr. K. Heyne, curator of the Museum of Economic Botany at 
 Buitenzorg, a noted authority on rattans, says the best rattan pro¬ 
 duced is the “ segah ” from Palembang. This runs from three- 
 eighths to one-half inch in thickness, is very smooth and regular, 
 
FOREST PRODUCTS. 
 
 179 
 
 and has an even yellow color. This segah grows in many of the 
 islands of the archipelago, but, according to Mr. Heyne, has reached 
 its highest perfection in southeast Sumatra. 
 
 One of Padang’s principal grades is the “ segah ” or “ sago,” from 
 the Ment'awei Islands. This is a highly polished, pliable rattan, small 
 to medium in size, and is thoroughly cleaned before shipping. It 
 is graded into three qualities, according to appearance and supple¬ 
 ness. An inferior segah or sago is produced on the mainland, but 
 less abundantly. 
 
 Much of the large quantity of rattan shipped from Padang is 
 called “ pakoe ” and comes from the forests of the mainland of Su¬ 
 matra. Other grades are the “ ayer ” and “ getah,” from the forests 
 near Sasak and Indrapoera, in the Residency of Sumatra West Coast, 
 and “ batu,” the most inferior of all the grades. 
 
 In Macassar the prime qualities are “tohiti” and “saboetan.” 
 Tohiti rattans are shipped in 4-meter lengths, bundled without bend¬ 
 ing. They are sorted in various thicknesses, the usual grade sizes 
 being 8 to 14 millimeters, 14 to 18, 18 to 25, 25 to 30, and 30 and up. 
 Sometimes they are ordered from 8 to 25 millimeters. As for qual¬ 
 ity, they are graded into No. 1 and No. 2. No. 1 goes to the United 
 States and contains all the perfect rods, with a few having minor 
 defects, while No. 2 contains only defective rods and goes to Europe, 
 British India, and China. Tohiti rattan is very hard and has a 
 reddish core, but is yellow on the outside. 
 
 Saboetan is graded for size from 9 to 14 and 14 to 18 millimeters, 
 with the larger sizes going into a third grade. Occasionally orders 
 are seen for a grade of from 5 to 9 millimeters. 
 
 Oemoeloe, or gorontalo, looks much like tohiti on the surface, but 
 the core is white and it is a soft rattan, while tohiti is hard. It is 
 graded for size and quality the same as tohiti. 
 
 Borneo segah is a larger variety, running from 15 millimeters up. 
 It is graded according to color into No. 1 and No. 2, the first grade 
 being white and yellowish and the second containing the red stock. 
 It comes in long pieces and is bent double for packing. 
 
 Borneo soloettoep is somewhat similar to tohiti, but has more of a 
 glaze. It is graded the same for size. This quality is said to be 
 sold on the Singapore market as Sarawak. 
 
 Datoe is shipped in one grade only. It is from 4 to 7 millimeters 
 in size, of a reddish color, and very strong. The Allies used this 
 grade for shrapnel baskets during the war. 
 
 Kandarie boetoeng is very similar in fiber to datoe, but is white. 
 In size it runs from 5 to 9 millimeters. It goes to Europe principally, 
 and is the grade from which the carpet beaters are made. 
 
 39878°—23--13 
 
180 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 EXPORTS OF RATTAN. 
 
 Exports of rattans in 1919, by ports, are given in the following 
 table: 
 
 Index No. 
 
 Ports. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 Index No. 
 
 Ports. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 1. 
 
 Soerabaya. 
 
 705 
 
 20.. 
 
 Laboen Balik. 
 
 443 
 
 2. 
 
 Batavia. 
 
 255 
 
 21. 
 
 Siak Sri Indrapoera. 
 
 416 
 
 3. 
 
 Semarang. 
 
 140 
 
 22. 
 
 Poloppo.".. 
 
 363 
 
 4. 
 
 Macassar. 
 
 9,182 
 
 23. 
 
 Kota Baroe. 
 
 353 
 
 5. 
 
 Palembang. 
 
 6'009 
 
 24. 
 
 Ternate. 
 
 322 
 
 6. 
 
 Bandjermasin. 
 
 2,779 
 
 25. 
 
 Kendari. 
 
 322 
 
 7. 
 
 Pontianak. 
 
 2,551 
 
 26. 
 
 Prigi Radja. 
 
 320 
 
 8. 
 
 Samarinda. 
 
 2 ,252 
 
 27. 
 
 Koealoe. 
 
 309 
 
 9. 
 
 Djambi. 
 
 1,757 
 
 28. 
 
 Bagan Api Api. 
 
 279 
 
 10. 
 
 Moeara Sebaq. 
 
 992 
 
 29. 
 
 Madjene. 
 
 229 
 
 11. 
 
 Gorontalo...". 
 
 919 
 
 30. 
 
 Pakanbaroe. 
 
 184 
 
 12. 
 
 Sampit. 
 
 877 
 
 31. 
 
 Menado. 
 
 179 
 
 13. 
 
 Padang. 
 
 762 
 
 32. 
 
 Tand jeongtirera. 
 
 179 
 
 14. 
 
 PoelaiT Moeda. 
 
 737 
 
 33. 
 
 MaliU. 
 
 175 
 
 15. 
 
 Tandjoengredeb. 
 
 714 
 
 34. 
 
 Sinabang. 
 
 132 
 
 16. 
 
 Tandjeongselor. 
 
 677 
 
 35. 
 
 Koemai 7. 
 
 105 
 
 17. 
 
 Rengat. .7. 
 
 580 
 
 36. 
 
 Parigi. 
 
 97 
 
 18. 
 
 Poelaukidjang. 
 
 485 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 1,182 
 
 19. 
 
 Tanahgrogotri. 
 
 467 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 38,422 
 
 Of the total imports of rattans into Singapore, but 8 per cent came 
 from the territories included in British Malaya, the principal part 
 coming from Dutch territory. 
 
 The following table shows the exports from the Straits Settlements 
 for 1918,1919, and 1920, by countries: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 United States. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 5,198 
 2,755 
 1,424 
 
 Metric tons. 
 4,480 
 4,961 
 
 Metric tons. 
 5, 881 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 4,637 
 
 2,681 
 
 129 
 
 France. 
 
 '776 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 279 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 765 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 
 90 
 
 103 
 
 Italy. 
 
 
 219 
 
 449 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 
 146 
 
 490 
 
 Ceylon. 
 
 51 
 
 66 
 
 63 
 
 British India. 
 
 1,552 
 
 1, 681 
 
 • 1,749 
 6,419 
 383 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 3; 764 
 192 
 
 5; 617 
 
 1,147 
 
 China. 
 
 French Indo-China. 
 
 222 
 
 331 
 
 155 
 
 Canada. 
 
 129 * 
 
 1, 058 
 
 390 
 
 Australia. 
 
 294 
 
 '307 
 
 189 
 
 New Zealand. 
 
 29 
 
 44 
 
 154 
 
 Japan. 
 
 1,027 
 
 619 
 
 1,172 
 
 618 
 
 All other. 
 
 ' 4S3 
 
 689 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 17,256 
 
 22,857 
 
 25,944 
 
 
 
 GUTTA-PERCHA AND GUTTA JOOLATON G. 
 
 The principal sources of supplies of gutta-percha are in Borneo and 
 Sumatra, although there is a small production on the Malay Penin¬ 
 sula. The trade is concentrated in Singapore and is routed from the 
 producers to the British export houses through the Chinese business 
 organization. 
 
 The following figures show the export of guttajoolatong from the 
 Netherlands East Indies, by countries, for the years 1913, 1916, 1917, 
 1918, and 1919 (1 kilo=2.204 pounds): 
 
FOREST PRODUCTS 
 
 181 
 
 CD 
 
 1—1 
 
 6 
 
 w 
 
 fa 
 
182 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 United States. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1,263,837 
 438,770 
 657,585 
 1,495,937 
 14, 231, 696 
 59, 539 
 110, 420 
 84,605 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1. 504,013 
 4,917 
 447,705 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 4,550, 820 
 
 Kilos. 
 671,255 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1,897,204 
 10,205 
 23,373 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 2ii, 585 
 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 Straits Settlements. 
 
 8, 379, 457 
 18, 370 
 28, 456 
 
 4,015,121 
 
 2,450,312 
 
 5,310, 363 
 4,361 
 
 Australia. 
 
 France. 
 
 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 7,215 
 
 8,790 
 
 
 61, 222 
 4, 213 
 
 55,800 
 
 3,420 
 
 All other. 
 
 126 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 18, 342, 515 
 
 10,398,923 
 
 8,777, 526 
 
 3,187, 002 
 
 7, 304, 726 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 17, 523 
 18,324, 992 
 
 24,387 
 10, 374, 536 
 
 67, 201 
 8,710, 325 
 
 88,508 
 3, 098, 494 
 
 42,166 
 7, 262, 560 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 In 1917 there were received at Singapore from the British posses¬ 
 sions in Borneo 3,986 metric tons of gutta inferior; in 1918, 2,684 
 tons; and in 1919, 3,843 tons. Gutta inferior includes guttajoola- 
 tong, which is not a gutta in the ordinary acceptation of the term, 
 and various low-grade guttas. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of gutta inferior from the 
 Straits Settlements for 1917, 1918, 1919, and 1920, by countries: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 United States. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 4,968 
 66 
 
 Metric tons. 
 857 
 
 Metric tons. 
 6,052 
 
 Metric tons. 
 3,279 
 232 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 102 
 
 '237 
 
 Australia. 
 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 Canada. 
 
 73 
 
 15 
 
 49 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 6 
 
 France. 
 
 51 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 Japan. 
 
 169 
 
 148 
 
 208 
 
 57 
 
 All other. 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 50 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 5,295 
 
 1,211 
 
 6,579 
 
 3,669 
 
 
 
 Guttajoolatong is used in the United States for mixing with rubber 
 for the manufacture of various rubber products and as a base for 
 chewing gum. It has a rubber content, while gutta-percha, gutta 
 hang kang, and the other guttas known to the trade have a gutta 
 content. It is gathered by the natives of Borneo and Sumatra from 
 jungle trees and finds its way to the market through Chinese chan¬ 
 nels, Singapore being the principal market, although Soerabaya and 
 Batavia do some direct business with the world’s markets. 
 
 Like all other forest gums it is carelessly gathered and has no 
 reliable grade, but some small pressure is brought to bear on the 
 natives by the first buyers to induce them to bring in a clean product. 
 The unevenness of grades involves a large element of risk in pur¬ 
 chasing from the European exporters in Singapore, who handle the 
 bulk of the export trade. 
 
 COPAL AND DAMAR. 
 
 The following is an extract from an official publication of the 
 Netherlands East Indian Government relating to copal and damar: 
 
 It should be borne in mind that only the European trader can clearly dis¬ 
 tinguish copal from damar; the Asiatic shipper can not It therefore frequently 
 
FOREST PRODUCTS. 
 
 183 
 
 happens that the officials who compile the statistics are misled. On that ac¬ 
 count it is impossible to give, even approximately, the correct figures where the 
 proportion of one kind to another is concerned. 
 
 The figures for damar undoubtedly include a great deal of copal. If, how¬ 
 ever, by adding both together we consider the annual exports to the various 
 countries or ports of destination, we can form a good idea of how this article 
 is distributed over the markets of the world. 
 
 It is absolutely impossible to obtain reliable particulars from the official 
 statistics, for the reason that several ports export damar as well as copal. 
 Generally speaking, damar is supplied chiefly by tbe western part of the archi¬ 
 pelago, i. e., Sumatra and Borneo, while copal comes from the eastern part— 
 Celebes, the Moluccas, and New Guinea. Yet Palembang and Pontianak, al¬ 
 though belonging to the damar districts, produce copal as well, and some of 
 the eastern districts also produce |amar. vil/ <y 
 
 The principal centers for thj^xpor^itionmf damar are Batavia and Padang. 
 Copal, on the other hand, is chiefly shi}ppe:d froih Macassar and Ternate. 
 
 Mr. Heyne, the best authority on the forest products of the Nether¬ 
 lands East Indies, stated that the infallible test is to hold a piece in 
 the hand until it has time to reach the temperature of the body, and 
 if it then sticks to the hand it is damar, but if it drops it is copal. 
 He further stated that the demand controls the supply. Any quan¬ 
 tity required can be procured; but if the market for rattans goes 
 up to a point where labor can be more profitably used in collecting 
 that forest product the production of copal and damar will cease. 
 
 SHIPMENTS OF COPAL. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of copal as given in the 
 official returns for 1913, 1918, 1919, and 1920, by countries, the re¬ 
 turns for 1920 being for Java and Madoera only: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 i 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 2,422 
 185 
 1,091 
 423 
 93 
 2,840 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,219 
 2,043 
 1,528 
 
 Metric tons. 
 328 
 13 
 72 
 
 United States. 
 
 1,310 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany and Austria. 
 
 
 0 ther European. 
 
 10 
 
 1,860 
 
 303 
 
 143 
 
 28 
 
 2,588 
 
 203 
 
 90 
 
 7 
 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 
 Japan.. . 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 
 All other-. 
 
 1 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 7,080 
 
 3,626 
 
 7,706 
 
 414 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 104 
 
 6,976 
 
 158 
 
 3,468 
 
 363 
 
 7,343 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Copal is the product of the tree Agathis alba (Foxworthy), which 
 is found in the Philippines, in Borneo and the islands to the east, 
 and in the Residency of Palembang, in Sumatra. The most valuable 
 variety is found in deposits long buried under the ground, having 
 exuded from the roots of trees of past ages, but much the larger 
 part is procured from living trees by tapping. There is no standard 
 grading. It comes to the market cities in a dirty condition in all 
 qualities, from soft to hard, and in many colors. There it is cleaned 
 by chipping out all foreign matter and graded according to the re¬ 
 quirements of the various world markets. 
 
184 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 'IGffI 
 
FOREST PRODUCTS. 
 
 185 
 
 Most of this product is cleaned at Macassar and Singapore, al¬ 
 though Ambon and Ternate prepare important quantities for export. 
 
 The imports of copal into the Straits Settlements in 1919 were as 
 follows (1 Straits dollar=$0.5678 mint par U. S.) : British North 
 Borneo, S$18,028; Sarawak, S$32,280; Non-Federated Malay States, . 
 S$6,307; Dutch Borneo, S$89,855; Celebes and Moluccas, S$678,723; 
 Sumatra, S$40,225; other Dutch islands, S$24,083; Philippine Is¬ 
 lands, S$78,709; all others, S$935; total, S$969,145. 
 
 There is no copal produced in the Straits Settlements, and all the 
 import is into Singapore. The Non-Federated Malay States of - 
 Kelantan and Trengganoe produce small quantities, as do British 
 North Borneo and Sarawak, but the chief source of imports is Celebes 
 and the Moluccas. Through Singapore’s organization of Chinese 
 merchants in Macassar and its hinterland a considerable quantity of 
 copal is carried past the Dutch market cities to Singapore, where 
 it is cleaned and graded by the Chinese and sold to the exporters. 
 Dutch merchants are, however, handling the bulk of this trade, the 
 markets being Macassar and Soerabaya. 
 
 The exports of copal in 1919 were as follows: United Kingdom, 
 S$560,230; British India and Burma, S$5,227; Australia, S$17,502; 
 New Zealand, S$l,307; France, S$115,731; Italy, S$4,704; Nether¬ 
 lands, S$29,850; Japan, S$23,519; United States, S$684,607; all 
 other countries, S$2,792; total, S$l,445,469. The United States took 
 47 per cent, the United Kingdom 39 per cent, and France 8 per cent, 
 the balance scattering. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of copal from the Straits 
 Settlements for 1918, 1919, and 1920, by countries: 
 
 United States 
 Great Britain. 
 France. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Germany.... 
 British India 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Australia.... 
 
 Japan..., 
 All other. 
 
 Total 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 2,221 
 
 2,305 
 
 3,099 
 
 235 
 
 1,625 
 
 777 
 
 
 366 
 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 190 
 
 
 137 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 129 
 
 
 
 141 
 
 47 
 
 50 
 
 142 
 
 47 
 
 36 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 2,917 
 
 4,554 
 
 4,242 
 
 The above figures show to some extent the large part the United 
 States plays in the trade. 
 
 SHIPMENTS OF DAMAR. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of damar from the Nether¬ 
 lands East Indies as given in the official returns for 1913, 1918, 1919, 
 
186 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 and 1920, by countries, the returns for 1920 being for Java and 
 Madoera only: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,904 
 1,238 
 850 
 541 
 285 
 4,679 
 175 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,262 
 3,162 
 992 
 
 Metric tons. 
 231 
 1,269 
 133 
 21 
 72 
 15 
 
 United States. 
 
 3,438 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 Other European. 
 
 
 226 
 
 4,334 
 
 107 
 
 7 
 
 257 
 
 Singapore.. 
 
 2,923 
 
 14 
 
 287 
 
 85 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 321 
 
 31 
 
 Total. 
 
 9,993 
 
 6,747 
 
 10,347 
 
 1,772 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 2,199 
 
 7,794 
 
 1,057 
 
 5,690 
 
 2,766 
 
 7,581 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The imports of damar into the Straits Settlements in 1919, in 
 Straits dollars, were as follows (1 Straits dollar=$0.5678 mint par 
 U. S.) : British North Borneo, S$149,383; Sarawak, S$93,330; Brit¬ 
 ish India and Burma, S$l,100; Federated Malay States, S$20,126; 
 Non-Federated Malay States, S$80,617; Dutch Borneo, S$225,482; 
 Celebes and Moluccas, S$140,709; Java, S$14,500; Sumatra, 
 S$87,848; other Dutch islands, S$58,814; Philippine Islands, 
 S$40,253; Siam, S$145,743; and all others, S$l,342; total, 
 S$l,059,247, of which S'$l,052,965 was received at Singapore and 
 S$6,282 at Penang. 
 
 The damar gathered in the Federated and Non-Federated Malay 
 States is not considered to be first class, and that from Sarawak and 
 British North Borneo is of a poor grade. All sorts of qualities come 
 from various sources in the Netherlands Indies, being generally of 
 a better grade than that from the British possessions. The whole 
 trade in Singapore is small, the bulk of the business being concen¬ 
 trated at Batavia. The import is in the hands of the Chinese, who 
 clean and grade it for export according to size and color and sell 
 it to the exporting houses. 
 
 The exports of damar from the Straits Settlements in 1919, in 
 Straits dollars, were as follows: United Kingdom, S$258,508; Brit¬ 
 ish India and Burma, S$342,659; Ceylon, S$8.191; Australia, 
 S$15,050; France, S$49,014; Italy, S$9,240; Netherlands, S$l,025; 
 Japan, S$51,499; United States, S$459,117; and all others, S$25,776; 
 total, S$l,220,079, of which S$l,202,606 was shipped from Singapore 
 and S$l7,473 from Penang. 
 
 The United States took 37 per cent; British India and Burma, 
 28 per cent; the United Kingdom, 21 per cent; and continental 
 Europe, 5 per cent. The first grades go largely to the United States. 
 
 In the following table are shown the exports of damar from the 
 Straits Settlements for 1918, 1919, and 1920, by countries: 
 
FOREST PRODUCTS. 
 
 3 87 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 United States. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,261 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,333 
 
 Metric tons. 
 2,137 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 140 
 
 825 
 
 '347 
 
 France. 
 
 155 
 
 112 
 
 246 
 
 Italy. 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 British India. 
 
 2,085 
 
 3,726 
 
 2,532 
 
 Canada. 
 
 5 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 49 
 
 30 
 
 38 
 
 Japan. 
 
 57 
 
 97 
 
 72 
 
 All other. . 
 
 145 
 
 326 
 
 365 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 3,922 
 
 6,470 
 
 5, 799 
 
 
 
 GRADING OF DAMAR. 
 
 From a Netherlands East Indian Government publication the fol¬ 
 lowing statement is made regarding damar: 
 
 Sumatra damar, as it is called in the trade, differs from Borneo damar, 
 which, as a rule, is slightly cheaper. When broken the former shows an even 
 color on the plane of fracture, whereas in the case of the latter the surface 
 glitters on account of the many minute air bubbles it contains; nor is the 
 chemical composition of the two products identical. The damar of the Mo¬ 
 luccas resembles in appearance the product of Borneo. It is said that some 
 damar trees spontaneously exude the rosin, while others must be tapped. 
 
 Batavia is the principal center for the damar trade in the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies, as the Sumatra grades are marketed at that city, 
 while Macassar is almost equally important. The cleaning is in 
 the hands of the Chinese, Arabs, and Europeans in Batavia and of 
 European houses in Macassar, Celebes, and Padang, Sumatra. Con¬ 
 siderable quantities of the exports go to Singapore. 
 
 Damar is graded according to what is called the Batavia assort¬ 
 ment, including A, B, C, D, and E, ranging from the size of an egg 
 to small peas, and is packed loose in cases of 136 pounds net, con¬ 
 taining 10 per cent A, 10 per cent B, 30 per cent C, 22 per cent D, and 
 28 per cent E. This assortment goes to the United States and to 
 Holland principally, while such damar as can not be included in the 
 Batavia assortment goes to England, Germany, and Holland. 
 
 A Padang exporter said that he was at a loss to know why Ameri¬ 
 can buyers required such exact proportions and then put them all in 
 one case without separating them, as they were bound to break into 
 smaller particles en route. 
 
 GUM BENZOE OR BENJAMIN. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of gum benzoe or benjamin 
 from the Netherlands East Indies for 1913, 1918, 1919, and 1920, by 
 countries, returns for 1920 being for Java and Madoera only: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 United States. 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 27 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 Great Britian. 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 France. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Straits Settlements. 
 
 1,639 
 
 989 
 
 1,784 
 
 1 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 
 Total..*. 
 
 1,670 
 
 997 
 
 1,813 
 
 10 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 1,670 
 
 989 
 
 1,804 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
188 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Gum benzoe is used in the manufacture of perfume, for incense, 
 and the benzoic acid extracted from it is used for medicinal purposes. 
 The best grade is produced in Siam, the second quality In Tapanoeli, 
 Sumatra, and a very inferior quality comes from Palembang, Su¬ 
 matra. There is considerable interchange of this product between 
 Palembang and Tapanoeli by the Chinese, who level the grades to 
 some extent before shipping. Shipments of gum benzoe go almost 
 entirely to Singapore, whence it is exported to the world’s markets. 
 
 Exports of gum benzoe or benjamin from British Malaya for 
 1918, 1919, and 1920, by countries, were as follows: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 United States. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 32 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 107 
 
 156 
 
 93 
 
 France. 
 
 48 
 
 275 
 
 British India. 
 
 648 
 
 955 
 
 576 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 38 
 
 Australia. 
 
 74 
 
 3 
 
 Japan. 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 All other. 
 
 168 
 
 127 
 
 286 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 1, 062 
 
 1,562 
 
 998 
 
 
 
 CUTCH. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of cutch for 1918 and 1919 
 from the Netherlands Indies and for 1920 from Java and Madoera 
 only: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1918 • 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 United States. 
 
 
 1 
 
 52 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 
 172 
 
 51 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 467 
 
 
 Norway. 
 
 240 
 
 35 
 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 308 
 
 788 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 204 
 
 2,077 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 38 
 
 7 
 
 i 
 
 All other. 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 805 
 
 3,547 
 
 104 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 263 
 
 497 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 542 
 
 3,050 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Practically all of the above is from Pontianak, western Borneo, 
 where there is one factory. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of cutch from the Straits 
 Settlements for 1918,1919, and 1920, by countries: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 United States. 
 
 13 
 
 485 
 
 1,174 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 25 
 
 486 
 
 369 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 162 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 48 
 
 9 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 771 
 
 705 
 
 708 
 
 Australia". 
 
 20 
 
 14 
 
 45 
 
 Japan. 
 
 232 
 
 371 
 
 44 
 
 French Indo-China. 
 
 313 
 
 212 
 
 All other. 
 
 5 
 
 54 
 
 132 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,568 
 
 2,375 
 
 2 481 
 
 / 
 
 
FOREST PRODUCTS 
 
 189 
 
 USES OF CUTCH. 
 
 As is shown in the exports from the Netherlands East Indies to 
 Singapore, a large part of these Straits Settlements exports are 
 reexports. The principal production district in British Malaya is 
 Brunei. 
 
 The following extracts relating to mangrove cutch and its manu¬ 
 facture are from a report by American Consul George M. Hanson, 
 British North Borneo: 
 
 Mangrove cutch has been employed hitherto almost exclusively for tanning 
 purposes. Its availability for use in dyeing, in much the same way as gambier, 
 etc., has attracted attention, as the demand for cutch in other forms has mate¬ 
 rially increased. 
 
 The mangrove is found in jungles on swampy ground along the seashore and 
 about the mouths of rivers in all the countries of the oriental Tropics. 
 
 Kinds of mangrove in Borneo. —There are two distinct kinds of mangrove 
 in Borneo. The ordinary kind is known by the native Malay name “ bakau,” 
 and that name is also applied to the extract of the bark. The other kind is 
 called “tungah,” also a native name. Tungah is decidedly superior to bakau, 
 as the bark produces a superior quality and a greater amount of extract. 
 Cutch made from tungah is more valuable for dyeing purposes. It sells for a 
 much higher price than that made from bakau mangrove. 
 
 The supply of mangrove trees in Borneo, as well as in the Netherlands Indies 
 and other tropical countries, is practically inexhaustible. 
 
 How the cutch is manufactured. —The manufacturing process is exceedingly 
 simple, although some features are kept secret. 
 
 The freshly gathered bark is tied with rattan in small bundles, weighing 10 or 
 15 pounds, and boiled in vats until most of the soluble matter has been ex¬ 
 tracted. evidenced by the density of the resultant decoction. Concentration by 
 evaporation is effected in the same vacuum apparatus as is used ordinarily for 
 refining sugar. When the desired consistency is obtained and the water present 
 does not exceed 25 per cent, the thick residue is drawn off in a plastic state. 
 It is packed in bags for short-distance shipments and in boxes for trans¬ 
 portation to America or Europe. During the cooling process it hardens until it 
 resembles resin. Formerly the bark was broken into small pieces, and even 
 ground, before boiling, but this treatment has been abandoned. The additional 
 extract secured does not cover the trouble and expense of crushing or grinding. 
 The bark when tied in bundles can be more easily handled. After boiling it is 
 also in a convenient shape to be fed into furnaces as fuel after being thoroughly 
 dried. 
 
 TANNING MATERIALS. 
 
 By Dr. F. W. Foxworthy, Forest Department, Federated Malay States. 
 
 There is very little tanning done in the Malay Peninsula, but there 
 are several tanneries in Singapore and Penang. Formerly there was 
 a good deal of gambier produced, but little of it is grown now, except 
 in Johore. Gambier has practically dropped out of the trade returns. 
 The mangrove swamps are extensively used for firewood production, 
 but there are no cutch works. Occasionally the bark is used locally, 
 to a very limited extent, by fishermen. Bakau kurap (Rhizophora 
 mucronata ), bakau minyak ( Rhizophora conjugata) , tumu (Brugu- 
 iera gymnorhiza ), mata buaya (Bruguiera eriopetcila ), and tengar 
 (Ceriops spp.) produce bark which contains tannin to the amount of 
 25 per cent or more of the dry weight. They can also be used as a 
 source of dyestuffs. The principal factories for the manufacture of 
 cutch from mangrove bark are located at Pontianak, Rejang, Brunei, 
 Kudat, and Sandakan, in Borneo. 
 
 Besides the above, there are quite a number of trees in the inland 
 forests whose bark contains appreciable amounts of tannin. Thus 
 
190 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 far no systematic work has been done on the analysis of these barks. 
 It is probable, however, that the country contains considerably more 
 than enough tannin-producing trees to supply the local needs. 
 
 OIL-CONTAINING NUTS. 
 
 Kemiri nuts , or candlenuts , are the fruit of the tree Aleurites 
 moluccana (Willd), which grows to a considerable size. Its principal 
 economic value is in its fruit. The nuts resemble in some respects the 
 hazelnut and produce an oil that is an important ingredient in the 
 native foods, while its use in a preparation for the hair is much valued 
 by the natives. As a paint oil it can not compete with linseed under 
 ordinary market conditions, according to Dutch authorities, as the 
 processes of decorticating are expensive. 
 
 In Java the trees are planted by the natives in their villages, but in 
 the Outer Possessions they grow wild. They are cultivated in the 
 southern part of Celebes, which is the largest producing area outside 
 of Java. 
 
 The product of the Outer Possessions not used locally goes almost 
 entirety to Java, and there is but a small export to Singapore. 
 
 The oil is known on the European market as Aleurites oil, Bankoel 
 oil, candlenut oil, and Chinese wood oil. 
 
 Balem and soentai nuts are the fruit of the Palaquium pisang and 
 Palaquium oleosum , respectively, and produce what is known in com¬ 
 merce as “ vegetable tallow Siak.” These trees grow in the forests of 
 Sumatra principally, and the exported nuts are shipped to Singapore. 
 The fat is largely used in the manufacture of tapioca and sago in 
 Singapore, and it also is a good soap material. The exports in 1914 
 were 747 metric tons; in 1915, 818 tons; in 1916, 615 tons; in 1917, 
 26 tons; in 1918, 346 tons; and in 1919, 439 tons. 
 
 Dragon's blood is a dark brown or reddish resin obtained from 
 the fruit of several varieties of the rattan palm. It is nearly 
 opaque when ready for the market and brittle, and when ground 
 makes a red powder. It is soluble in alcohol and when heated gives 
 off benzoic acid. 
 
 In the Netherlands Indies dragon’s blood is used for coloring 
 articles made from fibrous materials, such as baskets and hats, and 
 in western countries in medicines as an astringent, for coloring 
 paper, glass, and varnishes, and in the photographic industry. 
 
 The export, which is nearly all to Singapore, Penang, Hong¬ 
 kong, and China, was, in 1914, 36 metric tons; in 1915, 33 tons; 
 in 1916, 31 tons; in 1917, 45 tons; in 1918, 58 tons; and in 1919, 
 43 tons. 
 
 Tenghawang or Borneo tallow is a product of several trees of the 
 Depterocarpacese family, some of which bear a fat used locally, 
 but only a few bear an exportable quality. These trees grow in 
 western Borneo principally, whence most of the export comes, 
 although there is some production in Palembang, Sumatra. 
 
 Like the oil of thfe balem and soentai nuts, this tallow is largely 
 used in the tapioca and sago factories for greasing pans and for soap 
 making. 
 
MINERAL PRODUCTS AND HYDRAULIC POWER. 
 
 MINERAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 Prepared in collaboration with Charles Janin, consulting engineer, United States Bureau 
 
 of Mines. 
 
 The most important minerals mined in the Netherlands East 
 Indies are tin, coal, and petroleum. Recent investigations have 
 shown the importance of some iron deposits, and, in addition to 
 these, lead, copper, manganese, and tungsten ores are found in small 
 quantities and some diamonds are mined in south and east Borneo. 
 The tin-producing islands are Banka, Billiton, and Singkep. Su¬ 
 matra also possesses some tin deposits in Siak, but so far these 
 latter are unimportant. 
 
 TIN MINING IN NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES. 
 
 Tin was discovered in Banka in 1710. Mining operations were 
 carried on at first by the natives, but they w r ere gradually replaced 
 by Chinese, who organized the industry on a systematic basis and 
 introduced important improvements in mining methods. The‘total 
 production of tin in Banka is stated at approximately 500,000 tons 
 to date. The Billiton deposits were not worked on a large scale 
 until about the middle of the nineteenth century and those of Sing¬ 
 kep about 30 years later. 
 
 The three islands lie on the southeasterly extension of the axis 
 of the Malay Peninsula. The primary tin deposits are in granites 
 and ancient sediments, and consist more of impregnations than true 
 veins. The granite inclosing them is altered to greisen containing 
 cassiterite and topaz, while the veins contain cassiterite, pyrite, 
 wolframite, tourmaline, magnetite, and sometimes siderite. 
 
 In Banka tin mining is carried on by the Government. The ore 
 deposits are mostly alluvial and are worked in open pits by Chinese 
 coolies, either under contract or under direct Government super¬ 
 vision. 
 
 The ore is smelted locally in blast furnaces or sent to central 
 smelters, located in some districts. Before the war Banka tin was 
 all sold by auction in Holland, with the exception of small amounts 
 sent to Batavia or used for Government services. To prevent the tin 
 reaching Germany during the war, the supplies to Holland were 
 limited by the Allies, and much of the Banka tin was shipped direct 
 to England and the United States. In Billiton and Singkep private 
 companies work tin deposits, and a large part of the ore obtained 
 is smelted at Singapore. 
 
 In 1852 the Netherlands Government established a Bureau of 
 Mines to organize and develop the mining industry. At first the 
 
 191 
 
192 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 bureau included 10 engineers, but at present has over 60 engineers 
 and geologists and a large number of assistant's. The bureau’s head¬ 
 quarters are at Batavia. A yearbook is issued devoted to adminis¬ 
 trative, technical, and statistical details. 
 
 Banka has an area of 12,240 square kilometers (7,606 square miles) 
 and a population of 100,000, three-eighths of the population being 
 of Chinese origin. The exposed geological formations of Banka are 
 granites and sedimentaries, consisting of sandstone, quartzites, and 
 shales of the Paleozic age. Strata are compressed into steep folds. 
 The tin ores are found in alluvial deposits along the northern and 
 eastern coastal ranges. Small veins of tin ore occur in the granite, 
 but are not of commercial importance. The overburden is clay, sand, 
 and gravel of varying thickness, the “pay” gravel ranging from 0.1 
 to 0.4 inch thick, in exceptional cases reaching a meter in thickness. 
 The tin ore is from 2 to 4 per cent of the ore stratum, reaching in 
 some cases as high as 10 per cent. 
 
 The geological conditions and the occurrence of tin ore on the 
 island of Billiton are similar to those on Banka, but, in addition to 
 the alluvial deposits, several tin veins are large and rich enough 
 to be worked. The principal operating company is the Billiton 
 Maatschappij. A concession was granted to this company in 1852, 
 and in 1892 it was extended a further period of 85 years. The Gov¬ 
 ernment receives five-eighths of the annual profits. Operations, ex¬ 
 cepting the lode mines, are organized along lines similar to those of 
 Banka. In 1914 there were 47 mines operating. 
 
 The Singkep Tin Co. is another private enterprise which is oper¬ 
 ating on the island of Singkep, in the Riouw Archipelago. A con¬ 
 cession was granted to this company in 1899. The occurrence of tin 
 ore is similar to that at Banka and at Billiton, as are also the mining 
 operations. Production in 1914 was 834 metric tons. Near Singkep 
 tin ore is found at the bottom of the sea and is worked by dredges. 
 All tin ore from Singkep is smelted at Singapore. 
 
 Tin-mining operations in the Netherlands East Indies are some¬ 
 what similar to those carried on in the Federated Malay States, de¬ 
 scribed further on, with the exception that less progress has been 
 made in dredging. The only dredging in the Netherlands East 
 Indies is at Singkep. 
 
 A number of improvements have recently been made in the Neth¬ 
 erlands East Indies in mining methods and in smelting, under the 
 direction of Government engineers. Most of the tin ore won is from 
 open pits, in alluvial deposits, and the improvements mentioned in¬ 
 clude draining of the pits, removal of barren overburden, and better 
 smelting and mining arrangements. A large part of the tin is 
 smelted in the Netherlands East Indies, but some, notably that from 
 Billiton and Singkep, is shipped to Singapore. 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES AND HYDRAULIC POWER. 
 
 193 
 
 Statistics relating to the Banka tin industry are given in the fol¬ 
 lowing table: 
 
 Year. 
 
 Number 
 of mines. 
 
 Average 
 
 number 
 
 of 
 
 laborers. 
 
 Produc¬ 
 
 tion. 
 
 Quantity 
 
 auctioned 
 
 in 
 
 Holland. 
 
 Quantity 
 sold in 
 Nether¬ 
 lands 
 East 
 Indies. 
 
 Cost price 
 auctioned 
 per 
 picul. 
 
 Averag< 
 
 pri 
 
 Holland. 
 
 ; selling 
 ce. 
 
 Nether¬ 
 
 lands 
 
 East 
 
 Indies. 
 
 
 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 Metric 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 tons. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 1910. 
 
 361 
 
 19,823 
 
 16,686 
 
 13,840 
 
 
 40.00 
 
 114.00 
 
 
 1911. 
 
 366 
 
 21,292 
 
 15,471 
 
 15,358 
 
 
 39.00 
 
 142.00 
 
 
 1912. 
 
 376 
 
 22,296 
 
 15,116 
 
 16,329 
 
 
 43.00 
 
 154. 00 
 
 
 1913. 
 
 362 
 
 21,436 
 
 15,752 
 
 15' 380 
 
 
 45.00 
 
 152.00 
 
 
 1914. 
 
 342 
 
 21,406 
 
 14,477 
 
 9, 847 
 
 2,278 
 
 43.50 
 
 127.00 
 
 108.00 
 
 1915. 
 
 351 
 
 19,050 
 
 13,497 
 
 2,475 
 
 11.855 
 
 41.50 
 
 142.00 
 
 111.00 
 
 1916. 
 
 355 
 
 19,628 
 
 14,808 
 
 1,148 
 
 20,458 
 
 42.25 
 
 144.00 
 
 121.00 
 
 1917. 
 
 326 
 
 18,910 
 
 13,777 
 
 856 
 
 11,527 
 
 43.99 
 
 175.00 
 
 156.00 
 
 1918. 
 
 325 
 
 18,658 
 
 12,055 
 
 36 
 
 10,934 
 
 58.87 
 
 228.00 
 
 204.00 
 
 Note. — One picul=136 pounds; 1 florin =*=$0,402 mint par U. S. 
 
 Production of the Billiton and Singkep Companies is given as 
 follows: 
 
 Year of report. 
 
 Billiton Co. 
 
 Singkep 
 
 Co.— 
 
 production. 
 
 Production. 
 
 Share of 
 profits paid 
 to Nether¬ 
 lands East 
 Indies Gov¬ 
 ernment. 
 
 1910. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 4,334 
 4,665 
 4,158 
 4,453 
 4,614 
 5,256 
 5,954 
 6,492 
 6,945 
 
 Florins. 
 2,286,961 
 1,858,775 
 1,938,062 
 
 }• 819,184 
 
 881,949 
 
 2,541,804 
 
 3,927,374 
 
 5,689,538 
 
 Metric tons. 
 405 
 469 
 635 
 
 / 672 
 
 \ 834 
 
 816 
 844 
 770 
 514 
 
 1911. 
 
 1912. 
 
 1913. 
 
 1914. 
 
 1915. 
 
 1916. 
 
 1917. 
 
 1918. 
 
 
 The Straits Trading Co. has one smelter at Singapore and another 
 at Penang, and the Eastern Smelting Co. has a smelter at Penang. 
 These two companies have buying branches at the tin-producing 
 centers of the Malay Peninsula. 
 
 The mines on the island of Banka are operated by the Dutch Gov¬ 
 ernment, and all the ore is smelted on that island and the tin shipped 
 to the Department of Public Industries at Batavia. 
 
 The Billiton Maatschappij operates most of the mining properties 
 on the island of Billiton. On the island of Singkep there are several 
 Chinese operators. Some of the Billiton and Singkep tin ore finds 
 its way to Singapore for smelting. 
 
194 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 EXPORTS OF TIN AND TIN ORE. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of tin from the Netherlands 
 Indies, by countries: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 108 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 330 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 240 
 2,456 
 3,584 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 7,083 
 
 2,855 
 
 2,570 
 
 34 
 
 1,100 
 
 2,529 
 
 2,036 
 
 82 
 
 880 
 
 297 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 1,220 
 
 6,929 
 
 4,205 
 
 63 
 
 105 
 
 3 
 
 United States. 
 
 11,688 
 
 3,159 
 
 13,576 
 
 7,73S 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 330 
 
 British India, etc. 
 
 9 
 
 1,219 
 248 
 
 
 
 France... 
 
 338 
 
 153 
 
 1 
 
 2,085 
 
 4,274 
 
 2 
 
 1,776 
 
 1,763 
 
 
 531 
 
 373 
 
 1 
 
 430 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 888 
 
 2 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 
 
 304 
 
 12 
 
 695 
 
 14 
 
 China. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 
 111 
 
 29 
 
 820 
 
 524 
 
 1,164 
 
 2 
 
 1,624 
 
 887 
 
 All other. 
 
 570 
 
 308 
 
 Total. 
 
 2,154 
 
 1,460 
 
 12,781 
 
 19,730 
 
 15,632 
 
 11,584 
 
 19,367 
 
 13,550 
 
 Exported from: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 2,128 
 
 26 
 
 1,452 
 
 8 
 
 9,864 
 
 2,917 
 
 19,729 
 
 15,606 
 
 26 
 
 11,566 
 
 18 
 
 17,011 
 
 2,456 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Exports of tin ore from the Netherlands Indies, by countries, are 
 shown as follows: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 2,503 
 
 6 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 3,555 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 5,433 
 
 7 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 5,820 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 7,048 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 5,253 
 
 Metric 
 
 tons. 
 
 6,764 
 
 N ftth prl an d s _ _ 
 
 Ttftlv . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 ’Rp.lp r inm_ _ .... 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 1 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,511 
 
 3,580 
 
 5,440 
 
 5,820 
 
 ' 7,048 
 
 5,253 
 
 6,764 
 
 
 i All from the Outer Possessions. 
 
 TIN MINING IN BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Tin mining is one of the principal industries in British Malaya. 
 The deposits of alluvial tin in the Federated Malay States are the 
 most important source of tin in the world. At one time over two- 
 thirds of the world’s supply came from these mines, but at present 
 they produce a little less than 40 per cent of the annual production 
 of tin. These deposits, as well as those in Siam and southern China, 
 have been worked by Chinese for centuries, and about 60 per cent of 
 the tin produced in the Federated Malay States is still won from 
 mines owned and managed by Chinese. 
 
 The production in the Federated Malay States has been as fol¬ 
 lows, the figures being in piculs of 133J pounds each: 
 
 States. 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Perak. 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 458,876 
 
 195,088 
 
 20,5*44 
 
 62,506 
 
 Piculs. 
 414,587 
 175,161 
 17,439 
 62,010 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 387,750 
 
 170,359 
 
 16,246 
 
 53,460 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 371,722 
 
 178,608 
 
 14,761 
 
 55,427 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 371,848 
 
 148,715 
 
 11,710 
 
 54,632 
 
 Selangor.. 
 
 Negri Sembilan... 
 
 Pahang. 
 
 Total. 
 
 737,014 
 
 669,197 
 
 627,815 
 
 620,518 
 
 586,905 
 
 
Special Agents Series No. 213. 
 
 HYDRAULIC TIN MINING, FEDERATED MALAY STATES. 
 
Special Agents Series No. 218. 
 
 FIG. 19.—KALI MAS, THE LIGHTER HARBOR OF SOERABAYA, JAVA. 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES AND HYDRAULIC POWER. 195 
 
 The table shows a gradual falling off of production, due partly to 
 the exhaustion of the higher-grade deposits and also to the falling 
 off in the price of tin, which discourages mining of the lower-grade 
 deposits, but which proved, however, attractive during the period 
 of high prices. 
 
 In the Non-Federated States—that is, States governed by native 
 rulers but under British protection—the production of tin has been 
 small. It is thought that as the methods of transportation improve 
 in these States new deposits will be found and a greatly increased 
 production of tin will result. 
 
 The principal tin-producing State in British Malaya is Perak, 
 Kinta Valley being the most important field in that State. 
 
 The acreage set aside for tin mining in the Federated Malay 
 States, exclusive of unsurveyed concessions, was as follows for the 
 years 1918-1920: 
 
 States. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Perak. 
 
 130,651 
 65,513 
 19,524 
 23,023 
 
 132,714 
 65,527 
 17,733 
 26,988 
 
 130,259 
 67,434 
 15,619 
 21,924 
 
 Selangor. 
 
 Negri Sembilan. 
 
 Pahang. 
 
 Total.. 
 
 238,711 
 
 242,962 
 
 235,236 
 
 
 OCCURRENCE OF TIN. 
 
 The greater part of the tin in Malaya, as previously stated, comes 
 from placer mining. The geological formations in which the tin 
 ore originally occurred were limestone, granitic, and schistose rocks 
 of various kinds. These rocks have in the past ages been acted upon 
 by atmospheric agencies whereby they have become softened and de¬ 
 composed, resulting in the general denudation of the hill lands and 
 the formation of alluvial deposits through the mechanical agency of 
 water. 
 
 The placers are of comparatively recent origin. The tin occurs 
 either scattered through the alluvium in more or less uniform quan¬ 
 tities or in layers of rich tin-bearing strata separated by lean or 
 barren ground. Generally the “ karang ” or ore-bearing ground lies 
 in distinct beds or layers varying in thickness from a few inches to 
 a number of feet. These beds or layers are either resting on a very 
 irregular limestone bedrock or on clay strata above the bedrock. 
 There may be several distinct tin-bearing strata in a deposit. 
 
 There is usually a barren overburden of clay and sand which also 
 varies in thickness, generally from 10 to 30 feet. In places where 
 the ground has been worked by Chinese methods there will be found 
 unrecovered tin in tailing, frequently enough to make it of good 
 dredgable tin content, and there are patches of virgin ground be¬ 
 tween the old “lombongs” (Chinese open-cast workings) that add 
 greatly to the recovery of tin from these areas. Much of the ground 
 now available for dredging has been worked over by Chinese miners. 
 
 The bedrock in the Taiping district is clay; that is, the dredges 
 do not dig below the clay strata upon which the lower layer of “ ka¬ 
 rang ” rests. In Ipoh and Kuala Lumpur sections the bedrock is a 
 hard limestone. In these fields are also found numerous limestone 
 
 19878°—23-14 
 
196 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 pinnacles, generally occurring in groups, covered by alluvial and 
 frequently impossible to detect from surface indications. In open¬ 
 cast mining it is found that the richest ground is that concentrated 
 about these pinnacles. 
 
 METHODS OF MINING TIN. 
 
 Lode mining .—Except on the east coast little has been done in 
 lode mining. The property of the Pahang Consolidated is the one 
 exception, and here a series of lodes have been worked for many 
 years with varying results, but at present with considerable success. 
 The alluvial deposits are worked by open cast, by shafts ? by under¬ 
 ground method, by ground sluicing, and by hydraulicking and 
 dredging. 
 
 The tin-bearing ground may be of the nature of stiff clay or of 
 gravel consisting of water-worn quartz and granitic pebbles varying 
 in size, mixed with sand and clay. This is brought to the surface 
 for treatment, depending on the nature of the tin-bearing ground. 
 The overburden and the tin-bearing ground are removed and raised 
 by manual labor, or by a haulage system of trucks running on rails, 
 or by gravel pumps, and in recent years by bucket dredges. The 
 open-cast mines are kept dry either by Chinese wooden pumps run 
 by water force or manual labor, or by ordinary steam or electric 
 pumps. In small operations Chinese coolies may raise the water by 
 means of long-handled sweeps, similar to the old-fashioned weil 
 sweeps, or by means of tin gasoline cans swung on ropes and manipu¬ 
 lated by two coolies. A surprisingly large amount of water can 
 be handled by these methods. 
 
 Underground methods of mining are resorted to when the tin¬ 
 bearing deposits occur at depths that would not make open-cast 
 mining a paying proposition. The method is to sink shafts at vary¬ 
 ing distances apart, which are all connected below, and to block out 
 the tin-bearing strata. This is not an economical method on account 
 of the expense entailed in timber and pumping, and not all of the 
 payable ground can be extracted, as pillars must be left. The incen¬ 
 tive to underground operations is the smaller capital required. 
 
 “ Lombong ” or open-cast mining is the form generally followed 
 by the Chinese. It consists of mining the ground exactly as a 
 gravel pit would be opened. Only hand labor is employed. The 
 coolies fill their basket's by means of the changloc or hoe and carry 
 the dirt to the washing sluices. The overburden may be washed 
 with the tin-bearing ground or simply piled to one side and not 
 further handled. At some mines the overburden is removed in 
 advance of mining the karang or wash dirt, which is then carried 
 to the washing plant. In nearly all mines of this type power is used 
 in some form, either for removing water from the mine or for pump¬ 
 ing water for washing purposes, and also for elevating the dirt. 
 The source of power in most general use is a comparatively small 
 nonportable steam engine burning wood fuel. Frequently several 
 of these engines are in use on the same line. This form of power is, 
 of course, most inefficient. At the larger mines, however, in recent 
 years, more efficient steam engines, some of portable type, and in 
 some cases Diesel engines or electricity, have been installed. 
 
 Ground sluicing. —Ground-sluicing operations consist in bringing 
 water by gravity or by pumping to suitable levels and taking the 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES AND HYDRAULIC POWER. 197 
 
 tin-bearing ground either into the natural channel of a stream or into 
 constructed sluices in which the preliminary separation of the tin 
 ore from the earth is made. 
 
 Hydraulic mining is carried on by the use of monitors, the water 
 being brought from a distance in pipes under varying pressures 
 from heights of 50 feet up to 500 feet. The ground is broken down by 
 jets of water played from the hydraulic giant against the face of the 
 deposit, the water also acting as a conveyor for the material to suit¬ 
 able sluices, where the separation of the tin ore is made. This method 
 of mining allows the working of ground that probably could not be 
 handled by other means. In fact, the tailings from Cornish tin 
 mines often carry a higher value per ton than the virgin ground of a 
 first-class hydraulic property in the Federated Malay States. The 
 tin ore that escapes from Cornish mills, however, is of a consistency 
 of the finest flour and is most difficult to save, while in the hydraulic 
 property the tin is comparatively coarse and easily caught. 
 
 Hydroelectric mining .—Where water under sufficient head is not 
 available for hydraulic mining or where economy in the use of water 
 is necessary, gravel pumps are frequently installed to elevate the 
 tin-bearing ground, or the tailing. Power for these pumps may be 
 either hydroelectric or steam, or steam or oil engines may be used 
 to generate electricity. 
 
 The gravel pump is a centrifugal pump with renewable liner and 
 wearing plates and is capable of raising any stone which can enter 
 its suction. The efficiency of the gravel pump is low, the pumped 
 material being about 5 per cent solids by bulk. 
 
 Suction, or pump dredging, as it is more commonly known, has 
 been tried in the Kinta and Klang Valleys. The first operation is 
 to excavate a suitable paddock (pit) on the property, in which is 
 built the pontoon which carries the boilers, machinery, and pump. 
 This is built on solid ground, and the pontoon is floated from place 
 to place as the land is worked out and it becomes necessary to work 
 fresh ground. The method of operation is as follows: 
 
 The ground is broken down by monitors with water under pres¬ 
 sure obtained by gravity or from pumps, and this ground is sluiced 
 to a sump at a somewhat lower elevation than the ground on which 
 the pontoon is resting. Powerful gravel pumps raise the water 
 and debris to sluices placed at suitable elevations in order to dis¬ 
 pose of the tailings, and in these sluices, with or without riffles, the 
 tin ore is separated by manual labor. When it is desired to move 
 the pontoon to a more suitable place to work, the paddock is flooded 
 and the pontoon is floated to the newly filled station. 
 
 Bucket dredging .—Bucket dredging is now extensively practiced 
 in the Federated Malay States. The first dredge, introduced in 
 1912, belonged to the Aialayan Tin Co. During 1920 about 20 
 dredges were in operation, and 10 or 12 new dredges are under con¬ 
 struction or proposed at the present time. About 15 per cent of 
 the present production of tin in British Malaya is won by dredg¬ 
 ing operations, approximately 15,000,000 yards being worked by this 
 method in 1920. The amount of ground worked by bucket dredges 
 is steadily increasing on account of the lower operating cost of this 
 method of mining. 
 
198 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Dulang washers .—In addition to the ordinary mining operations 
 described, several thousand persons are employed in dulang wash¬ 
 ing. The dulang is a wooden pan, somewhat similar to the batea 
 in Mexico or to the gold miner’s pan. Dulang washing is usually 
 done by women and children working on old dumps or along small 
 streams, and in some cases tributing on the tailing from mining 
 operations. There were 12,000 dulang passes or licenses issued in 
 1920, and the holders earned an average of $251 Strait's currency dur¬ 
 ing the year. 
 
 COST OF MINING. 
 
 The cost of mining in British Malaya, as in every other part of 
 the world, has greatly increased in the past few years. It is difficult 
 to get accurate figures of mining costs at the present time, and those 
 given must be considered as the best available. Figures of operat¬ 
 ing cost unless accompanied by full details of operating conditions 
 are not of great value and are only useful as a basis of estimation. 
 An analysis of such costs of dredging companies as are obtainable 
 shows that costs have increased 50 per cent or more, and would 
 probably average close to 25 cents Straits currency or 12J cents 
 gold a cubic yard. Gravel pump mining would cost approximately 
 double that of bucket dredging. 
 
 It is difficult to ascertain the cost of mining by Chinese. Informa¬ 
 tion from many sources, white and Chinese, indicates that the cost 
 at Chinese open-cast mines runs from $75 to $135 Straits currency 
 a picul produced ($42.58 to $76.65 mint par U. S. per 133J pounds), 
 depending upon the district and local conditions encountered. Based 
 upon yardage, Chinese open-cast mines would indicate a total cost 
 from 75 cent's to $1.50 Straits currency per cubic yard. 
 
 Chinese owners by various trading methods are sometimes able to 
 recover tin at a lower final cost than the white man could do under 
 the same conditions; that is, by cooperating with labor and also by 
 selling goods, etc., to the coolies. At times yardage costs are based 
 only on the quantity of karang (tin-bearing ground) handled and 
 take no account of the overburden. In-such cases the yardage cost 
 would appear much lower than when other methods of accounting 
 were followed. 
 
 The following figures of cost in Straits currency per picul of tin 
 concentrates produced by different methods of mining are taken from 
 company records. These are given as a matter of general interest 
 only. It is obvious that in addition to the various factors govern¬ 
 ing operation costs the grade of ground worked would have consider¬ 
 able bearing on the cost per picul of tin won. Inefficient methods 
 at a property with high tin content might produce cheaper tin than 
 the best possible practice on ground with a low content. Comparisons 
 under this system of costs are useless. 
 
 Per picul. 
 
 Open cast with mechanical power___$51. 85-$136. 00 
 
 Hydraulic mines under natural head_ 27. 44- 94. 00 
 
 Hydraulic mines with pumps_ 42. 54 
 
 Suction-pump dredge- 61. 00 
 
 Bucket dredges- 23. 80- 69. 00 
 
 To make an attractive proposition for bucket dredging the recov¬ 
 ery should be over 0.5 pound per cubic yard of concentrate containing 
 
199 
 
 MINERAL RESOURCES AND HYDRAULIC POWER. 
 
 72 to 75 per cent tin, other conditions being favorable. Operating 
 costs with tin at $110 Straits currency a picul (£220 a ton London) 
 would be met with a recovery of about 0.35 pound (tin concentrate) 
 per cubic yard. (Straits $1==$0.5678 mint par U. S.) Reports and 
 prospectuses of dredging companies operating in Malaya claim a 
 tin content of from one-half to over 1 pound per cubic yard, but 
 actual returns indicate that the recovery frequently falls below the 
 first figure. The report of one company for 1919, however, gives 
 a return of 1.21 pounds per yard, a cost of $23.29 a picul, and a price 
 realized of $87.63 a picul. Nearly all of the dredging companies 
 have been declaring good dividends with the present price of tin 
 (January, 1922). The average recovery from all dredging com¬ 
 panies operating in the Malay States in 1918 was about 0.75 pound 
 per cubic yard. 
 
 METALLURGY. 
 
 The tin-bearing ground in some cases may carry a high percentage 
 of concentrate. The ground can be worked at a profit by hydraulic 
 mining under favorable conditions when the tin content is only 
 one-fourth of a pound to a cubic yard. In property where the tin 
 ground is composed of gravel and sand the tin ore can be easily 
 separated, and in small operations this is done in short or long 
 sluices, the ground being raked into the sluice by the use of a hoe and 
 washed by the careful manipulation of water by the Chinese, the tin 
 ore being retained at the top of the box and the sand and stone carried 
 out at the end. In many cases, however, the sluices are several hun¬ 
 dred feet long, and in these sluices the separation of tin ore is ef¬ 
 fected by coolies using long hoes to stir the material and the placing 
 of riffles in the sluices at regular intervals. 
 
 When the tin-bearing ground contains much stiff clay, it is gen¬ 
 erally necessary to pass it through a preliminary process of puddling, 
 and thereafter the ground is treated in the sluice. The tin ore ob¬ 
 tained by these methods is not, however, ready for the smelter. Im¬ 
 purities which have, a specific gravity approaching that of tin ore 
 are wolfram, arsenical pyrites, tourmaline, and iron. The con¬ 
 centrate recovered from the sluices is treated by jigs or in sieves by 
 hand, and where much wolfram is present the ore must be treated 
 by a magnetic separator. Mechanical dressing plants are seldom 
 used, and although the methods of washing the cencentrate seem 
 primitive the resultant product is an ore of high grade, and on ac¬ 
 count of the low cost of labor the expense of treatment has not been 
 great. 
 
 SMELTING. 
 
 Until the establishment of European-owned smelters, of which 
 there are two in the Straits Settlements (that of the Straits Trading 
 Co. is the largest tin smelter in the world), the tin ore was smelted 
 by the Chinese in the most primitive manner, and their operations 
 still continue. 
 
 Tin ore is a compound of metallic tin and oxj^gen, and in order to 
 obtain tin in a marketable form it is necessary to get rid of the oxygen. 
 This is done by smelting the ore with carbon, which combines with 
 the oxygen to form a gas and liberates the tin. The Chinese smelters 
 are made of clay in a light metallic framework. The blast is fur- 
 
200 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 nished by a sort of air pump made of wood, with a piston made to 
 tit tightly by a covering of leather. This piston is attached to a 
 handle and is worked by a coolie walking backward and forward. 
 The furnace is fed from the top with charcoal and tin ore. The slag 
 and molten tin collect at the bottom of the furnace and run into a 
 bowl. Here the slag is skimmed off and the tin ladled out and cast 
 into ingots. There were about 30 of these smelters in operation in 
 1920. When the price of tin is high the Chinese smelter enters into 
 keen competition with the English smelter. When the price is low 
 he is less keen on competing. The tin exported by the Chinese smelter 
 must be subjected to a further purifying process before it is sold to 
 the tin trade. 
 
 Smelter charges .—A description of the methods employed at the 
 European smelters in the Federated Malay States is not given, as 
 information regarding these plants is refused by the management. 
 
 The smelters, in addition to direct smelting charges, make a de¬ 
 duction of several units from the assay value for losses in smelting, 
 and make a charge for bags, sacking, freight, insurance, etc. In 
 some cases these charges were £7 a ton of concentrate or more. A 
 rough approximation of the realizable value of a shipment can be 
 arrived at by taking 63 per cent of the tin price on the day of sale. 
 
 The difference in the market price of tin and the amount received 
 by the miners is shown by the following figures, from the report of 
 the Straits Warden of Mines for 1920, which must be taken as 
 approximations. The figures under “ Balance ” represent the average 
 deductions made on account of smelting and local costs. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Ore 
 
 price. 
 
 Received 
 
 by 
 
 miners. 
 
 Differ¬ 
 
 ence. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 Balance. 
 
 
 S$51.41 
 
 SS42.22 
 
 S$9.19 
 
 S$6.18 
 
 SS3.01 
 
 
 54.72 
 
 45.65 
 
 9.07 
 
 6.77 
 
 2.30 
 
 
 61.27 
 
 51.35 
 
 9.92 
 
 7. 82 
 
 2.10 
 
 
 78.29 
 
 61.30 
 
 16.99 
 
 112.56 
 
 4.43 
 
 
 108.45 
 
 85.32 
 
 23.13 
 
 118. 45 
 
 4.68 
 
 
 86.89 
 
 71. 40 
 
 15.40 
 
 12.00 
 
 3.49 
 
 
 108.48 
 
 88.00 
 
 20.48 
 
 15.60 
 
 4.88 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Includes war tax. 
 
 LABOR. 
 
 Labor employed at the mines is mostly Chinese. In 1919 there were 
 about 144,000 Asiatics employed; of these about 8,500 were Indians, 
 Javanese, and Malays, and the remainder Chinese. During Decem¬ 
 ber, 1920, there was a total of 89,557 men employed at the mines, all 
 of whom, excepting 610 on gold and 3,000 on coal, were engaged in 
 tin mining. In addition to the labor actually employed at the mine, 
 many thousands were employed in operations more or less directly 
 connected with mining. 
 
 Wages vary from 80 cents Straits currency a day for the common 
 coolie to $2.50 or more for the skilled worker. (Straits $1=$0.5678 
 mint par U. S.) The decrease in labor force is partly offset by the 
 great increase in labor-saving machinery. The addition of a num¬ 
 ber of bucket dredges, operated largely by mechanical power, has 
 taken the place of hand labor in Malaya. The employment of labor 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES AND HYDRAULIC DOWER. 
 
 201 
 
 is based either on the wage system or piecework, or the mine may be 
 leased to the actual laborers for a fixed percentage of the output. 
 Tributers are generally employed on the smaller areas, which may be 
 worked by ground sluicing, but at times they undertake the work¬ 
 ing of underground and open-cast mines. 
 
 The number of men employed at the different kinds of labor at 
 the tin mines during 1919 and 1920 is shown in the table which fol¬ 
 lows. A decrease of over 23,000 men is shown in 1920 as compared to 
 1919, the main decrease being in the open-cast and surface workings. 
 
 State. 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Open-cast 
 
 and 
 
 surface. 
 
 Under¬ 
 
 ground. 
 
 Hydrau¬ 
 lic and 
 lampan. 
 
 Bucket 
 
 dredging. 
 
 Open-cast 
 
 and 
 
 surface. 
 
 Under¬ 
 
 ground. 
 
 Hydrau¬ 
 lic and 
 lampan. 
 
 Bucket 
 
 dredging. 
 
 Perak. 
 
 Selangor. 
 
 Negri Sembilan. 
 
 Pahang. 
 
 Total. 
 
 40,783 
 29,230 
 1,101 
 1,518 
 
 4,131 
 2,105 
 479 
 3,245 
 
 17,414 
 
 5,873 
 
 628 
 
 3,866 
 
 2,432 
 
 144 
 
 158 
 
 19,232 
 20,729 
 1,183 
 710 
 
 1,903 
 
 3,837 
 
 233 
 
 3,749 
 
 27,360 
 
 4,103 
 
 719 
 
 2,957 
 
 2,127 
 
 460 
 
 105 
 
 152 
 
 72,632 
 
 9,960 
 
 27,781 
 
 2,734 
 
 41,854 
 
 • 9,722 
 
 35,139 
 
 2,844 
 
 Fuel used in the Malay States is wood, coal secured from local 
 mines, or oil, the latter imported. Some coal is also imported. Con¬ 
 sumption of fuel at the mines in 1920 was approximately as follows: 
 Coal, 102,270 tons; wood, 769,790 tons; and oil, 2,700 tons. 
 
 CAPITAL INVESTED IN MINING. 
 
 Capital invested in mining in the Federated Malay States in 1920, 
 according to the report of the Mines Department, is as follows: 
 
 Thirty-seven British companies with an issued sterling capital of 
 £3,643,693 and 33 companies with a combined capital of $13,081,250 
 Straits dollars are operating in the Federated Malay States. There 
 are four French companies whose combined capital amounts to 
 10,890,000 francs. In addition to the above, one American concern, 
 the Yukon Gold Co., has entered the Malayan field and will have, it is 
 understood, a capital of over $5,000,000 gold set aside for its opera¬ 
 tions in that country. 
 
 Opportunities for investment may be classed under three heads: 
 (1) Securing licenses from the Government and prospecting in new 
 fields; (2) purchase of property from present owners; (3) coopera¬ 
 tion with present owners. 
 
 The method of securing property is as follows: When an area is 
 held by one owner, negotiations are comparatively simple, but many 
 of the mining claims are quite small, and to secure an area of suitable 
 size numerous individuals must be approached. Negotiations under 
 these conditions are slow and tedious, as one accustomed to Chinese 
 methods can appreciate. The only practical means is to employ a 
 Chinese firm to secure the options and for the American or European 
 to remain in the background until the deal is closed. 
 
 The asking price of land varies according to the district, the esti¬ 
 mated tin content, and the idea of the owner. The price paid depends 
 to a great extent upon the skill of the negotiator. Prices paid during 
 
202 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 1919-20 ranged from $100 to $300 Straits currency an acre for 
 ground which was estimated to have about 1 pound tin content per 
 cubic yard. 
 
 FUTURE MINING PROSPECTS. 
 
 Throughout the Federated Malay States are deserted mines that 
 are said to have been worked out. Some of these have proved very 
 attractive properties for dredging, as the prospecting results of the 
 Yukon Gold Co. and others have indicated. The operations of the 
 Chinese miner sometimes stopped at a layer of clay or false bedrock 
 which he thought indicated the limit of pay dirt, and subsequent 
 drilling may prove he was at times wrong and make available large 
 areas for mining under modern methods. 
 
 It is not’ likely there will be any considerable extension of hydrau¬ 
 lic mining in the Federated Malay States, as practically all available 
 water for this purpose has been secured, and tailing restrictions are 
 becoming more severe. The great future of mining in the Feder¬ 
 ated Malay States lies in the working of low-grade ground by 
 dredging operations and improvement in the methods of mining 
 employed at some -of the larger open-cast mines which are too deep 
 for dredging. 
 
 The Chinese miner does not understand modern practice, but is 
 willing to cooperate with those he believes will efficiently handle 
 his property and who will install modern machinery. In some cases 
 he will be willing to participate in the financing of new equipment if 
 this is desired, but in most cases will wish to furnish only the mine 
 for a share in the profits. Large areas of land lying idle, that* are too 
 low-grade for expensive mining practice, are now held by the 
 Chinese. Some of this land has recently been purchased or taken 
 under option by dredging companies, but there are still available a 
 number of areas worth investigation by anyone considering dredging 
 operations in Malaya. 
 
 TIN GRADES. 
 
 All tin produced in the Federated Malay States has a yellow 
 tinge, whether it is smelted by the European smelters or by the 
 Chinese, and is of a fineness of 99J. While the purity is slightly 
 lower than the other tin smelted in Malaya, it' is of a smoother 
 quality and is preferred by American millers. 
 
 Tin ore brought to the Straits Settlements from Banka (Nether¬ 
 lands East Indies), China, and Bolivia smelts to a fineness of 99J 
 and has a white sheen. Notwithstanding its greater fineness, it is 
 less satisfactory to American mills. 
 
 There is a considerable quantity of tin smelted in the Federated 
 Malay States by Chinese smelters using old Chinese methods, es¬ 
 pecially in the State of Selangor. This tin is said to be of the 
 same fineness and quality as that of the other Federated Malay 
 States. 
 
 TAXES AND DUTY ON TIN. 
 
 A duty is levied on all tin exported from the Federated Malay 
 States. This difi^ is calculated on a sliding scale. With tin at 
 £150 a ton London, $75 Straits currency a picul ($42.58 mint par 
 U. S. per 133J pounds), the duty works out at 13 per cent of the value 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES AND HYDRAULIC POWER. 
 
 203 
 
 of the tin exported. The amount of duty collected in 1918 was 
 £1,535,239 (about $13,142,054 Straits currency). While the export 
 duty on tin is high, it must be recognized that this is practically the 
 only form of taxation to which mining is subjected. The rental of $1 
 Straits currency (2s. 4d.) per acre on mining land is low. All 
 mining machinery and stores come into the country free of duty. 
 The revenue from the tin duty is employed in the development of the 
 country, improvement of roads, etc., which directly assists operating 
 conditions and cheapens transportation. In a comparison of taxa¬ 
 tion, direct and indirect, which is levied in other countries on min¬ 
 ing industries the duty on tin will not be found as excessive as it 
 first appears. In special cases, such as opening up new fields, the 
 Government has relaxed somewhat the general rate of duty. 
 
 The following table shows the exports of tin from the Straits 
 Settlements, by countries, in piculs of 133J pounds: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 591,625 
 
 596,476 
 
 381,760 
 
 421,232 
 
 449,481 
 
 174,454 
 
 324,076 
 
 224,608 
 
 British India and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ceylon. 
 
 Honkong. 
 
 30,985 
 
 28,398 
 
 23,757 
 
 24,070 
 
 24,162 
 
 24, 504 
 
 40,797 
 
 37,095 
 
 5,650 
 
 2,756 
 
 1,005 
 
 9,096 
 
 4,208 
 
 612 
 
 60,769 
 
 7,238 
 
 Canada. 
 
 Australia._. 
 
 4,292 
 
 1,262 
 420 
 
 2,185 
 
 673 
 
 1,515 
 
 67 
 
 504 
 
 1,848 
 
 17 
 
 5,883 
 
 554 
 
 Other British. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 335 
 
 85 
 
 421 
 
 306 
 
 361 
 
 1,978 
 
 2,608 
 
 1,343 
 3,362 
 49,278 
 
 105 
 
 1,092 
 
 47,815 
 
 France. 
 
 81,326 
 
 66,849 
 
 78,911 
 
 71,361 
 
 100,470 
 
 100,410 
 
 China. 
 
 2,961 
 
 1,565 
 
 2,170 
 
 268 
 
 875 
 
 504 
 
 8,693 
 
 1,906 
 
 Japan. 
 
 13,227 
 
 13,495 
 
 15,944 
 
 20,577 
 
 28,216 
 392,327 
 
 12, 789 
 
 33,948 
 
 16,333 
 
 United States. 
 
 297,955 
 
 325,079 
 
 542,404 
 
 472,076 
 
 577, 800 
 
 453,623 
 
 472,374 
 
 All other. 
 
 76,251 
 
 75,908 
 
 107,199 
 
 76,167 
 
 72,415 
 
 30, 556 
 
 19,193 
 
 13,360 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 1,104,607 
 
 1,112,714 
 
 1,155,641 
 
 1,095,881 
 
 1,075,714 
 
 924,750 
 
 996,947 
 
 828,363 
 
 Equivalent in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 metric tons... 
 
 66,824 
 
 67,315 
 
 69,912 
 
 66,297 
 
 65,076 
 
 55,944 
 
 60,312 
 
 50,113 
 
 OTHER MINING IN BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Aside from tin mining, coal mining is the most' important branch 
 of the mining industry in the Federated Malay States. While there 
 is a possibility of development of other coal deposits, the only coal 
 mining of importance is that of the Malayan collieries, about 25 
 miles from Kuala Lumpur. This company was incorporated in 1911, 
 and is said to have produced over 10,000,000 tons. The output in 
 1920 was 247,917 tons, which can be greatly increased. With this 
 object in view, an officer of the above company is touring the United 
 States investigating various methods of mining coal, since the pro¬ 
 duction is far short of the present demand, and wood for fuel is 
 becoming scarce. There are few opportunities for development of 
 hydroelectric power, but as the Malayan Government is investigating 
 this subject it is possible that new power plants will be built. The 
 dredges near Taiping are mostly using wood, but owing to the 
 difficulty of procuring it in sufficient quantities some companies are 
 obliged to import coal at a high cost. 
 
 Gold-quartz mining has been carried on at different times in Pa¬ 
 hang and Negri Sembilan without much success, except in the case of 
 the Paub mine in Pahang, which produced about 12,000 ounces in 
 1920, as compared to a total gold production in the Federated Malay 
 States of less than 13,000 ounces. . There is some alluvial gold in 
 Perah and in Negri Sembilan, but no gold mining of importance is 
 carried on. 
 
204 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Tungsten .—In many parts of the Federated Malay States wolf¬ 
 ram and scheelite are found, generally intermixed with tin ore. 
 The production of tungsten ores, stimulated by high prices, increased 
 during the war, but has since fallen off. Production was as follows: 
 1918, 5,971 piculs; 1919, 7,323 piculs; and 1920, 6,345. 
 
 COAL MINING. 
 
 In the Netherlands East Indies there are now three coal mines 
 operated by the Government—the Ombilin, the Poeloe Laoet, and the 
 Boekit-Asem. The Ombilin mines are in Sumatra, above Padang, 
 on the west coast. Coal was discovered there in 1868, and mining 
 began in 1892. The coal field is 9 by 10 kilometers, the bed reaching 
 a thickness of 23 meters. Poeloe Laoet is a small island lying off 
 the southeast coast of Borneo. Mining began by private enterprise 
 in 1903, but in 1913 the Government took over the work. The center 
 of the coal-mining operations is Stagen. 
 
 A large part of the labor at the Ombilin mines is convict. At 
 the end of 1918 the number of convicts employed was 3,377, out of a 
 total of 7,650 laborers. Favorable results are obtained by making 
 contracts with released convicts who have good conduct records. 
 
 At Poeloe Laoet the work is chiefly done by Javanese contract 
 coolies, the number employed in 1918 averaging 2,639. The work 
 at the Boekit-Asem collieries is chiefly confined to day labor, the 
 production amounting to 50,000 tons in 1918, as compared to 121,000 
 tons at Poeloe Laoet. 
 
 The Ombilin is the most important field. The quantity of coal is 
 estimated at 200,000,000 tons, of which a total of 7,291,425 tons was 
 mined from 1892 to 1919. The coal burns readily and contains but 
 a small per cent of ash. The greater part of the coal was formerly 
 sold to individual buyers, but during the war Government depart¬ 
 ments used a large part, increasing to 50 per cent of the total output 
 from 1918. 
 
 The Boekit-Asem collieries are situated near Tandjoeng, in the 
 Residency of Palembang, Sumatra. This concession was taken over 
 by the Government in 1919 and plans were made for operating on a 
 large scale. 
 
 A large amount of coal is still imported. The annual consumption 
 of coal has increased, according to an article in the Dutch East 
 Indian Archipelago, from 600,000 tons in 1914 to 1,000,000 at' present. 
 Plans for a greatly increased production are being made by the 
 Government. Following are the Government statistics: 
 
 Year. 
 
 Production. 
 
 Book value 
 of the 
 enterprise. 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 Working 
 
 expenses. 
 
 Net profits 
 alter 
 
 deducting 
 share paid 
 to Sumatra 
 Railroad. 
 
 1910. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 387,522 
 406,395 
 507,452 
 411,071 
 
 443.141 
 
 453.141 
 505,356 
 
 508.226 
 
 504.226 
 
 Florins. 
 
 3,139,931 
 3,094,027 
 3,231,704 
 3,733,090 
 4,054,604 
 4,784,514 
 5,240,683 
 4,264,762 
 4,595,063 
 
 Florins. 
 3,520,240 
 3,609,018 
 3,614,208 
 3,678,138 
 4,104,689 
 4,201,031 
 4,578,969 
 4,647,031 
 7,029,395 
 
 Florins. 
 
 3,142,145 
 3,250,924 
 3,276,068 
 3,309,051 
 3,604,954 
 3,537,039 
 3,781,792 
 3,970,516 
 6,370,174 
 
 Florins. 
 378,094 
 358,094 
 338,140 
 369,087 
 338,909 
 482,162 
 591,084 
 507,232 
 659,131 
 
 1911. 
 
 1912. 
 
 1913. 
 
 1914. 
 
 1915. 
 
 1916. 
 
 1917. 
 
 1918 .:. 
 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES AND HYDRAULIC POWER. 
 
 205 
 
 The figures covering the import of coal into the Netherlands East 
 Indies are not published in the annual returns. The following fig¬ 
 ures from the Market Report and Prices Current of the Commercial 
 Association of Soerabaya relate to imports into Java and Madoera 
 only: 
 
 Countries of origin. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 United States. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 693 
 14,367 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 
 
 British East Africa. 
 
 
 860 
 4,867 
 10,004 
 2,300 
 51,121 
 3,715 
 102,968 
 4 
 
 British South Africa. 
 
 198 
 800 
 800 
 81,185 
 
 746 
 16,946 
 3,030 
 31,159 
 
 British India. 
 
 China. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Dairen. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 7,697 
 
 55, 635 
 
 4 
 
 All other.;. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 90,680 
 
 122,580 
 
 175,839 
 
 
 Imports of coal for the first four months of 1919, 1920, and 1921 
 (Java and Madoera only) were as follows: 
 
 Countries of origin. 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 1921 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 40 
 65 
 4,667 
 21,601 
 1,620 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 5,450 
 5,720 
 11,616 
 113,624 
 4 
 
 British India. 
 
 2,079 
 
 14,043 
 
 22,527 
 
 861 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Australia. % . 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 27,993 
 
 39,510 
 
 136,414 
 
 
 The output of State coal mines from 1910 to 1920, by years, was as 
 follows: 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 1910 _ 387, 522 
 
 1911 _ 406, 395 
 
 1912 _ 407,452 
 
 1913 _411,071 
 
 1914 _ 443,141 
 
 1915 _ 453,141 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 1916 _ 505,366 
 
 1917 _ 508,226 
 
 1918 _ 504,226 
 
 1919 _ 739,475 
 
 1920 _ 978,484 
 
 Following is the output of these mines for the first five months of 
 1921: 
 
 Month. 
 
 Ombilin. 
 
 Boekit- 
 
 Asem, 
 
 Palembang. 
 
 Poeloe 
 
 Laoet 
 
 January. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 45,925 
 46,863 
 48,499 
 46,997 
 45,971 
 
 Metric tons. 
 11,903 
 9,669 
 9,952 
 10,315 
 12,347 
 
 Metric tons. 
 14,232 
 14,767 
 15,314 
 15,226 
 14,294 
 
 February. 
 
 March.. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 
 No figures are available showing the output of the privately owned 
 mines in the neighborhood of Bandjermasin and at other points. 
 While this output was comparatively small, it was important. 
 
206 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The Koninklijki Paketvaart Maatschappij is developing a coal 
 field in eastern Borneo to supply fuel for their steamers, but no 
 data are available showing the progress of this work. 
 
 The sale of coal to ships is carried on by the following companies: 
 The Nederlandsch Indische Steenkolen Mij., which has bunkering 
 facilities at Tandjoengpriok (Batavia’s harbor), Tjilatjap, Soera- 
 baya, and Macassar; the Internationale Crediet en Handelsvereeni- 
 ging “ Rotterdam,” a subsidiary of the Royal Dutch Mail lines; and 
 the Zeehaven en Kolenstation Sabang, which has a coaling station 
 at Sabang, off the coast of northern Sumatra. 
 
 PETROLEUM PRODUCTION. 
 
 The chief centers of petroleum production in the Netherlands 
 East Indies are the Langkat district, East Coast dependency, and 
 the Perlak district, Atchin Residency of North Sumatra. In south¬ 
 ern Sumatra there are important fields in the Palembang and Djambi 
 Residencies. The producing fields of Java are found in the Resi¬ 
 dencies of Soerabaya and Rembang. 
 
 In Borneo petroleum occurs in commercial quantities in the east 
 central part or in the Koetei district of the south and east division. 
 There are also producing fields in the small islands of Tarakan and 
 Boenjoe off the northeast coast of Borneo. The island of Ceram, in 
 the Amboina Residency, has come into production during the last 
 few years. 
 
 The oil-bearing formations occur in the Miocene and Pliocene of 
 the Tertiary, the depth of the wells generally ranging from 200 to 
 600 meters. The deepest well is 1,000 meters and is in east Java. 
 There are six petroleum refineries, situated, respectively, at Pang- 
 kalanbrandan (north Sumatra), Pladjoe and Bangoes Koening 
 (south Sumatra), Tjepoe and Wonokromo (east Java), and Balik- 
 papan (east Borneo). The products are benzine, kerosene, turpene, 
 fuel oil, asphalt and coke, lubricating oil and greases, paraffin wax, 
 etc. Nearly all of the Sumatra crudes are especially rich in light 
 products and, generally speaking, contain little or no paraffin. The 
 Borneo crudes vary considerably in composition in the same field. 
 The Java oils yield, as a rule, little benzine. Some crudes do not con¬ 
 tain even kerosene; others are of a strong paraffin base. The factor¬ 
 ies at Java and Borneo put a large quantity of the finest paraffin wax 
 on the market. A large part of the wax is used for candles, which, 
 on account of the high melting point of Borneo paraffin, are par¬ 
 ticularly suitable for use in the Tropics. 
 
 The principal companies operating in the Netherlands Indies are 
 subsidiaries of the Royal Dutch, which completed its first well in 
 1890 in the district of Langkat. A refinery was completed at Pang- 
 kalanbrandan in 1892. The district in which this first oil enterprise 
 was established was a tropical wilderness, almost unpopulated. In 
 1900 the compan)^ drilled at Perlak and brought in several wells, all 
 spouters. In 1910 the company acquired the Shanghai Laukat Co., 
 which owned oil fields near Tandjoengpoera, in the Langkat. Work 
 was started in Borneo in 1901. In 1907 the Bataafsche Petro¬ 
 leum Maatschappij was formed by the amalgamation of the Royal 
 Dutch and the Shell Transport & Trading Co. In 1905 the Royal 
 Dutch extended its operations to Java, and in 1911 secured control of 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES AND HYDRAULIC POWER. 
 
 207 
 
 the Dordtsche Petroleum Maatschappij. The Bataafsche Petroleum 
 Maatschappij is now the dominant company in the Netherlands East 
 
 Indies. 
 
 Most of the crude petroleum is transported by pipe lines to the 
 refineries. The most important pipe lines are 4 and 5 inch lines, 
 87 miles long, from Kamp Minyak to Pladjoe; a 4-inch line, 141 miles 
 long, from Melamoen to Pladjoe; and a 5-inch line, 65 miles long, 
 from Sanga Sanga to Balikpapan (Borneo). Many smaller lines 
 are in operation. Steel tanks are used for storage. Whites number¬ 
 ing 800, mostly Europeans, and 23,000 natives and Chinese are em¬ 
 ployed. Annual production now exceeds 13,000,000 barrels. 
 
 Petroleum production of the Netherlands East Indies from 1910 to 
 1921 was as follows: 
 
 1910 
 
 1911 
 
 1912 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 1921 
 
 Dutch 
 
 Borneo. 
 
 Java. 
 
 Sumatra. 
 
 Ceram. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 633,472 
 
 147,833 
 
 718,940 
 
 
 1,500,245 
 
 814,707 
 
 172,438 
 
 683,423 
 
 
 1,670,568 
 
 672,438 
 
 186,083 
 
 660,874 
 
 
 1,519,395 
 
 766,687 
 
 197,027 
 
 562,185 
 
 
 1,525,899 
 
 866,718 
 
 226,589 
 
 475,423 
 
 4S6 
 
 1,569,216 
 
 893,890 
 
 256,838 
 
 491,611 
 
 1,101 
 
 1,643,440 
 
 957,395 
 
 243,442 
 
 526,080 
 
 3,264 
 
 1,730,181 
 
 869,262 
 
 252,813 
 
 666,278 
 
 2,256 
 
 1,790,609 
 
 999,426 
 
 241,212 
 
 519,989 
 
 3,574 
 
 1,764,201 
 
 1,372,140 
 
 258,655 
 
 521,756 
 
 7,311 
 
 2,159,862 
 
 1,455,227 
 
 352,474 
 
 536,482 
 
 21,137 
 
 2,365,320 
 
 1,436,779 
 
 279,825 
 
 595,643 
 
 49,262 
 
 2,361,509 
 
 Note. —Production figures for 1910 to 1918, inclusive, were taken from the Official Yearbook of the Bureau 
 of Mines_, Dutch East Indies; figures for 1919 to 1921 were furnished by the American consul at Batavia. 
 Production of Java includes that of Madoera after 1913. 
 
 GOLD. 
 
 It has been known for years that gold existed in the Netherlands 
 Indies, and it is probable that the old Hindus worked gold mines in 
 Sumatra and other points, notably at the Salida mine on the West 
 Coast. The United East Indies Co. attempted to work this mine, 
 and their greatest production was between the years 1690 and 1694. 
 when ore of the value of 174,000 florins was exported. This com¬ 
 pany also attempted mining in Java and the Celebes. After that 
 interest in the Netherlands Indies gold-ore deposits practically died 
 out, until the discovery of Redjang Lebong, in Sumatra, and of 
 Paleleh and Totok, in Celebes, caused considerable excitement. 
 
 In the last 50 years about 140 societies or companies were formed, 
 with a combined capital of fully 111,000,000 florins, for the mining 
 of precious metals in the Netherlands. Sixteen societies reached the 
 producing stage. At the end of 1917 there Avere still eight of these 
 in existence. The total production to the end of 1917 amounted to 
 about 102,000,000 florins, with total dividends of 18,610,000 florins. 
 Of these, however, 15,500,000 florins must be credited entirely to the 
 Redjang Lebong mine. 
 
 Gold is found in Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes in beach, alluvial, 
 and lode deposits. In 1914 there had been granted 58 concessions for 
 prospecting and working gold and silver mines, but alluvial mining 
 and dredging have met with poor success. Natives carry on primi¬ 
 tive operations in certain portions of the country, but the important 
 
208 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 operations are in the Lebong district, which is about 57 kilometers 
 north of Benkoelen. The best known mine is the Redjang Lebong. 
 The formations are granite and limestone, generally with some 
 andesite and trachyte. Veins are at times badly faulted. The gangue 
 is finely banded quartz with small amounts of cal cite. Treatment 
 is by stamp and tube mills, and the sands and slimes after separa¬ 
 tion are cyanided. 
 
 Another gold district is in northern Celebes, where there are three 
 producing mines. At the Totok mine gold is found in pockets and 
 stringers in metamorphic limestone. A third "old district where 
 development is as yet only in an initial stage is in central Sumatra. 
 
 The quantity and value of gold and silver produced in the Nether¬ 
 lands East Indies are as follows (1 kilo=2.204 pounds; 1 florins 
 $0,402 mint par): 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1910. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 4,847 
 
 4,236 
 
 4,002 
 
 3.865 
 
 3,503 
 
 4,052 
 
 4,814 
 
 3,893 
 
 2,971 
 
 Florins. 
 
 7,935.913 
 
 7,505,381 
 
 6,594,120 
 
 6,369,198 
 
 5,772,941 
 
 6,671,167 
 
 6,285,631 
 
 6.415,257 
 
 4; 896,906 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 15,977 
 
 15.831 
 
 14.258 
 
 17,212 
 
 32,555 
 
 41,663 
 
 37,516 
 
 34,014 
 
 28,626 
 
 Florins. 
 666,952 
 684,027 
 697,125 
 827,176 
 1,434,299 
 1,661,959 
 1,980,967 
 2,225,920 
 2,220,206 
 
 1911.. 
 
 igia. 
 
 1913. 
 
 1914. 
 
 i915. 
 
 1916. 
 
 1917. 
 
 1918. 
 
 
 IRON. 
 
 Iron ores are widespread in the Netherlands Indies, and the manu¬ 
 facture of iron and steel products formed a branch of early native 
 industry in some parts of the archipelago, for instance, with the 
 Dyaks, in the district of Sampit* and Kotawaringin, southern and 
 eastern section of Borneo, and in the lake region of middle Celebes. 
 
 As a result of the war the first Netherlands Indies smelting com¬ 
 pany was established by private enterprise for the working of the 
 very pure magnetite ores of the Lampong district, and the Service 
 of Mining Affairs sent out four expeditions to ascertain to what ex¬ 
 tent in this archipelago a raw material base is present to assure the 
 existence of an important iron industry. The results of these in¬ 
 vestigations, especially with reference to the capacity of those de¬ 
 posits, were generally not satisfactory. Two of the prospecting 
 parties directed their attention to the southern and eastern section 
 of Borneo, one for the examination of the deposits of the Tanah 
 Laoet and the other for the section Kotawaringin. While the ore is 
 often of good quality, the deposits are generally small. Of the 
 larger deposits, the Way-waya is estimated at 800,000 tons, the total 
 of the different deposits in the Ranggal zone, which is 5 kilometers 
 in length, being estimated at 2,000,000 tons at least, and 4,000,000 
 tons at most. The latter is quite the most important ore accumu¬ 
 lation of this type which is known in the Netherlands Indies. The 
 greatest deposit of Kotawaringin, that of Gg. Karim and Gg. 
 Segaloeng, is reckoned at 80,000 tons. 
 
 The two other parties directed themselves, respectively, to the 
 islands of the Laoet Straits, including the neighboring mainland of 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES AND HYDRAULIC POWER. 
 
 209 
 
 Borneo, and to the so-called lake region of middle Celebes, and both 
 were able to prove the presence of more important quantities of iron 
 ore of good quality. Ore in the examined portion of the Larona 
 field is estimated at 373,000,000 tons, of which about 12,000,000 tons 
 is hard ore. This proportion between hard and soft ore is more 
 favorable than at Cuba. The total quantity of ore in all the known 
 ore fields of the lake region is estimated at fully a thousand million 
 tons. 
 
 OTHER MINERALS. 
 
 Manganese .—The quantity of manganese ore which the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies has so far produced amounts to about 30,000 tons. This 
 production comes almost entirely from the concession of Keliripan, 
 section Koelon Progo, Djokjakarta, granted in 1893. The work was 
 done by primitive methods and was discontinued when the inflow 
 of water in the mine was such that it could not be coped with. Some 
 time ago the concession passed into other hands, and it appears that 
 the development will be continued on more modern lines. 
 
 Copper .—Copper ore is found distributed throughout the archipel¬ 
 ago, not only on the large islands but also on a great many of the 
 smaller ones, but nothing of much economic importance has so far 
 been developed. 
 
 Lead and zinc .—Lead and zinc ore minerals are found with gold 
 and silver ore formation of Sumatra, and at the probably similar 
 deposits of north Celebes. The known deposits which owe their im¬ 
 portance particularly to the presence of lead and (or) zinc ore are 
 small in number. _ . 
 
 Antimony .—Small quantities of antimonite appear to have been 
 exported formerly from Tanah Boemboe (section Doesoen landen). 
 At Celebes antimonite is found together with copper ore at the 
 Boekai deposits and with galena to the southeast of Sassak. It also 
 occurs in Java and is found on a small scale near Buitenzorg. Anti¬ 
 monite is well known to the native inhabitants and is employed by 
 the female portion for cosmetic purposes. 
 
 Arsenic .—This metal is found as arsenopyrites in greisen at 
 Banka, and in small quantities in lodes of the tertiary gold and silver 
 formations. 
 
 Bismuth .—Bismuth occurs in small quantities in the gravel of a 
 few streamlets in the peninsula of Somasir, in the Batak country. 
 Trie inhabitants formerly searched for the metal in war time, in 
 order to cast bullets from it. Wherever exploitation was attempted 
 the deposit was found to be unimportant. 
 
 Chromium .—Chromium in the form of a streaky deposit of 
 chromium iron ore of small extent in the peridotite has so far been 
 found in one place only, between Waraoe and Balambano, in the Ver- 
 beek Mountains. In other places also where ultrabasic rocks occur the 
 presence of the ore is known—in Timor (near Atapoepoe) and in a 
 couple of places along the coast of Poeloe Laoet. 
 
 Mercnry .—Mercury in the form of cinnabar is met with in gravels 
 in the western section of Borneo, and sometimes with gold. In the 
 southern and eastern sections of Borneo, also, mercury seems to have 
 been found in the native gold diggings. 
 
 In Java cinnabar occurs together with gold in the sand of the 
 coast near the village of Djoentin, district Karang Ampel, Resi- 
 
210 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 dency of Cheribon, and again at the source of the Kali Toentang, 
 section Salatiga, Residency of Semarang. 
 
 Molybdenite .—Molybdenite is found in small irregular seams in 
 the western section of Borneo and also in Singkep, Billiton, and 
 Banka. 
 
 Nickel .—Nickel ores, in "widely distributed deposits of small extent, 
 occur in the east Celebes together with the iron ores in the peridotite 
 region of the Verbeek Mountains. In general the nickel content 
 of the ore ranges from 2J to 3 per cent. The highest assay obtained 
 gave 25.81 per cent of nickel. At an experimental operation 4 to 5 
 per cent lots of several tons were obtained. The iron ores of the 
 Verbeek Mountains have also a nickel content that is of technical 
 importance, from one-half to 1 per cent and over of NiO. An in¬ 
 vestigation of some of these deposits is being carried out by the 
 Government. 
 
 Platinum .—Platinum occurs almost everywhere in the gold-bear¬ 
 ing ground of the section of Martapoera (south and east section of 
 Borneo), but seldom in any considerable quantity. The total pro¬ 
 duction is between one-half and 1 kilo per year. 
 
 Wolframite .—Wolframite is found in salable quantities by the 
 Billiton Maatschappij, chiefly from the deep mines of Tikoes, where 
 it occurs together with tinstone in irregular quartz stocks in greisen. 
 A little wolframite is also won by the Singkep Maatschappij. At 
 Banka it has so far only occasionally been met with in alluvial tin- 
 ore deposits. 
 
 Building materials .—Marble quarries are found in Java. There 
 are also a number of limekilns and manufactories for building ma¬ 
 terial. Near Padang a Portland cement factory has been estab¬ 
 lished since 1911, where over 200,000 barrels of cement are produced 
 annually. 
 
 Diamonds .—Some diamonds are found in Martapoera, in the south 
 and east division of Borneo. There were 13,000 licenses for dia¬ 
 mond diggings granted in 1918. The value of diamonds produced 
 in 1918 was 116,360 florins. 
 
 MINING LAWS. 
 
 The most important mines of the Netherlands East Indies are 
 operated by the Government, the Billiton being the exception to 
 the general rule. The concession on this property expires in 1927 
 and it is not yet known whether it will be renewed or the operation 
 continued under Government direction. The present terms call for 
 a payment to the Government of five-eighths of the profits received, 
 and a proposal in 1917 for renewing the lease was refused by the 
 Government. 
 
 Prospecting licenses are required for exploration, and concessions 
 must be secured for working mineral deposits. These are restricted 
 to Dutch subjects, inhabitants of Holland or Netherlands East 
 Indies. As has been pointed out, a foreign company could operate 
 in the Netherlands East Indies by having a Dutch representative 
 with power of attorney to act as agent in securing licenses and con¬ 
 cessions. 
 
 Private parties having licenses or concessions are subject to cer¬ 
 tain conditions regarding duration of work, Government taxes, se- 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES AND HYDRAULIC POWER. 
 
 211 
 
 curity, transfer, and Government supervision, set forth in the mining 
 act of 1899, which was revised in 1910 and again in 1919. Accord¬ 
 ing to this latest revision, aside from rights already granted, no more 
 concessions will be granted, except under certain conditions, to 
 private individuals for the so-called minerals, i. e., anthracite and 
 all kinds of coal, petroleum products, asphalt earthwax, and other 
 bituminous substances, solid as well as liquid, and inflammable gases, 
 among which iodine and allied substances are ranged. 
 
 The following extract, relating to the conditions imposed upon 
 prospecting license holders, is from the Engineering and Mining 
 Journal of December 4, 1920: 
 
 Prospecting license holders must pay to the Government a fixed land tax of 
 1 cent per hectare; concession holders, 10 cents per hectare. In addition the 
 license holder must pay a royalty of 4 per cent of the market value of pro¬ 
 duction obtained in the course of prospecting, of which amount a ‘portion is 
 free from royalty. Concession holders pay in addition to fixed land tax a 
 royalty of 4 per cent of the gross proceeds. Mining regulations also provide 
 for safe operation. 
 
 From a later publication it appears that prospecting licenses for 
 petroleum are confined to an area not more than 25,000 acres and 
 several licenses may be applied for simultaneously. The holder of 
 the license is compelled to prove diligent effort at the end of each 
 year. Concessions are confined to an area of not more than 10,000 
 acres, the whole of which must be confined within one prospecting 
 area, but several concessions may be granted within the same license 
 after proving the existence of petroleum in commercial quantities. 
 Petroleum mining in the Netherlands East Indies has, however, been 
 brought almost entirely under Dutch control. 
 
 [Note. —In so much of the foregoing chapter as relates to the Netherlands 
 East Indies the 1920 yearbook of that country lias been freely drawn upon, 
 as has also an article in the Engineering and Mining Journal of December 7, 
 1920, and various papers read before the General Engineering Congress at 
 Batavia in 1920.] 
 
 TITLES TO MINING PROPERTIES. 
 
 Titles to all mining properties in British Malaya are held by the 
 State. All landowners hold their property under terminal or per¬ 
 petual leases from the Government and pay an annual rental for 
 their title to possession. The rent for mining land is usually $1 
 Straits currency (2s. 4d.) per acre. Leases are ordinarily granted for 
 21 years, and may be renewed for further periods if the terms of 
 the lease have been complied with. The terms are not onerous, the 
 general obligations being that the lessee will work the land prop¬ 
 erly, not causing damage to other lands, keep one man employed to the 
 acre or the equivalent in labor-saving devices, and observe the regula¬ 
 tions in force for the safety of laborers employed on the land. Min¬ 
 ing leases do not include mineral oil and shales. 
 
 Supervision of operations .—Supervision of mining operations in 
 each State is under a warden or assistant warden of mines. There 
 is also a senior warden, who is responsible to the chief secretary or 
 resident in each State for the proper administration of mining af¬ 
 fairs and the general supervision of all mining operations. In ad¬ 
 dition, there is a staff of inspectors of mines, machinery, electrical 
 plant, etc. No officer of the mines department has any executive 
 work in connection with the leasing of mining lands, his work being 
 
 19878°—23-15 
 
212 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 chiefly the supervision and control of mining operations, the guard¬ 
 ing of State and private property, and the settlement of disputes 
 between the owners of mining lands. 
 
 HYDRAULIC POWER. 
 
 Electricity generated from water power or from steam or oil 
 engines is used at some mines in the Federated Malay States. One 
 dredge, the Bentong , has a hydroelectric power plant, and the Yukon 
 Gold Co.’s dredge will also use electricity. The first power unit of 
 the Yukon Gold Co. plant will be electrically generated from steam 
 turbine engines. Several sites have been investigated by the Yukon 
 Co. and plans made for a hydroelectric plant for future dredges. 
 The Government is also taking steps toward the development of a 
 hydroelectric plant when favorable conditions obtain. The total 
 horsepower of plants registered and operated in 1920 was 87,000, 
 against 83,800 in operation in 1919. The plants in 1920 were dis¬ 
 tributed approximately as follows: Steam, 714; oil engines, 245; and 
 gas engines, 31. 
 
 Electricity is not yet extensively used in mining—about 9,500 kilo¬ 
 watts for power purposes and 217 kilowatts for light. Two Diesel 
 engines for generating electricity aggregating 900 kilowatts were in 
 course of construction during 1920, and other plants for generating 
 electric power will be installed in the future, as a great saving in 
 operating costs can be made in this way. 
 
 PRESENT AND FUTURE UTILIZATION OF HYDRAULIC POWER. 
 
 The following, regarding the present and future utilization of 
 hydraulic power in the Netherlands East Indies, was translated 
 from a paper read by Mr. A. Groothoff, former chief of the Hy- 
 drotechnical Service, before the Royal Institute of Engineers: 
 
 Since 1910, when the first Director of the Department of Government In¬ 
 dustries entered upon his duties, the Government began to take the study 
 of the problem of hydraulic power in the archipelago in hand, the purpose in 
 view being at the outset only confined to the future electrification of the State 
 railways, but which was also extended later on to the supplying of a more 
 powerful source of energy as an important factor for the industrial develop¬ 
 ment of the Indies. 
 
 Since August, 1917, the new service of water power and electricity has been 
 detailed to utilize in a practical way the hydraulic energy, now for the greater 
 part still lying dormant in different parts of this island empire, as well in the 
 interest of the State as in that of private industry. The central office of this 
 service is established at Bandoeng and comprises three technical divisions, viz, 
 the Division of Electricity, the Building Division, and the Hydrotechnical Di¬ 
 vision. The Division of Electricity carries out all work which is to be done 
 in electrotechnical lines, the Division of Building attends to the building of 
 the Government power stations, and the task of the Hydrotechnical Division 
 comprises the systematic searching for and examination of water powers, the 
 drawing up of an inventory of those powers, and the subsequent enlightenment 
 of interested parties who wish to utilize them. The natural conditions, which 
 everywhere contribute to create important water-power supplies, may be said 
 to be very favorable in these countries. Among the favorable factors should be 
 mentioned the following: 
 
 (A) The heavy tropical rainfall (which in Java attains an average of from 
 3,000 to 4,000 millimeters per year, even in the more mountainous regions 
 reaching 8,000 millimeters), which causes, notwithstanding the dry east mon¬ 
 soon, to have, under normal conditions, always sufficient river water at dispo¬ 
 sition for hydraulic power. 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES AND HYDRAULIC POWER. 
 
 213 
 
 (B) The large lakes in Sumatra and central Celebes, the virgin forests in 
 Borneo, as well as the snow and ice clad summits of the mountains of New 
 Guinea, which all regulate the supply of water to the rivers, which are depend¬ 
 ent upon those conditions. 
 
 (C) The vertical shape of the large islands, causing, on the one hand, the 
 formation of extensive basins of the rivers with high conveyance figures and, 
 on the other hand, elevations of ground, which are highly suitable for the de¬ 
 velopment of hydraulic pow T er. 
 
 According to a very rough estimate, which does not include the smaller is¬ 
 lands and the as yet little known Dutch part of New Guinea, the minimum 
 capacity of hydraulic power in the Netherlands East Indies amounts to 5,500,000 
 horsepower, viz: Java, 500,000 horsepower; Sumatra, 2,000,000 horsepower; 
 North Borneo, 2,000,000 horsepower; and Celebes, 1,000,000 horsepower. 
 
 The regions containing the most water power are west Java (especially the 
 mountain region), north Sumatra (especially the Asahan region), central 
 Borneo, and the lake territory of central Celebes. 
 
 I. West Java is the part of the island containing the most hydraulic power, 
 and in' this region the utilization of hydraulic power has been the most 
 developed. This applies as well to enterprises undertaken by private persons 
 as by the Government. In west Java there are actually large hydraulic power 
 stations being built, which will supply the necessary energy for the following: 
 
 (a) Electric railways, Priok-Batavia-Buitenzorg. 
 
 (&) Different purposes at Batavia and suburbs and at Buitenzorg. 
 
 (c) The general supply of electricity of Bandoeng and the neighborhood of 
 the radio station at Malabar on the Pangalengan Plateau. 
 
 The State hydraulic works, in course of construction in the Tji Anten 
 (River Anten) near Buitenzorg (28,000 installed horsepower), and near the 
 Tji Tjatih (7,500 horsepower), to the south of the first station, are destined 
 to generate the large top charges of the projected electric railways. There 
 is being built the State hydraulic powder station in the Tji Kapoendoeng, near 
 Dago (3,000 horsepower), and in the Tji Saroewa, a branch river of the Tji 
 Sangkoej (4,500 horsepower), near Pangalengan. 
 
 Furthermore, there are also being built two caloric stations, viz, a small 
 auxiliary station of 400 horsepower at Bandoeng (Tji Hapit), in order to 
 reinforce temporarily the already overcharged old station near Dago, and a 
 second station of about 1,000 horsepower, south of Bandoeng (Dajeuh Kolot), 
 for radio purposes. Both stations may later on cooperate with the four 
 already mentioned hydroelectric stations, when this'is necessary during the 
 dry monsoon. 
 
 Among river basins offering a profusion of hydraulic power should be men¬ 
 tioned the following: 
 
 First. The Tji Mandiri territory, with an aggregate capacity of 18,GOO 
 horsepower on 8 points (the largest energy source has at least 5,000 horse¬ 
 power). 
 
 Second. The Tji Taroem territory, with 43,700 horsepower on 10 points 
 (largest energy source at least 12,500 horsepower, to be supplied by the second 
 Tji Sangkoej hydraulic power station, now being studied). 
 
 Third. The Tji Laki territory, with 31,500 horsepower on 4 points (largest 
 energy source at least 15,000 horsepower). 
 
 Fourth. The Tji Manoek territory, with 30,100 horsepower on 7 points 
 (largest energy source at least 10,000 horsepower). 
 
 In these four territories together there is thus a total available hydraulic 
 power aggregate of at least 123,900 horsepower, or about one-fourth of the 
 total estimated capacity of the important hydraulic forces above 1,000 horse¬ 
 power in Java. 
 
 The region of the Preanger Regencies contains most of the hydraulic power of 
 the entire island. Here are about two-thirds of the hydraulic installations for 
 private enterprises, namely, about 240, with a total capacity of approximately 
 9,000 horsepower, as against about 12,000 horsepower in the whole island. It 
 is also remarkable that 6,000 horsepower, or nearly 95 per cent of the hydraulic- 
 power energy installed in tea factories, has been centralized in the Preanger 
 Regencies. 
 
 II. Central Java, which comprises the Residencies of Pekalongan, Semarang, 
 Banjoemas, Kedoe, Djokjakarta, and Soerakarta, is not so rich in hydraulic 
 power as west Java. 
 
 Yet also here various important sources of hydraulic power have been discov¬ 
 ered, especially in the Serajoe Basin, in the Toentang and in some rivers along 
 
214 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 the north coast. In the Toentang 13,000 horsepower has been found to be 
 available, which may be worked in three or four stations. The most favorable 
 portion of the basin, that in which the Toentang cataracts are situated, has 
 already been given out for exploitation to the A. N. I. E. M. (General Nether¬ 
 lands Indian Electric Co.), which company has since 1913 worked at that spot 
 a hydroelectric station with an installed capacity of 2,200 kilowatts for supply¬ 
 ing electricity to Semarang and Salatiga. 
 
 On behalf of the Government a project has been drawn up for a larger 
 hydraulic power house on the Toentang River, which may also serve to supply 
 energy to the Netherlands Indian Railway Co. 
 
 In this river an important amount of hydraulic power is stored, which will 
 become available after construction of the projected Rawa-Pening Reservoir, 
 having a capacity of 237,000,000 cubic meters. Upon the completion of this 
 reservoir the supply of available river water will be doubled, which will enable 
 the utilizing of an additional 13,000 horsepower. Also the Serajoe River, in 
 mid-Java,' may come into consideration as an important source of energy. 
 
 III. East Java .-—In east Java, on behalf of the Government, only a relatively 
 small number of energy sources has been discovered. The smaller hydraulic 
 sites are here quite numerous, and their energy is being utilized by several 
 estates. With regard to the larger hydraulic sources of more than 1,000 horse¬ 
 power, the rivers in east Java are not nearly so destitute as many suppose on 
 the strength of climatological factors. Since 1917 the Government station in 
 the Tjatoer Valley has been exploited to supply energy to the State railway 
 workshops near Madioen. This power station has two turbines of 1,000 horse¬ 
 power each, operating under a head of 110 meters. The headrace has a total 
 length of 2,200 meters, in which there have been constructed two tunnels, one of 
 291 and the other of 44S meters length. The electric energy is conveyed under 
 26,000 volts along a transmission line, 21 kilometers in length, rigged on iron 
 masts, to the substation at Madioen. Plans have been drawn up for the build¬ 
 ing of a Government hydraulic-power plant along the Kali Konto, with a 
 capacity of 10,000 horsepower, destined for the electrification of the State rail¬ 
 way lines in and near Soerabaya, and at the same time for the general supply 
 of electricity in the districts of Soerabaya, Kediri, and Pasoeroean. 
 
 The hydraulic forces in the Kapongan main canal are being reserved for 
 general purposes (radio station, pumping up of irrigation water, and the illu¬ 
 mination of Sitoebondo). 
 
 IV. South Sumatra .—The works already completed and the plans being 
 taken in study in south Sumatra may be divided into the following large 
 groups: 
 
 (A) The many primitive native water wheels, which chiefly serve to drive 
 the rice-husking mills in Benkoelen. 
 
 (B) The pretty large hydraulic power plants of the private mining com¬ 
 panies and the State mine, Tambang Sawah, in Benkoelen. Simau has har¬ 
 nessed 1,300 horsepower on the Ajer Loesang and Ajer Gloemboek. Red- 
 jang Lebong disposes of 1,550 horsepower in four plants in the basin of the 
 Ajer Ketahoen and gets its supplementary energy from the State water¬ 
 power plant, situated on the shores of the Lake of Tes, in which two aggre¬ 
 gates of 1,000 horsepower each have been constructed. This power plant, 
 built for the State gold and silver mine, is in operation, its construction hav¬ 
 ing taken three years. 
 
 (C) The hydraulic power plants for various agricultural estates in Palem- 
 bang. 
 
 (D) The plans to utilize power in connection with the following indus¬ 
 trial operations: (a) For the manufacture of nitrogen fertilizers, for which 
 purpose concession has been given to draw the water from the Moesi River 
 or from the Ranau Lake, with a tunnel through the Barisan (mountain range) 
 to the Indian Ocean; (&) for the manufacture of iron in the Lampong dis¬ 
 trict, for which purpose permission has been asked to draw the water from 
 the Wai Sekampoeng and the Wai Besai. 
 
 For the future the hydraulic forces in south Sumatra represent a consid¬ 
 erable reserve for the supply of hydraulic power in Java, which, in propor¬ 
 tion to its population and future industrial development, is not so very large. 
 The great distances of some hundreds of kilometers will certainly not form 
 a drawback against that time, nor will the crossing of Soenda Straits. 
 
 V. Mid-Sumatra .—For mining and industrial purposes the following hy¬ 
 draulic power plants exist at present; 
 
MINERAL RESOURCES AND HYDRAULIC POWER. 
 
 215 
 
 (a) A hydraulic power plant of 1,000 horsepower for the mine Tambang 
 Salida on the Salida River. 
 
 (ft) On the Padang River a plant of 1,500 horsepower to supply energy to the 
 Netherlands Indian Portland Cement Factory at Indaroeng. 
 
 (c) A second hydraulic power station for the cement works mentioned above, 
 in course of construction on the Koerandji River, having a capacity of about 
 3,000 horsepower. 
 
 ( d ) Various hydraulic power plants of the Mining Company Equator at 
 Manggani, having an aggregate capacity of about 1,000 horsepower. 
 
 (e) Three plants, with a total of 275 horsepower, for the mine Kinandam. 
 On behalf of the Government, so far the following hydraulic forces have been 
 explored in these regions: (1) In the Ombilin River, 16,000 horsepower; (2) 
 in the Agam River, two of 10,000 horsepower; (3) in the Anei River, 4,000 
 horsepower. 
 
 VI. North Sumatra. —So far as known, the greater part of the water power of 
 the island of Sumatra is to be found in the northern part, which comprises the 
 districts of Tapanoeli, Sumatra’s East Coast, and Atcheen. On four exploration 
 expeditions, of which three were sent to the Asahan territory and one to the 
 Peusangan River, there has been investigated a total of 800,000 horsepower. 
 Also the upper stream basin of the rivers in the territory under cultivation 
 in the East Coast of Sumatra contains many sites of hydraulic power, although 
 of modest capacity. 
 
 The great problem regarding hydraulic power in the East Coast of Sumatra 
 is the utilization of the Asahan water powers. Along this river, which flows 
 from Toba Lake, at least 600,000 horsepower may be harnessed in three or four 
 consecutive power plants. Of this horsepower, 200,000 has been given out in 
 concession for building a factory for manufacturing nitrogenous manure, as 
 well as for other electrochemical industries. The plans have reached a very 
 advanced stage of preparation and are, according to authorities, very promis¬ 
 ing. 
 
 So far as known, nowhere else in the Netherlands East Indies is such an 
 enormous capacity found so close together, within a radius of about 10 kilo¬ 
 meters, which may be utilized at such low figures as to the costs. 
 
 In order to give some idea of the cost price, it may be mentioned that the 
 energy transported in a quantity of from 10,000 to 20,000 horsepower over a 
 distance of about 200 kilometers to the neighborhood of Medan should at the 
 latter place cost no more than that supplied by the new Government hydraulic 
 power plants in the Preanger Regencies, viz, a few cents per kilowatt-hour. 
 
 Also for the future electric railways in the basin of Toba Lake, with its 
 steep slopes, energy will be supplied from the Asahan River, for which purpose 
 part of the available power has already been reserved. 
 
 VII. Borneo. —Hidden in impenetrable virgin forests, far in the interior, 
 gigantic energy is stored in the streams of the large rivers Kapoeas, Baritoe, 
 Mahakam (Koetei River), and Kajan, all of which are fed by the inexhaustible 
 equatorial rains of Borneo. 
 
 A very small corner of the veil which covers from sight the enormous quan¬ 
 tities of energy lying dormant in those regions was lifted temporarily in 1918 by 
 A. G. A. van Eelde, civil engineer, who has explored the Bern Brem Falls in 
 the Ka.ian River. Many hundred thousands of horsepower were shown to 
 exist in the basin of the Bern Brem Falls, of which, to a certain extent, detailed 
 hydrometrical and topographical data have been given. The economical value 
 of these mighty hydraulic powers, though naturally cheap to harness and 
 work, is actually still small on account of the great distance from the coast 
 and the extraordinary difficulties a*id excessive costs which the establishment 
 of industries to be operated by them entails in such a primitive country as 
 Borneo. On that account the Government does not find it necessary to make 
 special hydraulic-power investigations in this island. 
 
 VIII. Celebes. —In Celebes the Service of Hydraulic Power and Electricity 
 made sure of the following hydraulic powers in 1918 and 1919: 
 
 (a) Malili Basin, total about 150,000 horsepower in four power plants. 
 These power plants are being reserved for the future development of the iron 
 and nickel industries. The first one is situated in the immediate vicinity of 
 the important Larona iron-ore field. The head varies from 25 to SO meters, 
 and the energy costs approximately 35 florins per kilowatt-year. 
 
 (b) Laa Basin, where a minimum of about 50,000 horsepower is waiting to 
 be worked. 
 
216 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 (c) Posso Basin, between Posso Lake and the sea. Two energy sources of 
 100,000 horsepower each, situated in Posso Lake, have been investigated. 
 
 By the Mamasa River about 100,000 horsepower may be developed from the 
 Garoegoe Falls. 
 
 The Minahasa (north Celebes) will soon be investigated, in view of the 
 possible laying out of electric tramways. 
 
 The above survey and figures demonstrate plainly that in regard to hydraulic 
 power the Netherlands East Indies is indeed blessed, the more so because the 
 hydraulic power in general will not cost much more to work than it does in 
 Europe. 
 
 In British Malaya there is a project in the earlier stages of develop¬ 
 ment to carry water from the hills of the State of Johore to Singa¬ 
 pore, crossing the Straits of Johore on the causeway now under con¬ 
 struction. The pipe line has been surveyed and plans are in readiness 
 for the completion of the Johore causeway. 
 
 In Kedah there is a project for carrying water through a pipe line 
 to Alor Star. This project is at present in abeyance, but may be 
 revived at any time. 
 
 The water power on the western slope of the cordillera contiguous 
 to the points where power is needed has been developed in a rather 
 haphazard way. A commission has been appointed to make a thor¬ 
 ough survey of the possibilities of generating more power. It is not 
 expected that this commission’s report will be ready before 1924. 
 
FISHERIES PRODUCTS. 
 
 SHELLS OF THE NETHERLANDS INDIES. 
 
 The shells exported from the Netherlands Indies are divided by 
 the customs authorities into four divisions—pearl (called M. O. P., 
 for mother-of-pearl), troca, burgos, and flores shells. 
 
 Pearl shells are divided by the trade into two classes, white mother- 
 of-pearl and yellow-lip mother-of-pearl. The white mother-of-pearl 
 comes chiefly from the Aroe Islands, off the coast of New Guinea. 
 The pearl-fishing concession for those islands is held by one company, 
 having its head office in Macassar, Celebes. Other white mother-of- 
 pearl comes from the islands in the neighborhood of Ternate, in the 
 Moluccas. The yellow mother-of-pearl has a yellow border around 
 the edge or “ lip ” of the shell. The quality is said to be inferior to 
 that of the white shells. They are found in the waters close to the 
 island of Ceram, off the island of Tanimbar, in the Banggai Archipel¬ 
 ago, and near the islands of Timor and Flores. One Arab and two 
 European fleets are operating on a large scale, and native fishermen 
 also send considerable quantities of shell to Macassar, which is the 
 principal market in the Netherlands Indies for shells. 
 
 Burgos or “ green snail ” shells come from the waters of the Smaller 
 Soenda Islands and Timor, Flores, Soenda, Soembawa, and other 
 islands. Only native fishermen are engaged in this industry. Before 
 the war exports of these shells were somewhat evenly divided between 
 the United States, Great Britain, Germany, and France, and by 1918 
 the exports dropped almost to the vanishing point, largely due to the 
 prices offered. The export figures for 1920 are not available, but it 
 is said that the United States has been in the market for small quan¬ 
 tities, and considerable shipments have been going to Japan. 
 
 Troca-shell fishing is also a native industry, carried on in the same 
 waters where the burgos shells are found. France took the major 
 portion of these shells before the war, while large quantities went to 
 Penang and Singapore. To-day Japan is paying prices that draw 
 practically the whole production to its factories. This shell is of poor 
 quality, making a very cheap button. 
 
 Flores shells also come from the Smaller Soenda Islands, and the 
 fishing is all done by the natives. Before the war much the largest 
 part went to Germany and Austria. The decrease in demand, due 
 to war conditions, has cut down the production of this industry ma¬ 
 terially, and such exports as are now made go largely to Japan. The 
 shell is small and of a poor quality. 
 
 217 
 
218 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Exports of shells from the Netherlands Indies, by countries, for 
 1913, 1917, 1918, and 1919 are given below. 
 
 [In metric tons.] 
 
 Countries to which 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 exported. 
 
 Pearl. 
 
 Troca. 
 
 Burgos. 
 
 Flores. 
 
 Pearl. 
 
 Troca. 
 
 Burgos. 
 
 Flores. 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 40 
 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 United States .- 
 
 13 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 121 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 Great "Britain 
 
 420 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 Germany . . 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 117 
 
 
 
 
 
 France.!. 
 
 49 
 
 726 
 
 41 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 Penang and Singa¬ 
 pore. 
 
 26 
 
 578 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 238 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 Japan... 
 
 4 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 898 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 558 
 
 1,317 
 
 147 
 
 141* 
 
 150 
 
 1,136 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 24 
 
 45 
 
 77 
 
 United States. . 
 
 63 
 
 
 
 
 ' 114 
 
 45 
 
 28 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 17 
 
 14 
 
 France. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Penang and Singa¬ 
 pore. 
 
 2? 
 
 218 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 107 
 
 468 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 4 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 6 
 
 1,135 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 7 
 
 593 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 100 
 
 1,353 
 
 10 
 
 57 
 
 308 
 
 1,085 
 
 132 
 
 132 
 
 
 
 
 SHELL TRADE OF THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 The activity of the shell industry in the Straits Settlements is 
 given in the following paragraphs. 
 
 Mother-of-pearl shells .—In 1919, 1,417 piculs (133^ pounds each) 
 of mother-of-pearl shells, valued at S$87,748, were imported into 
 Singapore. (One Straits dollar=$0.5678 mint par U. S.) The 
 exports were 3,640 piculs, valued at S$278,693, mainly to the United 
 Kingdom and France; Japan took 650 piculs, valued at S$38,426. 
 
 The London market has been reflected directly in the trade of 
 Singapore. The low prices offering have stopped operations in the 
 Philippines and reduced production in the Moluccas. 
 
 The imports from the Netherlands Indies reach Singapore through 
 the Chinese merchants and are sold by them direct to exporters. 
 
 Green snail shells .—In 1919, 3,123 piculs of green snail shells, 
 valued at S$102,468, were imported into Singapore and Penang. 
 These came mainly from British North Borneo, China, the Smaller 
 Soenda Islands in the Netherlands Indies, and the Philippines. The 
 export amounted to only 2,349 piculs, valued at S$57,364, and went 
 to the United Kingdom, France, Hongkong, and French Indo-China. 
 Since that time the Japanese have been buyers at low prices, accord¬ 
 ing to trade authorities, and the export has been largely to Japan. 
 Imports are through Chinese houses, which have close connections 
 in the production districts. 
 
 Troca shells .—In 1919, 16,684 piculs of troca shells, valued at 
 S$620,939, were imported into the Straits Settlements. Celebes and 
 the Moluccas are listed as the point of origin of these shells to the 
 
FISHERIES PRODUCTS. 
 
 219 
 
 value of S$239,421; Sumatra, Borneo, Bali and Lombok, and other 
 Dutch islands are listed as the point of origin for shells to the value 
 of S$151,391; the Philippine Islands, S$101,730; China and French 
 Indo-China, S$62,600; Siam, S$4,240; British possessions, S$61,437; 
 and all others, S$120. Singapore’s imports were valued at S$611,974, 
 and those of Penang at S$8,965. 
 
 The points of origin of these imports can not be taken as indicating 
 the point of production. The largest item is shown as coming from 
 Celebes and the Moluccas. These shells came, in fact, from Macassar, 
 but were shipped to that port from the Smaller Soenda Islands, and 
 the imports from Sumatra probably originated in the same district. 
 They are imported by Chinese merchants through their branches 
 and agents in the countries of origin of imports. 
 
 All of the Straits Settlements exports of troca shells were made 
 from Singapore in 1919, the values being as follows: United King¬ 
 dom, S$37,100; France, S$165,382; China, S$3,000; Japan, S$581,716; 
 all other countries, S$75; total, S$787,273. 
 
INDUSTRIES. 
 
 NUMBER IN OPERATION. 
 
 The Department of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce has 
 recently published a list of the industries of the colony showing the 
 name, the type of organization and authorized capital, the names 
 of the owners, directors and/or representatives, the location of the 
 factory, the articles produced, the number of European and non- 
 European employees, the type of power used, and, in some instances, 
 the name of the manager, the codes used, the cable address, and the 
 capacity. Following is a list of some of the industries of the Nether¬ 
 lands East Indies. 
 
 Ceramics .—The Dutch artisans have taught the local tile makers 
 to burn ornamental tiles and some fairly good work is turned out, 
 although it is not equal to the Dutch tiles. Some roofing and flooring 
 tiles of fair quality are made in the kilns throughout the colony, but 
 most of them are brittle and liable to break under a sudden change in 
 temperature or through careless handling. The better class of houses 
 are roofed with the better grade of burnt tiles or with cement tiles, 
 while houses of cheaper construction are roofed with the cheaper 
 burnt tiles. The ordinary native lives in a house roofed with nipa 
 or sago palm leaves. Water jars, some cooking utensils, and stoves 
 are made of rough pottery, the latter being used by all classes of the 
 population. The most elementary tools only are used in this industry. 
 
 Manufactures of quarry products. — A modern cement mill with 
 three kilns is in successful operation near Padang, Sumatra West 
 Coast, and plans for extension are maturing. Limestone is found 
 in all parts of the archipelago and burning is done under the direc¬ 
 tion of the Dutch, Chinese, and Arabs and by native burners, the 
 latter generally on a small scale. Marble is imported from Europe 
 and worked in many of the cities in Java, where it is used for floor¬ 
 ing in the better class of houses. Some marble is reported to be 
 quarried in Cheribon and Ivediri Residencies in Java. Factories 
 for the manufacture of artificial marble and pumice cement are re¬ 
 ported to be under construction. Flooring and siding blocks are 
 made from lava found in central Java. 
 
 Glass industry. — A Netherlands company, with its Indian office 
 at Soerabaya, is reported to be preparing to manufacture glass 
 bottles. At present all bottles for the very considerable local trade 
 are imported, principally from Japan. About 28,000 dozen bottles 
 for aerated water were imported in 1919. No glass was manufac¬ 
 tured in the colony up to the beginning of 1921. Four companies 
 under Dutch management manufacture art-glass windows. 
 
 Rice mills .—The large number of rice mills throughout the colony 
 are principal^- under Chinese control, some being under Arab and 
 
 220 
 
INDUSTRIES. 
 
 221 
 
 native management, and a few large mills are owned by Dutch and 
 English companies. 
 
 Bakeries. —In the larger cities are a few bakeries operated by 
 Europeans, but most of the baking of bread and pastry is done by 
 the Chinese. Brick ovens are used. Australian flour is used for 
 bread, and for pastry some China flour. 
 
 Conserves .—At Bandoeng is located an extensive factory for pre¬ 
 served food, while two smaller factories are located in central Java. 
 Their principal outlet is to the Dutch Army. 
 
 Meats. —Five slaughterhouses under European management are 
 operating in the colony, but no meat is put up in cans. Slaughter¬ 
 ing is done throughout the colony by natives, Chinese, and Arabs 
 under very loose control. 
 
 Manufacturers of spirits. —There are 34 spirits distilleries listed 
 in the colony, distilling principally from molasses and rice, although 
 other grains are used. One of these distilleries has a paid-up capi¬ 
 tal of 2,200,000 florins (1 florin=$0.402 mint par U. S.) , and others 
 under European management have an authorized capital of from 
 100,000 to 1,000,000 florins, most of them being small. The Chinese 
 are most numerous in this industry, but are organized in small-capi¬ 
 tal units. 
 
 Mineral waters , lemonade , and sirups. —Eighty-one factories mak¬ 
 ing aerated waters are listed. The trade is very large, proportionally, 
 with the Europeans, Chinese, and natives. Being a Mohammedan 
 country, alcoholic liquors are not often offered socially outside of 
 European circles. The hot, humid climate makes frequent drinking 
 a necessity, and courtesy requires that some sort of a drink be offered 
 to guests. Bottling machinery from Europe and America is in use. 
 American machinery is in favor with the Chinese and native bottlers, 
 and a considerable extension of business in this line is possible. 
 The units are necessarily small, as there is a tendency for the busi¬ 
 ness to decentralize. Catalogues printed in Dutch, showing small 
 units, together with prices based on a liberal profit to the Dutch 
 importer, if sent to Chinese merchants in all the towns of Java, 
 Sumatra, Borneo, and the Celebes, should show returns, provided the 
 Chinese could be told how to get the machinery through Netherlands 
 East Indian channels. 
 
 lee factories. —There are 66 ice factories listed, most of which are 
 small plants at minor centers of population. The largest organiza¬ 
 tion has a paid-up capital of 1,250,000 florins ($500,000 mint par 
 U. S.), with nine plants in Soerabaya and near-by towns, and employs 
 25 Europeans and 346 non-Europeans; another, at Batavia, has an 
 authorized capital of 900,000 florins ($360,000) and employs 10 
 Europeans and 248 non-Europeans. Many of the ice companies also 
 manufacture mineral waters. 
 
 Little ice is used for refrigeration purposes, most of it being 
 sold in small units to drink venders and other natives from kiosks 
 located at traffic centers. Iced drinks flavored with sirups are popu¬ 
 lar throughout the colony. 
 
 Tobacco , cigars , and cigarettes .—There are 25 tobacco cutters 
 listed. These are located in the tobacco-growing districts and all 
 use hand power. The poorer grades of tobacco are cut fine for the 
 use of the natives and for export, that for export going mostly to the 
 
222 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 surrounding Malay countries and to China. Nearly all of the Java¬ 
 nese men and women chew and smoke. The popular native smoke 
 is made of this tobacco, rolled by the smoker in a specially grown 
 and prepared leaf. This leaf or husk is an article of general local 
 commerce. 
 
 The number of manufacturers of cigars and cigarettes in Java 
 
 __ _ © © 
 
 and Madoera is listed at 125. There are also manufacturers in other 
 islands, but the number is not mentioned. Five companies operate 
 partly with machinery—one at Semarang with 90 laborers and ma¬ 
 chinery driven by two motors with a total of 20 horsepower; one 
 at Semarang with from 150 to 200 laborers and 5 to 7 horsepower; 
 one at Ambarawa (Semarang) with 258 laborers and 4 to 8 horse¬ 
 power; one at Djokjakarta with 150 to 200 laborers and 5 to 7 
 horsepower; and one at Djember with 400 laborers and 10 horse¬ 
 power. 
 
 Salt beds .—The salt beds supplying the needs of the population 
 are in the island of Madoera and are under strict Government con¬ 
 trol. The two important undertakings are operated by the Gov¬ 
 ernment, one at Kalianget (Madoera) using 1,350 laborers and a 
 Diesel motor generating 960 horsepower, and another at Ivrampon 
 (Madoera) using 950 laborers and a steam engine generating 220 
 horsepower. At both these plants salt briquets are made. 
 
 Coffee shelters and roasters. —Nearly all of the 198 coffee planta¬ 
 tions listed have machinery and equipment for shelling and prepar¬ 
 ing coffee. Besides these plants there are 12 “ coffee shellers and 
 roasters ” listed which cater largely to the local consumers of coffee. 
 All but three of these are power driven, the largest using 50 horse¬ 
 power. 
 
 Confectionery .—Three companies manufacturing candies, choco¬ 
 lates, and lozenges are listed. 
 
 Breweries. —There is one brewery in the colony, located at Sema¬ 
 rang, using a steam engine generating 50 horsepower. 
 
 Incense manufacturers. —One manufacturer of incense is located 
 at Macassar (Celebes). Besides this concern many Chinese in Java 
 are engaged in this manufacture in a small way, usually in connec¬ 
 tion with other business. 
 
 Macaroni .—One small firm is making macaroni and vermicelli in 
 Batavia. 
 
 Fish driers and preparers. —Only six companies are listed under 
 this heading. Fishing and drying and salting is a large business in 
 Sumatra, but it is carried on by the native fishermen, who sell their 
 pack to the Chinese dealers. 
 
 Opium refiners. —The refining, preparing, and sale of opium is 
 operated as a Government monopoly. 
 
 Quinine. —One factory (Bandoengsche Kinnefabriek) at Ban¬ 
 doeng, Java, is extracting quinine from cinchona bark. 
 
 Cocaine. —The Java Cocainefabrieken, of Soekaboemi, is the only 
 company extracting cocaine in the colony. 
 
 Explosives and fireworks. —The Government maintains a plant at 
 Bandoeng for the manufacture of explosives and other munitions. 
 The firm of George Wehry & Co. is the principal manufacturer and 
 importer of dynamite. Business is done under the name of the 
 
INDUSTRIES. 
 
 223 
 
 Romaniet Fabriek, Weltevreclen. There are 11 manufacturers of fire¬ 
 works listed, mostly Chinese with small capital. 
 
 Sundry chemical manufactories. —Six factories are listed as manu¬ 
 facturing carbonic acid, carbonic-acid gas, acetylene gas, and other 
 chemicals for the industries. Nine factories are extracting iodine, 
 one of which is operating on a large scale. Three factories are 
 manufacturing sulphite and bisulphite of soda. Eleven companies 
 are listed as manufacturing chemicals for the druggist trade. One 
 gas company is listed as producing coal tar. Five small companies 
 are manufacturing eau de cologne for the domestic trade. Seven 
 companies are listed as making sulphur products. Besides these the 
 Baatafsche Petroleum Mij. is manufacturing sulphur products at its 
 works at Balikpapan (Borneo) and Panglcalanbrandan (Sumatra). 
 One company is manufacturing calcium carbide in Java. Four com¬ 
 panies are listed as manufacturing manures, three from the residue 
 of vegetable-oil mills and one from animal guano. Four companies 
 are listed as manufacturing dyes, colors, paints in oil, and varnish, 
 all in a small way. Three small companies are listed as making seal¬ 
 ing wax, and there is one ink factory. Fifty-four companies and 
 firms are listed as extractors of gambier. These are mostly Chinese 
 in Borneo and other outlying districts. 
 
 Soap factories. —Forty-seven soap factories are listed. These are, 
 for the greater part, small Chinese-owned factories employing under 
 25 laborers, while the concerns of large capital make soap only as a 
 by-product of their other manufactures, such as the vegetable-oil 
 mills and chemical factories. 
 
 Metal industries. —Construction shops, machine ^hops, and found¬ 
 ries listed number 84. These include the navy shops, the railroad 
 shops, dry docks, shops working principally for the sugar mills and 
 other industries, shops connected with the machinery' and railroad 
 equipment importing houses, and steel construction shops, but do 
 not include automobile repair shops nor the machine shops operated 
 by the estates for their own work. Most of the sugar estates have 
 machine shops and some of them have foundries for the lighter re¬ 
 pairs, as do some other agricultural undertakings, such as rubber 
 estates and tapioca estates. 
 
 Lumber sawing and dressing companies .—Of the 136 lumber saw¬ 
 ing and dressing organizations within the colony, 30 are equipped 
 with steam, electric, or water power to some extent. A fe>v of these 
 organizations are operating on a fairly large scale, using logging 
 machinery and fairly modern sawing machinery, but most of them 
 are run by Chinese and Arabs, who employ men to whipsaw the 
 logs in the woods. 
 
 Furniture makers. —There is a large number of furniture makers. 
 All but a few of the shops are Chinese, where the work is done by 
 hand. The Koninklijke Paketvaart Mij. (the Interisland Steam¬ 
 ship Company) has extensive shops for furniture making, as has 
 also the Government’s naval establishment at Soerabaya. 
 
 Carriage and wagon makers. —Of the 39 carriage builders listed, 
 only 4 use mechanical power. At one time carriage and wagon 
 building was an extensive industry, but automobiles have displaced 
 carriages to a great extent. 
 
 Dyers and batik makers .—Over 400 dyers and batik makers are 
 listed, all being small operators, usually made up of family groups. 
 
224 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Tanneries. —Only a few of the 16 tanneries listed are of any conse¬ 
 quence. The product of these factories is used by the local shoe¬ 
 makers. 
 
 Shoemakers. —Eighty-five shoemaking establishments are listed, 
 about six of which use mechanical power of some description. 
 
 Printers ’ supplies .—The printing industry in the Netherlands East 
 Indies numbers 135 shops, according to this list, 50 of which use 
 mechanical power. 
 
 In general, it might be stated that most of the industries of the 
 colony are operated in connection with agricultural undertakings. 
 These have been described in part under the headings of the various 
 products. 
 
 The mills operated in connection with the mining of tin and 
 coal are important, and there are electrical installations in the vari¬ 
 ous large centers of population producing energy for the small in¬ 
 dustries. 
 
 TRADE IN FIBER HATS. 
 
 By Consul Horace Remillard, Batavia, Java. 
 
 The hat-making industry in Java began as far back as 1850 and 
 was greatly expanded after 1867, when it was gradually perfected, 
 so that at the present time various shapes and varieties are made to 
 order. Up to 1906 only bamboo was employed, but since that date 
 imitation Panama hats have been manufactured of panclan fiber 
 and from “ carludovica palmosta.” 
 
 The hats are braided in concentric circles of increasing diameter, 
 the brim being attached in a reversed position, while a block pre¬ 
 serves the shape of the hat itself. Pandan hats are usually unlined. 
 Bamboo hats .generally have a coarse braid lining, the brim of the 
 outer hat being bent around the edge of the inner hat where the two 
 are joined. 
 
 INCREASE IN PRICES. 
 
 At the beginning of 1919 the world’s market was understocked, 
 and especially the United States and France, the principal buyers, 
 while Java, where production closely follows the demand, had no 
 large reserve supplies available for exportation. 
 
 Prices at the beginning of 1919 were reasonable, but the constantly 
 increasing demand and the increased wages of the natives caused 
 prices to rise to limits hitherto unknown for pandan as well as for 
 bamboo hats. For example, coarse pandans (pandan 000), which 
 at the beginning of 1919 were 4| to 6 florin cents ($0,018 and $0,024, 
 respectively) first costs, according to size, were quoted at the end 
 of December at 6 to 9 florin cents ($0,024 to $0,036, respectively). 
 For bamboo hats the rise was much greater, as the prices at the 
 close of 1919 were double those of 1918. 
 
 The principal cause for the increased value of these hats of local 
 manufacture seems to lie in the higher cost of labor. The native 
 hat platter, who was formerly satisfied to earn in his working day 
 25 to 30 florin cents ($0.10 to $0.12), at present earns double that 
 amount. 
 
INDUSTRIES. 
 
 225 
 
 EXPORTS OF PANDAN AND BAMBOO HATS. 
 
 The following statistics show the exportation of pandan and bam¬ 
 boo hats from 1913 to 1919, inclusive: 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bamboo 
 
 hats. 
 
 Pandan 
 
 hats. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bamboo 
 
 hats. 
 
 Pandan 
 
 fbts. 
 
 1913. - . 
 
 Number. 
 6,548,000 
 3,480,000 
 3,332,000 
 6,276,000 
 
 Number. 
 
 4,238,000 
 3,808,000 
 4,008,000 
 2,072,000 
 
 1917. 
 
 Number. 
 
 2,830,000 
 1,576,000 
 4,110,000 
 
 Number. 
 3,353,000 
 2,655,000 
 5,751,000 
 
 1914. 
 
 1918. 
 
 1915. 
 
 1919. 
 
 1916. 
 
 
 It will be noted that 5,751,000 pandan hats were shipped to foreign 
 countries in 1919, more than in any previous year. The number of 
 bamboo hats exported during the same year was 4,110,000 and was 
 only surpassed by 1916 and 1913, when 6,276,000 and 5,548,000 hats, 
 respectively, were shipped. ' 
 
 TRADE WITH THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The following statistics show the number of pandan and bamboo 
 hats exported to the United States from 1913 to 1919: 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bamboo 
 
 hats. 
 
 Pandan 
 
 hats. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Bamboo 
 
 hats. 
 
 Pandan. 
 
 hats. 
 
 1913. 
 
 Number. 
 
 1,560,000 
 1,426,000 
 881,000 
 2,119,000 
 
 Number. 
 
 1,716,000 
 
 1,753,000 
 
 928,000 
 
 875,000 
 
 1917. 
 
 Number. 
 
 1,161,000 
 331,000 
 442,000 
 
 Number. 
 
 2,875,000 
 1,918,000 
 2,155,000 
 
 1914. 
 
 1918. 
 
 1915. 
 
 1919. 
 
 1916. 
 
 
 The foregoing data show the United States to be a purchaser of 
 pandan rather than of bamboo hats, except for the year 1916. In 
 1919 it imported 2,155,000 pandan hats, or 37.4 per cent of the total 
 exportation of the Netherlands East Indies in this commodity, while 
 shipments of bamboo hats during the same year were but 442,000, or 
 10.7 per cent of the total exports of this class of merchandise. 
 
 INDUSTRIES OF BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The industrial development of British Malaya is mostly concen¬ 
 trated in the territory contiguous to the railway between Singapore 
 and Penang and is in connection with the needs of the population and 
 the production of rubber and tin. There is a cement mill at Singa¬ 
 pore and another near Kuala Lumpur, but their capacities are so 
 small that they can not supply the local demand. A match factory 
 was installed near Kuala Lumpur, but it has never reached the pro¬ 
 ducing stage. Several vegetable-oil mills have been in operation, as 
 well as a fertilizer plant near Penang. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 COTTON GOODS. 
 
 The Netherlands East Indies is divided into eight commercial 
 units, based on (1) Soerabaya, serving a population of 16,200,000; 
 (2) Semarang, 10,000,000; (3) Batavia, 6,800,000; (4) Cheribon, 
 4,400,000; (5) Medan, 1,700,000; (6) Padang, 2,000,000; (7) Singa¬ 
 pore (a British possession), distributing to 2,000,000 in the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies; and (8) Macassar, 3,600,000. The accompanying map 
 shows these districts with the major and secondary market cities. 
 While Singapore is a British port and in many of the phases of its 
 trade acts as a transshipment port, it is the primary distributing 
 point of cottons for western Borneo and for the Palembang, Djambi, 
 and Biouw Pesidencies in Sumatra—a large area comparatively 
 thinly populated. 
 
 In 1919 the per capita consumption of cotton piece goods in Java 
 was about $1; in 1920, $2.50; and for the first 10 months of 1921, 
 $1.41. 
 
 IMPORTATION OF COTTON PIECE GOODS. 
 
 In 1913, the last full pre-war year, the Netherlands East Indies 
 stood sixth in the list of countries importing cotton piece goods. Inas¬ 
 much as this colony has no local manufacture of any consequence, its 
 imports may be assumed to represent its total consumption. The 
 following table shows the 1913 imports of the 30 principal consuming 
 countries : 
 
 British India _ 
 China 
 
 . $197, 438, 869 
 134, 580, 703 
 
 United States 
 
 63, 935, 983 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 . 57,103, 410 
 
 Germany_ 
 
 . 45, 529, 000 
 
 Netherlands East Indies 38, 703, 402 
 
 Argentina_ . _ 
 
 36, 925, 652 
 
 Netherlands.. _ 
 
 31, 397, 478 
 
 Canada _ . 
 
 . _ 29,449,526 
 
 Brazil 
 
 21,771,703 
 
 Egypt 
 
 20. 036, 596 
 
 Persia 
 
 19,173, 644 
 
 France 
 
 _ . 17, 246, 899 
 
 Union of South Africa_ 15, 479, 951 
 
 Switzerland __ 
 
 14, 406, 845 
 
 Chile_ 
 
 Russia_ 
 
 Cuba_ 
 
 Rumania_ 
 
 Algeria_ 
 
 Philippine Islands- 
 
 Belgium_ 
 
 Austria-Hungary_ 
 
 Italy- 
 
 French Indo-China 
 
 Mexico_ 
 
 Sweden_ 
 
 Japan_ 
 
 Portugal_ 
 
 Spain_ 
 
 $13, 546, 226 
 12, 910, 740 
 12, 514, 791 
 
 II, 940, 000 
 
 I II, 763, 929 
 11, 733, 201 
 11, 424, 880 
 11, 265, 397 
 10, 214, 547 
 
 8, 016, 602 
 2 6, 289, 979 
 6,133, 340 
 5, 620, 028 
 4, 013, 203 
 3,109, 606 
 
 Imports of cotton piece goods into the Netherlands East Indies, by 
 countries of origin, since 1913 are shown in the following table. The 
 values are given in 1,000 florins, the par value of the florin 
 $0,402. 
 
 226 
 
 1 Figures for 1911. 
 
 * Figures for 1912. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES 
 
 227 
 
 bureau a roR$.pon con 
 
228 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA 
 
 UNBLEACHED COTTONS. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 
 (first 10 
 months).i 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 4,235 
 
 3,806 
 
 3,876 
 
 2,633 
 
 1,339 
 
 258 
 
 1,915 
 
 58 
 
 4,897 
 
 216 
 
 2,678 
 
 United States. 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 57 
 
 61 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 4,216 
 
 4,304 
 
 5,147 
 
 11 
 
 4,304 
 
 4,126 
 
 4,474 
 
 3,780 
 
 12,292 
 
 2,600 
 
 Germany.. 
 
 18 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 Italy. . 
 
 23 
 
 119 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 British India. 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 M2 
 
 96 
 
 Japan. 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 33 
 
 96 
 
 443 
 
 4,966 
 
 9,473 
 3,305 
 
 22,736 
 816 
 
 15,015 
 
 Straits Settlements. 
 
 816 
 
 848 
 
 1,007 
 
 752 
 
 1,286 
 
 1,353 
 
 376 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 11 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 210 
 
 China. 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 10 
 
 
 6 
 
 ii 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 38 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 9,329 
 
 9,178 
 
 10,119 
 
 7,807 
 
 7,204 
 
 11,176 
 
 18,554 
 
 41,137 
 
 21,052 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Java and Madoera... 
 Total Outer Possessions.... 
 
 6,772 
 2,557 
 
 7,207 
 
 1,971 
 
 7,606 
 
 2,515 
 
 6,112 
 
 1,695 
 
 5,594 
 
 1,610 
 
 9,538 
 1,638 
 
 16,011 
 2,543 
 
 41,137 
 
 21,052 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 BLEACHED COTTONS. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 United States. 
 
 20,582 
 
 19,440 
 
 14,338 
 
 12,859 
 47 
 12,416 
 
 9,020 
 
 79 
 
 15,577 
 
 1,866 
 240 
 19,188 
 
 9,143 
 
 727 
 
 15,268 
 
 37,071 
 593 
 33,510 
 101 
 547 
 
 9,179 
 1,025 
 2,123 
 145 
 667 
 
 28,539 
 
 353 
 
 16,256 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 14,038 
 519 
 459 
 15 
 297 
 1,148 
 56 
 
 13,414 
 
 492 
 
 675 
 
 15 
 
 228 
 
 1,270 
 
 43 
 
 11,689 
 13 
 529 
 12 
 121 
 1,202 
 33 
 
 4 
 
 131 
 
 Italy.. .*.. 
 
 British India. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Straits Settlements. 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 China. 
 
 521 
 14 
 247 
 1,193 
 133 
 32 
 461 
 
 210 
 
 4 
 
 2,572 
 2,196 
 189 
 106 
 85 
 
 109 
 
 7 
 
 6,892 
 
 3,369 
 
 317 
 
 14 
 
 115 
 
 67 
 
 8 
 
 4,069 
 
 4,336 
 
 937 
 
 74 
 
 154 
 
 276 
 
 3,672 
 
 373 
 
 936 
 
 132 
 
 457 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total Java and Madoera... 
 Total Outer Possessions... 
 
 195 
 
 152 
 
 37,309 
 
 35,729 
 
 28,072 
 
 27,923 
 
 30,038 
 
 32,117 
 
 34,783 
 
 84,961 
 
 50,996 
 
 32,628 
 4,681 
 
 31,413 
 4,316 
 
 23,703 
 4,369 
 
 24,367 
 3,556 
 
 25,014 
 5,024 
 
 26,497 
 5,620 
 
 28,903 
 5,880 
 
 84,961 
 
 50,996 
 
 COTTONS, DYED, PRINTED, OR WOVEN IN COLORS (SARONGS, KAINS, SLENDANG3, 
 
 ETC.). 2 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 
 
 2,875 
 
 2,638 
 
 1,715 
 
 431 
 
 2,758 
 
 2 
 
 2,381 
 
 6.179 
 11 
 
 3,145 
 35 
 18 
 71 
 168 
 
 7.180 
 19 
 
 4,429 
 
 United States. 
 
 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 
 
 1,006 
 
 34 
 
 40 
 
 171 
 
 2 
 
 4,685 
 
 773 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 226 
 
 649 
 
 997 
 
 1,463 
 
 Germany... 
 
 
 
 Italy.. 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 244 
 
 5 
 
 5,822 
 
 11 
 
 166 
 
 24 
 
 7,529 
 
 8 
 
 is 
 
 25 
 86 
 12,083 
 
 8 
 
 
 India. 
 
 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 
 
 Straits Settlements. 
 
 
 
 5,036 
 
 2 
 
 7,956 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 
 
 China.. .7. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 37 
 
 191 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 8,906 
 
 8,714 
 
 8,460 
 
 9,200 
 
 17,393 
 
 16,863 
 
 14,039 
 
 Total Java and Madoera... 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,424 
 4,482 
 
 4,674 
 4,040 
 
 4,148 
 4,312 
 
 3,812 
 5,388 
 
 7,748 
 
 9,645 
 
 16,863 
 
 14,039 
 
 Total Outer Possessions_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 OTHER COTTONS, DYED, PRINTED, OR WOVEN IN COLORS. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 15,277 
 
 12,609 
 
 5,125 
 
 5,044 
 
 3,052 
 
 773 
 
 3,386 
 
 15,763 
 
 8,483 
 
 United States. 
 
 ( 3 ) 
 
 ( 3 ) 
 
 4 
 
 125 
 
 448 
 
 1,163 
 
 1,792 
 
 2,800 
 
 426 
 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 22,071 
 
 18,118 
 
 15,701 
 
 22,421 
 
 24,517 
 
 24,288 
 
 22,495 
 
 44,508 
 
 413 
 
 26,419 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1,682 
 
 673 
 
 73 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 237 
 
 Italy...".. 
 
 2:233 
 
 91 
 
 2,966 
 
 2,650 
 
 2,554 
 
 396 
 
 294 
 
 3,628 
 
 2,563 
 
 India. 
 
 287 
 
 164 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 29 
 
 36 
 
 142 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 212 
 
 132 
 
 385 
 
 2,983 
 
 7,460 
 
 18,995 
 
 10,555 
 
 26,980 
 
 10,231 
 
 Straits Settlements. 
 
 5,397 
 
 6,486 
 
 2,930 
 
 3; 384 
 
 4,380 
 
 6,285 
 
 6,850 
 
 2,483 
 
 639 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 54 
 
 26 
 
 141 
 
 365 
 
 358 
 
 359 
 
 517 
 
 2,771 
 
 1,730 
 
 China. 
 
 130 
 
 102 
 
 152 
 
 102 
 
 151 
 
 99 
 
 213 
 
 492 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 2,294 
 
 4,344 
 
 124 
 
 114 
 
 106 
 
 132 
 
 211 
 
 559 
 
 652 
 
 Total. 
 
 49,637 
 
 42,745 
 
 27,619 
 
 37,209 
 
 43,043 
 
 52,529 
 
 46,349 
 
 100,539 
 
 51,380 
 
 Total Java and Madoera... 
 Total Outer Possessions.... 
 
 34,483 
 
 15,154 
 
 30,478 
 
 12,267, 
 
 20,454 
 7,165 
 
 29,289 
 
 7,920 
 
 34,235 
 
 8,808 
 
 41,737 
 
 10,792 
 
 34,068 
 
 12,281 
 
 100,539 
 
 51,380 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 2 Included in “Other cottons, dyed, printed, or woven in colors,” in 1913 and 1914. 
 
 3 Included in “All other countries.” 
 
1000 FLORINS 
 
 IMPORT COMMODITIES 
 
 229 
 
 TOTAL VALUE OF PIECE GOODS IMPORTED. 
 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 • 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 1921 
 (first 10 
 months). 1 
 
 Unbleached. 
 
 Bleached. 
 
 Dyed, printed, and woven 
 in colors (sarongs, etc.)... 
 Other dyed, printed, or 
 woven in colors. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total Java and Madoera... 
 Total Outer Possessions.... 
 
 9,329 
 
 37,309 
 
 ( 2 ) 
 
 49,637 
 
 9,178 
 
 35,729 
 
 ( 2 ) 
 
 42,745 
 
 10,119 
 
 28,072 
 
 8,906 
 
 27,619 
 
 7,807 
 27,923 
 
 8,714 
 
 37,209 
 
 7,204 
 
 30,038 
 
 8,460 
 
 43,012 
 
 11,176 
 32,117 
 
 9,200 
 
 52,529 
 
 18,554 
 
 34,783 
 
 17,393 
 
 46,349 
 
 41,137 
 
 84,961 
 
 16,863 
 
 100,539 
 
 21,052 
 
 50,996 
 
 14,039 
 
 51,380 
 
 96,275 
 
 87,652 
 
 74,715 
 
 81,653 
 
 88,744 
 
 105,022 
 
 117,079 
 
 243,500 
 
 137,467 
 
 73,883 
 22,392 
 
 69,099 
 
 18,553 
 
 56,187 
 18,528 
 
 64,442 
 
 17,211 
 
 68,991 
 19,753 
 
 81,584 
 
 23,438 
 
 86,730 
 
 30,349 
 
 243,500 
 
 137,467 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 2 Included in “Other cottons, dyed, printed, or woven in colors,” in 1913 and 1914. 
 
 Tihese imports consist of greys, including calicoes, supers, shirt¬ 
 ings, drills, and ticking; bleached goods, including cambrics, shirt- 
 
 IMPORTS OF UNBLEACHED COTTONS 
 NETHERLAND EAST INDIES. 
 
 ings, lawns, and drills; fancies, including shirtings, prints, lawns, 
 madapollams, voiles, and sateens; and jeans, khaki, velvets, ticking, 
 and black italians. 
 
 UNBLEACHED COTTON, INCLUDING CALICOES, SUPERS, DRILLS, AND JEANS. 
 
 The report on “ Cotton Goods in the Dutch East Indies ” (Special 
 Agents Series No. 120), written by Ralph M. Odell and published 
 
230 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce in 1916, may still 
 be taken as representing the cotton grades and sizes in all the essen¬ 
 tial points, but all references to prices should be disregarded. Some 
 changes are noted under the various headings, but in the main the 
 conditions reported by him still prevail. 
 
 Japan’s cottons were better in the lower grades than in the finer 
 qualities. It is very probable that qualities will improve under 
 keen competition. In the meantime Japan has been supplying low 
 qualities at a comparatively cheap price and has succeeded in secur¬ 
 ing a large trade and a strong foothold for future business. 
 
 IMPORTS OF BLEACHED COTTONS. 
 
 NETHERLAND EAST INDIES. 
 
 Grey calicoes .—A trade has developed for a larger quantity of 
 42-inch calicoes for batiking, although 38 inches is still the most 
 popular width. With the advancing prices batikers, who were 
 accustomed to use only cambrics in their work, have gradually 
 dropped to shirtings, to supers, and finally to calicoes; and this 
 has involved new widths and larger proportionate quantities in the 
 cheaper qualities. 
 
 Grey supers .—The most important lengths and widths at the pres¬ 
 ent time are 24 yards by 31, 38, and 42 inches, and 40 yards by 36 
 inches. In construction 68 by 76 is most in demand. The Japanese 
 have held a large part of this trade since 1918. 
 
 Grey drills and jeans .—The principal staples in grey drills are 
 20/21 inches by 30 and 40 yards, and 26 inches by 40 yards. There 
 is a wide variety of both drills and jeans on the market. The great 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 231 
 
 number of uses these heavy qualities are put to, from trousers to 
 sails, makes it difficult to gauge the demand, but since the market is 
 frequently almost bare, there is no difficulty in disposing of stocks 
 of any widths up to 27 and 28 inches. 
 
 BLEACHED COTTONS. 
 
 Owing to the greater values in bleached goods, the trade has fallen 
 off in favor of grey supers, as previously stated. Japan has not 
 taken the place in this trade that it has in calicoes and supers, but 
 shows a gradual development. The principal imports of bleached 
 goods are in the lower grades. Great Britain maintains its strong 
 position, having 40 per cent of this trade in 1920 and 31 per cent 
 during the first 10 months of 1921. The Netherlands is approach¬ 
 ing its pre-war position in the trade. The Dutch finish of bleached 
 cottons is well regarded in the trade of the colony and is easily dis¬ 
 tinguished from other finishes. 
 
 White shirtings are in greatest demand in 32 and 36 inch widths 
 by 40 yards, long fold, and comparatively small quantities of 29-inch 
 shirtings are imported. The constructions mentioned in Mr. Odell’s 
 report are still correct in many of the essential particulars, but there 
 is now some demand for weaves up to 96 square, especially in Bata¬ 
 via. No striping (heading) on the ends of the piece is required. 
 Japan made a strong bid for this trade, but the weave and finish 
 were both inferior, and the tendency is for the trade to return to pre¬ 
 war suppliers. 
 
 Cambrics are in the greatest demand in Semarang and Soerabaya, 
 although there is a good trade in Batavia and other markets as well. 
 The Japanese bid for this trade has met with no permanent success, 
 as their finer weaves are not up to English qualities. 
 
 SARONGS, KAINS, SLENDANGS, AND KAPELLAS. 
 
 In 1915 the imports under this heading amounted to 8,906,000 
 florins, or 12 per cent of the total imports, and in the first 10 months 
 of 1921 to 14,039,000 florins, or 10 per cent of the total. They are 
 made, on the whole, of fairly good cloths and in some instances are 
 splendid examples of fancy weaving and high-class engraving and 
 printing. This field is considered the realm of a limited number of 
 Dutch, British, and Swiss makers, whose starting point was the study 
 of native weaving and batik patterns, including the Pulicat (Brit¬ 
 ish Indian) designs of woven sarongs. 
 
 FANCIES. 
 
 In 1920 the total imports of pure cotton textiles into Java and 
 Madoera amounted to 42,630 metric tons, of which 14,734 tons was 
 largely composed of cottons coming under the general head of 
 fancies. 
 
 The Java market for printed cloths (printed calicoes) is different 
 in the various parts of the island. In Batavia the dealers cater to 
 the Soendanese (mostly mountain people), who are somewhat stronger 
 physically than the Javanese and of a more buoyant disposition, which 
 is reflected in the lighter colors of their clothing. 
 
 In Cheribon and the surrounding districts there is a decided 
 mixture of the Javanese and Soendanese peoples, and this mixture 
 
232 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 has developed in past years distinct preferences in designs and 
 colors. 
 
 A little farther east, in the market catered to by Semarang, there 
 are approximately 10,000,000 Javanese who want a different type of 
 prints. In this district there is also a large market for cloths dyed 
 in the piece. 
 
 At Soerabaya, in east Java, there is still another distinct prefer¬ 
 ence in designs, induced probably by the influence of Madoera. These 
 people are vigorous, thrifty mariners, hard workers, and quick¬ 
 tempered, and they have undoubtedly influenced the taste in design 
 of prints in east Java. 
 
 Still other designs are demanded at Macassar, in the Celebes, but 
 
 IMPORTS OF COTTONS, DYED, PRINTER 
 WOVEN IN COLORS. N.ES. 
 
 NETHERLAND EAST INDIES. 
 
 50000 
 
 45000 
 
 40000 
 
 35000 
 
 30000 
 
 *0 
 
 z 
 
 or 25000 
 
 3 
 
 UL 
 
 | 20000 
 15000 
 
 10000 
 
 5000 
 
 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 these are more particularly in serongs, headpieces, and slendangs 
 rather than in the printed calicoes. 
 
 Khaki drills .—In former times there was a considerable trade in 
 khaki drills, but it has fallen to small proportions. 
 
 Printed hamdkerckiefs .—There is a large native trade in cheap 
 printed handkerchiefs, but the offerings from the United States have 
 been of too good a quality to share in it. The Glasgow mills are the 
 principal suppliers. 
 
 Cotton blankets are an important item in the trade, light weights 
 being required. The competition among the importers is keen and 
 takes the form of cutting weights and sizes to a minimum. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 233 
 
 Towels. —There is a considerable business done in bleached crash 
 towels in all sizes. The European department stores stock toweling 
 and report a large trade, but this is principally with the better class 
 of trade, which, while important, is small as compared to the native 
 trade. 
 
 The department stores also have a good business in small hand 
 towels and in napery of fair to good quality. 
 
 American calicoes .—American printed calicoes are of finer weave 
 than is called for in the Java markets, and in submitting samples of 
 designs it is necessary to clearly specify the weave quoted, submitting 
 a sample if the designs are not printed on the weave quoted. Ameri¬ 
 can manufacturers prepared to deliver required weaves should submit 
 samples of all designs to the Dutch importers in all the markets, 
 as most of the branches of the importing houses initiate orders inde¬ 
 pendently of each other. A list of these importers may be obtained 
 from the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce or its district 
 and cooperative offices by referring to file FE-19027. 
 
 Samples of so-called “ fancies,” submitted by a Batavia importer 
 as typical of the demand, have been placed on file in the Textile 
 Division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce at 
 Washington with prices and dimensions, as shown in the following 
 table: 
 
 No. 
 
 Items. 
 
 Width. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Price. 
 
 1 
 
 Corassi prints. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 25/26 
 
 26 
 
 Yards. 
 
 30 
 
 Florins. 
 
 18-12 
 
 2 
 
 Tickings. 
 
 30 
 
 24-15 
 
 3 
 
 Blotch chintz lawns. 
 
 24J/25 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 18- 9 
 
 4 
 
 Dyed pongees..•. 
 
 30 
 
 22-14 
 
 5 
 
 Plain dyed crimps. 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 32-25 
 
 6 
 
 Dved lawns_?. 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 18- 9 
 
 7 
 
 Dyed schreinered brocades. 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 30-18 
 
 8 
 
 Macanas. 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 35-20 
 
 9 
 
 Mercerized fancies._. 
 
 25/26 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35-24 
 
 10 
 
 Dyed plain brocades. 
 
 30 
 
 35-22 
 
 11 
 
 Plain dyed tussores.. 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 75-45 
 
 12 
 
 Dved voiles. 
 
 25/26 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 25-15 
 
 13 
 
 Blotch chintz stripes. 
 
 30 
 
 20-13 
 
 14 
 
 Bleached brocades. 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 33-20 
 
 15 
 
 .do. 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 35-20 
 
 16 
 
 Schreinered Disch. prints. 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 27-18 
 
 17 
 
 Padded ground brocades. 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 26-16 
 
 18 
 
 White Bedford cords. 
 
 26/27 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 28-20 
 
 19 
 
 Black italians. 
 
 30 
 
 40-25 
 
 
 BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS. 
 
 Being one of the most important cotton piece-goods markets in the 
 world, business organization of the Netherlands Indies in this line is 
 highly developed. The retail and consuming trade has been very 
 closely catered to, the effort being to give them what they want in 
 qualities, finishes, markings, folds, and packing. The United States 
 has distinct advantages in this trade, since it produces a large part 
 of the raw materials which go into the construction of the piece goods 
 sold, and since it is the principal ultimate consumer of many of the 
 products of the colony. The differences between the distance to the 
 Java ports from the Atlantic coast and from the European markets 
 is offset to some extent by the fact that a large part of the raw mate¬ 
 rials have to be transported from the United States to European 
 
1000 FLORINS 
 
 234 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 manufacturing cities. The principal disadvantages are in the abso¬ 
 lute lack of an American distributing organization and a knowledge 
 of the markets and their requirements. When American manufac¬ 
 turers become sufficiently interested in this trade to study its intrica¬ 
 cies and to create an effective organization in the field, there is no 
 reason why they can not secure a large part of the trade. 
 
 The cotton piece-goods importers are usually importers of general 
 lines of staple commodities, although some of them specialize on tex¬ 
 tile lines, and a few deal in textiles exclusively. 
 
 The Dutch business organization is much the largest. It is com¬ 
 posed of some large and well-financed companies, whose business in 
 
 IMPORTS OF DYED, PRINTED, AND WOVEN 
 COTTONS. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 cottons alone amounts to several million florins a month and which 
 operate over a wide field, as well as other well-established concerns 
 doing business in narrower fields and small firms working on special 
 lines. All sorts of moral credits are represented. The Dutch im¬ 
 porters do the larger part of the business. Young Dutchmen, before 
 going to the colony to take up employment as assistants in the textile 
 departments of the importing houses, are sent to Manchester to serve 
 for a time in their buying offices and to learn the technicalities of the 
 manufacture. 
 
 The British organization is composed principally of two importing 
 houses working apparently in close contact with the mills and are 
 often in a position to make quick deliveries at very narrow margins of 
 profit when the regular dealers are holding for their normal profits. 
 
 The German organization has been held together during the war 
 and post-war periods and is doing some business in hardware and 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 235 
 
 kindred lines, but has not yet resumed its former important position 
 in the piece-goods trade. Some of these firms have registered under 
 the Dutch company laws and are now known as Dutch companies, 
 but most of them are partnerships. Their influence is strongest in 
 Batavia, Padang, Medan, and Macassar. 
 
 The Italian organization consists of one important company, which 
 is a subsidiary of a Milan house, operating throughout the Orient. 
 
 The Japanese organization is composed of several importing houses 
 and, unlike the others, has behind it the skeleton of a retail organiza¬ 
 tion in the larger cities and in many of the small towns. 
 
 The retail organization catering to the Chinese and native trade is 
 made up of Chinese, with the few Japanese already mentioned, and 
 the Arab traders. In every “ passar ” (shopping district) there is 
 an Arab section, where the shops are small and the stocks consist 
 of sarongs, slendangs, kains, and kapellas, generally of medium or 
 cheap qualities. 
 
 The Chinese buyers are keen judges of the market and their judg¬ 
 ments are usually uniform throughout the colony, with the result 
 that their decision that the time is ripe for a rise or fall in the market 
 takes the form of a general movement. It is very seldom that this 
 “mass judgment” is wrong. 
 
 For the better class of trade (European, half-caste, and Chinese) 
 there are some large European-owned shops in all the cities, carry¬ 
 ing rather full lines of textiles of qualities and designs suited to the 
 tastes of their trade, but in all the staples they are in competition 
 with the Chinese dealers. 
 
 KINDS OF CLOTHING WORN BY NATIVES. 
 
 On the island of Java there are three main tribal groups, and the 
 variation in the culture of the people leads to variations in the design 
 of their clothing. 
 
 The Javanese men and women of the middle and upper classes 
 wear the kain as the principal garment for the lower body, while 
 the Soendanese of western Java and the Malays, who are found along 
 the coasts of all the islands, wear the sarong. The Madoerese men 
 of eastern Java and Madoera wear short trousers. The Soendanese 
 and Javanese men wear a headcloth called “ kapella,” and every 
 woman carries a slendang, or long strip of cloth for carrying bur¬ 
 dens. These four articles of clothing constitute an important part 
 of the cotton-goods trade. The women wear a tight-fitting upper 
 garment, and the better classes also wear a cotton overgarment, or 
 coat. For everyday wear, while at work, the common classes in cen¬ 
 tral Java wear cloth of solid colors. 
 
 The natives have been trained to buy by mark, and the mark or 
 u chop ” means quite as much in this colony as it does in other parts 
 of the Orient. In cotton piece goods this “ chop ” is not only the 
 printed marking and labels on the ends of the pieces, but includes 
 interwoven threads of red, gold, blue, and other colors in the form of 
 stripes on the end of each piece. It also includes the method of fold¬ 
 ing and wrapping and the quality and color of string for tying, all 
 of the minor details of manufacture and packing. This charac¬ 
 teristic of the consumers is also a marked characteristic of the Chi¬ 
 nese retailers in all parts of the Far East, and it is impossible when 
 
236 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 trade is flowing normally to induce the European importers to buy 
 any staple piece goods that do not conform in every respect to the 
 demands of the trade in these minor details. 
 
 MARKET REVIEW. 
 
 During a large part of the war period importers in the colonies 
 sold from local stocks at less than replacement prices, relying for 
 their profit on the advance which generally took place between the 
 time of placing orders and the time of their arrival in the colonies, 
 usually about eight months. This was a period of advancing values, 
 and the armistice saw Manchester prices at a very high point with 
 large orders booked ahead. The slump in prices, which began in 
 March, 1919, found the importers with large stocks and heavy for¬ 
 ward commitments. Partly as a result of this slump and largely 
 due to the necessity of securing ready money to meet drafts for 
 stocks of all sorts coming forward from America and Europe, the 
 importers dumped their holdings of cottons on the market at prices 
 below cost and the local Chinese retailers stocked heavily. 
 
 The most important annual event in the piece-goods market of 
 Java is the Poessa, or Mohammedan New Year, which in 1919 
 occurred in May and June. For 40 days each year the natives 
 celebrate this season with feasts and comparative idleness and end 
 it with a great celebration. A large percentage of the year’s cotton 
 sales are made at this time. The reestablishment of the Dutch 
 steamship routes to Europe, and of shipping routes in general, 
 early in 1919, provided an easy outlet for the produce of the colonies 
 and brought about an early reaction. There ensued a period of 
 prosperity for native producers unparalleled in the history of the 
 colony. Sales of all sorts of manufactures for native use, including 
 cottons, were very large. The Poessa celebration cleaned up most 
 of the staple cotton lines, and the sorting-up trade which followed 
 these sales found the importers without supplies for the retailers. 
 As a consequence the Chinese retailers were plunged into a panic of 
 fear lest they be not able to supply their trade. The recovery of the 
 cotton market was rapid. With the retailers price was secondary to 
 early delivery, and as they increased their prices in proportion to 
 the ability of the natives to pay they were working on a handsome 
 margin. 
 
 The period from July, 1919, to July, 1920, was one of high prices, 
 ready sale for produce, and increasing wages for native labor, with 
 a consequent increase in purchases of cotton piece goods and other 
 articles of native consumption. The importers generally expect to 
 have stock on hand for about four months’ requirements and antici¬ 
 pate their needs for six or eight months further. The increased 
 monthly consumption of cotton by the natives seemed to warrant 
 increasing their forward commitments in spite of the fact that 
 prices were mounting rapidly. 
 
 Purchases continued on this basis until May, 1920, when as a 
 result of the financial panic in Japan, and for other reasons, some 
 of the larger importers ceased buying. Manchester manufacturers, 
 it is claimed, urged the importers to buy forward up to the last of 
 May, and on their advice the Manchester representatives of some 
 of the importers continued to buy until the conviction of their error 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 237 
 
 was forced upon them by the decided drop in prices and the gen¬ 
 eral stoppage of buying throughout the Orient. 
 
 Japanese mills had established themselves in the trade, and while 
 their weaves were inferior to those of Manchester, they sold at prices 
 that claimed a large share of the trade. In July prices began to drop 
 sharply. Japan flooded the eastern markets with stocks that com¬ 
 pelled sales and further demoralized the local markets. Chinese 
 retailers lost all confidence in current prices and refused to buy except 
 for immediate needs, thus throwing the whole burden of the heavy 
 stocks on the importers. 
 
 In September, 1920, it became apparent to the banks that the im¬ 
 porters would require extraordinary accommodations. On October 
 28 a joint meeting of the financial institutions of the colony was held 
 at Batavia, and it was decided to protect the holders of import stocks 
 so that they might be able to work their goods off at prices which 
 would cause them a minimum loss. Sugar dropped from 74 florins 
 per picul (1 picul=133J pounds) in May to 29 florins at the end of 
 September, and prices of other produce slumped sharply, with small 
 demand at any price. 
 
 Manchester mills found, with the cessation of demand and cancella¬ 
 tion of orders, that they could supply the Netherlands Indies im¬ 
 porters at much earlier dates than they had anticipated, and although 
 the market was heavily overstocked shipments arrived several months 
 before they were expected. The importers’ difficulties were further 
 complicated by their heavy stocks of staples and forward commit¬ 
 ments in other lines of merchandise. 
 
 During the period from July, 1920, to June, 1921, the importers of 
 the Netherlands Indies were endeavoring to work off accumulated 
 stocks at prices which would involve the minimum of loss, while the 
 banks firmly supported them. In the latter part of May, 1921, Chi¬ 
 nese piece-goods retailers apparently decided that prices had reached 
 the lowest point and they began to buy freely, relieving the importers 
 of their stocks at current prices. According to the leading bankers of 
 Batavia, orders began to be placed with Manchester houses about 
 the beginning of July. It seemed apparent to them that the lowest 
 period in this crisis had been reached and that the future promised a 
 resumption of trade in cotton piece goods, but on a considerably 
 lower level than at any time since 1917-18. They said that while 
 there was still much stock to be disposed of, the general importers 
 could estimate their losses fairly accurately and there was a prospect 
 for a regular turnover of cotton piece goods in the future at fairly 
 profitable prices. 
 
 During the war and post-war periods importers increased their 
 capitalization considerably, and their losses in 1920-21 in many cases 
 wiped out their reserves and in some cases their entire capital, but as 
 their organization and connections were valuable and necessary to 
 the trade of the colony it was not expected that any of the important 
 organizations would be forced into liquidation. The banks expressed 
 the hope that the revival of business would be gradual and seemed 
 to be inclined to use what pressure they could to restrict undue specu¬ 
 lation in all lines. 
 
 In June, 1921, after a long period of stagnation in the market for 
 most lines of produce, European and American markets opened up 
 in a small way at prices that were satisfactory. With the exception 
 
238 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 of rubber, tea, vegetable oils, and a few minor products, prices were 
 sufficiently high to leave a fair margin of profit to the producers. 
 
 COTTON-YARN TRADE. 
 
 Cotton-yarn importers in the Netherlands East Indies say that 
 Ealph M. Odell’s report, written in 1916, to which reference has 
 already been made, is a good statement of the situation as it stands 
 to-day, excepting as to the courses of imports. In his report Mr. 
 Odell says: 
 
 The cotton-yarn trade is not considered very important, as it comprises a 
 wide variety of qualities and colors, the demand for any one of which is not 
 very large. The liand-loom weaving industry, for which the yarn is used, is 
 not in any sense organized, nor are the fabrics (mainly fancy-colored checks 
 and stripes for sarongs) produced by this method of appreciable commercial 
 importance. The industry is carried on in the homes of the natives in all the. 
 islands to some extent, but particularly in the Celebes, Sumatra, Borneo, and 
 Java (in the districts around Cheribon and Semarang). The grey yam is 
 principally 24s, 30s, and 40s (mostly single), but some 30/2 and 40/2 is im¬ 
 ported. The 24s and a part of the 30s come from India, but England supplies 
 most of the 30s and all of the 40s. The yarn is usually put up in 5 and 10 
 pound bundles, 400 pounds to the bale. Only a small quantity of bleached 
 yarn is purchased, and it is 40/1 and 40/2, from England. Colored yarn 
 (mostly 30/1) is probably the most important item in the trade. Formerly 
 it came from Switzerland and Austria, but Bombay, Italy, England, Germany, 
 and the Netherlands are now the principal sources of supply. All colors are 
 in demand, but red (light and dark) occupies first place. Other colors are 
 light and dark green and light and dark yellow. 
 
 The following table shows the quantity (in metric tons) of yarn 
 imported into the Netherlands East Indies since 1915: 
 
 Gountries. 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 
 (first 10 
 months). 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 449 
 
 416 
 
 190 
 
 12 
 
 87 
 
 84 
 
 3 
 
 238 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 1,066 
 
 47 
 
 110 
 
 1 
 
 139 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 1,148 
 46 
 33 
 978 
 104 
 
 344 
 
 335 
 
 130 
 
 182 
 
 344 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Other European. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Singapore, benang, Hongkong, and China.. 
 British India. 
 
 1,352 
 163 
 
 2 
 
 1,456 
 50 
 
 2 
 
 1,147 
 13 
 30 
 
 1,475 
 51 
 37 
 
 505 
 
 165 
 
 65 
 
 26 
 
 Japan. 
 
 All other. 
 
 2 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,760 
 
 2,277 
 
 2,033 
 
 1,332 
 
 1,832 
 
 1,564 
 
 1,244 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 1,658 
 
 1,102 
 
 1,499 
 
 778 
 
 1,524 
 509 
 
 996 
 
 336 
 
 1,111 
 
 721 
 
 1,564 
 
 1,244 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The imports of Semarang and Cheribon are for the trade of the 
 district surrounding those two ports, and those of Batavia largely 
 went to the same district, although this port also supplies the demand 
 from Benkoelen, in western Sumatra, as well as the Lampongs and 
 to some extent Palembang, in southern Sumatra. 
 
 Soerabaya’s small imports in all probability went to the near-by 
 districts in the islands of Bali and Lombok, where some weaving is 
 done, and possibly some were used in the Celebes and southern 
 Borneo. 
 
 COTTON TRADE OF BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The cotton trade of British Malaya is. done by a few large import¬ 
 ing houses in Singapore and Penang, nominally on indent for the 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 239 
 
 Chinese retailers who sell to the oriental and native trade. Early 
 in 1921, when overstocks, due to the outcome of the slump in prices, 
 were the heaviest, the best authorities estimated that 85 per cent of 
 the total was held by less than 10 European importers. 
 
 While considerable quantities of Japanese cottons were imported 
 during the later war years, they did not become so firmly established 
 in the markets of the peninsula as in Java. Manchester manufac¬ 
 turers are well represented in the Straits cities and guard the market 
 closely. 
 
 A monograph on cotton goods in the Straits Settlements, by Ralph 
 M. Odell, published by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com¬ 
 merce in 1916 as Special Agents Series No. 115, is still correct in the 
 essential details. 
 
 A quarterly statement of stocks in Singapore and Penang is pub¬ 
 lished by the chambers of commerce. The figures are compiled from 
 answers to a questionnaire sent to chamber members, but they do 
 not represent the entire stocks on hand. 
 
 IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 PRINCIPAL FACTORS IN THE NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES TRADE. 
 
 The United States Steel Products Co. maintains an office at Soera- 
 baya and has been a large factor in the trade. 
 
 Hugo Stinnes, the German financier, has organized a branch of 
 his main German company at The Hague, with a head colonial 
 agency at Bandoeng, Java, under the name of the Rhine-Elbe Union. 
 This “union” is erecting a plant at Cheribon, Java, where railway 
 cars and equipment are to be constructed for the State railways. 
 This company has received some very large contracts from the Gov¬ 
 ernment and is a big factor in the iron and steel trade. 
 
 Wm. H. Muller & Co., a Dutch concern with large iron and steel 
 interests in Europe, organized a company in the United States 
 under the name of the Iron & Ore Corporation, with a branch in 
 Soerabaya, through which it does business between the colony and 
 the United States. 
 
 N. Y. Maatschappij t. v. d. z. Linde & Teves and Stokvis en 
 Zonen (Ltd.) carry large stocks of heavy iron and steel at Batavia, 
 Semarang, Soerabaya, and Medan, while smaller stocks are carried at 
 the minor points. They are also very important distributers. This 
 company caters to the plantation and mill trade of the whole colony 
 from Medan to Macassar. 
 
 The Soerabayasche Machine v/h Becker & Co. is an important 
 factor in the iron and steel trade, carrying a general assortment of 
 sizes and grades. It is more important in the east Java field and in 
 the Preanger Regencies (mountain district of west Java). 
 
 The following companies are the more important distributers of 
 staples in iron and steel, some of them carrying very heavy stocks at 
 many of the commercial centers: 
 
 Internationale Crediet en Handelsvereeniging “Rotterdam.’* 
 
 Geo. Wehry & Co. 
 
 S. L. van Nierup & Co.’s Handelmaatschappij. 
 
 Schnitzler & Co. 
 
 L. E. Tels & Co.’s Handel maayschappij. 
 
 Handelsvereeniging v/h Reiss & Co. 
 
 Jacobson van den Berg & Co. 
 
240 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Carl Schlieper, a German, was, before the war, one of the most 
 important' dealers in iron and steel products and has been very active 
 in the trade during the past year. 
 
 In addition to the companies already given, there are several 
 which cater particularly to the sugar estates, specializing in rails 
 and railway equipment. These concerns, besides stocking materials, 
 contract for installing equipment on the plantations ready for opera¬ 
 tion. Three of the most important of these are as follows: 
 
 II. E. Oving Jr.’s Nederlandsch Indische Ijzer en Staalhandel 
 before the war was the agent in this colony for Krupps. 
 
 Du Croo & Brauns have workshops in Soerabaya and are in a po¬ 
 sition to install on the plantations completely equipped railroads. 
 Their head office is in Amsterdam, and before the war most of their 
 purchases were made there. 
 
 Orenstein & Koppel-Arthur Koppel Mij. is a German concern, and 
 until April 28, 1919, was on the enemy trading list. This company 
 was an important factor in the light railroad business in .the colony 
 before the war and has a large staff of engineers thoroughly equipped 
 for supplying railroads laid down and equipped ready for operation. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION COMPANIES. 
 
 Outside of the State railways, the Netherlands Indies Railways, 
 Deli Railway Co., and the various tramway companies, the sugar 
 industry consumes the largest quantities of iron and steel. Several 
 machine shops are equipped to construct plantation buildings and 
 bridges of any necessary dimensions. They are given below in the 
 order of their size. 
 
 Soerabaya, east Java: Macbinefabriek Kaleraas-Amsterdam; Nederlandsch- 
 Indiscbe “ Industrie ” ; Machinefabriek “ Bratt ” ; Machinefabriek “ Dapoeari ” 
 v/h Younge & Gill; Fabriek de Volharding. 
 
 Pasoeroean, east Java: Mij. t. e. v. h. Constructiewinkel “ Bromo.” 
 
 Soerakarta, central Java: Fabriek de Volharding. 
 
 Djokjakarta, central Java: Machinefabriek “Bratt”; Constructie atelier 
 der Vorstenlanden. 
 
 In the tea districts of west Java the following companies construct 
 bridges and buildings on order: 
 
 Bandoeng, Preanger, west Java: Technisch Bureau Soenda; Soerabayasche 
 Machinehandel v/h Becker & Co. 
 
 Batavia and Bandoeng, west Java: Linde and Tevis en R. S. Stokvis en 
 Zonen (Ltd.) (Lindetevis-Stokvis). 
 
 Batavia, west Java: Machinefabriek en Constructie atelier “ Molenvliet.” 
 
 Buitenzorg, west Java: West Java Engineering Co. (Ltd.). 
 
 In the oil district of Palembang, Sumatra, the Industrielle Maat- 
 schappij “ Palembang ” has one large shop at Palembang and another 
 at Moera Enim, where steel buildings and bridges are fabricated. 
 
 In the Sumatra East Coast district there is a large number of es¬ 
 tates, but most of the estate buildings are made with hardwood 
 frames. The Machinefabriek “ Bratt ” at Medan does most of the 
 fabricating for the district. 
 
 The Hollandsche Maatschappij t’. h. m. r. weken in gewapend beton 
 (Holland-Beton Mij.) is the most important company contracting 
 for reinforced concrete buildings and harbor works. The head office 
 of this company in the colony is at Weltevreden (Batavia), in west 
 Java. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 241 
 
 Various Government departments use large quantities of all kinds 
 of iron and steel. The largest single consuming unit, aside from 
 the railways, is probably the marine establishment at Soerabaya. 
 
 The work on the new harbor at Belawan Deli (Medan, Sumatra) 
 is being done by the Aanneming Maatschappij Grotius, of Batavia. 
 
 REVIEW OF THE MARKET. 
 
 Up to the time of the signing of the armistice dealers in iron and 
 steel products in the Netherlands East Indies had the greatest diffi¬ 
 culty in meeting the requirements of their trade, and the large de¬ 
 mands for construction seemed to warrant them in placing big orders 
 with the mills in America, most of which were covered by confirmed 
 bankers’ credits. When the drop in price came, early in 1919, it 
 found the Dutch buyers with heavy contracts on hand made at pre¬ 
 war prices, c. i. f. Java ports, and heavy losses faced the importers. 
 Fortunately, most of the losses were borne by dealers who had made 
 large profits out of earlier speculations, so that the credit of the busi¬ 
 ness community has suffered little by the losses in all lines of mer¬ 
 chandise speculation. 
 
 In the early months of that year stocks began to pile up in the 
 Java ports, and long before their arrival prices had dropped below 
 the corresponding prices ex mill in America. In April several 
 ships containing large quantities of iron and steel products arrived 
 from the Netherlands and further glutted an already overstocked 
 market. Had these stocks, however, been the only ones to be taken 
 into consideration the market would have righted itself quickly, but 
 this colony had to take its place in relieving the congestions in the 
 China coast cities and in the hands of jobbers in America, and offers 
 came in from all directions at prices that seemed to justify the idea 
 entertained by the Chinese that, as the war had caused the inflation 
 of prices, peace would force them back to pre-war levels. 
 
 The shortage of materials in 1917 and 1918 had left a great need 
 for iron and steel supplies, and by July shortages began to appear 
 in some sizes and qualities and buying recommenced. By the end 
 of 1919 there were again shortages in many sizes of staple materials. 
 In December American mills refused to accept orders for definite 
 delivery, and stock could not be secured in Europe. A period of 
 heavy buying continued until the middle of 1920, and the arrival 
 of these orders synchronated with the slump in the produce market 
 and the general slump in prices of import commodities. From July, 
 1920, to June, 1921, the markets in all lines were gravely depressed, 
 but during most of this time iron and steel ordered prior to the de¬ 
 pression continued to arrive, adding to the overstocks. Arrivals 
 began to slacken in May, 1921, but up to September no signs of short¬ 
 ages in any qualities or sizes were apparent. 
 
 IMPORTS OF IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 The appended figures give the imports of iron and steel products 
 into the Netherlands East Indies for the years 1913 (the last full 
 pre-war year), 1917, 1918, 1919, and 1920, figures for 1920 including 
 Java and Madoera only. Imports for private and Government ac¬ 
 count for Java and Madoera and the Outer Possessions are shown 
 separately. 
 
242 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1913 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Rails, fishplates, and plates for cars: 
 
 For private account— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 3,849,198 
 515,646 
 
 678, 468 
 438,872 
 
 871,825 
 
 7,012,066 
 
 12, 833,678 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 21i; 666 
 
 ' 992; 631 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 1,962,017 
 217,350 
 
 742,441 
 37,062 
 
 3,517,633 
 35,305 
 
 12,720,003 
 89,193 
 
 6,343,383 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 Bridges and parts: 
 
 
 
 For private account— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 310,220 
 219,539 
 
 606,941 
 
 25,118 
 
 281,766 
 
 627,236 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 219; 767 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 209,233 
 
 56,736 
 47,626 
 
 
 1,009,130 
 79,097 
 
 490,602 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 113; 468 
 
 
 Tubing and piping: 
 
 
 
 For private account— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 2,007, 868 
 
 1,779,753 
 2,530,237 
 
 2,195,540 
 
 5,802,117 
 9,132,434 
 
 10,349,687 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 2, 447; 599 
 
 i; 869; 585 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 68,450 
 9,185 
 
 31,163 
 
 182,164 
 355,541 
 
 464, 878 
 
 541,435 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 22,386 
 
 52,602 
 
 
 Roofing and gutters, not galvanized: 
 
 
 
 
 For private account— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 151,752 
 128,996 
 
 37,539 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 33,256 
 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 
 
 
 
 J ava and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Galvanized roofing: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 For private account— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 2,946,493 
 1,946,899 
 
 1,770,650 
 730,887 
 
 1,547,101 
 220,326 
 
 836,176 
 
 8,056,366 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 553,273 
 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 10,234 
 
 109,495 
 
 306,269 
 8,903 
 
 279, 292 
 
 103,012 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 2, 227 
 
 892 
 
 21, 712 
 
 
 Galvanized ceiling: 
 
 
 
 For private account— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 178,080 
 11,695 
 
 148, 2.56 
 
 92,254 
 
 5,101 
 
 293,679 
 78,567 
 
 528,008 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 3,854 
 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 126,437 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Galvanized gutters: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 For private account— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 15, 407 
 
 2, 449 
 
 9,605 
 15,080 
 
 18,4S2 
 2,278 
 
 33,019 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 '930 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Iron-steel wire: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 For private account— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 180,004 
 
 422,143 
 
 721, 869 
 423, 512 
 
 1,094,115 
 
 710,614 
 
 1,551,713 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 13i; 782 
 
 164,069 
 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 121,154 
 
 416,940 
 
 244.486 
 
 1,127,654 
 35,773 
 
 376, 855 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 34,678 
 
 7,476 
 
 
 Electric cables: 
 
 
 
 
 For private account— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 11,717 
 27,159 
 
 74,654 
 
 805,578 
 277,565 
 
 498,784 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 218; 094 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 525,933 
 10, 500 
 
 489,538 
 19,518 
 
 2,133,193 
 17,413 
 
 651,405 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 Hoop iron: 
 
 
 
 
 For private account— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 275,055 
 48,757 
 
 696,002 
 
 1,040, 297 
 
 547,272 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 123; 519 
 
 ' 139', 298 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 
 18,577 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bars, etc.: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 For private account— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J ava and Madoera. 
 
 4,150,480 
 717,879 
 
 9,637,962 
 2,491,237 
 
 10,545,938 
 2, 420,543 
 
 10, 946,558 
 3,163,199 
 
 26,492,708 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 245,148 
 7,627 
 
 328,762 
 43,022 
 
 1,039,656 
 46,362 
 
 5,451,912 
 76,502 
 
 1,128,021 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 Sheets: 
 
 
 For private account— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 136,074 
 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 3,608 
 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions... 
 
 
 
 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES 
 
 243 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Ordinary axles: 
 
 For private account- 
 
 java and Madoera. 
 
 Florins. 
 115,315 
 14,423 
 
 Florins. 
 
 7,169 
 
 Florins. 
 14,772 
 
 Florins. 
 
 19,290 
 
 Florins. 
 
 82,723 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 J ava and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Patent axles: 
 
 For private account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 23,703 
 6,564 
 
 2,610 
 
 13,344 
 
 7,428 
 
 3,746 
 
 6,082 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Iron casseroles: 
 
 For private account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 128,632 
 
 95,765 
 
 40,975 
 
 20,137 
 
 8,415 
 
 10,564 
 
 39,271 
 21,5z» 
 
 504,654 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 European cooking utensils: 
 
 For private account— — 
 
 j ava and Madoera. 
 
 227,135 
 78,074 
 
 41,549 
 30,313 
 
 21,683 
 
 8,306 
 
 86,539 
 
 30,416 
 
 138,756 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pig iron: 
 
 For private account— 
 
 J ava and Madoera. 
 
 
 39,994 
 
 
 
 155,572 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wire nails in kegs: 
 
 For private account— 
 
 J ava and Madoera. 
 
 784,791 
 550,718 
 
 1,634,319 
 930,479 
 
 3,242, 516 
 920,165 
 
 2,339,098 
 922,596 
 
 4,342,023 
 
 Outer Possessions . 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 4,003 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 25,045 
 
 8,848 
 8,639 
 
 Wire nails in other packages: 
 
 For private account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 3,404 
 6,663 
 
 275,869 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 37,453 
 
 87,123 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 31,248 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spikes: 
 
 For private account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 69,815 
 163,103 
 
 46,305 
 350,655 
 
 158,833 
 197,421 
 
 232,038 
 279,967 
 
 912,340 
 
 578,643 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 46,006 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 Steel and iron not otherwise mentioned: 
 
 For private account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 4,512,428 
 
 1,805,123 
 
 1,238,393 
 760,469 
 
 428,077 
 214,541 
 
 2,462,913 
 1,471,344 
 
 306,487 
 
 16,951 
 
 3,272,117 
 
 777,972 
 
 369,716 
 77,331 
 
 2,607,336 
 1,392,408 
 
 235,236 
 18,475 
 
 4,751,237 
 
 1,959,701 
 
 1,274,252 
 232,738 
 
 6,780,870 
 2,586,821 
 
 793,411 
 45,218 
 
 7,925,173 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 2,406,521 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 Iron and steel work not otherwise men¬ 
 tioned: 
 
 For private account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 4,292,064 
 2,442,940 
 
 3,145,541 
 515,242 
 
 17,017,158 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 For Government account— 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 692,917 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 Total. 
 
 For private account: 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 42,035,071 
 
 34,344,450 
 
 41,896,860 
 
 90,479,544 
 
 105,379,109 
 
 24,089,459 
 11,315,128 
 
 5,765,385 
 
 865,099 
 
 20,847,621 
 10,123,131 
 
 2,946,040 
 
 427,658 
 
 26,108,982 
 8,834,269 
 
 6,384,698 
 ' 568,911 
 
 42,395,453 
 
 21,116,296 
 
 26,292,502 
 
 675,293 
 
 12,833,985 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 For Government account: 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 92,545,124 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 19878°—23-17 
 
244 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Reducing the imports to United States dollars at mint par ($0,402), 
 the total imports were as follows: 1913, $16,898,098; 1917, $13,806,- 
 468; 1918, $16,842,537; 1919, $36,372,776; and 1920 (Java and 
 Madoera only), $42,362,401. 
 
 The shortage of shipping during the later war years forced a 
 rigid economy in the use of iron and steel, and the large increase of 
 imports in 1919 was justified by the demand for building and re¬ 
 pairs to buildings and materials. This demand continued until the 
 late spring of 1920, and there were heavy forward orders placed at 
 that time which arrived after the price slump that occurred in June 
 and later. Large quantities of these steel products were on hand in 
 September, 1921. 
 
 Valuation .—The following units of values were used during the 
 years under review, and quantities can be learned by dividing the 
 total imports by the valuation unit: 
 
 Articles. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Rails, fishplates, etc . 
 
 _per kilo. . 
 
 
 
 0.50 
 
 0.51} 
 
 0.43 
 
 Bridges and parts 
 
 _* . .do _ 
 
 
 
 
 .44 
 
 Tubing and piping . 
 
 .do _ 
 
 
 0.33 
 
 .36 
 
 .67 
 
 .59 
 
 Roofing and gutters, not. galvanized.. . 
 
 .do _ 
 
 0.82 
 
 
 
 
 
 Galvanized roofing ___ 7. . 
 
 .do_ 
 
 .17 
 
 .55 
 
 .68 
 
 .46 
 
 .55 
 
 Galvanized ceiling . 
 
 
 .30 
 
 .58 
 
 .80 
 
 1.14 
 
 0) 
 
 Galvanized gutters . 
 
 
 .20 
 
 1 . 00 
 
 1.00 
 
 1.00 
 
 0) 
 
 Iron wire . 
 
 .do _ 
 
 
 .30 
 
 .54 
 
 1.16 
 
 0) 
 
 Electric cables . 
 
 .do _ 
 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.70 
 
 1.70 
 
 1.10 
 
 Hoop iron . 
 
 .do _ 
 
 
 .38 
 
 .55 
 
 .55 
 
 .48 
 
 Bars, sheets, and plates . 
 
 .do _ 
 
 
 .50 
 
 .52 
 
 .41 
 
 .40 
 
 Ordinary axles .. t . 
 
 
 8.80 
 
 13.50 
 
 12.00 
 
 7.87 
 
 7.87 
 
 Patent axles . 
 
 .do_ 
 
 14. 75 
 
 22.50 
 
 
 12.83 
 
 12.83 
 
 Iron casseroles. 
 
 
 .60 
 
 .63 
 
 .93 
 
 .90} 
 
 1.17 
 
 European cooking utensils. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 .14 
 
 .18 
 
 .22 
 
 .21 
 
 
 Pig iron . 7. 
 
 .do_ 
 
 
 .30 
 
 
 
 .35 
 
 Wire nails. 
 
 
 7.00 
 
 21.45 
 
 26. 77 
 
 1 22.81 
 \ * .43 
 
 28.39 
 
 *.57 
 
 Snikes___ 
 
 _ner kilo.. 
 
 
 .45 
 
 .57 
 
 .62} 
 
 .62 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 As declared. * Per kilo in cases. 
 
 RAILS AND FITTINGS. 
 
 The following table shows the imports under the above classi¬ 
 fication, by countries, for 1913 in florins and for 1917, 1918, 1919, 
 and 1920 in metric tons, the last-named year including Java and 
 Madoera only: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920' 
 
 United States. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 6,036 
 1,017 
 19 
 
 Metric tons. 
 7,828 
 58 
 
 3 
 
 Metric tons. 
 31,967 
 5,012 
 405 
 
 Metric tons. 
 25,666 
 16,884 
 407 
 752 
 307 
 437 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 5,612,587 
 
 107,961 
 
 131,403 
 
 679,816 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 
 1,214 
 
 6 
 
 165 
 
 2,086 
 
 535 
 
 407 
 
 2 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 11,349 
 
 134 
 
 Japan. 
 
 137 
 
 8 
 
 All other. 
 
 1,095 
 
 1 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 6,544,211 
 
 7,207 
 
 9,274 
 
 40,414 
 
 44,598 
 
 For private account: 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 3,849,198 
 
 515,646 
 
 1,962,017 
 
 217,350 
 
 3,300 
 
 1,316 
 
 2,238 
 
 353 
 
 1,744 
 
 424 
 
 7,035 
 
 71 
 
 13,615 
 
 1,927 
 
 24,699 
 
 173 
 
 29,846 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 For Government account: 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 14,752 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Modoera only. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 245 
 
 The only value the 1913 figures have is to show, by percentages, 
 the origin of the business. In that year 85 per cent of the imports 
 were from the Netherlands, 10 per cent from Belgium, 2 per cent 
 from Germany, and 1-| per cent from England. Conditions were 
 about normal in the colony; iron and steel prices were low, and 
 much new construction was under way. 
 
 In 1917 the United States was the principal county of origin, 
 with 85 per cent of the total imports, while 14 per cent came from 
 the Netherlands and a very small balance from Singapore and Eng¬ 
 land. Prices according to the American markets had touched a 
 point 260 per cent above the high point in 1913. After the begin¬ 
 ning of the war, construction in Java dropped to the minimum of 
 necessity, and plans for development were held in abeyance until 
 material should become available. In 1918 there was an increase in 
 imports of 28 per cent over the previous year. In this year the 
 United States supplied 84 per cent of the total. Australia appeared 
 for the first time as an important factor in this trade, with 13 per 
 cent of the imports, while the balance came from Japan, Singapore, 
 and the Netherlands. In 1919, 79 per cent of the total imports came 
 from the United States, 13 per cent from the Netherlands, 5 per 
 cent from Australia, and the balance from Great Britain, Singapore, 
 and Japan. Early in that year Dutch shipping was released by the 
 Allies, and the accumulated requirements of the railroads warranted 
 the heavy importation. The Government railways in that year took 
 62 per cent of the imports. 
 
 Of the imports into Java and Madoera only in 1920, 33 per cent 
 was for the account of the Government. The United States sup¬ 
 plied 58 per cent of the total, the Netherlands 38 per cent, Germany 
 2 per cent, and the balance came from England, Belgium, Aus¬ 
 tralia, and Japan. 
 
 The State railways use rails of 25.7 and 33.4 kilos to the meter 
 
 in 9-meter lengths (1 kilo=2.2046 pounds; 1 meter=39.37 inches). 
 
 The usual custom of allowing 10 per cent shorts is not followed here, 
 
 but some latitude is allowed in this respect. Steel ties are used for 
 
 switches and crossings. Specifications for these are on file at the 
 
 purchasing bureau of the Netherlands Government at 17 Battery 
 
 Place, New York Citv. 
 
 «/ 
 
 There are many “tram lines” throughout the island of Java and 
 in Madoera and northern Sumatra using rails from 18 to 25.7 
 kilos to the meter, and the custom of using steel ties for switches 
 and crossings is followed by these lines. The rails are generally 
 ordered in 9-meter lengths and ties in 5 and 5J meter lengths. 
 
 Both the Government and privately owned logging roads use 
 18-kilo rails or heavier, but this business is small. 
 
 Sugar estates and other plantations use rails of from 12 to 25 
 pounds to the yard in lengths of 5 meters for the 16-pound rails and 
 7 meters for 18 and 20 pound rails. The gauge of these tracks 
 varies. The permanent ways are usually laid on wooden rails, and 
 light rails are made up into portable sections with steel ties. No 
 variation in length is permitted in filling orders. Steel ties are 
 generally by 4ff inches wide and are bought in 5.6-meter lengths/ 
 
 The mines use rails of from 8 to 16 pounds to the yard, with the 
 bulk of the business in the 10 and 12 pound weights. These are all 
 in 5-meter lengths, and no variation in length is allowed. 
 
246 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The goods wagons (freight cars) of the State railways are usually 
 built in lengths of 5 and 5f meters, and for rails of longer lengths 
 an extra charge for transportation is added. This should be re¬ 
 membered in filling orders specifying short lengths. 
 
 Bolts .—Sizes of clip bolts required for plantation roads in central 
 and eastern Java, in millimeter sizes, are 11 by 30 and 11 by 31, the 
 length being measured from under the head to the end of the bolt. 
 It is the custom in specifying the length of bolts in Java to give 
 the length of the bolt from under the head to the inside of the nut 
 with the nut flush with the bolt end. In quoting prices and lengths 
 it will be safer to state which system is used. 
 
 Fishplate bolts, in which most of the business is done, are, in 
 millimeter sizes, 10 by 42, 11 by 45, 13 by 50, and 13 by 60 under the 
 head and to the end of the bolt. 
 
 BRIDGES AND PARTS THEREOF. 
 
 The following table shows the imports of bridges and parts, by 
 countries, for 1913 in florins and for 1917, 1918, 1919, and 1920 in 
 metric tons: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 United States. 
 
 Florins. 
 1,609 
 786,445 
 20,100 
 9,524 
 13,660 
 21,122 
 
 Metric tons. 
 407 
 1,601 
 
 Metric tons. 
 15 
 59 
 
 Metric tons. 
 2,534 
 1,505 
 
 1 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 900 
 
 1,261 
 
 169 
 
 20 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 190 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 852,460 
 
 2,008 
 
 74 
 
 4,059 
 
 2,540 
 
 For private account: 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 310,220 
 219,539 
 
 209,233 
 113,468 
 
 1,566 
 
 74 
 
 934 
 
 450 
 
 2,397 
 
 278 
 
 1,425 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 For Government account: 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 307 
 
 135 
 
 
 1,115 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 In 1913 practically all of the bridges came from the Netherlands, 
 where they were fabricated. In 1917 the Netherlands supplied 80 
 per cent and the United States 20 per cent, and in 1918 the same per¬ 
 centage prevailed, although the importations dropped in the latter 
 year to 3.6 per cent of those of 1917. This does not signify that 
 bridge construction practically ceased in 1918, as several large 
 bridges were built locally. In 1919, 62 per cent of the imports came 
 from the United States and 37 per cent from the Netherlands, and 
 in 1920 (Java and Madoera only) 36 per cent came from the United 
 States, 50 per cent from the Netherlands, and 7 per cent from Great 
 Britain. 
 
 The chief buyers of bridges are the Government’s State railways, 
 either through its local purchasing department at Batavia or its 
 European or New York offices; the Netherlands Indies railways at 
 Semarang; the Deli Spoorweg Maatschappij in Sumatra (Medan, 
 ’Sumatra East Coast), which generally purchases through its head 
 office in Amsterdam; and the Semarang-Cheribon Stoomtram Mij. 
 and its allied roads, under the general supervision of R. P. van 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 247 
 
 Alplien, at Semarang, which buys either direct of through its offices 
 in The Hague. 
 
 There has been very little development in railway building by 
 the privately owned roads during the war and post-war years, and 
 the indications are that the general importations of bridges in the 
 two post-war years were for resale to the State railways. 
 
 Most of the bridges for the Government and for private purchase 
 are built in the machine shops in the various ports. The general 
 practice, as in building construction, is to use light materials multi¬ 
 plied with much labor. 
 
 Bridge plans were worked out many years ago for the railways 
 and for the various private uses. Most of these plans, however, 
 have not been changed with the developments of experience in other 
 parts of the world, so that the standard bridges of the United States 
 are an innovation not yet favorably looked upon. Some American 
 bridges which it was necessary to buy during the war years have 
 been found to be very much cheaper when placed in position than the 
 standard bridges of the State railways, but local engineers are re¬ 
 luctant to acknowledge this. 
 
 WELL CASING, TUBING, AND PIPE. 
 
 The following table shows the imports of well casing, tubing, and 
 pipe, bv countries, in florins for 1913 and in metric tons for 1917, 
 1918, 1919, and 1920: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 United States. 
 
 198,000 
 
 9,938 
 
 8,335 
 
 15,010 
 
 4,704 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 2,951,000 
 
 855 
 
 866 
 
 1,415 
 
 8,530 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 233,000 
 
 937 
 
 2,464 
 
 1,843 
 
 3,349 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1,028,000 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 1,259 
 
 Singapore, Penang, and Hongkong. 
 
 89,000 
 
 724 
 
 530 
 
 2,409 
 
 22 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 764 
 
 319 
 
 460 
 
 38 
 
 Australia. 
 
 
 
 164 
 
 1,886 
 
 438 
 
 All other. 
 
 33,000 
 
 4 
 
 107 
 
 31 
 
 119 
 
 Total. 
 
 4,532,000 
 
 13,222 
 
 12,785 
 
 23,062 
 
 18-, 459 
 
 For private account: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 2,008,000 
 
 5,393 
 
 6,099 
 
 8,660 
 
 17,542 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 2,447,000 
 
 7,667 
 
 5,193 
 
 13,630 
 
 
 For Government account: 
 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 68,000 
 
 94 
 
 506 
 
 694 
 
 917 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 9,000 
 
 68 
 
 987 
 
 78 
 
 
 i Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Of the 1913 imports, over 65 per cent was credited to the Nether¬ 
 lands and 23 per cent to Germany, while those from the United States 
 are given as 4 per cent and Great Britain as 5 per cent. In 1917, 
 75 per cent came from the United States, 6 per cent from the Nether¬ 
 lands, 7 per cent from Great Britain, 6 per cent from Japan, and 
 5 per cent from the oriental transshipment ports. In 1918 the share 
 of the United States was 65 per cent; the Netherlands, 7 per cent; 
 Great Britain, 19 per cent; Japan, 2J per cent; Australia, 1 per cent; 
 and the balance was from oriental transshipment ports. In 1919 
 
248 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 the imports increased over 1918 by 100 per cent. The United States 
 supplied 65 per cent of this amount, the oriental transshipment ports 
 10 per cent, and Great Britain and Australia 8 per cent. The re¬ 
 turns for 1920 (Java and Madoera only) credit the Netherlands with 
 46 per cent, the United States with 26 per cent, Great Britain with 
 18 per cent, and Germany with 7 per cent. 
 
 1 Veil casing .—A large part of this business was in casings for 
 the oil wells which are being bored in many parts of the colony. 
 The principal importers of well casing are the oil companies; other 
 piping is imported chiefly by the machinery and hardware importers. 
 High-pressure steam pipe is used very little in this colony. Ordi¬ 
 nary butt and lap welded pipe are used for most purposes, in sizes 
 from J to 6 inches inside diameter, with the bulk of the business in 
 sizes under 3 inches. The English or German threads are used. 
 There is but little call for galvanized pipe. 
 
 Steam tubing is quoted in inch sizes as follows: 1-J, If, If, If, 2, 2f, 
 2f, 2§, 2i , 2f, 3, 3f, 3£, 3f, 4, 4J, 4|, 4f, 5, 5J, 5f, 5f, and 6 inches, 
 outside measurements; guaranteed pressure, 100 atmospheres. 
 
 Cast-iron fife .—There is a considerable quantity of cast-iron pipe 
 used in the sugar mills for conveying the juice from one station 
 to another. This pipe has to be replaced often, as the acid in the 
 juice eats through the cast iron quickly. This pipe is in various 
 sizes, but generally not larger than 8 inches, inside diameter. When 
 lead lined it lasts indefinitely, and in the past lead-lined pipe has been 
 used to some extent. 
 
 Many plans are under consideration for the building of waterworks, 
 and when these near completion there will be a big demand for pipe 
 for the minor distributing systems. The preliminaries to the financ¬ 
 ing of these works are moving slowly. 
 
 Evaf orator tubes are ordered by the mills from the manufacturers 
 of their plants. These are of various sizes and lengths, according to 
 the make of evaporator used. Makers of brass pipe desiring to get 
 this business would at first have to develop it directly with the mills, 
 as dealers here do not stock this material. 
 
 Tubes for vacuum pans are also ordered directly from the mill 
 manufacturers, and they are sent in lengths ready for placing. The 
 lengths and sizes vary according to the make of the machine. 
 
 Dimensions of drawn iron pipe from Europe are from f to 12 
 inches inside diameter and from 13 to 317 millimeters outside diam¬ 
 eter, the weight per meter running from 0.57 to 60 kilos. 
 
 GALVANIZED-IRON ROOFING. 
 
 The following table shows the imports of galvanized corrugated 
 iron, by countries, for 1913, 1917, 1918, 1919, 1920, and 11 months of 
 1921: 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 249 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 1921 
 
 (11 months 
 only).* 
 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 United States. 
 
 415 
 
 3,430 
 
 2,798 
 
 1,625 
 
 1,522 
 
 776 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 3,209 
 
 334 
 
 
 110 
 
 954 
 
 1,072 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 23,139 
 
 849 
 
 
 1,581 
 
 11,867 
 
 1,578 
 
 British India, Penang, Singa- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pore, and British Borneo.... 
 
 1,664 
 
 61 
 
 30 
 
 332 
 
 108 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 14 
 
 219 
 
 
 113 
 
 
 Germany. 
 
 228 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Belgium". 
 
 174 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 28 
 
 61 
 
 15 
 
 27 
 
 271 
 
 83 
 
 Total. 
 
 28,857 
 
 4,749 
 
 3,062 
 
 3,675 
 
 14,835 
 
 3,509 
 
 For private account: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 17,332 
 
 3,219 
 
 2,275 
 
 1,818 
 
 14,648 
 
 3,509 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 11,452 
 
 1,329 
 
 324 
 
 1,201 
 
 
 
 For Government account. 
 
 73 
 
 201 
 
 463 
 
 656 
 
 187 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 * Java and Madoera only, exclusive of Government purchases. 
 
 There was a decrease in tonnage of imports in 1917 below 1913 
 of 83 per cent and in 1918 of 35 per cent below 1917. In 1913 the 
 United States supplied a little over 1 per cent of the total imports, 
 while 11 per cent came from the Netherlands, 80 per cent from Great 
 Britain, and 5 per cent from the oriental transshipment ports (Hong¬ 
 kong, Singapore, and Penang). In 1917 the United States took first 
 place, with 72 per cent of the total imports; Great Britain stood sec¬ 
 ond, with 18 per cent; and the Netherlands third, with 7 per cent. 
 The year 1918 showed an entire elimination of imports from Europe. 
 The United States provided 92 per cent of the imports and Japan 
 7 per cent. In 1919 the United States supplied 44 per cent and 
 Great Britain 43 per cent. In 1920, of the 14,835 tons imported into 
 Java and Madoera, Great Britain supplied 80 per cent, the United 
 States 10 per cent, and the Netherlands 6 per cent. Of the imports 
 into Java and Madoera for 11 months of 1921, Great Britain sup¬ 
 plied 45 per cent, the Netherlands 31 per cent, and the United States 
 22 per cent. 
 
 Galvanized corrugated iron for the islands of Java and Madoera 
 is almost invariably in 24 gauge, 26 inches wide, with eight 3-inch 
 corrugations, approximately % inch in depth. Lengths run from 
 5 to 10 feet, with the bulk of the business in 6 to 8 foot lengths. In 
 Sumatra the demand is generally for 28 gauge, and sometimes for 
 31 and 32 gauge, with the other dimensions the same as for Java. 
 Packing is invariably in unlined skeleton cases (crates) in approxi¬ 
 mately 4-picul weights, 1 Dutch East Indian picul equaling 136 
 pounds. 
 
 Galvanized ceiling .—The appended figures show the importations 
 of galvanized iron ceiling, by countries, for the years under consider¬ 
 ation. 
 
250 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 
 
 (11 months 
 only).* 
 
 TTnitPid States.. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 125 
 123 
 277 
 14 
 94 
 
 Metric tons. 
 60 
 
 Metric tons. 
 13 
 
 Metric tons. 
 293 
 34 
 37 
 
 Metric tons. 
 314 
 102 
 499 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 
 396 
 
 Germany.7. 
 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 201 
 
 106 
 
 2 
 
 73 
 
 62 
 
 3 
 
 117 
 
 56 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 
 
 633 
 
 261 
 
 121 
 
 437 
 
 980 
 
 569 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 594 
 
 39 
 
 255 
 
 6 
 
 115 
 
 6 
 
 368 
 
 69 
 
 980 
 
 569 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 This ceiling is used in the construction of the better class of houses, 
 especially for porch ceiling, but for interiors it finds competition in 
 the so-called “ asbestos board,” which is made of a composition of 
 asbestos and cement, and offers some degree of insulation against the 
 extreme heat of the Tropics. 
 
 TELEPHONE. TELEGRAPH. AND OTHER IRON WIRE. 
 
 The following table shows the imports of iron wire, by countries, 
 for 1917, 1918, 1919, and 1920 : 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920» 
 
 United States. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 2,630 
 34 
 18 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,493 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,955 
 63 
 229 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,548 
 1,053 
 517 
 494 
 376 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 144 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 256 
 
 160 
 
 4 
 
 157 
 
 427 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 Australia. 9 . 
 
 Philippine Islands. 
 
 
 
 All otKer. 
 
 437 
 
 250 
 
 225 
 
 Total. 
 
 3,259 
 
 2,506 
 
 2,517 
 
 4,213 
 
 For private account: 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 1,400 
 
 500 
 
 1,244 
 
 115 
 
 • 
 
 1,321 
 
 718 
 
 453 
 
 14 
 
 940 
 
 607 
 
 939 
 
 31 
 
 3,295 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 For Government account: 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 918 
 
 Total Outer Possessions.. __ . 
 
 
 
 i Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The requirements are for plain, bright, and galvanized wire, with 
 the bulk of the business in galvanized. 
 
 Locally all galvanized wire is termed “ telephone wire,” and all 
 except spring wire is termed “ iron wire.” The principal use for this 
 wire, outside the Government demand, is for cup racks on the rub¬ 
 ber trees. There are over 800,000 acres of rubber planted with from 
 80 to 120 trees to the acre, and each one of these trees has a wire 
 ring, partly twisted in spiral, which holds the cup when it is not in 
 use. Other uses are for binding rubber, tea, and other cases for 
 shipping and for making the numberless utensils and trinkets used 
 by the natives. Wire has a strong competitor in bamboo and in 
 rattan (cane), the former for fencing and the latter for reinforcing 
 cases for shipment and for tying. The natives are adept in its use. 
 
 Standard telephone and telegraph wire is used by the Government 
 for the municipal telephone systems and for the telegraph lines, most 
 of which it controls, and by a few companies owning private systems. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 251 
 
 Wire coils should be wrapped in paper and burlaped to insure their 
 arrival in good order. 
 
 Barbed wire is used to some extent, the usual demand being for 2 
 strand, 12J gauge, 4 points at 3-inch intervals, galvanized; wound 
 on reels weighing 45 kilos net. 
 
 ELECTRIC CABLES. 
 
 The following table shows the imports of electric cables, by coun¬ 
 tries, for 1917, 1918, 1919, and 1920: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 United States. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 512 
 
 Metric tons. 
 215 
 
 Metric tons. 
 826 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 30 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 125 
 
 412 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 14 
 
 
 44 
 
 33 
 
 Japan. 
 
 250 
 
 898 
 
 379 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 190 
 
 All other . _ 
 
 i 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 548 
 
 472 
 
 1,901 
 
 1,045 
 
 
 
 
 
 For private account: 
 
 Total Java and Madoera_ 
 
 
 11 
 
 44 
 
 473 
 
 453 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 26 
 
 128 
 
 163 
 
 For Government account: 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 501 
 
 288 
 
 1,255 
 
 10 
 
 592 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 i Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The Government is the ultimate purchaser of all the imports of 
 telephone and submarine cables. Before the war Germany was the 
 ' principal supplier. The Westinghouse Co., of Japan, and other 
 manufacturers in that country had been sharing this business with 
 the United States until 1920, when Germany reappeared in the re¬ 
 turns with 190 tons, and the Netherlands nominally supplied 412 
 tons. 
 
 ROUNDS, FLATS, SHEETS, AND PLATES. 
 
 The following table shows the imports under the above classifi¬ 
 cation, by countries, for 1917,1918,1919,1920, and 11 months of 1921. 
 The 1920 and 1921 returns are for Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 
 
 (11 months 
 only). 2 
 
 United States. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 18,742 
 975 
 918 
 
 Metric tons. 
 15,578 
 100 
 138 
 267 
 900 
 2,075 
 4,664 
 3,302 
 
 M trie tons. 
 35,402 
 2,256 
 3,063 
 
 Metric tons. 
 27,212 
 20,257 
 7,026 
 1,828 
 251 
 3,083 
 4,289 
 5,105 
 
 Metric tons. 
 21,506 
 27,756 
 1,686 
 2,391 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 361 
 
 973 
 
 587 
 
 2,444 
 
 830 
 
 1,200 
 
 4,566 
 
 581 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 317 
 
 4,364 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 25,000 
 
 27,024 
 
 47,898 
 
 69,051 
 
 58,020 
 
 For private account: 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 19,275 
 
 4,982 
 
 657 
 
 86 
 
 20,281 
 4,655 
 
 1,999 
 
 89 
 
 26,699 
 
 7,715 
 
 13,297 
 
 187 
 
 66,231 
 
 58,020 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 For Government account: 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 2,820 
 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 2 Java and Madoera only, exclusive of Government purchases. 
 
 Imports from the Netherlands in 1917 dropped below 4 per cent, 
 while Germany did not appear in the returns. Great Britain and 
 Japan had about 4 per cent each, and Australia is credited with 
 
252 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 2 per cent; the share of the United States was 75 per cent, and the 
 remaining 11 per cent was from Hongkong, Singapore, Sweden, and 
 Canada. In 1918 the United States is credited with 57 per cent of the 
 total imports; Australia with 17 per cent; Japan, 8 per cent; Germany, 
 1 per cent; the Netherlands and Great Britain, each one-half of 1 per 
 cent; and in the remaining 16 per cent, Sweden, Singapore, Hong¬ 
 kong, China, and the Philippine Islands were represented, with the 
 largest part from Hongkong, which imports probably originated 
 in the United States. The imports of 1919 show an increase over 
 1918 of 77 per cent. The United States supplied 74 per cent; 
 Australia, 9 per cent; Great Britain, 6 per cent; and the Netherlands, 
 5 per cent. The imports for 1920 (Java and Madoera only) show an 
 increase over 1919 of 73 per cent, and 210 per cent over 1918. The 
 United States supplied 41 per cent; the Netherlands, 29 per cent; 
 Great Britain, 10 per cent; and Australia 6 per cent. 
 
 Rounds .—Round mild steel is in general demand from three- 
 sixteenths up to 2 inches, and importers normally carry considerable 
 stocks. The smaller sizes, from three-sixteenths to five-eighths, are 
 used largely for reinforcing concrete work, and those from three- 
 fourths to 1 inch are used in the heavier construction, but there is 
 a very limited demand for these latter sizes. Twisted squares and 
 corrugated bars are not stocked, the engineers here claiming that no 
 advantage would be gained in their use. It has been the custom 
 to coil rounds under one-half inch, but American mills have refused 
 to follow this practice, and these small sizes are shipped in 10 to 
 12 meter lengths (33 to 39 feet) and doubled. 
 
 Special qualities. —Tool, drill, and other high grades of steel are 
 not in demand from the general trade. Tools are made by the 
 native blacksmiths and Chinese ironworkers, and while labor is 
 cheap it would seem that the tools made of mild steel will continue 
 to be used. There is some demand from the machine shops for a 
 quick-cutting steel, but this is generally bought on special order. 
 
 Spring steel .—There is a demand for spring steel throughout the 
 colony. Most of it is from the native wagon makers, from the 
 machine shops, and from the Government railways. The importa¬ 
 tion of springs is practically nonexistent, and all the importers 
 catering to the general trade stock spring steel. 
 
 Flats and squares for stock are carried in sizes from one-fourth to 
 1 inch by 1 to 5 inches for the general trade. The principal custom¬ 
 ers of the importers are the sugar centrals, the plantation factories, 
 the Government, and the country blacksmiths who make the patchoels 
 (called “ choenkoels ” in Sumatra), arits, and other agricultural im¬ 
 plements, horseshoes, axles, and tires. Some demand for larger 
 sizes is reported, but these requirements are filled on special order. 
 
 Ship plates .—There is a fair demand for ship plates in Soerabaya, 
 principally from the Government shipyards. While there is an oc¬ 
 casional order for plates made to measurements, the usual orders are 
 for stock sizes for repair work. Thicknesses advance in sixteenths 
 from three-sixteenths to nine-sixteenths and in eighths from five- 
 eighths to 1 inch, with the bulk of the business in seven-sixteenths. 
 Sizes for stock run from 3 to 6 feet in width and from 10 to 30 feet 
 in length. Quarter-inch ship plates are used in the construction of 
 railway freight cars, and dealers usually carry large stocks for the 
 Government demand. 
 
Special Agents Series No. 218 
 
 FIG. 25.—TYPE OF JAVA HOTEL OF THE FIRST CLASS. 
 
 FIG. 26.—A FIRST-CLASS HOTEL IN SINGAPORE. 
 
Special Agents Series No. 218. 
 
 FIG. 27—RAILWAY STATION AND HOTEL AT KUALA LUM PU R, FEDERATED MALAY STATES. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 253 
 
 Boiler plates .—The demand for boiler plates is comparatively 
 small. No boilers are built in this colony, and such boiler plate as is 
 imported is for repair work. 
 
 Flange plates .—An occasional inquiry for flange plates is reported, 
 but there is very little demand. 
 
 Plates for tanks. —Mild-steel plates, tank quality, have been im¬ 
 ported in large quantities for the construction of tank installations 
 for the vegetable-oil industry and the installations of the mineral-oil 
 companies. The bulk of this business is in gauges of three-six¬ 
 teenths, one-fourth, and three-eighths inch. For new construction 
 specifications are provided, but there is a steady demand on locally 
 held stocks for repairs. 
 
 Sheets. —Most' of the business in sheets is done in 28 B. G. gal¬ 
 vanized, in sizes of 3 by 6 feet and 3 by 8 feet. 
 
 Beams .—Structural sizes are used very little in this colony, the 
 engineers claiming that it costs less to build up the desired strength 
 from small shapes and flat iron, using the cheap local labor to save 
 the material which is comparatively more expensive. There is some 
 demand in eastern Java for large sizes. 
 
 Small shapes in large quantities are needed for building the ware¬ 
 houses, sugar sheds, factory buildings, and the numerous planta¬ 
 tion buildings required in this country or torrential rains. As strong 
 winds do not prevail in this colony, it is not necessary to provide 
 against heavy wind strains. Light beams are sufficient for most pur¬ 
 poses. Engineering houses have built up standardized plans cover¬ 
 ing the wide range of construction in the colony, all of which have 
 been worked in the so-called “ German sizes,” and engineers have 
 become so familiar with the metric system and the factors of strength 
 in these German sizes that little thought and little office work was in¬ 
 volved in the construction of ordinary buildings. 
 
 Djati wood as a competitor of steel l>eams .—Large forests of 
 Djati wood have been planted throughout the eastern part of Java, 
 and beams made from this very fine wood make an excellent and 
 durable under roof in competition with steel beams. This wood is 
 used in many warehouses in the ports, but the supply is not as great 
 as the need, and difference in construction cost is not a great factor. 
 
 WIRE NAILS. 
 
 The following table shows the imports of wire nails for private 
 and Government account, by countries, for 1913, 1917, 1918, 1919, 
 1920, and the first 11 months of 1921: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Netherlands...*. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Singapore, etc. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total... 
 
 Total Java and Madoera 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 
 
 (11 months 
 only).* 
 
 Kegs. 
 
 28,456 
 88,902 
 11,670 
 29,418 
 23,192 
 
 Kegs. 
 
 77,006 
 6,966 
 3,460 
 
 Kegs. 
 
 88,372 
 
 Kegs. 
 
 98,792 
 2,035 
 
 Kegs. 
 78,372 
 32,268 
 5,967 
 28,474 
 
 Kegs. 
 
 47,544 
 23,000 
 5,913 
 43,285 
 
 2,509 
 
 
 31,164 
 915 
 60 
 
 48,508 
 16,083 
 26 
 
 10,096 
 9,886 
 1,833 
 
 2,100 
 
 5,912 
 
 
 9,149 
 
 17,710 
 
 190,787 
 
 119,571 
 
 155,498 
 
 122,642 
 
 153,093 
 
 137,452 
 
 112,113 
 78,674 
 
 76,192 
 43,379 
 
 121,125 
 ’ - 34,373 
 
 102,547 
 20,095 
 
 153,093 
 
 137,452 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 2 Exclusive of Government purchases. 
 
254 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 In 1913 the United States was credited with 15 per cent of the 
 imports, the greater part of the business being with the Netherlands. 
 In 1918 the United States supplied 57 per cent; in 1919, 80 per cent; 
 in 1920, 51 per cent (Java and Madoera only); and for the first 11 
 months of 1921, 34 per cent. In the two last-named years the 
 Netherlands supplied 21 per cent and 17 per cent, respectively, and 
 Germany 18 per cent and 31 per cent. 
 
 This market requires only countersunk, checkered head nails, but 
 the style of packages varies with almost every commercial district. 
 The East Coast of Sumatra (Medan) requires all its purchases to 
 be packed in paper packages of 1J and 2 pounds gross weight, packed 
 in kegs of 37J and 50 pounds, net package contents. 
 
 Macassar wants its nails in bulk in kegs of 50 kilos net; Batavia, 
 59 kilos; Soerabaya, 60 kilos; Padang, in Sumatra West Coast, re¬ 
 quires various weights, but the usual one is 34 kilos. While the 
 above packages are the usual ones imported, there are also special 
 requirements for kegs of 23 kilos, 56 kilos, and 58 kilos, and some 
 trade requires their purchases to be put up in cases. 
 
 The imports of nails in cases are not shown in the above figures. 
 In 1919 there were 40,671 cases imported, 20,095 of which went to 
 the outlying districts, as follows: Palembang, 7,649 cases, and Telok- 
 betong, 7,500 cases, both in Sumatra; Belawan Deli, 1,758 cases; and 
 other ports, 3,188 cases. Java and Madoera took 20,578 cases, which 
 were probably destined for ports in the Outer Possessions. 
 
 The ports of the Netherlands Indies handle cargo in a very care¬ 
 less manner, and there has been a great deal of complaint regarding 
 loss by breakage. Bad packing invariably reacts unfavorably on 
 the name of the manufacturer, and in their own interests mills pack¬ 
 ing nails for Netherlands East Indian ports should see that only 
 strong wood is used in the kegs. One of the largest American mills 
 has worked out the packing of nails so that it receives very few 
 complaints. All kegs weighing 100 pounds or over should have a 
 cleat across each end. It is a safe practice to put bilge wire on every 
 keg and to use the special chime hoops that can only be torn off 
 by extraordinary strain. 
 
 SPIKES. 
 
 The following table shows the imports of spikes, by countries, for 
 1917, 1918, 1919, 1920, and for 11 months of 1921: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 
 
 (11 months 
 only), i 
 
 United States .. ... 
 
 Metric tons. 
 252 
 
 Metric tons. 
 172 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,601 
 
 Metric tons. 
 316 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 86 
 
 "N eth p.rl and s .._. 
 
 337 
 
 2 
 
 262 
 
 158 
 
 212 
 
 Great Britain..... 
 
 29 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 143 
 
 66 
 
 Germany . 
 
 4 
 
 
 5 
 
 35 
 
 134 
 
 Singapore and Penang . 
 
 208 
 
 333 
 
 178 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 Japan . 
 
 39 
 
 80 
 
 32 
 
 
 8 
 
 Australia ... 
 
 30 
 
 151 
 
 34 
 
 12 
 
 All other. 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 33 
 
 309 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 882 
 
 625 
 
 2,279 
 
 1,008 
 
 557 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total Java and Madoera . 
 
 103 
 
 346 
 
 1,831 
 
 1,008 
 
 557 
 
 'Total Outer Possessions 
 
 779 
 
 279 
 
 448 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 255 
 
 There are two types of rail spikes used in this colony—the regular 
 spike, as used in the United States, and the “ dog-ear ” spike. The 
 latter spike has a lug on the outside designed to withstand the heavy 
 strain to which the head is subjected when pulled out of the hardwood 
 ties. These are more in demand for the light railways. 
 
 Bail screws are also used in millimeter sizes of 15 by 100 and 
 
 20 by 120. 
 
 A great deal of complaint has been made against America’s pack¬ 
 ing of spikes and bolts, these generally being packed in kegs of 200 
 pounds and over, which are not strong enough to give the necessary 
 security. European shippers before the war packed this heavy ma¬ 
 terial in cases, reinforced by two wooden cleats on all sides with a 
 reinforced head. The additional space taken by this kind of a pack¬ 
 age does not call for an extra charge for freight, as it would in 
 lighter packages, and offers a security that the kegs can not give. 
 
 In packing for this market it should be remembered that the con¬ 
 tainers must be strong enough to withstand strains from the outside 
 as well as the inside. Heavy cargo of this kind is generally stowed 
 together on a ship, and in the “working” of the cargo at sea kegs 
 often have to stand a constant hammering that wrecks them entirely. 
 This, added to the very rough handling they receive in the Java 
 ports, occasions losses that the consignees have to stand. 
 
 The trade propaganda that has used the alleged “ bad packing ” of 
 American exporters as its principal foundation will lose much of its 
 effect if American mills will look carefully into the question of pack¬ 
 ing these heavy commodities and will offer their customers adequate 
 packing, at an additional charge, if need be. 
 
 OTHER IRON AND STEEL PRODUCTS. 
 
 The Division of Imports and Exports has divided the balances, 
 after considering each separate classification, into two general 
 classes—“iron and steel not otherwise mentioned” and “iron and 
 steel ware not otherwise mentioned.” 
 
 In the following table are shown the imports, by countries, of iron 
 and steel products separately classified, including iron and steel bars, 
 rails, bridges, tubes and pipes, galvanized sheets, telegraph and tele¬ 
 phone wire and cables, tin plate, axles, cooking pans, wire nails, and 
 spikes, for the years 1913, 1917, 1918, 1919, and 1920: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 United States . 
 
 Florins. 
 
 22,342 
 6,108,853 
 722,884 
 637,752 
 397,305 
 
 Florins. 
 1,405,747 
 725,730 
 228,142 
 
 Florins. 
 
 1,376,783 
 165,276 
 195,067 
 8,560 
 
 Florins. 
 4,062,197 
 2,566,482 
 604,623 
 194,517 
 
 Florins. 
 4,349,161 
 7,333,639 
 1,922,424 
 2,163,301 
 140,820 
 883,547 
 358,728 
 125,344 
 433,111 
 
 TCe.th erl an d s 
 
 Great Britain . 
 
 fiprmanv . 
 
 Belfnnm . 
 
 
 Japan . 
 
 110,911 
 5,004 
 
 2,056,960 
 
 1,077,043 
 
 165,403 
 
 156,387 
 
 1,379,668 
 
 Ot.np.r TCnronpan . 
 
 
 Australia . 
 
 
 187,903 
 506,587 
 
 All other. 
 
 266,720 
 
 165,946 
 
 Total. 
 
 8,155,856 
 
 2,641,480 
 
 4,497,136 
 
 10,206,320 
 
 17,710,075 
 
 For private account: 
 
 Total Java and Madoera . 
 
 4,512,428 
 1,805,123 
 
 1,589,732- 
 248,573 
 
 1,238,393 
 
 760,469 
 
 428,007 
 
 214,541 
 
 3,272,117 
 
 777,972 
 
 369,716 
 77,331 
 
 6,780,870 
 
 2,586,821 
 
 793,411 
 
 45,218 
 
 17,017,158 
 
 Total Onter Possessions ..... 
 
 For Government account: 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 692,917 
 
 Total Onter Possessions... 
 
 
 
 i Java and Madoera only. 
 
256 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Other items included in the above table are patchoels (called “ chun- 
 koels” in Sumatra and British Malaya), arits, and other agricultural 
 implements, and the various cables for hoisting, pulling, and trans¬ 
 mission. Many of these items will be reported on separately. 
 
 The following table gives the value of imports of “ iron and steel 
 ware not otherwise mentioned,” by countries, for the years 1913, 
 1917,1918,1919, and 1920 (1 florin=$0.402 mint par U. S.): 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 United States. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Great Britian.. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 187, 497 
 4,992,201 
 662,306 
 1,327,117 
 168,895 
 40, 951 
 73,973 
 752, 808 
 38,297 
 
 Florins. 
 
 1,256,584 
 943,185 
 571,388 
 5,743 
 
 Florins. 
 
 1,345,575 
 208,821 
 289,005 
 17,193 
 
 Florins. 
 
 3,806,625 
 1,378,138 
 433,136 
 22,112 
 
 Florins. 
 
 2,353,090 
 3,718,925 
 1,045,134 
 1,121,717 
 
 Australia. 
 
 26, 479 
 42, 822 
 823,156 
 61,880 
 672,505 
 49,253 
 
 58, Oil 
 9,490 
 767, 545 
 128,728 
 1,415, 833 
 40,456 
 
 
 
 Other European. 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 Hongkong and China. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 77,741 
 479,916 
 21, 251 
 661, 206 
 608,996 
 
 764,031 
 54,749 
 19,591 
 134, 915 
 236,880 
 
 AU other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 For private account: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 For Government account: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 51,252 
 
 8,295, 297 
 
 4,462,995 
 
 4,280,657 
 
 7,489,121 
 
 9,449,032 
 
 4,117, 865 
 2, 431, 828 
 
 1,497, 031 
 248, 573 
 
 2,462,913 
 1,471,344 
 
 304,197 
 214, 541 
 
 2,607, 336 
 1,392,408 
 
 203, 582 
 77,331 
 
 4,159, 898 
 1,931, 365 
 
 1,165,120 
 232,738 
 
 7,517,001 
 
 1,932,031 
 
 i Java and Madoera only. 
 
 WIRE ROPE. 
 
 The ports of Soerabaya, Batavia, and Semarang require wire 
 rope in considerable quantities for hoists and various other harbor 
 uses, and Macassar, Celebes; Tjilatjap and Cheribon, in Java; and 
 Oosthaven, Padang, and Belawan Deli', in Sumatra, to a lesser ex¬ 
 tent. The requirements for the harbor works are brought through 
 the Burgerlijke Openbare Werken (B. O. W.), the public works 
 department of the Netherlands East Indian Government, with head 
 offices at Batavia, 
 
 The sugar mills use wire rope for their hoists which unload the 
 cane from the wagons and for various other purposes. There seems 
 to be some ignorance in regard to the construction of the metal in 
 the ropes used, and it would be of advantage to American manu¬ 
 facturers catering to this trade to provide the mills with directions 
 for ordering. One order specified the strands, hemp cores, and 
 sizes, but no mention was made of the speed, size of drum, and load. 
 
 Some American transmission rope is in use in the colony and in 
 every case noted was giving better satisfaction than rope formerly 
 brought from Europe. 
 
 Before the slump in the price of tea the owners of several of the 
 tea estates were planning to equip them with overhead cableways 
 for carrying the leaves from outlying sections to the factories. The 
 low prices for tea which have prevailed during the past two years 
 have retarded these transportation plans, but they will be revived 
 with the recovery of the tea market. 
 
 The Portland Cement Fabriek, Padang, Sumatra, transports its 
 rock from the quarry to the mill on an overhead cableway and its 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 257 
 
 cement to the port of Padang, 13 kilometers (8 miles) distant, on a 
 cableway, bringing coal on the return. The carrying cable from 
 the quarry to the mill is a special closed lay lock cable of 32 milli¬ 
 meters, has a 9-wire core, and is 1,600 meters long. The traveling 
 cable is 14 millimeters, 6 strands of 7 wires, long lay, and has one 
 hemp core; wires, 1.5 millimeters; strength, 130 kilos to 1 square 
 millimeter; speed, 2.5 meters per second; minimum bend, 5 to 6 
 feet. The carrying cable from the mill to the port is of the same 
 dimensions as the quarry cable. The traveling cable is of 16 milli¬ 
 meters, 6 strands of 7 wires each, 1 hemp core, long lay; wire, 1.7 
 millimeters; strength, 180 kilos to the square millimeter; speed, 2.5 
 meters per second. 
 
 Wire rope is used in the logging camps in regular logging sizes. 
 
 The Ombilin coal mine, near Padang, Sumatra, owned by the 
 Government, uses a large quantity of wire rope. The full dimen¬ 
 sions of all the cable used could not be learned, but the following 
 information will show something of the requirements: Main cable- 
 way from tunnel level to skip, turning on 9-foot wheel: 1,700 meters 
 long; 29 millimeters; 6 strands of 7 wires, 1 hemp core (Craddock) ; 
 renewed once each year. The yearly consumption of other cables 
 shows the following figures: 5,000 meters of three-fourths-inch cable, 
 8,000 meters of five-eighths inch, and 12,000 meters of one-half inch. 
 
 The Government owns two other coal mines where large quanti¬ 
 ties of wire rope are used, as well as tin mines on the island of 
 Banka, and is opening up a new tin-bearing area on the island of 
 Timor. 
 
 The State railways use considerable quantities of cable in their 
 shops. 
 
 The marine establishment (department of marine) of the colo¬ 
 nial government is a large consumer of wire rope of industrial and 
 ships’ dimensions. 
 
 The privately owned tin mines on the islands of Billiton and 
 Singkep are also consumers of no small importance. 
 
 The Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschappij, operating about 100 
 steamships in the interisland trade, buys large quantities of wire 
 rope for its ships, as well as for its coal mines which are being opened 
 up in Borneo. 
 
 The machinery houses and general importers stock wire rope in 
 staple dimensions for the immediate requirements of the trade. 
 
 BRITISH MALAYA IMPORTS OF IRON AND STEEL. 
 
 No figures of imports have any value as an estimate of the con¬ 
 suming capacity of the British possessions in Malaya. Singapore 
 and Penang are transshipment ports, and large cargoes are passed 
 through the customs that do not go into consumption within the 
 British possessions. 
 
 The rubber estates and the tin mines are not large consumers. 
 For many years before the market slump in 1920 large quantities 
 of reinforcing rods were used in building and harbor construction. 
 Few new contracts for buildings have been let since July, 1920, but 
 such buildings as were under contract at that time have been com¬ 
 pleted. 
 
258 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 There is a population of about 3,600,000 in the British Malayan 
 possessions, 2,000,000 of which are producers of agricultural prod¬ 
 ucts or are mine workers or business or professional men depend¬ 
 ent on these or relative industries. The first buyers of iron and 
 steel are the European importers and dealers, the European ma¬ 
 chinery and engineering construction companies, occasionally the 
 building contractors, and the Chinese importers. The trade within 
 the British possessions is with the Chinese retailers and contractors, 
 the European construction contractors, the estates, and the mines. 
 The largest trade is with the Chinese retailers and contractors, and 
 it is with special regard to this trade that the following data are 
 submitted: 
 
 Rounds .—The bulk of the business in round iron is in sizes of 
 f, f, f, f, f, f, and 1 inch, and these sizes are stocked by dealers. 
 Lengths should be from 12 feet to a maximum of 16 feet for the 
 general trade, as longer lengths involve difficult transportation prob¬ 
 lems, but for the building contractors 30 to 40 foot lengths are 
 wanted. The use of concrete in construction is increasing and is 
 usually for works of considerable size. The reinforcing iron for the 
 big contractors is stocked by the large European houses, and this 
 trade is distinct from the general trade in the interior, where bars 
 are used largely in windows and for railings and other auxiliaries 
 to wood and brick construction. 
 
 Squares in sizes of If, If, If, 2, and 2f inches are in big demand 
 for axles. Besides the above, dealers stock those of If, If, and If 
 inches, but the volume of business in these sizes is comparatively 
 small. 
 
 Flats are stocked by dealers in widths of If to 6 inches and from 
 f to f inch in thickness. Other sizes and heavier than 1 inch are 
 sometimes called for on special order, but are not carried in stock 
 by the Chinese dealers. 
 
 SHAPES AND STRUCTURAL STEEL. 
 
 The use of steel in building construction and in the tin mines has 
 created a considerable demand for small shapes, and for I beams up 
 to 8 inches. The trade is large in the following sizes, which are all 
 stocked by dealers: 
 
 Tees , equal angles , and unequal angles .—Tees are carried in sizes 
 of 1 by 1, If by If, If by If, If by If, If by 2, 2 by 2, and 2f by 2f 
 inches; equal angles in sizes of 1, If, If, If, 2, and 2f inches; and 
 unequal angles in sizes of If by 1, If by If, If by If, 2 by If, 2f by 
 2, and 3 by 2 inches. 
 
 I beams .—The demand is for I beams of 36 feet in length for all 
 sizes except 8 by 5 and 7 by 4 inches, which are sometimes ordered 
 in 40-foot lengths. In the construction of Chinese “shop houses” 
 that carry masonry above, I beams are coming into general use. 
 In Penang, 7 by 4 inch stock is carried, especially for the Kedah 
 trade. Stock sizes are as follows: 6 by 4f and 5; 7 by 4; 8 by 4, 5, 
 and 6; 9 by 4, 6, and 7; 10 by 5, 6, and 8; 12 by 5 and 6; 14 by 6; 
 and 15 by 6 inches, with the bulk of the business in 8 by 5 and 7 
 by 4 inches. 
 
 Tire steel is stocked in sizes f by 3, f by 3 and 3f, and f by 4 inches, 
 but owing to the lack of facilities in the ordinary native blacksmith 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 259 
 
 shops for handling this material and its high cost the smiths prefer 
 to use mild steel, which they easeharden by the methods known to 
 them. The tire-steel trade is very small. 
 
 Drill steel .—There is a small demand for drill steel in f-inch 
 round and hexagon, principally in the latter. This business is 
 handled principally by the foreign importers for sale direct to the 
 mines. 
 
 Tool steel .—A tool steel known in this market as “bamboo” steel 
 is used generally throughout British Malaya. This name was 
 originally a trade name for a steel manufactured specially for the 
 trade of the Far East, and it was found so suitable for these markets 
 that other manufacturers put out a similar quality with similar 
 packing. This is a cheap tool steel, packed for this market in Afoot 
 lengths in cases of 1 picul (133J pounds). The bulk of the trade is 
 in f, and 1 inch rounds. 
 
 There is no demand for plow and pick steel. 
 
 Plates .—Tank plates are stocked in 8 by 4 feet by ^ and T y inch, 
 and for the tin mines in 8 by 4 feet by and £ inch. 
 
 Galvanized mild-steel 'plates for small tanks, garbage cans, night 
 pails, and for general uses are stocked in sizes 8 by 4 feet by 16, 18, 
 20, 22, 24, and 30 Birmingham gauge. 
 
 BOX STRAPPING AND HOOP IRON. 
 
 Many of the products passing through Penang and Singapore on 
 their way to the world’s markets are repacked. Whenever possible 
 cane is used for tying and reinforcing bundles, but where cases are 
 used the cane ropes add materially to the bulk of the packages, and 
 so iron strapping is commonly used. This applies particularly to 
 rubber when packed in momi chests (sawn wood chests, usually im¬ 
 ported from Japan). The veneer chests, in which a large part of 
 the rubber exports is packed, are reinforced with light iron angles 
 on all corners and require no strapping. 
 
 Plain strapping, or hoop iron, is stocked in coils weighing 56 
 pounds net', and the larger part of the business is in sizes of and 
 | inch by 29 Birmingham gauge for baling, for rubber cases, and 
 for general uses, and in | inch by 26 Birmingham gauge and 1 inch 
 by 22 Birmingham gauge for ties for the scaffolding of tin mines 
 and for general uses. 
 
 Patented strapping, in reels of 300-foot lengths, is generally dented 
 or dotted so that the nails can easily be driven in a slanting manner 
 and so take up the slack when strapping cases. Box strapping 
 should be of a high tensile strength. American manufacturers 
 hold a large part of this business on account of the strength and 
 flexibility of their product. 
 
 IRON PIPE AND WIRE ROPE. 
 
 Galvanized iron pipe is stocked by importers in various sizes, 
 running from ^ to 5 inches, and in lengths of 16 feet, also black iron 
 pipes and ordinary black pipe in the same sizes. Whitworth (or 
 English) threading is required, and each joint is fitted with one 
 sleeve. 
 
 Black, riveted flanged piping of 6, 7, and 10 inch diameters is 
 used very extensively in the tin mines for pumping and hydraulick- 
 
 19878°—23-18 
 
260 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 ing, and is carried in stock by some of the importers. The same type 
 of piping is used by the larger mines in sizes from 12 inches up 
 to 36 inches (in the case of two of the mines), but these pipes are 
 either made locally or ordered specially. 
 
 There are large quantities of wire rope used in the tin mines of 
 the Malay Peninsula, particularly on the tin dredges and the open¬ 
 cast mines using cableways. 
 
 The ship chandlers and European and Chinese importers carry 
 some stocks of wire rope for the general trade and the shipping. 
 
 The harbor works are not equipped with an extensive crane sys¬ 
 tem, most of the cargo being delivered by the ship’s tackle on cars or 
 on the dock and trucked to the warehouses. 
 
 MOTOR-VEHICLE MARKET. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Until the war shut out imports from Europe the people of Java 
 knew little about American automobiles. There was much of the 
 sort of misinformation that has attended the introduction of Ameri¬ 
 can automobiles in other countries where they came in close compe¬ 
 tition with European makes, and, while they had begun to make a 
 small place for themselves, they were not appreciated in the popular 
 mind. European-made cars (such as the Italian F. I. A. T.; the 
 French Lorraine Dietrich, Berliet, and Brasier; the Belgian 
 Minerva; the Dutch Spijker; the German Opel and Protos; and the 
 English Sideley-Wolseley, Napier, Austin, and Sunbeam) were all 
 well known and were looked upon as the last word in mechanical 
 efficiency and finish. 
 
 The European automobiles brought high prices, and the European 
 manufacturers were eager to meet the special requirements of this 
 market, which was important to them. Special body designs were 
 provided, copper radiators (supposed to be suited to the climatic 
 conditions of the Tropics) were furnished on order, and the engines 
 were finished with copper and brass trimmings; but such American 
 innovations as self-starters, storage batteries, and electric lights were 
 looked upon askance. 
 
 The war brought about a revolution in the trade. European 
 cars could not be bought and the dealers tried to get American 
 cars without electrical equipment, insisted on having magnetos, and 
 tried to induce American manufacturers to change their models and 
 equipment to suit the habits of their trade. The American auto¬ 
 mobile, through its mechanical efficiency, structural strength, and 
 high power proportionate to weight, has won a firm place in the 
 market. During this time American manufacturers have had an 
 opportunity to make their position in the trade almost impregnable, 
 and through their manufacturing ability they have gone far toward 
 accomplishing that end, so far as passenger cars are concerned; but 
 as continental Europe becomes able to compete for the trade, Ameri¬ 
 can makers will find that greater care in cultivating the market and 
 extending to the users the service that American owners enjoy will 
 give them the additional strength necessary to maintain their position. 
 
 In the motor-truck trade, which has developed rapidly during 
 the last three years, America’s position is not strong. Continental 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 261 
 
 European manufacturers have been able to offer a truck of equiva¬ 
 lent capacity and power at a very much lower price than was being 
 asked for American trucks, and German trucks were increasingly 
 in evidence on the roads during 1921. 
 
 Notwithstanding the proven efficiency of the American machine, 
 there is still a very definite prejudice in favor of European cars in 
 the minds of many people, and, other things being equal, the Euro¬ 
 pean cars get the preference. 
 
 COMMERCIAL DIVISIONS AND ROADS. 
 
 The grand commercial divisions in the Netherlands East Indies, 
 from the viewpoint of the automotive vehicle trade, are six in num¬ 
 ber, based on the established trade organizations and the island and 
 road groupings. There are several subdivisions in which the business 
 is handled through subagents. 
 
 1. The west Java division is based on Batavia, with an important 
 subdivision based on Bandoeng, the mountain capital. It includes 
 the Lampong district in southern Sumatra and the Preanger Regen¬ 
 cies and the Residencies of Bantam, Batavia, and Cheribon in Java. 
 In the Lampong district' there are a few light grades on less than 
 100 miles of good roads, but many miles of plantation roads are of 
 dirt construction with varying grades. In western Java there is a 
 large mileage of roadway of good construction for light motor traffic, 
 but the fine metaling is usually washed off by the heavy rains soon 
 after the completion of repairs. This part of the island is level on 
 the north coast, with undulating stretches between the plains and the 
 massed mountain regions, where the grades are long and steep, with 
 very few level stretches except in the immediate vicinity of Ban¬ 
 doeng. Many of the plantation roads, of which there is a large 
 aggregate mileage, are well built, but in the course of their duties the 
 managers often tax their cars to the limit on the poorly constructed 
 auxiliary dirt roads. 
 
 All of the more important automobile companies of the colony 
 have their head offices in Batavia, with the exception of one, which is 
 located at Bandoeng. There is an adequate service organization in 
 Batavia and Bandoeng, and spare parts can usually be obtained for 
 all the cars properly represented. 
 
 2. The central Java division is based on Semarang and includes 
 the Residencies of Semarang, Soerakarta, Djokjakarta, Kedoe, Ban- 
 joemas, and Pekalongan. This part of Java is made up of a coastal 
 plain on the north and southwest, with high volcanic mountains ris¬ 
 ing singly or in groups of two or three Avith Ioav saddles between. 
 There is a well-developed road system, but the standard of upkeep is 
 lower than in west or east Java. The plantation roads are not so 
 good as in the Preanger Regencies or in east Java, and the grades 
 on both GoA^ernment and plantation roads are heavy. Soerakarta 
 and Djokjakarta are the centers of two subdivisions. At these points 
 heavy repairs can be made as well as at Semarang, where full stocks 
 of parts are carried. Some of the Batavia automobile companies 
 have branches at Semarang, and there are several local companies, 
 not equipped for general distribution, that can gi\ r e good local 
 representation. 
 
262 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 
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IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 263 
 
 3. The east Java district is based on Soerabaya and includes the 
 Residencies of Soerabaya, Rembang, Madioen, Ivediri, Pasoeroean, 
 and Besoeki, in Java; the islands lying to the east, including Ma- 
 doera, Bali and Lombok, the island of Celebes, all the islands to the 
 east, and the Southern and Eastern Residencies of Borneo. 
 
 That part of this district lying on the island of Java has a very 
 extensive road system, including several fine highways. These radi¬ 
 ate across the lowlands to Semarang, Soerakarta, and the southeast 
 residencies, and into the several mountain groups, where there are 
 considerable plantation areas and many resorts. In the lower lands 
 the Government roads cut the plantations, and such plantation roads 
 as are necessary are of fairly good construction. In the mountain 
 districts the Government roads have heavy grades, where the same 
 difficulties with metaling are experienced as in other parts of the 
 island. The plantation roads of the highlands are poor, with heavy 
 grades. 
 
 The principal Batavia automobile companies have branches in 
 Soeraba} T a, and several local companies have good organizations for 
 local distribution. There are ample service facilities at this city. 
 Malang is an important center. 
 
 The island of Bali, lying east of the Residency of Besoeki, Java, 
 has a fairly well-built road system, skirting the north coast and 
 crossing the high mountains to the east and south coasts. This 
 island is dependent on Soerabaya for distribution and all but the 
 lightest repairs. 
 
 The island of Lombok has a few miles of fairly good roadway. 
 Like Bali it is dependent on Soerabaya for distribution and heavy 
 repairs. 
 
 Out of Bandjermasin, in southern Borneo, there are a few miles 
 of roadway running north. 
 
 In the southwestern part of the island of Celebes, radiating from 
 Macassar, is a very extensive road system. There are only a few 
 plantations, most of the roads having been built for strategic pur¬ 
 poses primarily. At Macassar are two repair shops, where thorough 
 overhauling is done, and they represent the Soerabaya dealers as 
 subagents. 
 
 Out of Menado, in the northern part of Celebes, are a few miles 
 of standard roads. This subdistrict is tributary to Soerabaya. 
 
 Sumatra is divided into three commercial units, not including the 
 Lampong district of southern Sumatra, which, as noted above, is 
 tributary to Batavia. 
 
 4. The Sumatra East Coast district is based on Medan, Sumatra, 
 and includes the Residencies of Sumatra East Coast and Atjeh. It 
 has an excellent road system, which reaches from the northernmost 
 point of the island to Si Pare Pare on the south and joins the road 
 from Sibolga on the west coast at the summit of the mountain range. 
 Some of the grades in the mountain districts are heavy, but for the 
 most part they are not especially so. Most of the roadways are 
 level and are kept in fairly good condition. Plantation roads, on 
 which automobiles are used, are fairly good. 
 
 Some of the Batavia automobile companies have branches in 
 Medan, and there are some companies of local importance only. 
 Major repairs can be made, and parts are carried for most of the 
 makes represented. 
 
264 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 5. The Sumatra I Vest Coast district is based on Padang and in¬ 
 cludes the Residencies of Sumatra West Coast and Tapanoeli. iVhile 
 there is a fine highway between Medan and Sibolga, the mountain 
 range lying between is an effective barrier to commerce. Padang is 
 the general trade center of the area west of the mountains and the 
 produce is moved on coastwise steamers calling at the numerous 
 ports. A fine roadway extends from Sibolga south to Padang and 
 beyond. In the highlands of Padang it branches out into an elab¬ 
 orate system through a highly developed agricultural country. 
 There is considerable individual wealth in the district, not only in 
 the hands of Europeans but of the Menangkabou Malays as well. 
 One Dutch company in Padang, doing a general import and export 
 business, represents several American manufacturers of automobiles 
 and maintains an efficient service plant. 
 
 6. The Palembang-Benkoelen district is based on the town of 
 Palembang and includes the Residencies of Palembang and Ben- 
 koelen, the Western Residency of Borneo, and the islands lying be¬ 
 tween. A road is under construction between Padang and Ben- 
 koelen and is far toward completion, except for bridges. When it is 
 completed Benkoelen will probably be logically allied with Padang 
 in the automobile trade, but at present, on account of road connec¬ 
 tions with Padang, it is within Palembang’s sphere of influence. 
 
 A good road connects Palembang, which lies 50 miles inland from 
 the east coast, with Benkoelen on the west coast, and crosses a high 
 mountain range. 
 
 There is considerable wealth in the country, but not in large 
 units. The people are fairly prosperous, especially in the pepper 
 districts. Except for the few plantations near Palembang, the 
 market would seem to be for cheap American cars, the buyers being 
 Europeans, Chinese, and Arabs. 
 
 An automobile dealer in Medan has opened up a service station at 
 Palembang, and there are many native or Chinese-owned shops at 
 various centers in the district where minor repairs may be made. 
 
 On the islands of Banka and Billiton there are some good roads. 
 Such purchases as might be made for the private population of these 
 islands would naturally be made in Palembang were stocks kept 
 there. The Western Residency of Borneo has a few miles of road- 
 way. 
 
 There is no representation of American automobiles in this dis¬ 
 trict and purchases must be made at Batavia or Medan. Only two 
 local concerns are in a position to develop this trade, one of which 
 is the largest importing and exporting house in the colony of Java 
 and the other an engineering company. 
 
 For The sale of motor vehicles British Malaya is divided into four 
 main divisions. 
 
 “ A ” is based on the port and market of Singapore and includes 
 all of the British part of Borneo, Johore, and the eastern watershed 
 of the Malay Peninsula, except that part of the Kuala Lipis east- 
 coast road that is near to or west of the railroad. The subagency 
 point in this division would be Jesselton, in British North Borneo. 
 
 “B” is based on Kuala Lumpur, the capital of the Federated 
 Malay States and the market town of the State of Selangor. Many 
 fine roads radiate in all directions from this town. The subagencv 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 265 
 
 points are Seremban, in Negri Sembilan; Malacca, in the Crown col¬ 
 ony of the same name, and Klang, in the State of Selangor. 
 
 {i C ” is based on Ipoh, the capital of the State of Perak. There 
 are many good roads in this area. The subagency points are Telok 
 Anson and Taiping. 
 
 “ D ” is based on the port and market of Penang and includes 
 Province Wellesley and the States of Kedah and Perlis. The sub¬ 
 agency point in this territory is Alor Star, in Kedah. 
 
 There are about 800 miles of metaled roads in the Straits Settle¬ 
 ments, 2,300 miles in the Federated Malay States, and 550 miles in 
 the Non-Federated Malay States. These are made of laterite for the 
 most part, but some heavier road metaling is used in the cities and 
 in parts of the colony where better material is available. 
 
 NUMBER OF MOTOR VEHICLES IN NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES. 
 
 The following estimate of the number of motor vehicles in the 
 Netherlands East Indies at the end of 1918 was based on a privately 
 compiled register of automobiles licensed in the Netherlands Indies, 
 published early in 1919: 
 
 West Java division: 
 
 
 East Java division—Continued. 
 
 
 Batavia . 
 
 _ 2,000 
 
 Celebes _ 
 
 O 
 
 Bantam 
 
 65 
 
 Mena do 
 
 o 
 
 Preanger 
 
 1,227 
 
 South and East Borneo_ 
 
 C) 
 
 Lampong district 
 
 93 
 
 
 
 Ckeribon 
 
 498 
 
 Total 
 
 5,017 
 
 Total _ 
 
 3, 883 
 
 Sumatra East Coast district: 
 
 
 
 Snmiitrfi Ttlnst Clnnst 
 
 1 975 
 
 Central Java division : 
 
 9 
 
 Atjeh 
 
 157 
 
 Pekalongan 
 
 556 
 
 
 
 Semarang 
 
 1, 679 
 
 Total 
 
 1, 432 
 
 Banjoemas 
 
 255 
 
 
 
 Kedoe 
 
 27 
 
 Sumatra West Coast district: 
 
 
 Djokjakarta 
 
 605 
 
 Sumatra West Coast 
 
 264 
 
 Soerakarta 
 
 _ _ 510 
 
 Tapanoeli _ _ 
 
 126 
 
 Total 
 
 _ 3,632 
 
 Total 
 
 390 
 
 East Java division: 
 
 
 Palembang-Benkoelen district: 
 
 
 Soerabaya 
 
 2, 699 
 
 Palembang 
 
 C) 
 
 Rembang 
 
 287 
 
 Benkoelen 
 
 111 
 
 Mndiopn 
 
 326 
 
 Banka and Billiton 
 
 338 
 
 Kediri 
 
 _ C) 
 
 West Borneo 
 
 63 
 
 Pasoeroean 
 
 1, 018 
 
 
 
 Besoeki 
 
 485 
 
 Total 
 
 512 
 
 Mn doera 
 
 87 
 
 
 
 Bali and Lombok 
 
 115 
 
 Grand total 
 
 14, 866 
 
 While several residencies having roads (principally the Celebes) 
 are not included in this enumeration, it is sufficiently accurate to 
 serve as a basis for a rough estimate of 15,000 cars as the colony’s 
 equipment at the end of 1918. Of these, 10,923 were imported since 
 1913, as follows: 1,328 from the Netherlands, 8,126 from the United 
 States, 293 from England, 245 from France, 252 from Italy, 186 
 from Germany, 313 from Singapore, and 180 from all other countries. 
 
 NUMBER OF MOTOR VEHICLES IN BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 On February 1, 1921, the various governments of British Malaya 
 were asked to furnish information as to the total number of motor 
 
 1 Statistics lacking. 
 
266 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA 
 
 cars, motor trucks, and motor cycles in use. The following figures 
 are taken from their replies: 
 
 Division. 
 
 Motor 
 
 cars. 
 
 Motor 
 
 trucks. 
 
 Motor 
 
 cycles. 
 
 Straits Settlements (Mar. 15, 1921): 
 
 
 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 3,506 
 
 1,186 
 
 492 
 
 737 
 
 Penang (including Providence Wellesley and the Dindings). 
 
 63 
 
 415 
 
 Malacca. 
 
 917 
 
 68 
 
 174 
 
 Total. 
 
 5,609 
 
 623 
 
 1,326 
 
 Federated Malay States (Mar. 7,1921): 
 
 
 
 
 Perak. 
 
 1,598 
 
 82 
 
 459 
 
 Selangor. 
 
 1,630 
 
 103 
 
 742 
 
 Negri Sembilan. 
 
 673 
 
 80 
 
 221 
 
 Pahang. 
 
 76 
 
 19 
 
 42 
 
 Total. 
 
 3,977 
 
 284 
 
 1,464 
 
 Trengganoe (Feb. 13, 1921). 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Kelantan (Feb. 20, 1921). 
 
 48 
 
 4 
 
 23 
 
 Kedah (Mar. 12,1921). 
 
 406 
 
 31 
 
 77 
 
 Brunei (Feb. 14, 1921). 
 
 None. 
 
 None. 
 
 None. 
 
 British North Borneo (Mar. 18, 1921). 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 Sarawak (Mar. 4,1921). 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 501 
 
 43 
 
 111 
 
 In March, 1921, there were large stocks of American cars on hand 
 in Singapore and Penang. Importers refused to give the number 
 on hand, but it is believed that there were somewhere between 700 
 and 1,000 vehicles in warehouses at that time. 
 
 IMPORTATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES. 
 
 Since 1918 there have been 10,877 passenger cars and 3,678 trucks 
 imported into the Netherlands Indies, as follows: 252 and 256, re¬ 
 spectively, from the Netherlands; 8,082 and 2,446 from the United 
 States; 127 and 37 from England; 40 and 4 from France; 144 and 
 6 from Italy; 89 and 207 from Germany; 198 and 7 from Singapore; 
 1,807 and 597 from Canada; and 158 and 118 from all other countries. 
 
 The following table shows the number of motor vehicles imported 
 into the Netherlands Indies since 1913 : 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 19211 
 
 Total. 
 
 Netherlands: 
 
 Pa.'.senper cars . 
 
 576 
 
 477 
 
 144 
 
 117 
 
 14 
 
 
 14 
 
 71 
 
 167 
 
 ) 1,836 
 
 Tractors and trucks. 
 
 
 130 
 
 126 
 
 United States: 
 
 Passenger cars. 
 
 251 
 
 240 
 
 357 
 
 2,384 
 
 2,998 
 
 1,701 
 
 2,654 
 
 3,489 
 
 1,939 
 
 751 
 
 )l8,654 
 
 Tractors and trucks. 
 
 
 195 
 
 629 
 
 l'066 
 
 Canada: 
 
 Passen per cars. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 679 
 
 1,063 
 
 } 2,404 
 
 Tractors and trucks. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 99 
 
 '477 
 
 England: 
 
 Passenger cars. 
 
 95 
 
 111 
 
 65 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 
 76 
 
 48 
 
 } 457 
 
 Tractors and trucks. 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 33 
 
 ( s ) 
 
 37 
 
 France: 
 
 Passenger cars. 
 
 114 
 
 87 
 
 42 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 ) 289 
 
 Tractors and trucks. 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 (*) 
 
 97 
 
 Italy: 
 
 Passenger cars. 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 
 98 
 
 63 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 41 
 
 } 402 
 
 Tractors and trucks. 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 (») 
 
 48 
 
 Germany: 
 
 Passenger cars. 
 
 106 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 } 482 
 
 Tractors and trucks. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 152 
 
 Singapore: 
 
 Passenger cars. 
 
 88 
 
 71 
 
 50 
 
 22 
 
 31 
 
 51 
 
 84 
 
 13 
 
 101 
 
 } 518 
 
 Tractors and trucks. 
 
 7 
 
 (*) 
 
 77 
 
 All other countries: 
 
 Passenger cars. 
 
 75 
 
 54 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 } 436 
 
 Tractors and trucks. 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 102 
 
 Total: 
 
 Passenger cars. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,330 
 
 1, ISO 
 
 777 
 
 2,608 
 
 3,068 
 
 1,763 
 
 2,857 
 
 4,443 
 
 3 577 
 
 j-25,478 
 
 Tractors and trucks. 
 
 
 
 197 
 
 669 
 
 1,401 
 
 1,608 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 First 10 months. 1 Included in “All other countries.” 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 267 
 
 Prior to 1918 the customs returns showed the imports of motor 
 trucks, tractors, and passenger cars under one classification; but in 
 1918 trucks and tractors were put into a separate class and pas¬ 
 senger cars were listed as “ automobiles not otherwise specified.’’ 
 In the table, therefore, the figures for passenger cars in the years 
 
 1913 to 1917, inclusive, include motor trucks and tractors. 
 
 The preceding table shows the phenomenal development of the 
 trade since 1913 and the part taken by the United States. A con¬ 
 siderable increase in the imports from Canada is shown. The manu¬ 
 facturers of Canada began to export to this colony in 1919, and in 
 1921 shipped 1,063 passenger cars and 477 trucks and tractors, 
 against 1,939 and 751, respectively, from the United States. 
 
 The larger number of cars shipped from the United States and 
 Canada in the early months of 1921 were on contracts made early 
 in 1920 and arrived on a heavily overstocked market. By Ma}^ these 
 contracts were filled, or canceled when possible, and the succeeding 
 months until August show a shrinkage of imports. The slight in¬ 
 crease in September and October showed the arrivals of passenger 
 cars on new orders, mostly of popular-priced cars from the United 
 States, Canada, and European countries. The import of trucks and 
 tractors from the United States and Canada decreased throughout 
 the period, but European makes showed the slight revival of demand 
 after July. 
 
 In British Malaya most of the imports of motor vehicles since 
 
 1914 have been from the United States, especially of passenger cars. 
 Many of the popular makes of American cars are represented, as 
 well as some of the more expensive makes, but the bulk of the busi¬ 
 ness is in cars of cheap and medium price. In 1920 the total im¬ 
 ports of “ motor cars, motor cycles, parts, and accessories ” into the 
 Straits Settlements amounted to $19,256,906 (Straits Settlements 
 currency), of which $12,633,023 represented direct' imports from the 
 United States, $2,898,581 from the United Kingdom, $1,001,735 from 
 Canada, $598,900 from Italy, and $123,200 from France. (Straits 
 Settlements dollar equals $0.5678 United States currency.) 
 
 MOTOR CYCLES. 
 
 The following table shows the number of motor cycles imported 
 into the Netherlands Indies from 1915 to 1920, by countries: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 > 
 
 Netherlands... 
 
 81 
 
 61 
 
 52 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 50 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 54 
 
 49 
 
 21 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 62 
 
 France. 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Italy. 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 United States. 
 
 68 
 
 339 
 
 842 
 
 497 
 
 658 
 
 949 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 36 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Philippines. 
 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 All otHer countries... 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 Total. 
 
 287 
 
 500 
 
 949 
 
 561 
 
 718 
 
 1,084 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 205 
 
 466 
 
 903 
 
 559 
 
 680 
 
 1,084 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 82 
 
 34 
 
 46 
 
 2 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i Java and Madoera only. 
 
268 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Before 1915 motor cycles and bicycles were classified in the re¬ 
 turns under the same heading. 
 
 Since 1916 the United States has supplied most of the motor 
 cycles imported for private use. In 1919 and 1920 the Government 
 equipped its field police with American motor cycles and side cars, 
 said to have been taken over from war supplies, but these do not 
 appear in the returns as Government imports. 
 
 Two American motor-cycle manufacturers have the bulk of the 
 business, although others are represented and are doing some busi¬ 
 ness. American motor cycles are recognized by users to be in the lead 
 in mechanical efficiency, and the prospect for the further develop¬ 
 ment of the trade seems to be good. 
 
 There is a large mileage of good roads, and many of the estates 
 employing European assistants need cheap and rapid transportation. 
 In the cities the distances between the residential sections and the 
 business sections are long and many of the younger men use motor 
 cycles. The young Chinese have taken to this method of travel to 
 some extent, partly for transportation and partly for sport, and 
 among this class is a large field for growth in the trade. 
 
 Some of the automobile importers in the Netherlands Indies have 
 agencies for motor cycles, but the larger part of the sales are made 
 by concerns specializing in these lighter vehicles, and they are 
 equipped to give quick and efficient service. 
 
 Several American motor cycles are represented in British Malaya 
 and they are well regarded by users. The American makes are 
 generally higher powered and more expensive than the small British 
 machines that are stocked by the British department stores. There 
 is a good market for these lighter types of motor cycles. 
 
 DEALER ORGANIZATION. 
 
 There are several sales organizations doing business in Java. Two 
 of these have salesrooms and service equipment in Medan, Sumatra; 
 several have sales organizations in Batavia, Semarang, and Soera- 
 baya; and others are well equipped to handle sales in more limited 
 fields. Salesmanship, as this term is understood in the United States, 
 is unknown in the colony, as the demand exceeded the supply up to 
 the middle of 1920. Since that time there has been a serious financial 
 depression, with large overstocks, and greater effort has been made 
 to effect sales, but there is a lack of trained salesmen. Small dealers 
 in the minor cities and towns act as subagents, some of whom are 
 ambitious and are a potentially powerful means for a more intensive 
 cultivation of the available markets, but they lack capital and train¬ 
 ing in salesmanship. 
 
 Two organizations, one English and one Chinese, have sales and 
 repair plants at Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Ipoli, and Penang. 
 Other companies either confine their operations to one city or to 
 parts of the peninsula. The general importers are not equipped to 
 give service or to sell automobiles. 
 
 A full analysis of the dealer organization is in the Automotive 
 Division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 
 
 CREDITS. 
 
 Few dealers in the Netherlands Indies are financially worthy of 
 credit accommodations, and this has led to the organization of one 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 269 
 
 company, located at Bandoeng, Java, to finance imports for an or¬ 
 ganization of many of the small dealers and some of the larger ones. 
 
 The Dutch banks have been unwilling to finance automobile im¬ 
 ports, and this reluctance has been accentuated by the experiences 
 of the past two years. The demand for cars up to the middle of 
 1920 led to keen competition between the dealers for the more popu¬ 
 lar agencies, and in order to retain them they contracted for more 
 cars than they could expect to sell, thinking that the manufacturers 
 would not be able to fill the orders. Deliveries had been very slow, 
 and so great was the user demand that the back orders and new 
 orders were covered by credits, as required by the manufacturers. 
 When the manufacturers filled all these orders within a few months, 
 at the same time lowering prices from time to time, it overstocked 
 the market and the dealers suffered heavy losses. In order to realize 
 on their stocks in the falling market, they lowered prices and gave 
 long credit terms to buyers. The banks that opened the credits 
 had to stand behind the dealers to protect themselves, but it is the 
 dealers who will eventually absorb the losses. 
 
 The dealers in British Malaya, as noted elsewhere, are Europeans 
 and Chinese. The prevailing system of financing shipments from 
 the United States has involved the opening of credits in the United 
 States against which the manufacturer drew when shipping was com¬ 
 pleted. There are a few concerns in British Malaya that would be 
 entitled to more liberal terms under some circumstances, but it does 
 not seem necessary to extend credits under the present conditions in 
 order to maintain the position held by American manufacturers. 
 
 ADVERTISING. 
 
 The newspapers of the Netherlands Indies circulate among the 
 European population that are buyers of automobiles, but they have 
 refused to run large displays and generally take a very arbitrary atti¬ 
 tude with regard to proofs of publication, payment in advance, and 
 proof reading. Could they be induced to cooperate in making the 
 advertisements effective, their publications would be good mediums. 
 Lists of publications and further information are on file in the 
 Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. There are a few 
 weekly publications that are good mediums for automobile advertis¬ 
 ing. The printing of these papers is more carefully done. They 
 circulate among the wealthier classes and they are more willing to 
 meet the requirements of the advertisers. 
 
 Poster advertising is effective, but lias greater limitations in this 
 colony than in the United States. There are no poster companies, 
 and while some space on sides of buildings can be bought from prop¬ 
 erty owners most of the posters are displayed in small units. Fre¬ 
 quent heavy rains minimize their usefulness. 
 
 The Address Book for Netherlands Indies Industries, printed in 
 Dutch, contains a list of all the industries, with an indication of the 
 size of the industry. Practically every European and Chinese fac¬ 
 tory either owns an automobile now or is a prospective buyer. The 
 list of 187 sugar estates on file in the Bureau of Foreign and Domes¬ 
 tic Commerce contains information about these mills. Each mill has 
 an automobile and is a prospect for a.new one. The list of some 700 
 rubber and coffee estates, also on file in the bureau, is a valuable 
 
270 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 mailing list. Each one of these estates has a manager and most of 
 them have two or more assistant managers, all of whom are possible 
 purchasers of cars. 
 
 Direct advertising, if it is connected up with the local distributer, 
 should be effective if printed in the language the receiver can read. 
 For the European trade Dutch is the best language to use, but the 
 Chinese can best be reached through the Malay language Romanized. 
 
 Daily and weekly publications can most effectively be used through 
 the local representatives. Poster advertising can only be done by 
 local dealers. Direct advertising is more effective through the local 
 dealer if his active cooperation can be enlisted. 
 
 Correct translations are essential. Dutch translations made in 
 the Netherlands are liable to be unsuited for colonial use. Trans¬ 
 lations into Malay for the Chinese trade can only be made in the 
 colony, as many of the words of this language are different from 
 the Malay of the Straits Settlements. 
 
 The newspapers in British Malaya reach all of the population who 
 are in a position to buy automobiles. Besides those published in 
 English there are papers in Chinese and Malay, some of which are 
 important mediums for reaching this trade. The more important 
 people are well classified in directories and other lists, and it is not 
 difficult to make up mailing lists that include practically all of the 
 prosperous Europeans and Chinese. There are no publications de¬ 
 voted exclusively to the motorist, but several London publications 
 of this class circulate freely among the English population. Publi¬ 
 cations devoted to the rubber and tin industries provide a convenient 
 channel through which to reach the buying public. 
 
 AMERICAN SALES ORGANIZATION. 
 
 One American manufacturer maintains an organization in Singa¬ 
 pore to take care of the dealer trade of the Netherlands Indies and 
 British Malaya, and other manufacturers send men into the field 
 occasionally to make new contracts. The favorable position that 
 American cars hold in the colony is due, as stated before, to their 
 structural and mechanical efficiencv. The trade has not been culti- 
 vated, but has been forced to make contracts beyond its ability to 
 sell. The dealers made these contracts in fear of the agencies being 
 taken away and with the expectation (and in some cases the verbal 
 understanding) that they would not be required to fulfill them. 
 The sudden influx of cars in 1920 and 1921 is greatly to be deplored, 
 as it weakened the dealers financially. 
 
 Financially strong dealers are necessary to effective sales develop¬ 
 ment, and any policy that tends to weaken the dealers will weaken 
 their ability to give service to owners. With over 25,000 automo¬ 
 biles in the colony, most of which are of American make, the main 
 factor for American manufacturers to consider is owner service. 
 If the users are satisfied with American cars the dealers will have 
 to stock them. Service to the user is very inadequate at present. 
 Repair stations equipped to make quick and satisfactory repairs, 
 including reboring and rabbeting, running in and burning in, car¬ 
 bon removing, and complete electric ignition service, are still to be 
 installed, and it is for the American manufacturers to take the 
 initiative that will put the service on a satisfactory basis. Price 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 271 
 
 regulation, especially of parts, is another phase of service that 
 will have to be considered. This development will be through the 
 dealer, and in the long run he will profit by it, but it will mean an 
 initial outlay on his part and the loss of some immediate profits. 
 He is entitled to the same protection as the dealer in the United 
 States, and he should not be required to contract for more cars than 
 his market will absorb. At the same time he should be supplied 
 with cars as fast as he can sell them and be required to develop a 
 sales organization that will give the maximum turnover. 
 
 THE TIRE TRADE. 
 
 A British company manufacturing tires in Japan has held the most 
 prominent place in the trade, both of the Netherlands Indies and 
 British Malaya, for many years. This company’s product is sold on 
 a price basis, and both casings and inner tubes can be bought at all 
 times in practically every town where gasoline is sold, often from 
 the gasoline dealer. 
 
 A French company has been catering to the trade of both colonies 
 since the pre-war years and has a strong hold on one section of the 
 trade. This company has put a beaded tire on the market, called 
 the “ Cable.” This is said to be sold as a cord tire, but is not 
 advertised as such. It has found a place in the trade in competition 
 with cord tires. 
 
 An Italian company has put a tire on the market that is command¬ 
 ing some trade in both colonies. 
 
 A tire from Japan called the “ Tokyo ” has been put on the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies market at a price slightly below that of the British-Jap¬ 
 anese tire mentioned above. There has been considerable specula¬ 
 tion as to what factory is the manufacturer of this tire. 
 
 Straight-side tires have found favor with buyers during the last 
 two years. Most of the American automobiles imported during that 
 period have been fitted with straight-side rims, and the importers 
 of tires from America contend that it is in the interest of car own¬ 
 ers that all American automobiles shipped to this market should be 
 fitted with straight-side wheel equipment, and when the customer 
 insists on rims fitted for beaded tires reversible or universal rings 
 should be supplied. 
 
 Several American companies are in the market, two of them main¬ 
 taining a selling organization in Java. American tires are well 
 known on the market, and even with the exchange rates strongly 
 against them they have maintained a place in the trade through hon¬ 
 est manufacturing methods and a wise selling policy. 
 
 IMPORTS OF TIRES. 
 
 Imports of tires into the Netherlands East Indies from 1917 to 
 1921, by countries, are shown in the following table. These tires 
 were valued by the customs in 1917 at 27 florins; in 1918, at 32.95 
 florins; in 1919, at 37.11 florins; and in 1920 (for Java and Madoera 
 only) at the declared value (1 florin = $0,402 mint par U. S.). 
 
272 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 France. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Singapore and Penang 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 Canada. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 19211 
 
 Number. 
 1,575 
 48,438 
 12,131 
 
 80 
 
 29,552 
 1 , 306 
 8,418 
 23,923 
 2,627 
 
 Number. 
 
 42 
 27,281 
 13,424 
 230 
 9,879 
 
 Number. 
 507 
 57,127 
 5,667 
 
 Number. 
 6,999 
 86,749 
 10,649 
 5,987 
 30,953 
 13,687 
 10,195 
 78,114 
 1,018 
 1,992 
 1,485 
 
 Number. 
 8,801 
 32,810 
 5,383 
 11,597 
 69,524 
 5,687 
 10,934 
 67,400 
 4,087 
 1,325 
 3,571 
 
 43,984 
 3,041 
 8,115 
 100,213 
 3,486 
 2,257 
 481 
 
 7,212 
 53,098 
 2,200 
 
 168 
 
 38 
 
 128,278 
 
 113,404 
 
 224,878 
 
 247,828 
 
 221,119 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The shrinkage in the imports from the United States in 1921 was 
 due to the rise in the value of the dollar. It will be noted that Ger¬ 
 many is again a factor in this trade and France more than doubled 
 its business over 1920. 
 
 Imports of tires into the Straits Settlements from 1917 to 1920, 
 by countries, were as follows, values being in Straits dollars (1 
 Straits dollar=$0.5678 mint par U. S.) : 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 United States . 
 
 Straits 
 dollars. 
 116,714 
 392,822 
 1,200 
 80,600 
 445,140 
 354,946 
 243,063 
 
 Straits 
 dollars. 
 915,046 
 512,215 
 
 Straits 
 
 dollars. 
 
 1,327,480 
 187,413 
 96,540 
 24,170 
 
 ”"861,830' 
 665,941 
 81,000 
 222,600 
 249,126 
 
 Straits 
 
 dollars. 
 
 1,948,509 
 435,386 
 30,009 
 100,661 
 337,000 
 1,256, 340 
 1,332,735 
 278,500 
 
 TTnitp.d Kingdom. 
 
 Hongkong . 
 
 Australia. 
 
 24,980 
 272,880 
 137,740 
 547,183 
 
 France .. __ - - -_ _ ___ 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Japan . 
 
 Canada . 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 
 
 All other . 
 
 48,360 
 
 50,645 
 
 290,821 
 
 Total ........ 
 
 1,682,845 
 
 2,460,689 
 
 3,716,100 
 
 6,009,952 
 
 
 % 
 
 STANDARD SIZES OF TIRES. 
 
 The following sizes of passenger-car tires are considered as stand¬ 
 ard in the British Malaya automobile trade, those sizes marked with 
 an asterisk rapidly becoming obsolete: 
 
 Clincher tires .—Sizes in millimeters: 760 by 90, 810 by 90, 765 by 105, 815 
 by 105, 875 by 105, 815 by 120, 820 by 120, 880 by 120, 920 by 120, 880 by 135, 
 S95 by 135, 935 by 135, 895 by 150, and 935 by 150. Sizes in inches: 30 by 3*, 
 30 by Si, and 31 by 4. 
 
 Straight-side tires .—Sizes in indies: 32 by 3^, 32 by 4, 33 by 4, 34 by 4*, 
 32 by 4i, 33 by 4*, 34 by 41, 35 by 4i, 36 by 41*, 33 by 5, 35 by 5*, and 37 by 5*. 
 
 Nearly 90 per cent of the cars imported from the United States 
 are fitted with straight-side rims, which have rapidly come into 
 favor, and the trade is of the opinion that in the course of a few 
 years the straight-side tires will predominate. A number of Euro¬ 
 pean cars are fitted with straight-side rims. 
 
 Motor-cycle tires .—Sizes in inches: 26 by 2i, 26 by 2\, 28 by 3, and 29 by 3$. 
 
 Solid tires for trucks .—Sizes in inches: 32 by 3, 36 by 3, 32 by 3£, 34 by 31, 
 36 by 3^, 32 by 4, 34 by 4, 36 by 4, 34 by 5, 36 by 5, 40 by 5, 36 by 6, 40 by 6, 
 36 by 7, 36 by 8, and 36 by 10. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 273 
 
 Motor-truck tires are used in both the pressed-on and hand-attach¬ 
 able types. 
 
 An American representative of an American tire manufacturer is 
 credited with the following statement regarding the sizes of tires 
 used in the Netherlands East Indies: 
 
 Practically all sizes of tires, in both inch and metric measurements, are used 
 in the Netherlands East Indies, the inch sizes being used principally on Ameri¬ 
 can cars, while metric sizes are used on European cars. * * * There has 
 
 been, and still is, considerable prejudice against the straight-side tire, although 
 in my opinion it is going to be the most popular tire as the motorist gets 
 used to it. 
 
 FOODSTUFFS. 
 
 MILK. 
 
 The greater part of the consumption of condensed milk is by 
 Chinese and natives and of sterilized milk by the Dutch and the 
 better class of Chinese. The evaporated milk which has found a good 
 sale in the trade with the foreign population and better class of 
 Chinese along the China coast has been found to be unsuited to this 
 country because of the fact that the foreign population is negligible as 
 compared with the native buyers and for the further reason that the 
 package is so large that it can not be used immediately when opened, 
 and the milk sours in a few hours in the Tropics. The sterilized 
 milk, on the other hand, is used immediately the can is opened with¬ 
 out the addition of water, of which there is very little in the islands 
 fit to drink without boiling. Packers would do well to adapt them¬ 
 selves to this market in this particular and not complicate their 
 already difficult sales problem by trying to sell a product that the 
 trade is not used to. 
 
 CANNED MILK. 
 
 Before the war the principal purveyors to the Netherlands East 
 Indies market were the Nestle’s Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Co. 
 (Ltd.), selling under many brands but pushing their Milkmaid brand 
 (“ Chap Nonna,” as it is called in the Netherlands Indies) to the 
 fore, and the Burnese Alps Milk Co., selling under the Bear brand. 
 The former is a British company, but originated in Switzerland, and 
 the latter is a purely Swiss company. Other companies had been in 
 the field, but the British company’s vigorous competition made the 
 establishment and maintenance of a brand a very costly operation, 
 and the Burnese Alps Milk Co. was only able to maintain its position 
 because of the long standing of its brand in the market, which identi¬ 
 fied it to the consumers, who demanded Bear brand even at higher 
 prices than the competing brands brought. 
 
 The Nestle’s Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Co. (Ltd.) is a very 
 large concern, and its operations in all the oriental countries of the 
 Far East give the impression that its intention is to drive out compe¬ 
 tition or buy it up. It has organized the sources of supply in Europe, 
 the United States, South Africa, and Australia so thoroughly that 
 it can take every advantage in freight rates, and, being one of the 
 largest shippers of inward cargo, it is catered to by the shipping com¬ 
 panies. Its sales and distributing organizations cover the Orient 
 thoroughly, and it is able to provide against shortages or to quickly 
 
274 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 cover them when they occur, and to make the most of such shortages 
 on the part of competitors. 
 
 While large shipments come to the Netherlands East Indies nomi¬ 
 nally from the Netherlands, most of it is, in fact, from the near-by 
 European countries and is loaded at Dutch ports. Other shipments 
 are concentrated at Southampton, where the Dutch lines call on their 
 outward voyages. What small part American milk played in the 
 trade between 1912 and 1916 was through shipments brought in from 
 Singapore, but much of the milk credited to that port was of stock 
 requisitioned from the reserves the Nestle’s Co. held there. 
 
 Some milk comes from Australia from factories not controlled by 
 the Nestle’s Co., more especially since the outbreak of the war, but 
 not enough to cut seriously into what was practically a monopoly of 
 the market by that company. Being a Swiss company, the Bumese 
 Alps Milk Co. has been practically out of the market since the early 
 days of the war, but they have retained their connection with their 
 distributer and are again in the market. 
 
 According to a statement made by the Netherlands East Indies 
 manager of the Nestle’s Co. in 1920, that company has acquired a 
 large number of creameries in the United States and proposes to 
 supply such markets from there as have favorable freight rates and 
 deliveries. 
 
 Some American brands are on the market, but the trade is small, 
 and they are not being pushed vigorously. 
 
 Three kinds of milk have been imported into this market—con¬ 
 densed, sterilized, and evaporated—but the latter in such small quan¬ 
 tities that it is not worthy of consideration in a discussion of import 
 figures. 
 
 CONDENSED MILK. 
 
 In 1913, 1914, 1915, and 1916 condensed milk was valued at 40 
 florin cents per kilo, in 1917 at 53 cents, in 1918 at 68 cents, and in 
 1919 and 1920 at 1.15 florins. The standard can of condensed milk 
 is 14 ounces net weight, which would give a net weight per case of 
 48 tins of 19.05077 kilos. 
 
 Following are importations of condensed milk into the Netherlands 
 East Indies, by countries, during the period 1913-1919, the total 
 importations into Java and Madoera only for 1920 being 3,378,794 
 kilos, and for the first 11 months of 1921, 4,338,000 kilos: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 United States: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 33,292 
 11,468 
 
 1, 290, 299 
 261, 749 
 
 25,874 
 32,782 
 
 Kilos. 
 582,756 
 57,907 
 
 64, 817 
 88,131 
 
 Kilos. 
 677,185 
 102,911 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1,185,922 
 
 66,094 
 
 140,140 
 
 66,173 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 Netherlands: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 805,311 
 991,835 
 
 44,325 
 
 109,845 
 
 157, 555 
 20,005 
 
 766, 446 
 47,171 
 
 274, 553 
 234,378 
 
 569,713 
 836,738 
 
 43,657 
 81, 885 
 
 162, 491 
 10,347 
 
 430,960 
 39,967 
 
 585,964 
 274,001 
 
 497, 476 
 851, 892 
 
 6,972 
 32,713 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 6,885 
 
 8,016 
 
 Great Britain: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 8,263 
 
 Germany: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 • 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 8,024 
 
 321,285 
 94,498 
 
 955, 217 
 255, 284 
 
 
 
 
 
 Italy: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 40,913 
 14, 221 
 
 745, 536 
 81,833 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 Switzerland: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 12,000 
 
 19,053 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 4,694 
 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES, 
 
 275 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 France: 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 9,409 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 7,986 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 8,343 
 
 2,550 
 
 34,130 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Denmark: 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Norway: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Canada: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 29,000 
 
 885,120 
 43,921 
 
 29,000 
 
 425,822 
 208,676 
 
 
 Australia: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 31,522 
 
 25,520 
 
 2,608 
 * 1,978 
 
 6,649 
 
 1,496,689 
 112,090 
 
 British India: 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 4,968 
 
 14,026 
 
 China: 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 24,480 
 
 
 
 Sweden: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 
 
 Japan: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 28,017 
 24,564 
 
 30,370 
 28,634 
 
 52,785 
 35,272 
 
 47,000 
 
 78,343 
 461, 812 
 
 88,135 
 
 214,097 
 5,500 
 
 99,174 
 23,025 
 
 64,463 
 5,953 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 Philippines: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 Singapore: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 Penang: 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 Hongkong: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 495,127 
 373, 315 
 
 98,336 
 
 727, 465 
 455,322 
 
 93,117 
 
 570,890 
 330,823 
 
 41,437 
 
 402,972 
 
 1, 035,762 
 
 117,653 
 
 44,958 
 14,102 
 
 428 
 
 36,063 
 
 96,411 
 
 894,092 
 
 108,178 
 
 475,03a 
 
 50,326 
 
 316 
 6,483 
 
 211, 446 
 1,025,902 
 
 56,383 
 
 215,598 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 All other: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 2,244 
 43, 291 
 
 15,352 
 58,939 
 
 7,210 
 54,307 
 
 881 
 
 10, 010 
 
 4, 505, 268 
 
 4,419,424 4,077,637 
 
 4,268,129 
 
 3, 497, 028 
 
 2, 568, 332 
 
 4,666,007 
 
 2, 577, 683 
 1,927, 585 
 
 2,561,122 
 1, 858,302 
 
 2,395,788 
 1,681, 849 
 
 2, 618,938 
 1,649,191 
 
 2,175, 823 
 1,321,205 
 
 1,631, 422 
 936,910 
 
 3,315,139 
 1,350, 868 
 
 STERILIZED MILK. 
 
 The imports of sterilized milk into the Netherlands East Indies 
 from 1918 to 1919, by countries, are shown in the appended table. 
 In 1913 and 1914 the Customs Division fixed a uniform price for 
 computing values at 30 florin cents, in 1915 and 1916 at 32 cents, 
 in 1917 at 38 cents, in 1918 at 45 cents, in 1919 at 58 cents, and in 
 
 1920 at' 66 cents per liter. The net contents of a can is 0.42 liter, or 
 20.16 liters to the case of 48 cans. Imports into Java and Madoera 
 only were 1,314,292 liters for 1920, while for the first 11 months of 
 
 1921 the total was 2,828,000 liters. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 United States: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Liters. 
 
 Liters. 
 
 Liters. 
 
 Liters. 
 28,726 
 
 Liters. 
 
 116,079 
 
 17,521 
 
 619,138 
 178,784 
 
 24,720 
 
 Liters. 
 344,894 
 57,875 
 
 56,856 
 33,365 
 
 Liters. 
 677,616 
 128,446 
 
 357,915 
 
 78,339 
 
 18,000 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 Netherlands: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 519,207 
 251,108 
 
 17,820 
 
 19,947 
 
 518,061 
 
 142,327 
 
 2,400 
 
 369,414 
 
 662,093 
 293,220 
 
 1,000,411 
 447,162 
 
 1,943,953 
 
 439,309 
 
 28,692 
 15,445 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 Great Britain: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 29,147 
 
 597,976 
 124,309 
 
 30,237 
 
 35,328 
 
 18,986 
 
 
 Germany: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Belgium: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Italy: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 822,931 
 35,898 
 
 203,976 
 130,571 
 
 310,577 
 50,356 
 
 983,684 
 
 119.912 
 
 171,376 
 
 44,563 
 
 718,817 
 69,784 
 
 24,911 
 
 19,944 
 
 405,263 
 
 14,114 
 
 
 55,200 
 
 4,800 
 
 129,320 
 9,5.0 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 4,778 
 
 93,756 
 
 Switzerland: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 32,580 
 56,367 
 
 Out* - Possessions. 
 
 19878°—23-19 
 
276 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MAL.AYA. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1914 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 France: 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 Liters. 
 
 25,498 
 
 Liters. 
 42,408 
 
 Liters. 
 
 15,836 
 
 Liters. 
 
 Liters. 
 
 19,377 
 
 9,600 
 
 Liters. 
 
 9,960 
 
 Liters. 
 
 1,776 
 
 Denmark: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 23,856 
 
 9,045 
 
 29,040 
 
 4,776 
 20,993 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Norway and Sweden: 
 
 and Madoera... 
 
 
 
 
 26,400 
 
 7,200 
 
 4,768 
 
 
 Canada: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 Australia: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 10,720 
 
 26,020 
 
 2,373 
 
 64,378 
 
 20,966 
 
 22,923 
 26,190 
 
 4,800 
 
 64,100 
 
 18,705 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 British India: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 15,696 
 
 
 Japan: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 
 39,240 
 
 107,448 
 144,140 
 
 8,237 
 
 91,040 
 
 720 
 
 Singapore: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 36,954 
 
 37,941 
 
 35,986 
 
 240 
 
 152,688 
 59,229 
 
 30,320 
 
 590,363 
 
 70,214 
 
 3,197 
 
 303,396 
 
 214,194 
 
 11,123 
 
 200,118 
 
 100,575 
 
 8,023 
 
 43,200 
 
 117,633 
 
 80,030 
 
 10,133 
 
 19,535 
 6,480 
 
 1,044 
 
 96 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 Penang: 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 Hongkong: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Outer Possessions_ 
 
 
 
 
 China: 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 All other: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 7,836 
 
 13,640 
 
 6,669 
 
 9,849 
 
 3,024 
 37,761 
 
 2,031 
 35,153 
 
 1,746 
 
 22,697 
 
 6, 111 
 
 10,556 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 2,098,046 
 
 3,227,304 
 
 3,735,117 
 
 4,114,272 
 
 1,944,034 
 
 895,836 
 
 1,951,285 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 1,515,232 
 582,814 
 
 2,472,353 
 
 754,951 
 
 2,941,456 
 793,661 
 
 3,254,663 
 859,609 
 
 1,535,553 
 408,481 
 
 672,461 
 
 223,375 
 
 1,545,990 
 405,295 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 As Singapore and, to a lesser extent, Penang are depots for the 
 distribution of milk to surrounding countries, the imports into the 
 Straits Settlements are not indicative of the consumption within 
 British Malaya. The larger part of the milk business is done by 
 the Nestle’s Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Co., although some Ameri¬ 
 can brands are on the market. 
 
 CANNED MEATS. 
 
 Imports of canned meats (not including pork) into the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies for 1918 and 1919 and into Java and Madoera only 
 for 1920 and 1921, by countries, are shown in the following table: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Whole colony. 
 
 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 • 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 1921 
 
 United States. 
 
 Metric tons . 
 65 
 
 Metric tons. 
 127 
 
 Metric tons. 
 174 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 87 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 32 
 
 161 
 
 327 
 
 250 
 
 France. 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 34 
 
 39 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 Hongkong and China7. 
 
 47 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 93 
 
 Australia. 
 
 60 
 
 119 
 
 182 
 
 141 
 
 All other. 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 249 
 
 496 
 
 764 
 
 602 
 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 187 
 
 401 
 
 764 
 
 602 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 62 
 
 95 
 
 
 
 
 Since the population consists mainly of rice eaters, the meat trade 
 is confined largely to Europeans and the better class of Chinese. A 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 277 
 
 considerable part of the imports, as shown in the table, comes from 
 the Netherlands; Australia is second and the United States third. 
 
 American packers are not handling this trade vigorously. A care¬ 
 fully planned advertising and sales campaign would undoubtedly 
 increase the volume of sales. 
 
 Corned beef is the principal article of import, and considerable 
 quantities of a rather poor pack come from Australia. American 
 corned beef is a staple on the market and is considered by the trade 
 as the first quality imported. 
 
 Other canned meat products stocked are lunch tongue, sausages, 
 and chicken (pressed and potted), besides pork products. 
 
 As in the Netherlands Indies, the trade of British Malaya in 
 canned meats is principally with the European population and is 
 therefore not large. American packers are supplying a large part 
 of this trade, and some Australian meats are on the market, especially 
 corned beef. 
 
 CANNED VEGETABLES. 
 
 The statistics given out by the Government of the Netherlands East 
 Indies covering canned vegetables include also dried vegetables and 
 beans, of which there are large importations from China, British 
 Malaya, and' other near-by countries. There is little definite value 
 in the figures, except as they are taken in conjunction with other 
 known facts, but some idea of trends may be gained from them when 
 it is considered that the surrounding Asiatic countries are not pack¬ 
 ers of canned vegetables, and the probabilities are that there are no 
 shipments of beans or dried vegetables of any consequence from 
 Europe or the United States and but little from Australia. Values 
 only are given, and these are arrived at by the usual arbitrary 
 method of fixing a price of so many cents per unit regardless of 
 whether they are carrots, small peas, or asparagus. 
 
 The following table shows the value in florins of canned vegetable 
 imports, by countries, for the whole colony in 1918 and 1919 and for 
 Java and Madoera only in 1920 (1 florinr=$0.402 mint' par U. S.) : 
 
 . Countries. 
 
 « 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920» 
 
 United States. 
 
 Florins. 
 168.720 
 74,495 
 1,196 
 
 Florins. 
 238,230 
 693,722 
 1,666 
 10,821 
 
 Florins. 
 
 154,817 
 
 912,766 
 
 6,247 
 
 18,810 
 
 4,015 
 
 1,426 
 
 10,563 
 
 623,486 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 France. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 
 
 British India. 
 
 29,159 
 723,324 
 141,386 
 255,215 
 28,325 
 50,904 
 99,526 
 10,809 
 
 13,485 
 599,146 
 114,586 
 154,425 
 12,203 
 33,059 
 85,584 
 27,990 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 202,722 
 
 13,570 
 
 12,918 
 
 70,611 
 
 13,402 
 
 China... 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,583,059 
 
 1,984,917 
 
 2,045,353 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 945,677 
 
 637,382 
 
 1,278,000 
 
 706,917 
 
 2,045,353 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 This table shows the highly disorganized condition of the trade in 
 1918 and the reversion somewhat to pre-war distribution on the re- 
 
278 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 turn of shipping to normal routings. Large stocks of Dutch canned 
 vegetables arrived in the colony early in 1919, and the following year 
 showed a large increase in imports from the Netherlands and a de¬ 
 crease in imports from the United States. 
 
 This colony before the war was supplied with canned vegetables 
 from the Netherlands, Tieleman & Dros being the principal packers 
 for this market, and their name was a household one in Java. The 
 agency for their line is highly valued by the firms holding it and 
 those firms are in every case of the highest standing in their business 
 communities. 
 
 Asparagus .—Before the war America divided with the Netherlands 
 the trade in asparagus, and the American product was better in 
 quality, packing, and general appearance than the Dutch. The first 
 and second grades of American asparagus are generally conceded to be 
 superior to any other offered on the market. There have been some very 
 fair brands coming from Australia which have been well received in 
 the Batavia market, but these are not comparable with the firsts or 
 even the seconds of the American pack. There is a good demand for 
 small quantities of this Australian product, but a walk through the 
 market streets of any of the larger towns will show that the American 
 canners are far in the lead. This should not, however, lead them to 
 think that they will not need to use every effort to keep this trade, 
 as representatives of the Australian canners are constantly in the 
 field and are developing quite a trade in the cheaper grades. Austra¬ 
 lian asparagus is served m most of the hotels. This is the one vege¬ 
 table in which America seems to have a good chance to retain its 
 preeminent position, but the small points should be watched, and, 
 among other things, the market for the lower grades should be culti¬ 
 vated. 
 
 Peas .—There is a larger market for peas in the Netherlands East 
 Indies than for any other vegetable. It is a favorite of the Holland¬ 
 ers, and the Dutch packers before the war put up a small, highly 
 colored pea that was the standard for first quality in the minds of 
 the local importers and jobbers. With this standard in mind there are 
 many criticisms of the American product, among which are that the 
 color should be a darker green, that the peas should be picked when 
 younger, they are not tender, are two sweet, etc., but from all the 
 criticism, which is apparently not without a very natural prejudice 
 in favor of the Dutch pack, it may be deduced that there is, perhaps, 
 not a clear enough line drawn between the grades of the American 
 pack. Australia and Japan have an advantage in freight rates over 
 the California product, and their competition should be carefully 
 watched. Evenness of quality in the lower grades and the very best 
 American quality in the No. 1 grade, combined with a close study of 
 the market and a quickness to take advantage of the peculiar position 
 America holds, should gain a good share of this trade for the United 
 States. 
 
 Com .—This vegetable is little known in the Netherlands Indies ex¬ 
 cept as a food for natives, and the poor quality of field corn grown 
 in the colony has nothing to recommend it to the better class of trade 
 which constitutes the market for canned vegetables and fruit. Sweet 
 corn is known only to those few people w T ho have traveled in the 
 United States and in the British colonies, and a demand for canned 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 279 
 
 com is practically nonexistent. To develop a market would require 
 an advertising campaign which might not give a return on the in¬ 
 vestment for many years. American salesmen in the field watching 
 the trade carefully for an opening for their products may find op¬ 
 portunities to get this line on the market through the cooperation 
 of the shopkeepers. 
 
 Tomatoes .—The importers are very insistent in their statement 
 that there is no market for canned tomatoes here. There is a small 
 and very inferior tomato grown in almost every part of this archi¬ 
 pelago, and it is argued that the requirements are amply supplied by 
 this native product. 
 
 Hominy and succotash are not known on this market. 
 
 Sauerkraut. —The American sauerkraut is well received and con¬ 
 siderable quantities are imported. It is said to be equal to, if not 
 better, than the European product. 
 
 Cauliflower. —There is a small demand for cauliflower, but the 
 American product, it is claimed, has not proven to be satisfactory. 
 It arrived in a soft condition and it was unsalable, according to one 
 importer, while another one said his experience was that it arrived 
 in good condition but was inferior to the Dutch product. 
 
 Beets. —There is only a small demand for beets, on account of 
 local production. Such trial orders as have been placed did not 
 result in repeat orders. 
 
 Carrots .—The European packers put up a small French carrot 
 in cans which is very popular, and the importers are unanimous in 
 the opinion that the sliced carrots which have been put on this 
 market by the American packers are not suited to the requirements. 
 
 String beans. —There is but a small demand for string beans, ac¬ 
 cording to the importers, and that is for the European product. 
 They claim that the American beans are too large and not tender. 
 .Nevertheless, the American product is on the market and selling, 
 though slowly. Care should be taken in the quality sent out under 
 the first-grade brands, and a study of the various inferior qualities 
 may show opportunities for marketing qualities not salable in the 
 American market. 
 
 Beans with pork .—There is a popular Dutch dish of pork and 
 beans that is somewhat different from the American product. Some 
 of this stock is on the market and also some of the more popular 
 American brands, but the sale of this product is not large. 
 
 Brussels sprouts .—There is apparently only one American packer 
 who has put Brussels sprouts on this market, and this shipment is 
 said to be inferior to the Dutch pack. 
 
 The Dutch canners (Tieleman & Dros) are in a very strong po¬ 
 sition with the trade, their method being to place their agencies with 
 leading houses in the various major market cities, one house having 
 the exclusive sale in each district on the condition that these houses 
 will not handle competitive lines in other parts of the colony. With¬ 
 out vigorous competition this system has worked greatly to their 
 advantage, but with vigorous competition their position is weak. 
 A close study of the methods of packing and marketing would prob¬ 
 ably result in securing a portion of this trade if the volume, as shown 
 in the preceding table, is sufficient to warrant the effort. 
 
280 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 THE FISH TRADE. 
 
 The appended table of the imports of “conserved” fish into the 
 Netherlands East Indies for the years 1917 to 1921 includes all fish 
 not dried and not shipped in bundles or other “ loose ” packing. 
 Prior to 1915 the customs authorities did not show the figures for this 
 commodity. In these statistics are included all the salt fish from 
 China, Japan, and the Straits Settlements ports, the latter being 
 almost entirely transshipment cargo. The imports from Japan are 
 largely of this sort of fish, but an attempt to sell canned Japanese 
 salmon and sardines in this market has met with some success. 
 Probably a very high percentage of Japan’s exports to this country 
 are of the salted fish which are not in competition with the American 
 canned fish, this report being chiefly concerned with the latter. The 
 imports from China, Hongkong, and the Straits Settlements ports 
 may be taken to be entirely of the salted varieties, which form a part 
 of the native and Chinese diet. Weights are taken, rather than val¬ 
 ues, as the customs authorities use an arbitrary price in making 
 valuations which destroys their usefulness for purposes of com¬ 
 parison. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 1 
 
 United States. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 233,707 
 81,832 
 16,670 
 37,032 
 20,411 
 10,397 
 28,453 
 5,675 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 321,337 
 
 11,721 
 
 7,951 
 
 Kilos. 
 433,106 
 70,203 
 20,122 
 17,704 
 1,268 
 11,678 
 23,542 
 8,435 
 
 Kilos. 
 1,069,481 
 298,249 
 66,103 
 73,245 
 
 Kilos. 
 1,105,120 
 205,112 
 155,538 
 12,535 
 
 N etherlands. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 France. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 
 Portugal. 
 
 
 32,375 
 47,237 
 27,795 
 2,139 
 48,345 
 252,154 
 
 2,990 
 
 27,771 
 
 Norway. 
 
 40,702 
 9,387 
 
 Sweden. 
 
 Germany . 
 
 73,435 
 
 20,382 
 
 355,087 
 
 Japan../.. 
 
 455,769 
 
 1,899,597 
 
 92,157 
 
 71,153 
 
 84,930 
 
 190,685 
 250,122 
 71,992 
 7,680 
 11,035 
 
 26,741 
 285,102 
 58,874 
 9,571 
 12,758 
 
 Singapore . 
 
 Penang. 
 
 Hongkong and China. 
 
 9,327 
 
 33,191 
 
 68,944 
 
 57,259 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 3,037,843 
 
 922,612 
 
 979,104 
 
 1,959,641 
 
 2,084,173 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 2,360,127 
 
 677,716 
 
 484,627 
 
 437,985 
 
 562,555 
 416,549 
 
 1,959,641 
 
 2,084,173 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 i Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Salmon .—Except for the imports from Japan, a part of which is 
 transshipped from the United States, the Pacific coast salmon can- 
 ners have this market to themselves. The cheapest qualities onl} 7 
 are in demand. 
 
 Sardines .—Before the war sardines from France and Portugal 
 sold at prices that opened the very large cheap trade of this colony 
 to them. A characteristic of the market for commodities for the 
 native trade has alw T ays been that even a slight rise in price reduces 
 the number of natives who can afford to buy a product. Both sar¬ 
 dines and salmon are sold to the Dutch, half-caste, and foreign 
 population and to the wealthier Chinese and high-class natives. 
 California sardines have found a good market since the European 
 product was shut off. A very large trade in sardines can be developed 
 in this market, but evenness of quality, distinct differences in grades, 
 and the cutting of every factor in cost to the ultimate consumer are 
 requisite for the opening of that larger market with the native trade.. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 281 
 
 Mackei'el and herring .—The Dutch, half-caste, and foreign popula¬ 
 tion and the wealthier Chinese and natives furnish the market for 
 mackerel, much of which comes from the United States. While the 
 trade is small it is steady, and the California brands have an estab¬ 
 lished place. The holding of this place, if the quality remains the 
 same, is a matter of providing an easy channel for supply. This 
 depends on the establishment of a wide range of foodstuffs from 
 America in this market'; the more American lines placed on the mar¬ 
 ket the stronger position each unit of trade will have. There is 
 a small but steady trade in herring. An Australian pack has met 
 with some favor, but the European packs are considered the best. 
 
 Cod-fish .—The salt fish of the Orient compete against codfish here, 
 and the freight rates and higher cost of labor in packing are against 
 the building up of a business in codfish for the native trade. Some 
 codfish in 1-pound tins have been brought out for the higher class 
 trade, but it has not yet found a definite place for itself. 
 
 The imports into British Malaya of canned fish from abroad are 
 included in the statistics covering large quantities of fish caught in 
 oriental waters, and therefore have no significance with reference to 
 the trade in American packs. The greater part of the canned fish 
 imported is salmon, which is used principally by the Chinese. The 
 wide fluctuations in the price of tin have caused an abnormal ebb 
 and flow of the Chinese coolie population, and this, together with 
 the variation in the cost of living and in wages, has influenced the 
 market for salmon in a marked degree. The low prices of rubber 
 and tin have caused a depression that is reflected in the trade of all 
 import commodities, especially foodstuffs. 
 
 The cheapest staple qualities of salmon only are in demand. 
 
 CANNED FRUIT. 
 
 Before the war imports of canned fruits into the Netherlands East 
 Indies were not shown separately. The following table shows the 
 imports, by countries, for the whole colony in 1918 and 1919 and for 
 Java and TVladoera only in 1920: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 United States. 
 
 Number of 
 cans. 
 528,483 
 
 Number of 
 cans. 
 1,007,451 
 8,101 
 9,903 
 
 Number of 
 cans. 
 772,114 
 27,232 
 12,888 
 2,664 
 8,660 
 65,092 
 
 Netherlands.. 
 
 France. . 
 
 
 Italy. . 
 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 47,639 
 6,576 
 53,056 
 233,183 
 117,863 
 27,828 
 7,520 
 
 50,660 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 52,655 
 
 254,750 
 
 158,685 
 
 13,790 
 
 7,861 
 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 9,458 
 
 147,392 
 
 13,753 
 
 2,014 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 China. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,022,148 
 
 1,563,856 
 
 1,061,267 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 607,391 
 
 414,757 
 
 1,025,951 
 
 537,905 
 
 1,061,267 
 ••••••»«•••• 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 1 Jar* and Madoera only. 
 
 Hongkong and China .—The imports of canned fruits from Hong¬ 
 kong and the China ports are given separately, as shipments from the 
 
282 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 latter ports are mostly of Chinese preserved fruit in jars put up for 
 the Chinese and native trade. 
 
 Penang and Singapore .—These cities are ports of transshipment 
 rather than producing points. It is true that there is an extensive 
 business in Singapore in the canning of pineapples, but these are 
 not shipped to this colony, as pineapples grow everywhere in the 
 Netherlands East Indies. Some of the imports from these two 
 British ports are jars of fruit from China, but most of them are 
 made up of transshipment cargoes ordered through the Singapore 
 agents of California canners and shipments from stocks held in 
 Singapore by the Chinese jobbers doing business with the East 
 Coast of Sumatra. 
 
 Australia .—The Australian fruits had gained a fairly good foot¬ 
 ing in this market in 1915 as a second-grade product. The quality 
 of the fruit is far below California standards, and the labeling is 
 not attractive. Nevertheless, the Australian packers have been mak¬ 
 ing progress, and in spite of the labor troubles they have been able 
 to keep their product on the market. California packers should 
 watch the development of the Australian canned-fruit trade, as the 
 Australian canners seem determined to push their goods on this 
 market, and, while they are putting up a second or even lower grade, 
 there are signs of improvement and their pack is selling steadily. 
 
 The United States .—The principal feature in the importation 
 of preserved fruit is the steadiness of the demand for California 
 packs. The chief consumers are the Europeans and Eurasians and, 
 for table use, the wealthier class of Chinese, while considerable quan¬ 
 tities are consumed by the natives with beverages bought from the 
 native venders. Some years ago the products of one California 
 packing plant was sold only to a few Dutch importers, who attended 
 to the distribution, but some of these threw their stocks onto the 
 Chinese jobbers, who are always ready to speculate, and soon the 
 dealing in California canned fruit became a speculation rather than 
 a straight business proposition. All the foodstuffs importers stock 
 California canned fruits, and as the market is to-day there is an 
 alternate glut and shortage, which does not conduce to the building 
 up of a larger consumption. 
 
 The strong position of the California fruit canners in this market 
 might be turned into a useful lever to introduce and push other lines 
 of their manufacture, such as vegetables, but this advantage can 
 not be exercised without a centralized control, and the position of 
 canned goods in the market seems to have gone beyond the point 
 where control can be placed in the hands of any one dealer without 
 antagonizing the others. Under present conditions no one cares to 
 put any energy into the sale of California canned fruits, and no 
 increase of consumption will come about through the initiative of 
 the importers. 
 
 American canned fruits hold first place in British Malaya, but in 
 preserves, jams, and jellies Cross & Blackwell still hold a strong 
 place. There is a small native trade in imported fruits, but the 
 per capita consumption of the Europeans and better class of Chinese 
 is large, due to a great extent to the fact that the profits in the 
 cultivation of rubber have led the natives to cut out their fruit trees 
 and replace them with rubber. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 283 
 
 DRIED FRUIT. 
 
 The following table shows the imports of dried fruits and nuts for 
 1918 and 1919 into the Netherlands East Indies and for 1920 into 
 Java and Madoera only: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 United States. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 139,563 
 
 \ 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 115,396 
 
 10,024 
 
 Kilos. 
 156,600 
 31,162 
 4,749 
 2,946 
 15,053 
 97,507 
 252,815 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 Italy. 
 
 13,058 
 
 12,007 
 
 France. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 30,815 
 858,659 
 311,532 
 29,248 
 81,920 
 7,792 
 17,476 
 
 57,147 
 525,555 
 231,415 
 6,996 
 75,031 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 British India. 
 
 23,256 
 81,157 
 1,560 
 822 
 
 Hongkong and China. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 All other. 
 
 17,412 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,490,063 
 
 1,050,983 
 
 667,627 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 650,638 
 
 839,425 
 
 397,158 
 653,825 
 
 667,627 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 These totals are misleading unless the kinds of dried fruits and 
 nuts imported from the different countries are taken into considera¬ 
 tion. The imports from Singapore, Penang, British India, Hong¬ 
 kong, and China and Japan do not concern the American exporter 
 directly, as they are made up largely of the products peculiar to the 
 Orient, such as lichees, ginger, tamarinds, and the dozens of dried 
 fruits and nuts known to the int'eroriental trade. It may be stated 
 that the imports from these oriental countries do not include any 
 apples, prunes, apricots, peaches, pears, currants, raisins, etc., except 
 for an occasional transshipment. 
 
 While it is said that a considerable part of the dried fruit coming 
 from the Netherlands is grown there, it is safe to say that much 
 of the fruit coming from that country is grown elsewhere and col¬ 
 lected at the Dutch cities for forwarding, and this is true also of 
 the imports from England. From southern Europe are sent some 
 quantities of nuts, citron, and other products of the subtropical coun¬ 
 tries. Australia is the principal competitor to-day in this field and 
 its fruits have found their way into all the markets. 
 
 Packing .—Australia is selling its fruit to this market on price. 
 American fruit is being sold on quality. While the better quality is 
 acknowledged in the trade, American shippers are not taking full 
 advantage of this difference, as the quality is somewhat leveled by 
 the time the fruit reaches the consumer through exposure to the heat 
 and humidity of the Tropics. The Australian fruit is packed in cans 
 of from 9 to 10 pounds each, six tins to the case. The Australians 
 have not yet worked out this packing problem, as it has been found 
 that some fruits can not be packed in cans, even when lined with 
 oiled paper, without setting up a chemical action that destroys the 
 value of the fruit. Raisins and currants have been most successfully 
 packed in this way. On the other hand, the American custom is to 
 pack the fruit in 10-pound boxes, six to the case, the large container 
 being tin lined and hermetically sealed. While this preserves the 
 
284 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 fruit en route, as soon as it is opened the intense heat of the Tropics 
 begins its work. Importers, in discussing packing, say that incasing 
 each 10-pound package in tin would add greatly to the keeping 
 qualities, but they fear the additional cost would be too great. 
 Should an individual metal packing be devised for these small pack¬ 
 ages it might be so constructed that it could be closed each time a 
 sale is made by the retailer, as the action of this climate on dried 
 fruit is quick and the sale is slow. 
 
 Relative demand for the different varieties .—Apricots and prunes 
 have first claim on the taste in this market, while apples come next, 
 with peaches and pears at the end of the list. There is some demand 
 for raisins, and in normal times table raisins from Malaga, Spain, 
 w T ere used largely by the foreigners. To-day some table raisins are 
 imported from Australia, but they are seldom seen in the hotels or 
 in the shops. There is a small demand for seedless raisins. 
 
 The market .—Chinese and natives of the working classes and the 
 small shopkeepers seldom buy these fruits, the main demand being 
 from the Dutch and foreign population and from the wealthy Chi¬ 
 nese and high-born natives. 
 
 The establishment of trans-Pacific lines making good connections 
 with Java ports will give a stimulus to trade in dried fruits as well 
 as in other lines, but only provided the matter of packing is satisfac¬ 
 torily worked out and a strong selling service is established. Some 
 importers have had so unsatisfactory an experience in importing 
 dried fruits from the United States that they consider it a highly 
 hazardous business and prefer to leave it alone. 
 
 The demand for dried fruits in British Malaya is small, and, as it 
 is only the wealthier classes who can buy such expensive food, it is 
 concentrated in the western part of the Malay Peninsula, and espe¬ 
 cially in the cities. The growth of this trade depends on the care 
 with which the fruit is packed to resist the heat and humidity. One 
 lot of 2,000 cases of raisins packed in wooden cases and cartons, which 
 arrived on an overstocked market early in 1921, had to be shipped 
 out of the Tropics, as they would not keep until the market could ab¬ 
 sorb them. Dried fruit is a comparatively new item in the dietary 
 of the Tropics, but the trade is capable of considerable development 
 with careful working out of packing in units to fit the demands of 
 the trade. 
 
 WHEAT FLOUR. 
 
 The following table shows the imports of wheat flour for 1913, 
 1918, and 1919 into the Netherlands East Indies and for 1920 and 
 1921 into Java and Madoera only: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 1921 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tom. 
 807 
 888 
 2,873 
 90 
 84 
 
 Metric tons. 
 11 
 280 
 2,403 
 1,344 
 949 
 3,575 
 29,708 
 35 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tom. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 Hongkong.. 
 
 China. 
 
 347 
 
 2,939 
 
 119 
 
 299 
 
 10 
 
 35,105 
 
 50 
 
 3,165 
 
 2,988 
 
 1,684 
 
 1,384 
 
 665 
 
 17,455 
 
 28 
 
 705 
 435 
 4,124 
 3,150 
 114 
 21,311 
 49 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 43,262 
 326 
 
 48,330 
 
 38,305 
 
 38,869 | 27,369 
 
 29,888 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 285 
 
 The shorter ocean haul gives Australia a decided advantage in the 
 wheat-flour trade, and that colony holds the predominant position, 
 although there have been times when there were slight advantages 
 that allowed the Pacific coast mills to get a share of the business. 
 The Pacific coast millers have been alert and ready to come into the 
 market whenever the marketing conditions offered an opportunity. 
 In 1920 Australia put a partial embargo on the export of flour which 
 gave American millers an opportunity to get into the market, and 
 the exchange in silver made it possible in 1921 to transship some 
 quantities at Hongkong. 
 
 The Australian steamers of the Koninklijke Paketvaart Maatschap- 
 ^pij and the steamers of the Burns-Philp Line are the principal car¬ 
 riers of Australian flour, the former for the account of the general im¬ 
 porters and the latter for the Australian shipping and merchandising 
 firm of Burns, Philp & Co., which has branches in Java ports. The 
 business is done on small margins and there is considerable specula¬ 
 tion in it by the Chinese and Arab dealers, who are the intermediaries 
 between the importers and the bakers. 
 
 American flour has a good reputation on this market and, prices 
 being equal, there is an even chance to share the market with Austra¬ 
 lia. With American ships sailing direct from San Francisco, Port¬ 
 land, and Puget Sound and a well-equipped American importing 
 house in this colony prepared to do close merchandising, it is possible 
 that American flour would occasionally be able to get a small share 
 of the trade. Transshipment charges, and especially the roundabout 
 route via Japan and Singapore, make it impossible to compete. 
 
 The British Malaya market for flour is similar in many respects to 
 that of the Netherlands Indies. Freight rates favor Australia as 
 against the Pacific coast of the United States, and the coarse flours 
 of the China coast find a market for considerable quantities. The 
 imports for the Straits Settlements for 1919 were as follows: United 
 States, 111 tons; Australia, 38,173 tons; China, 5,044 tons; Hong¬ 
 kong, 6,936 tons; British India and Burma, 3,071 tons; Japan, 139 
 tons; and all others, 88 tons. 
 
 CORN MEAL. 
 
 In the following table are shown the imports of com meal for 1913, 
 1918, and 1919 into the Netherlands East' Indies and for 1920 and 
 1921 into Java and Madoera only: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 i 
 
 19211 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 32 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 1 
 
 41 
 
 112 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 Metric tons. 
 2 
 73 
 19 
 
 Metric tons. 
 6 
 
 55 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 3 
 
 110 
 
 1 
 
 United States. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 37 
 
 179 
 
 98 
 
 62 
 
 114 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 This trade is small and is generally in package goods. Corn 
 meal is commonly known in the local market as “ maizena.” The 
 trade is shared between the United Statfes and Australia, the Ameri- 
 
286 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 can product being the more popular. Careful selling and advertis¬ 
 ing would undoubtedly develop a larger market. 
 
 Oatmeal .—One American brand of oatmeal, put up under brand 
 in packages, has a considerable trade in the colony, which is capable 
 of development by advertising and a careful sales campaign. 
 
 The sale of breakfast foods is to the Dutch population and the bet¬ 
 ter classes of Chinese. The possible market is with approximately 
 2,000,000 people under the present development of the population. 
 
 BISCUITS. 
 
 American biscuits have been on the Java market, but an effort to 
 get a place in the trade has failed. Australian biscuits (Swallow & 
 Ariel), English biscuits (Huntley & Palmer), and Irish biscuits 
 (Jacobs Bros.) are to be found in the shops, and all are enjoying a 
 good trade. 
 
 Following are the imports of biscuits into Java and Madoera, by 
 countries, for 1919, 1920, and 1921: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 1921 
 
 Np.thfirlands. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 85,247 
 299,320 
 6,922 
 45,849 
 1,771 
 22,217 
 559,625 
 40 
 
 Kilos. 
 216,635 
 929,109 
 3,044 
 29,182 
 5,920 
 2,480 
 872,256 
 52 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 347,000 
 
 228,000 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 32,000 
 
 China and Hongkong. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 252,000 
 
 23,000 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,020,991 
 
 2,058,678 
 
 882,000 
 
 
 There is no reason why American biscuits should not occupy an 
 important place in this trade. Inasmuch as American biscuits are 
 equal in every respect to the competitive manufactures the problem 
 is not one of manufacturing but of packing and merchandising. 
 
 In the Tropics climatic conditions require that all biscuit cans be 
 hermetically sealed. European manufacturers wrap the cans in 
 waxed paper, neatly sealed so that the distinctive label shows 
 through. Fruit biscuits do not keep well, even when tightly sealed. 
 
 From the nature of the material it would seem that any attempt 
 to introduce American biscuits would have to be based on a quick 
 campaign that would insure a rapid turnover or the limiting of the 
 sale to a few exclusive dealers. Biscuits kept on the shelves for long 
 periods are sure to be unsatisfactory to the consumer. 
 
 Swallow & Ariel, of Sydney, and Jacobs Bros, and Huntley & 
 Palmer, of the United Kingdom, are the suppliers of most of the 
 biscuits sold in British Malaya. American biscuits are not on the 
 market. Jacobs Bros, take the lead in the trade in soda biscuits, 
 while the other two companies do a large business in sweet biscuits. 
 Values of imports for 1920, in Straits dollars, were S$2,653,153, of 
 which S$2,020,441 came from the United Kingdom and S$537,680 
 from Australia. (1 Straits dollar=$0.5678 mint par U. S.) 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 287 
 
 HAM. 
 
 So large a part of the imports of pork into the Netherlands East 
 Indies is made up of hams that the customs authorities class all 
 pork or ham in the returns. 
 
 The following table shows the imports for 1913, 1917, 1918, and 
 1919 for the whole colony, the figures for 1920 and 1921 being for 
 Java and Madoera only: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 i 
 
 United States. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 Kilos. 
 7,673 
 55,180 
 10,062 
 2,489 
 1,905 
 13.799 
 137,438 
 10,688 
 
 Kilos. 
 5,587 
 8,711 
 46,338 
 3,884 
 10,581 
 
 Kilos. 
 7,929 
 20,798 
 14,005 
 1,514 
 1,569 
 693 
 252,069 
 6,902 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 1,429 
 
 29,020 
 
 1,646 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 3,286 
 
 25,247 
 
 1,856 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 Penang. 
 
 173,136 
 5,333 
 2,236 
 2,704 
 21,043 
 84,239 
 
 Hongkong and China. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 3,002 
 
 4,900 
 
 276,060 
 
 1,651 
 
 2,725 
 
 4,064 
 
 276,359 
 
 Australia. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 186,591 
 
 26,376 
 
 Germany. 
 
 9,253 
 
 1,234 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,099 
 
 1,522 
 
 1,582 
 
 340 
 
 1,609 
 
 299,178 
 
 240,333 
 
 289,590 
 
 307,061 
 
 318,048 
 
 315,146 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 % 
 
 Much the largest part of the pork imported is for the Chinese 
 trade, but there is also a considerable trade with the white and half- . 
 caste population, as the Dutch breakfast table is not complete without 
 cold sliced ham. The natives, being Mohammedans, never touch pork 
 in any form. Many of the Chinese can not afford pork as a regular 
 diet and many of them rarely use it except on festive occasions. One 
 importer states that fully 60 per cent of his year’s business in this 
 commodity is for the Chinese New Year festivities. 
 
 The Australian packers at first sent to this colony hams cured like 
 those sold in the home market, but after a few disastrous shipments 
 they decided on a heavier smoke, and their hams are now giv¬ 
 ing very good satisfaction. Their representatives are constantly in 
 Java watching the trade and are ready to meet whatever competition 
 comes. 
 
 Shipments from America arrive occasionally, in spite of the ad¬ 
 vantages Australia has in point of nearness to the market, and there 
 is no complaint against the quality. One importer stated: “Your 
 smoke is right and your packing is right, but your prices are too 
 high.” 
 
 British Malaya’s principal source of supply for hams and bacon is 
 Australia, with Hongkong and China taking the second place. The 
 China pork is of a poorer quality. The imports for 1920 were 
 S$745,824, of which S$459,284 came from Australia, S$181,764 from 
 Hongkong and China, S$84,578 from the United Kingdom, and 
 S$19,383 from the United States. (Values are in Straits dollars, 1 
 Straits dollar equaling $0.5678 mint par U. S.) 
 
 CHEMICALS. 
 
 The agriculture of the Netherlands East Indies requires large 
 quantities of chemicals, both for fertilizers and for combating plant 
 diseases and pests, and the industries take considerable quantities. 
 
288 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The sugar industry ranks first, principally as a market for sulphate 
 of ammonia and phosphates. 
 
 The tobacco planters of Java buy large quantities of phosphates, 
 lead arsenate, Paris green, and other chemicals. The purchases . 
 are made either through their home offices in the Netherlands or 
 from the Java importing houses. About 90 per cent of the area 
 under tobacco in the Sumatra East Coast district is controlled by 
 one company, which buys its supplies of chemicals in the Nether¬ 
 lands, but the importers in Medan, Sumatra, and Penang (Straits 
 Settlements) bid for the business and carry stocks for the needs of 
 the other agricultural enterprises. 
 
 The rubber plantations in both colonies use large quantities of 
 phenols for the prevention and cure of diseases, but no fertilizer. 
 
 The ice factories, aerated-water factories, quinine and cocaine fac¬ 
 tories, and other industries use considerable quantities of chemicals, 
 which have to be imported. 
 
 The Minister of Agriculture at The Hague issues the Codex 
 Meststoffe, which describes in detail the requirements for fertilizers 
 used in the Netherlands East Indies. 
 
 PRINCIPAL CHEMICAL PRODUCTS IN DEMAND. 
 
 • 
 
 Acetic acid (CH 3 COOH).—Acetic acid is used in large quantities 
 for coagulating the latex from the rubber trees. The supply taken 
 by the Netherlands Indies came principally from Germany before 
 the war, and when that source was cut off the trade went to Japan. 
 At first there were serious complaints against the quality of the 
 Japanese product, but later it was improved and for several years 
 has been satisfactory in all respects. American factories have sup¬ 
 plied some of the demand, but no permanent success has been made 
 in securing a share of this trade. 
 
 Before 1919 no figures of acetic-acid imports into the Netherlands 
 Indies were given in the returns. The imports for 1919 and 1920, 
 by countries of origin, are shown in the following table: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 146 
 
 50 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 73 
 
 81 
 
 18 
 
 90 
 
 306 
 
 31 
 
 United States... 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Penang and Singapore. 
 
 Japan .1.. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 220 
 
 599 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 In British Malaya glacial acetic acid, as in the Netherlands 
 East Indies, is used for coagulating the latex from rubber trees. 
 With a normal production of rubber there are about 5,000 demijohns 
 of 44 pounds each used every month. The Japanese factories sup¬ 
 ply most of the demand, and although American factories have 
 shipped in small quantities, they have gained no share of the trade. 
 
 The quality is 99 to 100 per cent pure and must be guaranteed 
 absolutely free from all traces of copper and other minerals, as the 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 289 
 
 slightest trace of mineral substances will lower the grade of the rub¬ 
 ber produced. Water-white color is preferred in British Malaya. 
 
 Packing is in demijohns of 44 pounds net, double wickered and 
 packed two demijohns in a strong wooden case, securely strapped 
 with iron, mouth of demijohn to be securely corked and sealed with 
 wax. 
 
 Alum (A1 2 (S0 4 ) 3 .K 2 S0 4 .24H 2 0).—Alum is used in the Nether¬ 
 lands East Indies by apothecaries and photographers, as in other 
 countries, but the amounts used for these purposes are small. Large 
 quantities are employed in some parts of the colony for softening 
 and clarifying water for cattle, and considerable quantities are taken 
 by ice factories, while some alum is used for coagulating rubber. 
 
 Of the 359 metric tons imported by the Netherlands Indies in 
 1913, 164 tons came from the Netherlands, 20 tons from England, 
 23 tons from Germany, and 119 tons from Belgium, while Singapore, 
 Penang, and Hongkong had no share in the trade. Of the 1,620 tons 
 imported in 1919, 12 tons came from the Netherlands, 67 tons from 
 England, 231 tons from Japan, 938 tons from Penang and Singa¬ 
 pore, and 365 tons from Hongkong. In 1920 Java and Madoera im¬ 
 ported 821 tons, 160 tons of which came from the Netherlands, 36 
 tons from the United States, 221 tons from Great Britain, 108 tons 
 from Singapore, 154 tons from Hongkong, and the balance from 
 Germany, Belgium, and Japan. 
 
 In British Malaya powdered alum is used to some extent as a 
 coagulant for making rubber from latex, but to a less extent than 
 formerly, as the price of acetic acid has brought that chemical into 
 closer competition. The Government does not look favorably on the 
 use of alum as a coagulant. 
 
 Packing is in kegs of 112 pounds net for the general trade and in 
 60-kilo barrels for the ice factories. 
 
 Ammonia , anhydrous (NH 3 ).—There is a good demand for an¬ 
 hydrous ammonia in British Malaya for use in the ice factories. Im¬ 
 porters emphasize that it shall be pure and dry. It is packed in 
 steel cylinders of 100 or 150 pounds net. 
 
 Ammonium carbonate .—There is a small demand in British 
 Malaya for carbonate of ammonia in cases of four 25-pound tins. 
 
 Ammonium sulphate ((NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 ).—The Suiker Proefstation van 
 Oost Java, which has access to the figures of all but three of the 
 mills, states that the sugar culture alone uses from 900,000 to 1,000,- 
 000 piculs of ammonium sulphate a year (56,000 to 62,000 tons). 
 This would amount to about 4 piculs to the bouw, or 2J piculs (1 
 picul=136 pounds) to the acre. 
 
 There is a wide variation in the amounts of ammonium sulphate 
 used by the different estates in the Netherlands East Indies. Some 
 lands recently reclaimed from the jungle do not require any, while 
 the older estates, where the soil is heavy, use up to 10 pfculs to the 
 bouw (about 800 pounds to the acre). It is claimed that no other 
 artificial fertilizer is so suitable to the cultivation of sugar, although 
 in some cases the margin of superiority is small. It is put on the 
 ground usually in a powdered form, but in some sections it is mixed 
 with water to prevent theft. Considerable labor is required to work 
 all other fertilizers into the soil, and at times when the men are 
 
290 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 needed for other work, but sulphate of ammonia is fed to the soil 
 by women after the planting is finished. This method is exact and 
 easily controlled. 
 
 Packing is usually in bags of 112 to 200 pounds. The American 
 product has been found to be satisfactory, and the only serious com¬ 
 plaint has been of the difficulty in getting supplies. The planters 
 buy from the importers on the basis of nitrogen content, 25 per cent 
 NH 3 being the usual guaranty. Care should be taken to stow the 
 bags in a dry place, as water dissolves the salts and causes the whole 
 to cake and the bags to rot more quickly than they otherwise would. 
 Ammonium sulphate should be free from sodium, and should not 
 contain more than 1 per cent of free sulphuric acid. 
 
 The following table shows the imports of ammonium sulphate into 
 the Netherlands East Indies since 1915 by countries of origin. Be¬ 
 fore 1915 the imports were given in values only, and, as the arbitrary 
 method of valuation used makes such figures valueless for compari¬ 
 son, the imports of earlier years are not given. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 United States. 
 
 Metric tom. 
 4,027 
 
 Metric tons. 
 156 
 
 Metric tons. 
 20 
 
 1,066 
 
 16,005 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 373 
 
 Metric tom. 
 660 
 10,838 
 14,272 
 
 Metric tom. 
 1,289 
 47,298 
 30,348 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 100,205 
 112 
 299 
 81 
 2,197 
 
 85,084 
 
 British possessions. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 China. 
 
 1,301 
 537 
 3,798 
 
 2,871 
 15,106 
 4,970 
 1,591 
 
 4,179 
 7,727 
 6,007 
 
 1,035 
 2,837 
 4,894 
 
 3,785 
 24,250 
 4,583 
 
 All other. 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 
 106,923 
 
 90,876 
 
 41,629 
 
 18,286 
 
 34,550 
 
 111,553 
 
 106,753 
 
 170 
 
 90,729 
 147 
 
 41,430 
 
 199 
 
 17,847 
 439 
 
 34,478 
 
 72 
 
 111, 553 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 In 1915 England supplied 93 per cent of the total imports shown 
 in the preceding table and the Netherlands supplied 4 per cent. 
 The United States appeared in the returns for the first time in 1917. 
 In that year the imports dropped 54 per cent below 1916 and 61 per 
 cent below 1915. Great Britain supplied 38 per cent; Japan supplied 
 36 per cent; Australia, 12 per cent; British India, Singapore, and 
 Hongkong, 7 per cent; China, 3 per cent; and the United States, 2 
 per cent. During 1918 and 1919 it was impossible to get supplies on 
 account of the shortage of tonnage and the inability of the producing 
 countries to make shipments, but in 1920 the imports jumped to 
 normal, at 111,553 tons, of which 42 per cent came from the United 
 States, 27 per cent from Great Britain, and 22 per cent from Japan. 
 
 Aniline dyes .—The following table shows the quantity of aniline 
 dyes imported into the Netherlands East Indies in the years 1913, 
 1917, 1918, 1919, 1920, and the first 11 months of 1921: 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 291 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 19211 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 144,239 
 
 Kilos. 
 27,437 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 8,450 
 8,514 
 
 Kilos. 
 49,016 
 14,286 
 9,323 
 2,500 
 5,743 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 95,385 
 
 1,862 
 
 1,755 
 
 Kilos. 
 
 74,959 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 2,004 
 
 
 
 France. 
 
 
 
 
 Germany. 
 
 105,928 
 
 11,396 
 
 1,126 
 
 
 61,054 
 12,691 
 4,105 
 
 90,891 
 2,043 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 
 
 6,750 
 
 367 
 
 1,557 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 68,125 
 1,096 
 
 2,544 
 322 
 
 ■ 
 
 3,427 
 1,131 
 
 All other. 
 
 19 
 
 1,029 
 
 Total. 
 
 332,788 
 
 31,429 
 
 16,983 
 
 89,542 
 
 177,881 
 
 172,451 
 
 
 1 First 11 months. 
 
 Note.— The figures for 1913, 1917, 1918, and 1919 include imports into Java and Madoera and the 
 Outer Possessions, while the figures for 1920 and 1921 are for Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The larger part of the increased imports of dyes from the Nether¬ 
 lands must be credited to Germany, as well as that part coming 
 direct. American dyes are not regarded favorably, and American 
 manufacturers will have to use their utmost efforts in order to retain 
 a place in this field. If they can win in this market, it may be 
 taken as proof that they can win in any other of the world’s mar¬ 
 kets, as the prestige of German dye manufactures is high, and the 
 German manufacturers’ acquaintance with the trade is thorough. 
 
 Basic slag (Thomas 'phosphate ).—Basic slag, or Thomas phos-* 
 phate, is used to a considerable extent in the tobacco fields of the Su¬ 
 matra East Coast. Purchases are made direct by the estates through 
 Medan importers and from importers in Singapore and Penang; also 
 through the Netherlands offices of the tobacco companies, as outlined 
 below. The basis of price is 17 per cent phosphoric acid, soluble in 
 
 mineral acid, of which 80 per cent must be soluble in a 2 per cent 
 
 citric-acid solution. 
 
 By basic slag is understood the product obtained by the milling 
 of the slag left after making steel from phosphorus-bearing iron, 
 according to the Thomas-Gilchrist or similar processes, without any 
 addition taking place during this milling. 
 
 Basic slag must contain 15 per cent phosphoric acid soluble in 
 
 mineral acid, of which 80 per cent must be soluble in a 2 per cent 
 
 citric-acid solution, according to the Wagner method, unless the 
 content of phosphoric acid soluble in mineral acid is more than 16.5 
 per cent. (In both cases with a margin of 5 per cent.) 
 
 For failure to comply with these requirements the following allow¬ 
 ances shall be made: 
 
 By an ascertained content of less than 16.5 per cent phosphoric 
 acid and a solubility of 74 per cent to and including 70 per cent, 5 
 per cent of the purchase price; while by a solubility of less than 70 
 per cent the lot can be refused, or, if this is no longer possible, an 
 allowance of at least 25 per cent must be made. 
 
 By an ascertained content of more than 16.5 per cent phosphoric 
 acid and a solubility of 69 per cent to and including 65 per cent, 5 
 per cent of the purchase price; while by a solubility of less than 65 
 per cent the lot can be refused, or, if this is not possible, an allowance 
 of at least 25 per cent must be made. 
 
 These figures relate to basic slag sold without guaranty. In a 
 sale with guaranteed content, the stuff supplied must agree with the 
 
 19878°—23-20 
 
292 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 guaranty, but still 80 per cent, respectively 75 per cent of the content 
 which is soluble in mineral acid, shall be soluble in a 2 per cent citric- 
 acid solution, as given above. For noncompliance with this require¬ 
 ment of solubility the same allowance shall be made. 
 
 Basic slag must be milled so fine that the content of flour, accord¬ 
 ing to the methods followed by the Rijkslandbouwproefstations 
 (Government laboratories), must be 75 per cent. The product must 
 be capable of sowing by machine, and therefore free from rough par¬ 
 ticles of steel. 
 
 If the content of fineness is not up to requirements, the following 
 allowances must be made: 69 per cent, 6 per cent of the purchase 
 price; 68 per cent, 8 per cent of the purchase price; 67 per cent, 10 
 per cent of the purchase price; 66 per cent, 12 per cent of the purchase 
 price; 65 per cent, 14 per cent of the purchase price; while below 65 
 per cent the lot can be refused, or, if this is not possible, an allow¬ 
 ance must be made of at least 25 per cent of the purchase price. 
 
 A considerable quantity of basic slag is used on the East Coast of 
 Sumatra for fertilizing tobacco. American quotations are to be 
 made c. i. f. Belawan, Sumatra, packing to be in new double bags of 2 
 hundredweight (224 pounds) each. 
 
 Tenders for supply of basic slag are usually called for in March or 
 April by the local administrators of tobacco companies at Medan, 
 such as Deli Maatschappij, Medan Tabak Mij., Deli Batavia Mij., 
 Senembah Maatschappij, and Amsterdam Deli Cie., of Amsterdam; 
 and Bunge & Co., Rotterdam Deli Mij., United Lankat Plantations 
 Co. (Ltd.), Amsterdam Serdang Tabak Mij., and Amsterdam Lankat 
 Cie., of Rotterdam. 
 
 When offers based on quotations are submitted to the head admin¬ 
 istrations of the tobacco companies in Sumatra, they are referred to 
 the directors in the Netherlands. When business is brought about 
 through the efforts of the Straits Settlements or Medan importers, 
 manufacturers should protect such importers to the extent of a rea¬ 
 sonable commission. 
 
 To save loss of exchange, etc., most of the payments are made 
 in Europe, and this will probably be the course adopted by the large 
 tobacco companies. Most of the business is quoted f. o. b. English 
 port, all shipping charges and insurance to be effected by suppliers 
 on behalf and for account of buyers, but, where feasible, consumers 
 will be glad to have a c. i. f. Belawan quotation. 
 
 The proper course to be pursued in order to secure tenders, pro¬ 
 vided prices are right, is to appoint an agent in the Netherlands 
 who can correspond in the Dutch language with the head directors 
 and quote prices to them, adding a reasonable commission for the 
 importer who initiated the business. 
 
 A copy of translation from the Indische Cultuur Alamank of 1913 
 follows: 
 
 Basic slag 17 per cent total phosphoric acid at - per bag of 100 kilos 
 
 gross, c. i. f. Belawan; 80 per cent (tolerance, 5 per cent) soluble in a 3 per 
 cent citric-acid solution; fineness, 80 to 90 per cent; further conditions as per 
 regulations for fertilizers as per Indische Cultuur Almanak 1913. 
 
 Samples of all shipments from Europe are analyzed at the labora¬ 
 tory at Hoorn and a certificate is issued. This certificate is generally 
 accepted as sufficient evidence of the quality of the fertilizer, but 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 293 
 
 when desired further samples can be drawn at Belawan in the pres¬ 
 ence of both buyer and seller and analyzed by the Deli proof station 
 at Medan. 
 
 The basic slag generally imported into Sumatra has a higher per¬ 
 centage of phosphoric acid than that ordinarily supplied by British 
 firms. The usual quality sold ranges in content of phosphoric acid 
 from 17 per cent to 21 per cent basis, 17 per cent excess paid for pro 
 rata. Many estates prefer to get a content of about 20 per cent 
 phosphoric acid, but it all depends on the quality of that chemical 
 required by the soil. 
 
 It is for practical purposes impossible to adjust the content of 
 phosphoric acid on the estates by the addition of sand or earth. 
 Where a soil requires a large quantity of phosphoric acid there is a 
 saving in freight by importing basic slag of 21 per cent, the economy 
 being in the same proportion as the content of phosphoric acid; that 
 is, it would take 21 bags of 17 per cent to fertilize the same area as 
 17 bags of 21 per cent. 
 
 The food in basic slag does not become available to the plant so 
 readily as in the case of superphosphate and some other fertilizers. 
 Agriculturists are therefore adopting a uniform procedure of ap¬ 
 plying the fertilizer to the land some time before planting commences, 
 so as to have the plant food available by the time it is wanted. 
 
 It is important to secure cheap and timely freights. No question 
 of “ force majeure ” or other reason for failure to deliver on time will 
 be accepted by the planters of the East Coast of Sumatra. The 
 fertilizer must arrive in time for the crop or the sellers will have to 
 buy locally. This would mean a big loss, owing to the high price of 
 fertilizer when bought from the stock in Sumatra. 
 
 Boric add (H 3 B0 3 ).—There is a small, steady demand in British 
 Malaya for boric acid in powder form for the retail drug trade. 
 Packing is in kegs of 1 hundredweight (112 pounds). 
 
 Calcium carbide (CaC 2 ).—Calcium carbide is used in large quan¬ 
 tities in the Netherlands East Indies for signal and station lights, 
 lighthouses, and port lights and for lighting the tin mines, as well 
 as for the ordinary purposes of the population'. 
 
 There is a factory at Poerworedjo, Java, producing small quan¬ 
 tities, which it is proposed to enlarge. A project was under way 
 some time ago to build a large chemical plant in Sumatra, utilizing 
 the falls of the Asahan River to produce the necessary power, but 
 nothing has been heard of the developments since the financial 
 stringency began to be felt. It was proposed to produce calcium 
 carbide in this plant, as well as other chemicals. 
 
294 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The imports of calcium carbide into the Netherlands East Indies, 
 by countries of origin, are shown in the following table: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 339 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 11 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 99 
 
 United States. 
 
 360 
 
 294 
 
 87 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 21 
 
 139 
 
 Germany. 
 
 326 
 
 
 
 Sweden and Norway. 
 
 7 
 
 
 72 
 
 564 
 
 Japan.... 
 
 
 1,285 
 
 184 
 
 293 
 
 1 
 
 All other. 
 
 22 . 
 
 98 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 715 
 
 1,829 
 
 76.8 
 
 891 
 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 523 
 
 1,547 
 
 282 
 
 437 
 
 891 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 192 
 
 331 . 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The Netherlands and Germany controlled this trade before the 
 war, as shown in the 1913 returns, but since the war the United States 
 and Japan have held important places. In 1920 Sweden and Norway 
 supplied the largest part (65 per cent), while England supplied 16 
 per cent, the Netherlands 11 per cent, and the United States a scant 
 10 per cent. 
 
 In British Malaya there is a steady but gradually decreasing de¬ 
 mand for calcium carbide in lumps or pieces of one-half inch in 
 diameter. From trade sources it is learned that England, Japan, 
 and Sweden are the principal countries supplying the trade, and a 
 Canadian product is being imported which is giving satisfaction. 
 Packing: In 100-pound drums with wooden covers. 
 
 Calcium chloride , crystallized (CaCl 2 .6H 2 0).—Crystallized cal¬ 
 cium chloride is used in the Netherlands Indies in small quantities 
 for making ice. It is packed in strong iron drums- to contain from 
 200 to 225 kilos. The American drum used in the domestic trade 
 is too light for shipment to this market. 
 
 This chemical is also used by the ice factories in British Malaya, 
 but the trade is not large. Quality: 73 to 75 per cent; powdered 
 preferred. Packing: In iron drums of 5 hundredweight (560 
 pounds). 
 
 Calcium chloride , anhydrous (CaCl 2 ).—Anhydrous calcium chlo¬ 
 ride is used in the laboratories (of which there are a large number 
 in the Netherlands East Indies) and in the manufacture of quinine 
 (Bandoengsche Kinniefabriek, Bandoeng, Java). 
 
 Chloroform (CHC1 3 ).—Chloroform is used in the cocaine factory 
 at Soekaboemi, Java, in the extraction of cocaine (N. Y. Java Co- 
 cainefabriek) from coca leaves and for the usual purposes in the 
 laboratories and hospitals. It is imported for the apothecaries in 
 1-pound bottles, packed 50 bottles to the case. All liquids should 
 be carefully packed in sawdust. 
 
 Chloroform is imported into British Malaya by the dispensaries, 
 which sell it under license. The import is small. 
 
 Citric acid (C 6 H 8 0 7 ).—In British Malaya citric acid is used in 
 considerable quantities in the manufacture of aerated waters, of 
 which there is a large per capita consumption. Formerly it came 
 from Italy, but the American product is becoming known and now 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 295 
 
 has an important place in the trade. Packing: In kegs of 1 hundred¬ 
 weight (112 pounds) and in 1-pound tins in cases. 
 
 Ferrous sulphate (sulphate of iron or green vitriol) (FeS0 4 . 
 7H 2 0).—In the Netherlands Indies sulphate of iron is used by the 
 apothecaries and in the tanneries. There is a small factory in the 
 colony making ink that uses a small quantity, but its production is 
 negligible. 
 
 Formaldehyde (HCOH).—Formaldehyde is used as an anticoagu¬ 
 lant for rubber and for disinfecting the machines, tanks, and other 
 equipment coming in contact with latex and rubber. It is diluted 
 to one-fortieth when used as an anticoagulant and to stronger solu¬ 
 tions when used as a disinfectant. The consumption is steady. There 
 are no means of knowing the quantities used in the Netherlands East 
 Indies, but the consumption in British Malaya is approximately 2 
 tons per month. From trade sources it is learned that England is 
 supplying the principal part of the imports, while some quantities 
 are coming from the United States and Germany. 
 
 Quality: Nominally 40 per cent solution, but actually runs a little 
 lower. Packing: Same as for acetic acid. 
 
 Formic acid (HCOOH).—Formic acid was formerly used in British 
 Malaya to some extent for the coagulation of latex, but owing to the 
 lower price of acetic acid it is no longer used. 
 
 Chemical guano. —Chemical guano is imported into the ports of the 
 Straits Settlements for resale to the planters of the East Coast of 
 Sumatra. It is used in various compositions and must contain nitro¬ 
 gen, phosphoric acid, and potash. The supply comes from England 
 and Germany. The Anglo & Continental Guano Works of London 
 and Germany is one of the principal suppliers. The Kali Syndikat 
 of Germany is another big supplier, and is said practically to control 
 the price, which is fixed according to the percentage of phosphoric 
 acid, nitrogen, and potash content. Anything below specifications is 
 subject to rebate. Different estates require different content. 
 
 Gypsum (CaS0 4 .2H 2 0).—Gypsum is not used to any extent in the 
 Netherlands East Indies, and is not an important article of commerce 
 in British Malaya. Small quantities are produced in the Residency 
 of Cheribon, and a chemical factory in Soerabaya, producing super¬ 
 phosphates from bone, also produces gypsum, for which there is no 
 available market. 
 
 Hematite (Fe 2 0 3 ).—Hematite, or red oxide of iron, is used in the 
 Netherlands East Indies in large quantities for paints and for polish¬ 
 ing glass and marble. It is called “ dodekap ” or “ ijzermenie ” by the 
 local trade, and is stocked by the machinery importers and the general 
 importers. 
 
 Hematite is usually imported into British Malaya in dry form, but 
 also comes ground in oil. It is used in large quantities, particularly 
 for painting structural and other iron work. 
 
 Hydrochloric acid (HC1).—There is a small sale of hydrochloric 
 acid in British Malaya. It is imported in 42-pound jars, when diluted 
 to muriatic acid of a specific gravity of 1.16, and in air-tight drums of 
 56 and 112 pounds net. 
 
 Lead arsenate. —Lead arsenate is used in considerable quantities by 
 the tobacco planters of Sumatra and Java for the treatment of to¬ 
 bacco plants. The “ proefstation ” of the Deli Maatschappij has is- 
 
296 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 sued the following circular, defining the requirements of the estates 
 of that company: 
 
 In view of the numerous shipments of lead arsenate which have been re¬ 
 jected as unfit for use on the tobacco plantations of Deli during this campaign, 
 we have undertaken an extensive investigation of the various parcels imported, 
 and the old conditions must be revised and amplified, of which you will please 
 inform your supplier. The new conditions are as follows: 
 
 Lead arsenate must be a light, fine powder, with a specific weight of 0.35 to 
 0.5, so that it will float in a liquid for a long time. It must not contain any 
 acids, such as sulphuric, nitric, etc., which is important as regards the burn¬ 
 ing of leaves, in view of the plant’s sensitiveness to acids. It must not contain 
 iron, or only traces of it. It must contain at least 60 per cent of lead oxide 
 (PbO) and a total of 30 per cent of arsenic pentoxide. It may further hold at 
 most 0.5 per cent of water-soluble arsenic pentoxide, a total of 0.5 per cent of 
 arsenic trioxide, and 0.1 per cent of water-soluble arsenic trioxide. The mois¬ 
 ture content, with regard to clotting, must not exceed 1 or 2 per cent. As to 
 packing, there are to be recommended iron drums, with a net content of 25 to 
 50 kilos. Such packing simplifies the task of taking samples and also reduces 
 the cost of the lead arsenate. 
 
 Red lead {minium) (Pb 3 0 4 ).—Red lead is used in considerable 
 quantities for making paint in the Netherlands East Indies, being 
 called “ menie ” or “ menium ” by the local trade. It is stocked by 
 the machinery importers and the general importers. Red lead is 
 imported into British Malaya in fairly large quantities for the ordi¬ 
 nary uses of the building and engineering trades. 
 
 Nitric acid (HNO s ).—There is a small demand in British Malaya 
 for nitric acid for the goldsmiths and other metal workers. Quality: 
 Specific gravity, 1.42. Packing: 56-pound carboys. 
 
 Oxalic acid (H 2 C 2 0 4 .2H 2 0).—Oxalic acid is imported into British 
 Malaya in small quantities for the dispensary trade. Quality: 98 to 
 100 per cent; crystals. Packing: Strong casks containing 112 
 pounds net. 
 
 Paris green {JSchweinfurt green). —Paris green is used by the 
 tobacco growers in Java and the East Coast of Sumatra for treating 
 tobacco leaves for the prevention of insect pests. In the pre-war 
 years it came from Germany and is again being imported from that 
 country. E. Merek, of Darmstadt, Germany, makes the product 
 most in demand. It is important that the Paris green should not 
 contain more than the stipulated margin of soluble arsenious oxide, 
 as this chemical burns the tobacco leaves. Further, it has sometimes 
 happened that green has been supplied which, on exposure to the 
 weather on the plants, resolves itself into its original constituents; 
 that is, the arsenious oxide came away from the other ingredients, 
 or, in other words, became free and soluble. Any such green would, 
 of course, be rejected by the buyers. 
 
 Quality: Must contain 56 to 58 per cent arsenious trioxide, of 
 which not more than 0.40 per cent should be water soluble. Packing: 
 In tins of 5 kilos, 20 tins to the case. Cases to be of strong wood, 
 heavily strapped with iron. 
 
 Phenol {carbolic acid) (C 6 H 5 OH).—Carbolic acid is only in small 
 demand in British Malaya as a disinfectant, and is sold chiefly 
 through the dispensaries. Soap factories do not make carbolic soap. 
 
 Potassium nitrate {saltpeter) (KNO a ).—Saltpeter is used in con¬ 
 siderable quantities in the Netherlands Indies for preserving meat 
 and in the manufacture of explosives. That which is used for pre¬ 
 serving meat must be pure. Packing: In cases of 112 pounds. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 297 
 
 Potassium nitrate was once employed in the tobacco culture of the 
 East Coast of Sumatra, but this use has been discontinued. It can 
 be used thus to advantage, however, price and quality being right. 
 
 There is no trade of any consequence in potassium nitrate in the 
 Straits Settlements markets. 
 
 Potassium sulphate (K 2 S0 4 ).—Potassium sulphate is used for fer¬ 
 tilizer in tobacco-seed beds and in final planting, mixed with am¬ 
 monium sulphate, superphosphates, and artificial guano. Large 
 quantities are used in the cultivation of tobacco in the Kesidency 
 of Sumatra East C-oast. The Deli Maatschappij requires a content 
 of 47-J per cent K 2 0. Packing: In 100-kilo bags. 
 
 Sodium 'bicarbonate (NaHC0 3 ).—There is a large consumption of 
 aerated waters in the Netherlands East Indies, as is indicated by the 
 number of factories in all parts of the colony. Bicarbonate of soda 
 is used by all of these factories for charging water. The imports 
 into the Netherlands Indies for 1918, 1919, and 1920 are shown in 
 the following table: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tom. 
 24 
 447 
 1,115 
 ' 70 
 
 85 
 50 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 372 
 
 461 
 
 1,776 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 United States. 
 
 263 
 
 412 
 
 718 
 
 154 
 
 135 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,682 
 
 1,791 
 
 2,633 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 1,488 
 
 194 
 
 1,720 
 
 70 
 
 2,633 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The imports into Java and Madoera show an increase in 1920 of 
 56 per cent over 1918 and 47 per cent over 1919, most of which is in 
 favor of Great Britain. Packing: In wooden barrels of 1 hundred¬ 
 weight (112 pounds). 
 
 In British Malaya also there is a good demand for bicarbonate of 
 soda from the many aerated-water factories. Brunner, Mond & Co. 
 and the United Alkali Co. do most of this business. Packing: In 
 casks of 5 hundredweight (560 pounds). 
 
 Sodium bisulphite (NaTIS0 3 ).—Bisulphite of sodium is used for 
 bleaching crepe rubber and also for sheet rubber by some estates. 
 Approximately three-fourths of a gram is used for every 150 grams 
 of dry crepe produced. If used in large proportion it is injurious 
 to the rubber. 
 
 There is no way of knowing how much of this chemical is used, 
 but the trade is of sufficient importance to interest American manu¬ 
 facturers. The larger native estates in British Malaya are begin¬ 
 ning to use it, the large European estates using it extensively. 
 
 Quality: 60 per cent S0 2 and not to contain more than 5 per cent 
 of neutral sodium sulphite. Packing: In air-tight drums of 56 and 
 112 pounds net. 
 
 Sodium carbonate (soda ash) (Na 2 C0 3 ).—Soda ash is used in 
 British Malaya in large quantities for the manufacture of soap. It 
 comes largely from England. Brunner, Mond & Co. and the United 
 Alkali Co. (English companies) are the principal suppliers. 
 
298 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Quality: 58 per cent. Packing: In barrels of 3 hundredweight 
 (336 pounds) and 5 hundredweight (560 pounds). 
 
 Sodium hydroxide {caustic soda) (NaOH).—Caustic soda is used 
 in considerable quantities in the manufacture of quinine and also by 
 the manufacturers of soap, and to a large extent in the sugar fac¬ 
 tories. The Netherlands Indies imports for 1913, 1917, 1918, 1919, 
 and 1920 are given in the following table: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,039 
 
 Metric tons. 
 20 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 3 
 
 Metric tons. 
 17 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 280 
 
 United States. 
 
 1,159 
 
 134 
 
 551 
 
 1,524 
 
 1,671 
 
 England. 
 
 1,521 
 
 271 
 
 942 
 
 1,362 
 
 Germanv. 
 
 42 
 
 Japan. 
 
 199 
 
 1,784 
 
 10 
 
 705 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 700 
 
 330 
 
 35 
 
 All other. 
 
 13 
 
 78 
 
 740 
 
 46 
 
 169 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 2,633 
 
 1,620 
 
 4,049 
 
 2,869 
 
 4,222 
 
 
 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 1,977 
 
 1,414 
 
 2,624 
 
 2,240 
 
 4,222 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 656 
 
 206 
 
 l'425 
 
 '629 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Before the war the trade with the Netherlands Indies in this 
 chemical was held by England and the Netherlands, but from 1917 
 on the United States has held the large bulk of the business, the 
 imports from Japan, it is claimed, being reexports of American 
 caustic soda. During 1920 the United States held first place, with 
 38 per cent of the total imports; England second, with 31 per cent; 
 and Japan third, with 16 per cent. Two English concerns do the 
 larger part of the British business. They trade-mark their product 
 and give a guaranty of the quality. 
 
 Various strengths of caustic soda are imported into the markets of 
 the Straits Settlements. The British manufacturers, Brunner, Mond 
 & Co. and the United Alkali Co., supply most of this trade. To 
 secure a share of the trade in British Malaya it is necessary for 
 American manufacturers to pack in strong export drums of 5 hun¬ 
 dredweight (560 pounds net), marked with the quality contained 
 and a brand, and to give an adequate guaranty of the quality in 
 addition to a competitive price. 
 
 Qualities in British Malaya are guaranteed as follows: 60 to 62 
 per cent, 70 to 72 per cent, 72 to 74 per cent, 74 to 76 per cent, and 
 76 per cent quality suitable for soap making. 
 
 The trade of Java requires 76 per cent pure caustic soda. Pack¬ 
 ing : In strong iron drums of 300 kilos each. 
 
 Sodium nitrate {Chile saltpeter) (NaNO s ).—Chile saltpeter is 
 used as a substitute for sulphate of ammonia on heavy soils when 
 supplies of the latter are not obtainable. In dry seasons it is equal to 
 sulphate of ammonia, but when there are heavy rains it is easily 
 washed away. One of the serious disadvantages of its use is that 
 the bags are liable to burn, with a consequent loss of a large per¬ 
 centage of the chemical. 
 
 Imports of this chemical into the Netherlands East Indies, by 
 countries, during the period 1915-1920 have been as follows: 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 299 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1915 
 
 1916 
 
 1917 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 10 
 
 Metric tons. 
 25 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 49 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 4 
 
 United States. 
 
 
 
 15,499 
 
 Great Britain and its colonies.. 
 
 41 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 Japan. 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 2,504 
 
 460 
 
 609 
 
 South America. 
 
 13,552 
 
 1,249 
 
 All other. 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 65 
 
 46 
 
 32 
 
 16,066 
 
 509 
 
 17,361 
 
 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 60 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 15,875 
 
 191 
 
 460 
 
 17,361 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 7 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The imports in 1918 showed a large increase both from South 
 America and from Japan, due largely to the difficulties connected 
 with getting a supply of sulphate of ammonia and to the effort on 
 the part of the Department of Agriculture to induce one of the 
 Royal Dutch Lines to operate a steamer on the South America run. 
 This resulted in one trip being made by the above-mentioned com¬ 
 pany, but the business did not warrant the continuance of the serv¬ 
 ice at that time. The imports in 1919 fell off materially, but in 
 1920 the United States appears as the origin of 15,000 tons. 
 
 Imports of sodium nitrate into British Malaya are of little 
 consequence, as sulphate of ammonia is preferred as a fertilizer by 
 the planters of the Sumatra East Coast, and little fertilizer is used 
 in the plantations of the peninsula. 
 
 Sodium silicate .—Sodium silicate is used in the soap factories of 
 British Malaya. The trade is almost entirely in the hands of British 
 manufacturers. It is claimed by the importers that the American 
 product is of an irregular quality. 
 
 Quality: Suitable for soap making. Packing: In strong export 
 barrels to contain 5 hundredweight (560 pounds). 
 
 Sodium sulphite (anhydrous salt N a 2 S0 3 ; crystallized 
 Na 2 S0 3 H 2 0).—These chemicals are used as anticoagulants to pre¬ 
 vent the latex forming lumps before it is coagulated in the factory. 
 It is generally issued to the tappers when they go out in the morning 
 so that they may put it into their pails as the latex is collected, but 
 some estates use it only in the factory. The proportions used are 
 about as follows: 20 per cent solution of crystallized sulphite or 
 10 per cent solution of anhydrous salt. Six cubic centimeters of 
 either solution is used for each liter of latex. No fair estimate of 
 the total consumption can be made, but it is considerable. 
 
 Quality: Must be anhydrous for the British Malayan trade. 
 Packing: In air-tight drums of 56 and 112 pounds net. 
 
 Sulphur .—Large quantities of sulphur are used in the sugar in¬ 
 dustry and in making sulphuric acid in the factories at Balikpapan 
 (Borneo) and at Soerabaya. The natives of Java collect sulphur in 
 many of the craters of the volcanoes, but the collection and trans¬ 
 portation involve an amount of labor that limits the quantities 
 obtained to small proportions. 
 
300 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Imports of sulphur into the Netherlands Indies, by countries, for 
 1913, 1918, 1919, and 1920 were as follows: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,149 
 80 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 10 
 
 1,258 
 
 United States. 
 
 
 217 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 Germany. 
 
 26 
 
 1,562 
 
 210 
 
 
 
 
 Italy. 
 
 
 207 
 
 2,861 
 
 1,429 
 
 3,224 
 
 Japan. 
 
 3,058 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 All other. 
 
 77 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 Total. 
 
 3,104 
 
 3,067 
 
 3,293 
 
 5,924 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 3,104 
 
 2,343 
 
 724 
 
 1,437 
 
 1,856 
 
 5,924 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The imports into the Outer Possessions were all for Balikpapan 
 except a few tons. The Balikpapan factory commenced operations 
 in a small way in 1916 and has developed to considerable propor¬ 
 tions. The increase of consumption is supplied from local produc¬ 
 tion of sulphur and a larger import of sulphur products. Before 
 the war the chief source of supply was Italy and its trade revived in 
 1920. In the latter year over 1,000 tons came from the United 
 States, but Japan held the first place. 
 
 Sulphur (sublimed quality) is imported into British Malaya in 
 cases containing 112 one-pound packages. It is used by the rubber 
 estates in combination with arsenic, lime, and sugar for killing white 
 ants. The quality is described as “ sublimed flowers of sulphur.” 
 
 Sulphur dioxide (S0 2 ).—Sulphur dioxide is used in small quanti¬ 
 ties in the ice factories of the Netherlands East Indies and British 
 Malaya. 
 
 Sulphuric acid (H 2 S0 4 ).—Sulphuric acid is used in some rubber- 
 estate factories for coagulating latex (but only to a small extent), 
 for making carbonic-acid gas, and for charging accumulator batter¬ 
 ies. as well as for general purposes to which it is put in other coun¬ 
 tries. There is one factory at Soerabaya and another at' Balikpapan. 
 
 The imports of this product into the Netherlands Indies in 1918, 
 1919, and 1920 are shown in the following table: 
 
 Countries of origin and desti¬ 
 nation. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 Technical. 
 
 Pure. 
 
 Technical. 
 
 Pure. 
 
 Technical. 
 
 Pure. 
 
 Netherlands: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 3 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 635 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 United States: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 261 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 6 
 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 Great Britain: 
 
 Java and Madoera__ - 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Singapore and Penang: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 9 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 Japan: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 474 
 
 29 
 
 859 
 
 29 
 
 582 
 
 39 
 
 Outer Possessions. 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 All other: 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 Outer possessions. 
 
 10 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 506 
 
 32 
 
 913 
 
 38 
 
 1,540 
 
 62 
 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 475 
 
 32 
 
 872 
 
 38 
 
 1, 498 
 
 62 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 31 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 301 
 
 In spite of an expected increase in local production, the imports of 
 the raw product for 1920 (for Java and Madoera only) show an in¬ 
 crease of 64 per cent over the total 1919 imports. The Netherlands 
 supplied 42 per cent of the total; Japan, 38 per cent; and the United 
 States, 17 per cent. 
 
 In British Malaya sulphuric acid is used largely for making 
 carbonic-acid gas and to a small extent for coagulating rubber latex. 
 
 Quality: 66° Baume. Packing: In stone jars or carboys of 100 
 pounds each, two to the crate, crates to be strongly made for export 
 and heavily strapped; also in 44-pound jars, packed two to the crate, 
 in 200-pound drums. 
 
 Sulphurous acid (H 2 S0 3 ) in solution .—Sulphurous acid in solu¬ 
 tion is made in the chemical factory at Soerabaya. There are no 
 imports of consequence into the Netherlands Indies. This product 
 is not used in the industries of British Malaya and is imported in 
 small quantities only for the dispensary trade. 
 
 Superphosphates (Ca(H 2 P0 4 ) 2 ) and double superphosphates .— 
 The imports of these chemicals are listed in the Netherlands East 
 Indies customs returns as phosphates and superphosphates. The 
 imports, by countries, for 1918, 1919, and 1920 were as follows: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 
 Metric tons. 
 1,105 
 1,260 
 852 
 
 United States. 
 
 311 
 5,743 
 
 679 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 1,753 
 
 634 
 
 Japan. 
 
 Singapore. 
 
 All otter. 
 
 395 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 6,737 
 
 2,390 
 
 3,612 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 5,539 
 1,198 
 
 1,655 
 735 
 
 3,612 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Prior to 1918 the imports of the chemicals just mentioned were 
 not shown separately. 
 
 The soils of the Residencies of Bantam, Cheribon, Pekalongan, 
 Semarang, Rembang, Madoera, and the northern part of Soerabaya 
 are particularly deficient in phosphates, and considerable quantities 
 of this fertilizer are used in those districts. 
 
 Double superphosphates are used in Java for the tobacco-seed beds, 
 as well as in the East Coast of Sumatra, the purchases for the latter 
 district being made about July 1 of each year. 
 
 In Soerabaya there is a factory making superphosphates from 
 bones, through the action of sulphuric acid, and an attempt has been 
 made to produce double superphosphates. The production is not 
 large. 
 
 Superphosphates and double superphosphates are imported into 
 the Straits Settlements ports principally for resale to the East 
 Coast district of Sumatra. Very little of these chemicals is used 
 in the Malay Peninsula. 
 
 Quality: Superphosphates, 19 per cent phosphoric acid; double 
 superphosphates, 39 to 40 per cent phosphoric acid. Packing: In 
 double bags containing approximately 200 pounds net. 
 
302 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Tar .—There are considerable quantities of coal tar imported into 
 the Netherlands East Indies, and wood tar is imported to a smaller 
 extent. The imports of coal tar and wood tar in 1915, 1919, and 
 1920 are shown below. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1915 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Coal tar. 
 
 Wood tar. 
 
 Coal tar. 
 
 Wood tar. 
 
 Coal tar. 
 
 W ood tar. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 United States.. . 
 
 Liters. 
 69,000 
 14,900 
 12,7t0 
 700 
 
 Liters. 
 13,800 
 
 Liters. 
 5,300 
 4, OCO 
 18,300 
 
 Liters. 
 1,300 
 1 , 4C0 
 
 Liters. 
 
 41.200 
 6,100 
 
 24.200 
 4,500 
 1,300 
 
 33,509 
 4,200 
 81,700 
 1,300 
 
 Liters. 
 
 3,500 
 
 400 
 
 300 
 
 21,100 
 
 5,100 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 100 
 7G0 
 500 
 800 
 1,000 
 
 Sweden and Norway. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 4,600 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 41,400 
 62,000 
 19,80 0 
 1,100 
 
 4,600 
 400 
 3,900 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 Australia. 
 
 39, 500 
 
 700 
 
 All other. 
 
 700 
 
 200 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 137,500 
 
 17,100 
 
 151,900 
 
 16,200 
 
 198,000 
 
 31,100 
 
 76,600 
 60,900 
 
 11,600 
 
 5,500 
 
 81,400 
 
 70,500 
 
 15,400 
 
 800 
 
 198,000 
 
 31,100 
 
 
 
 
 Very little tar is used as a binder on the roadways, largely because 
 of the high cost, but the various residency governments are faced 
 with the problem of providing some sort of an effective binder that 
 will prevent the destruction of the roads by the combination of 
 speeding automobiles and torrential rains. American producers of 
 road-building material will find the residency engineers to be inter¬ 
 ested in improved methods of road building, although the present 
 state of the government finance may not permit of their placing 
 orders now. 
 
 Coal tar is used in the prevention and cure of diseases of rubber 
 
 trees. 
 
 In British Malaya tar is used in considerable quantities for ships, 
 as a binder for road metaling, for painting laborers’ quarters, and 
 for treating rubber trees. Some Swedish or “ Stockholm ” tar is 
 imported, but the imports are mostly from Great Britain—“Glas¬ 
 gow” coal tar, packed in barrels of 4f to 5 hundredweight (532 to 
 560 pounds). Regarding this product, an importer is quoted as 
 follows: 
 
 The quality should be thick and have a large covering power, with great 
 consistency. During the war there were some trial shipments imported from 
 America and from Australia, but these did not approach the “ Glasgow ” re¬ 
 fined coal tar in quality, which is most suitable for ships’ use. The price 
 varies from 37 to 45 shillings per barrel c. i. f. Singapore or Penang. All coal- 
 tar barrels should have a brass label, showing the net contents, and should 
 bear a brand or trade-mark. 
 
 A coal tar is produced by the gas works at Singapore, but this 
 quality is not suitable for use by ships. It is sold to the rubber 
 estates for treating trees, painting coolie quarters, and other estate 
 
 uses. 
 
 The tar used in British Malaya for road making is a trade-marked 
 quality, known as Tarco, and comes from England. It is packed 
 in the same way as coal tar. Asphalt tar for road making is im¬ 
 ported in solid blocks, packed in cases, and is reboiled locally. This 
 effects a saving in transport and breakage. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 303 
 
 Pitch comes chiefly from England in barrels of from 4| to 5 
 hundredweight (532 to 560 pounds). 
 
 Tartaric acid (C 4 H 6 0 6 ).—Tartaric acid is used in British Malaya 
 in the manufacture of aerated waters, but not in large quantities. 
 Packing: In 1-hundredweight kegs and in 1-pound tins in cases. 
 
 Turpentine. —Turpentine is imported into British Malaya in small 
 but fairly regular quantities, according to information gathered from 
 the trade, and finds its largest sale through the ship chandlers. The 
 petroleum companies are putting out a turpentine substitute called 
 “ turpene,” which serves many of the purposes to which turpentine 
 is adapted. 
 
 CHEMICALS FOR COMBATING DISEASES OF RUBBER TREES. 
 
 For combating the diseases of rubber trees the following are a few 
 of the preparations used: 
 
 Carbolineum (soluble), or Carbolineum Plantarium. 
 
 Carbolineum Heveaum—an English product. 
 
 Jeyes’ Fluid—the trade name of a British-made disinfectant widely used 
 throughout the Orient. 
 
 Izal—also the trade name of a British product. 
 
 Brunoleum—the trade name of a British product. 
 
 Solignum—trade name. 
 
 Creoline is a trade name for a preparation used on the rubber estates for 
 treating the diseased branches of the rubber trees. There are considerable 
 quantities used. It comes largely from Australia and is packed in wooden 
 barrels containing 180 kilos. It has been imported in tins packed in cases, 
 but is said not to ship well in this packing. 
 
 The curative qualities in these products are the phenols and cresols 
 they contain. When these chemicals are for preventive purposes 
 a 5 per cent solution is used, and when for curing diseases a solution 
 of from 10 to 30 per cent, a fair average being 20 per cent. Of late 
 years prevention and cure are receiving more attention than for¬ 
 merly, and considerable quantities of these chemicals are used an¬ 
 nually. Formerly it was the practice to cut out diseased trees, but 
 to-day thinning out is more carefully done and planters go to great 
 lengths to save good producing trees. 
 
 PAPER TRADE. 
 
 Events of the past few years have developed a trade in printing 
 papers in Java that is very important. A number of papers in the 
 native languages have become established and efforts are constantly 
 being made to establish new ones. Many of these efforts are without 
 success, but they are indicative of an awakening of native thought 
 that means the eventual success of many new native-language pub¬ 
 lications. 
 
 There is a demand for art papers and the finer account-book 
 papers, but this is in a very small proportion to the trade as a whole. 
 
 American printing trade publications may be found in almost every 
 important printing office in Netherlands Indies. 
 
 NEWSPRINT PAPER. 
 
 The following statistics show the import of white newsprint paper 
 into the Netherlands East Indies, by countries, for 1913 (the last full 
 
304 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 pre-war year), 1918, and 1919 and into Java and Madoera only for 
 1920 and the first 11 months of 1921 (1 florin=$0,402 mint par 
 U. *S.): 
 
 Countries. 
 
 t 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 (11 
 months 
 only).i 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 93,000 
 
 Florins. 
 40,000 
 358,000 
 4,000 
 
 Florins. 
 72,000 
 628,000 
 22,000 
 16,000 
 106,000 
 9,000 
 97,000 
 11,000 
 
 Florins. 
 822,000 
 432,000 
 48,000 
 31,000 
 526,000 
 14,000 
 398,000 
 133,000 
 
 Florins. 
 
 323,000 
 
 237,000 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 10,000 
 30,000 
 
 Germany. 
 
 52,000 
 
 203,000 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 13,000 
 46,000 
 769, COO 
 30,000 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 8,000 
 
 Japan. 
 
 94,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 All other. 
 
 10,000 
 
 Total. 
 
 151,000 
 
 1,260,000 
 
 961,000 
 
 2,404,000 
 
 911,000 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 138,000 
 13,000 
 
 1,231,000 
 29,000 
 
 864,000 
 97,000 
 
 2,404,000 
 
 911,000 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 During the war years the number of newspapers printed in the 
 colony has increased greatly, as well as the consumption of paper, 
 and for this reason the pre-war figures are no criterion by which to 
 judge the trade of the future. Before the war the Netherlands was 
 the country of export for most of the supplies for the colony, but as 
 European products were cut off most of the supplies were drawn 
 from the United States and Japan. Owing to the reopening of 
 European sources of supply, the figures for 1920 and 1921 show a 
 return of a large percentage of the trade to European markets. The 
 percentages for 1921 up to November were as follows: Netherlands, 
 35 per cent; United States, 26 per cent; Scandinavian countries, 22 
 per cent; Japan, 10 per cent; and Germany, 6 per cent. 
 
 The section on advertising shows to some extent the volume of 
 business in newsprint paper in British Malaya. This is all bought 
 in flats, as there are no presses equipped to use roll paper. 
 
 WRITING AND BOOK PAPERS. 
 
 The appended statistics show the imports of writing paper for 
 the whole of the Netherlands East Indies, by countries, for 1913. 
 1918, and 1919 and for Java and Madoera only for 1920 and the first 
 11 months of 1921: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 1921 (11 
 months 
 only). 1 
 
 N ether lands. 
 
 Florins. 
 457,000 
 
 Florins. 
 55,000 
 270,000 
 31,000 
 
 Florins. 
 570,000 
 658,000 
 32,000 
 
 Florins. 
 
 2,218,000 
 
 573,000 
 
 84,000 
 
 120,000 
 
 181,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 17,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 37,000 
 
 Florins. 
 1,584,000 
 340,000 
 112,000 
 90,000 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 8,000 
 
 114,000 
 
 Germany and Austria. 
 
 Scandinavia. 
 
 79,000 
 
 149,000 
 
 Other European. 
 
 5,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 129,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 63,000 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 Japan. 
 
 79,000 
 1, 398,000 
 83,000 
 
 60,000 
 324,000 
 34,000 
 
 All other... 
 
 13,000 
 
 Total. 
 
 633,000 
 
 1,995,000 
 
 1,827,000 
 
 3,340,000 
 
 2,349,000 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 540,000 
 
 93,000 
 
 1,801,000 
 194,000 
 
 1,586,000 
 241,000 
 
 3,340,000 
 
 2,349,000 
 
 
 
 
 * Java and Madoera only. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 305 
 
 Before the war the Netherlands handled most of this business, 
 buying from all the European markets, but during the war most 
 of the buying was done by the colonial branches from the most con¬ 
 venient sources of supply, which were the United States and Japan. 
 In 1918 the Netherlands supplied but 3 per cent of the total imports, 
 while Japan supplied 70 per cent and the United States 13 per cent. 
 In 1919 the Netherlands regained a good part of the business, having 
 31 per cent of the total; the United States supplied 36 per cent, 
 Japan 18 per cent, and Scandinavia 8 per cent. 
 
 The imports into Java and Madoera only for 11 months of 1921 
 show a greater reaction to European sources of supply. The Nether¬ 
 lands as a country of origin of shipments supplied 67 per cent of 
 the total, the United States 15 per cent, and Great Britain 5 per cent, 
 while France, Belgium, Italy, and u Other European countries” sup¬ 
 plied 5 per cent. 
 
 In this colony very little book paper is bought, writing paper 
 being used for most of the books published. The principal require¬ 
 ments are for catalogues, periodicals, yearly company reports and 
 other commercial work, and for Government reports. 
 
 Most of the European writing papers are finished with a prepara¬ 
 tion of clay, which makes a heavy paper, but this finish is not durable, 
 and there is considerable trouble in using paper of this kind, as 
 the dust clogs the type. Since American writing paper has been 
 imported the printers have learned to appreciate its superior quality. 
 
 The British printers, unlike the Dutch, use book paper for their 
 books. Outside of Government publications, the production of books 
 in British Malaya is limited. 
 
 OLD NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 The following table shows the imports of old newspapers, h J 
 countries, for the Netherlands Indies during 1913, 1918, 1919, and 
 1920, the latter year for Java and Madoera only (1 florin=$0,402 
 mint par U. S.) : 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 Netherlands. . 
 
 Florins. 
 
 87,000 
 
 Florins. 
 
 2,000 
 
 511,000 
 
 Florins. 
 
 11,000 
 
 474,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 Florins. 
 80,000 
 1,535,000 
 58,000 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. . 
 
 390,000 
 5,000 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 Other European. . 
 
 
 25,000 
 165,000 
 44,000 
 15,000 
 
 33,000 
 
 107,000 
 
 51,000 
 
 44,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 Penang and Singapore. 
 
 147,000 
 
 54,000 
 
 24,000 
 
 44,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 Hongkong.7.7. . 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 Australia. 
 
 73,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 All other. 
 
 4,666 
 
 Total.77. 
 
 
 715,000 
 
 639,000 
 
 766,000 
 
 1,909,000 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 546,000 
 169,000 
 
 520,000 
 119,000 
 
 579,000 
 187,000 
 
 1,909,000 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The trade in old newspapers in the Netherlands East Indies was 
 held principally by Great Britain before the war, that country sup¬ 
 plying direct 54 per cent in 1913, while Penang and Singapore sup¬ 
 plied 21 per cent and Australia 10 per cent. In 1918 there was no 
 
306 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 import from Great Britain and only small amounts from the Brit¬ 
 ish colonies, while the United States, which did not figure in the 
 returns in 1913, supplied 80 per cent; in 1919, 62 per cent; and in 
 1920 (for Java and Madoera only), 80 per cent. The available re¬ 
 turns for Java and Madoera for 11 months of 1921 credit the Nether¬ 
 lands with 20 per cent of the total imports, the United States with 
 56 per cent, Singapore with 13 per cent, Great Britain with 2 per 
 cent, and Scandinavia with 8 per cent of the total imports. 
 
 In the early part of 1919 there was some complaint from the im¬ 
 porters as to the contents of the bales, it being claimed that torn 
 papers and magazines were included in some of the bales, but later 
 inquiry showed that they were coming forward as ordered and there 
 is a general satisfaction with the quality, which is equal, if not 
 superior, to the European imports. 
 
 The leading general importers are the principal dealers in old 
 newspapers, especially those dealing in food supplies. 
 
 In British Malaya there is a large consumption of old newspapers, 
 which are used by the Chinese storekeepers principally for wrapping 
 purposes. Old American newspapers are sold on a par with stock 
 from England. The trade recognizes the following qualities: “ White, 
 Daily Mail quality ”; “ white, similar to Daily Mail ”; “ pink, similar 
 to Daily Mail ”; “ mixed, similar to Daily Mail ”; and “ white Ameri¬ 
 can, Sun, Globe, and similar qualities.” Packing: 5 hundredweight 
 (560 pounds), canvassed bales. 
 
 The English houses usually pack with four 2-inch iron hoops, 
 painted red, while American paper is packed with six lj-inch iron 
 hoops, which in every instance should be painted red. There is a 
 preference for the English method. Messrs. W. Bowater, England, 
 pack their “ Sun ” and “ Ship ” brands with five 2-inch hoops, 
 painted red. This is preferred to all other packing. The style of 
 packing constitutes a brand to some extent. 
 
 PRINTERS’ AND LITHOGRAPHERS’ SUPPLIES. 
 
 INKS. 
 
 American printing inks have won a place in the printing trades 
 of the Netherlands East Indies, and a reasonable amount of attention 
 should insure to American manufacturers a permanent share of the 
 business. As in other countries, news inks constitute the greatest 
 part of the requirements. The larger newspapers import their inks, 
 as well as their paper, but the smaller papers, including the native 
 and Chinese press, buy through the jobbers. 
 
 Book inks are the next in volume of business done. During the 
 past few years the printers have had to use such inks as they could 
 get most conveniently, but there is a desire on the part of the more 
 important shops to get inks better suited to this climate and to the 
 types of work they are called upon to do. Much of the bookwork 
 done by the west Java shops is catalogues for the commercial houses 
 and for the Government, as the State printing establishment 
 is not large enough to handle all of its printing. Very little art 
 work is done, and there is but a small demand for the finer grades 
 of black inks, but there is an opportunity to develop a demand for 
 special inks for special work. One of the leading printers recently 
 said that they have been far too busy taking care of the work that 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 307 
 
 was forced upon them to attempt*to develop a demand for fine work, 
 but the time is coming when a better class of printing will be required. 
 
 Color work has not been developed to any extent, three-color work 
 being about the maximum of achievement in color combinations. 
 Good inks are wanted, but special shades and qualities for art work 
 are not yet in demand. 
 
 Except for a few publications for the Government no fine halftone 
 work is done, screens of 150 lines being the finest used by the photo¬ 
 engravers. Halftone inks are used for some of the monthly publica¬ 
 tions which are printed on imitation art paper. 
 
 Lithographing inks are used in the full range of standard colors 
 by the few lithographing plants in the colony. One company has a 
 plant for lithographing on tin, after which the colors are baked in. 
 This process requires a special ink. There are no plants in the 
 colony equipped to print personal cards from engraved copper 
 plates. The Dutch custom calls for lithographed cards, and an extra 
 glossy black ink is required for this purpose. The use of posters in 
 advertising is beginning to be understood, and it may be expected 
 that there will be an increase in the demand for lithographing inks. 
 
 TYPE, AND LINOTYPE AND STEREOTYPE METAL. 
 
 The Dutch type base is higher and their point unit is larger than 
 the American standard. Dutch printers are close readers of Ameri¬ 
 can printers’ journals and American type faces have found favor 
 with them, but the unwillingness of American founders to cast these 
 faces on the European bases has prevented the development of trade 
 in this line. 
 
 There is no market for old type in the colony and no means of 
 having it recast. Printers always have a surplus of old type, and 
 those using Linotypes or Intertypes build up a satisfactory metal 
 from them by the addition of antimony. There is some Linotype 
 metal imported from America through Idolland and -also from 
 Australia. 
 
 Old type metal is used for stereotyping. 
 
 Composition for rollers .—Local Chinese in Batavia make a very 
 satisfactory composition, but their output is not nearly sufficient to 
 supply the demand. Composition is imported from Holland, Ger¬ 
 many, England, and America. 
 
 Photo-engravers ’ supplies .—The use of halftone and line engrav¬ 
 ings is growing in this colony and the trade is well worth catering to. 
 The larger shops that already have photo-engraving plants expect 
 to enlarge them on more modern lines, and many of the smaller 
 shops are planning to install halftone equipment. 
 
 Zinc and copper plates are bought either direct or through im¬ 
 porters catering to the printing trade, and the chemical houses sup¬ 
 ply the necessary chemicals. 
 
 In British Malaya printers’ supplies are handled either direct to 
 the printer or through the regular importing houses. There are 
 several fairly important units in the printing trade and many minor 
 shops, usually operated by Chinese. The equipment is not up to 
 date and the requirements" of the public are not exacting. British 
 suppliers get much of the trade. One American company does a fair 
 business in supplies and in type made on a monotype casting unit. 
 
 19878°—23-21 
 
308 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 This company is in a position to extend this phase of its business 
 with the cooperation of American manufacturers. 
 
 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 HAND TOOLS. 
 
 USE OF THE PATCHOEL OR CHUNKOEL. 
 
 Besides the native plow, the natives of Java and Madoera and 
 wherever any degree of development in agriculture has been reached 
 in the Outer Possessions use the “ patchoel ” or “ chunkoel ” for turn¬ 
 ing the soil. Almost every male adult of the agricultural population 
 and most of the women own one, as well as an “ arit ” and a “ piso 
 blati ” or a knife of some other pattern. 
 
 The leading hardware merchants list nine or ten patterns of the 
 patchoel or chunkoel. The patterns vary according to the type of 
 work to be done, the kind of soil to be worked, and the strength of 
 the native or Chinese using them. In eastern Java the pattern most 
 commonly used is 240 millimeters (9.45 inches) in height and 195 
 millimeters (7.68 inches) wide. The usual weight of patchoel for 
 men is 2 kilos, while that for the women weighs about 1J kilos. Other 
 types are used in the tobacco fields of Java and Sumatra, where Chi¬ 
 nese are largely employed. There are patchoels for the heavy clay 
 soils of the sugar estates, another type for the railways, and a special 
 type for the Government’s tin mines. The natives of central Java 
 make a patchoel of wood, over which they fit a steel cutting edge. 
 
 On first consideration it would appear that quantity production 
 of patchoels could be developed on a large scale, but on going further 
 into the question it is apparent that there is much to modify this first 
 judgment. 
 
 Before the war Carl Schlieper, a German, did the most of the busi¬ 
 ness in patchoels, both in Java and in the Outer Possessions. His 
 “ eye brand ” had a practical monopoly of the market, and when the 
 war cut off his supplies from Germany these patchoels were made by 
 hand in the small blacksmith shops throughout the country. His 
 competitors saw an opportunity to get this very desirable business, 
 and the large machinery importing house of Lindeteves Stovis adver-. 
 tised widely the “ carabao head ” brand, while others have introduced 
 brands. Carl Schlieper, however, was busy organizing the native 
 blacksmith shops throughout Java. He got iron from some place 
 and held part of his trade together. American manufacturers have 
 been making some patchoels on order from the jobbers in Java, and 
 their product has been satisfactory in most cases, according to the 
 importers. This business is large enough to attract American manu¬ 
 facturers, and it is probable that a satisfactory business could be de¬ 
 veloped in connection with Dutch importers in Java or with Ameri¬ 
 can houses having branches there. Three and four tined patchoel 
 forks are also used in some cultures where the soil is light. 
 
 ALANG ALANG FORKS, ARITS, AND CHOPPING KNIVES. 
 
 The greatest enemy of agriculture in the tropical Orient is the 
 “ alang alang ” grass, called “ lalang ” in British Malaya and 
 “ cogon ” in the Philippine Islands. This grass springs up wherever 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 309 
 
 a constant fight is not waged against it, and the u alang alang ” fork 
 is the tool used in the Netherlands Indies in fighting this weed. The 
 “ alang alang ” fork is similar to a spading fork. It has a D handle 
 and from three to four square prongs—generally four. 
 
 The “ arit ” is used in various forms throughout the agricultural 
 districts of the archipelago for cutting grass. 
 
 There are several forms of chopping knives (“ kapmessen ”) used 
 in cutting sugar cane, pruning tea and coffee bushes, and in other 
 light chopping work. This trade is large enough to interest Ameri¬ 
 can manufacturers. 
 
 Pruning and grafting tools are in considerable demand from the 
 rubber, tea, coffee, and cinchona estates. The various names by 
 which these implements are known and their English equivalents are 
 as follows: “ Snoeimessen,” pruning knives; “ tuinscharen,” garden¬ 
 ing shears; “ snoeischaren,” pruning shears; “ oculeermessen, graft¬ 
 ing knives; “ hegscharen,” hedge shears; and “ dichtvouwbare boom- 
 snoeizagen,” folding tree-pruning saws. Many of these tools are 
 similar to those used in American horticulture. During the period of 
 the war American manufacturers were called upon for supplies. 
 German products are now in the market, and it will be necessary for 
 American manufacturers to make competitive prices in order to 
 regain a share of the trade. 
 
 THE CHUNKOL OF BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The chunkol (patchoel in Java; chunkoel in Sumatra) is the hoe 
 used by agriculturists in one form or another throughout the Orient. 
 The trade of British Malaya is largely for use in the mines, where 
 a 4-pound tool 10J by 7 inches is used, with either a straight or 
 curved edge, and fitted with a D eye. These are packed in barrels, 
 200 to the barrel. 
 
 The Sumatra trade takes from Penang a 5-pound chunkol for use 
 by the men, with a cutting edge 11^ by 7 inches, 13^ inches from edge 
 of the top of D eye, and a 3J-pound chunkol for use by the women, 
 with a cutting edge 8 by 6 inches, 10-J inches from edge to top 
 of D eye. 
 
 Scythes are used extensively in British Malaya for cutting lawns 
 and for clearing lalang (tiger grass) lands. There is a steady 
 demand for 38, 40, and 41 inch blades with sheaths, complete, the 
 bulk of the business being for the 40 and 42 inch class. One indent 
 seen read as follows: 
 
 Eelepliant brand patent riveted scythe blades, each blade wrapped in paper, 
 with 12 blades wrapped in straw and bundled. Packed one dozen blades in 
 strong, wooden case, reinforced and iron strapped for export. 
 
 The importer stated that the United States can not compete, be¬ 
 cause neither the packing nor the price is right. 
 
 American manufacturers desiring to compete for this trade should 
 work out specifications for packing that will resist the maximum 
 strain the cases will be required to resist, so as to be ready to meet 
 packing requirements, when exchange and production costs permit 
 of their entering the market. 
 
 OTHER TOOLS. 
 
 Stamped steel strap shovels, with D handles, both round and 
 square points, in No. 2 and No. 3 sizes, are required in British Malaya. 
 
3]0 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 American patterns are too good and too expensive for the trade. 
 American manufacturers bidding for this trade will find it to their 
 advantage to study the British-made shovel and bid on an equivalent 
 article. British manufacturers are supplying the requirements at 
 present. 
 
 Railroad picks and railroad tamping picks of 6 pounds weight are 
 also required. These are at present coming from England. 
 
 D-handle strapped digging forks of three, four, and five tines 
 find a small but steady sale, especially through the Penang market 
 for sale in Sumatra. Supplies come from England, and latterly 
 from Germany. 
 
 The use of agricultural implements in native agriculture is lim¬ 
 ited to the plow and harrow. There are many types of native plows, 
 developed under the various racial, climatic, and soil conditions, 
 but, unlike the plow of the Philippine Islands, they all have two han¬ 
 dles. A British manufacturer has developed a small two-handled 
 steel plow for this trade, but has made very little progress in in¬ 
 troducing it. 
 
 The plow is used almost exclusively for turning the rice fields 
 which have lain under water long enough for the soil to become soft. 
 
 The harrows used by the natives are made of wood, generally by 
 the agriculturists themselves. 
 
 In dry farming the soil is turned by the chunkoel or patchoel, be¬ 
 fore described. 
 
 Some of the sugar estates that have been experimenting with trac¬ 
 tors are using American mold and disk plows, harrows, rollers, and 
 ditchers. 
 
 TRACTORS. 
 
 The “Sugar Syndicate” of Java is an association which included 
 all of the mills operating in Java in 1921. As this industry is or¬ 
 ganized the milling companies are also the growers of the cane. 
 
 Although Java is credited in the last official statement of the 
 population with 34,000,000 inhabitants, the planters have many labor 
 difficulties, and especially so when labor is needed the most—as at 
 the time when the people are busy with their crops of rice and other 
 native cultures. It is claimed by this association that its members 
 are being forced to the use of mechanical appliances for the culti¬ 
 vation of their fields, and a committee has been appointed to investi¬ 
 gate the use of tractors for plowing and for ditching. The chairman 
 of this committee has been experimenting with tractors for many 
 years. Three American machines are now at work on his planta¬ 
 tion. The first one, brought out in 1914, was a 60-horsepower cater¬ 
 pillar machine of a standard American make, but it was found that 
 the power was not sufficiently high for work in the heaviest ground. 
 On light ground it handles a 6-furrow John Deere plow, making a 
 15-indi furrow from 10 to 12 inches deep, plowing an average of 
 5J acres in a day. While this tractor did not prove to be the right 
 one for the work required, it had many points that were satisfactory, 
 and a 75-horsepower machine, of the same make, was brought out 
 in 1915. This was found to be more satisfactory, being able to han¬ 
 dle the plow in the heaviest soil, making six furrows at once, with a 
 daily average of 7 acres. After experimenting with these two 
 machines, another, of 120 horsepower, was ordered. This arrived in 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 311 
 
 1917 and experiments have been going on ever since. It was found 
 to be satisfactory m power and in mechanical construction, but the 
 tread would not hold in the wet clay under the heavy drafts, the 
 heaviest of which is making the ditches for the final planting of the 
 cane. These are made in pairs 5 feet from center to center and 22 
 inches deep. 
 
 SMALL TRACTOR SUITABLE FOR TOBACCO CULTIVATION. 
 
 Like the sugar planters, the tobacco planters of Java believe the 
 time to be near when they will be forced to use machinery. 
 
 While the problem in the tobacco fields is similar in some respects 
 to that of the sugar planters, there are some fundamental differences. 
 The sugar planters have skilled mechanics and repair shops con¬ 
 nected with their industry, while the tobacco planters have no shops. 
 The sugar planters level the rice fields before planting, while the 
 tobacco planters, especially in the Vorstenlanden, endeavor to pre¬ 
 serve the contour, at least, of the rice fields. Sugar is planted in 
 deep furrows from 4 to 5 feet apart, and there is no series of suc¬ 
 cessive plowing, while the tobacco fields go through a slow prepara¬ 
 tion for months before planting. The cultivation of tobacco requires 
 light machines for the finer cultivation, and yet the ground must 
 be turned to a depth of 15 inches, and some heavy ditching is to be 
 done. 
 
 Many experiments have been made with wheeled and track-laying 
 tractors, and a small type of the latter has been found to be suited 
 to the requirements. 
 
 SUPERIORITY OF TRACTOR FOR CLEARING THE JUNGLE. 
 
 Most of the arable land on the island of Java is under cultivation 
 or reserved for forests by the Government. The development of 
 agricultural areas in the Outer Possessions is slowly progressing 
 as the railways and roadways push farther into the interior. The 
 natives in the Outer Possessions usually can not be hired for clear¬ 
 ing the jungle, and immigrant laborers, principally from Java, are 
 employed under a contract system. The Javanese laborers are not 
 used to working in the humid, fever-laden jungles, and the mortality 
 among them is exceedingly high. Every laborer lost represents to 
 the investors a cost of 100 florins or more for indent charges, and 
 it is very difficult to get new recruits. For these reasons Dutch com¬ 
 panies clearing lands for agricultural purposes and for rights of 
 way for railways and roadways have been turning toward the trac¬ 
 tor as a solution of the problem. Some experiments have been made 
 with tractors in this type of work, and the reports are that they 
 proved the advantage of the tractor over the native Javanese labor. 
 From present indications it would seem that as soon as the agricul¬ 
 tural industries recover from the depression of 1920 and 1921 there 
 will be a market for tractors for this purpose. 
 
 ROAD ROLLERS. 
 
 An English road roller of from 5 to 15 tons has had the major 
 share of the business of the Netherlands East Indies thus far. 
 
 The colonial government builds the roads in the Outer Possessions, 
 while in Java the building and upkeep are done by the various resi- 
 
312 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 dencies, and the road work of the various cities is done by the 
 municipal engineers. The purchases of road-building machinery in 
 the colony are very large and worthy of considerable attention from 
 the American manufacturer. The machinery houses equipped to sell 
 road rollers are already representing rollers of European make, and 
 it is impossible to get exclusive representation. 
 
 Service to owners is essential to the growth of the trade, and this 
 phase of American effort has been neglected, as well as the quick 
 availability of supplies of parts. 
 
 The manufacturer of one standard American road roller is repre¬ 
 sented in the Netherlands East Indies by one of the leading engi¬ 
 neering houses. This house is also the agent for a popular British 
 road roller which has been in the market for a great many years, 
 and the engineers have become accustomed to its use. The Ameri¬ 
 can road roller referred to is constructed to do the same work as 
 the British road roller mentioned, and it does not seem possible that 
 the American machine can, through this channel, get a proper repre¬ 
 sentation. 
 
 At the end of this chapter is given a list of the departments of the 
 Government of the Netherlands East Indies that requisition road 
 rollers and tractors, and also a list of the provincial and municipal 
 engineers, giving the title of the officer rather than the name. Lists 
 of machinery importers are on file with the Commercial Intelligence 
 Division of the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 
 
 In order to get recognition, American road rollers and tractors 
 must be kept at work, and this means owner service on the part of 
 the manufacturer’s representatives and friendly treatment by the 
 Government engineers and the machine operators. 
 
 MARKET POSSIBILITIES. 
 
 There is a considerable market for all sorts of machinery for 
 making macadam roads in the Netherlands East Indies, and every 
 year the colonial, provincial, and municipal governments are adding 
 materially to their equipment. The market is big enough to warrant 
 a considerable amount of attention being given it, and the American 
 manufacturers can not expect machinery importers who are repre¬ 
 senting old-established makes to give sales effort and adequate serv¬ 
 ice to a competitive line. Manufacturers seriously interested in the 
 trade can only get sales effort and service through having their own 
 representative or representatives in the field working alongside the 
 machinery importers. 
 
 Many of the residencies and municipalities in the Netherlands East 
 Indies are experimenting with various binders for their roads. The 
 automobile traffic has brought road problems that have not yet been 
 solved and the motor truck is accentuating these problems. The 
 increasing traffic and the unreliability of labor are turning the minds 
 of the engineers toward labor-saving machinery. 
 
 A British make of road roller is most favorably considered by the 
 road engineers. There is a large number in use and a steady addi¬ 
 tion to the equipment is being made. 
 
 An American road roller is represented by one of the machinery 
 importers, but it has met with comparatively little success in the 
 market. 
 
Special Agents Series No. 218. 
 
 F IG. 29.—TANDJOENGPRIOK (BATAVIA) HARBOR. 
 
Special Agents Series No. 218. 
 
 MACASSAR HARBOR, CELEBES. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 313 
 
 American manufacturers of road machinery equipped with boilers 
 should study the boiler laws of the colony and equip their machinery 
 accordingly, as no permits are granted for boilers not built under 
 those laws. 
 
 OTHER MACHINERY. 
 
 Manufacturers of stone breakers and other road-building machin¬ 
 ery will find the engineers interested in their catalogues, and espe¬ 
 cially in detailed statements of tests, as the building conditions vary 
 throughout the colony. 
 
 The municipalities are interested in street sprinklers of the type 
 used for flushing gutters in the United States. Batavia is using 
 several of these sprinklers on American truck bodies, and each truck 
 carries a pump and rubber suction hose for filling the tank from the 
 canals. The municipality of Macassar plans to bore wells at con¬ 
 venient points to a maximum depth of 15 feet, from which salt 
 water will be drawn. Water is available in most parts of the colony 
 at a maximum depth of 25 feet. Quotations should be made for 
 tanks knocked down for shipment, for trucks with cradle for tanks, 
 for pumps, and for station tanks, together with frame ready for 
 bolting together, fitted with pump base. The capacity of the pump 
 should be sufficient to refill the stowage tank while the sprinkler is 
 emptying and returning. 
 
 Manufacturers of road binders will find a market in the colony that 
 will take considerable quantities of their product if it can be laid 
 down at Java ports at a price that will make its use possible. 
 
 The “ locomobile ” is used in many of the sawmills throughout the 
 Netherlands East Indies and for many other purposes, including the 
 driving of dynamos for lighting. The boiler laws in this colony do 
 not conform to the A. S. M. E. boiler code, and American boilers will 
 not pass inspection. Manufacturers intending to bid for this busi¬ 
 ness will have to build boilers according to the Dutch law, a copy 
 of which is on file with the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com¬ 
 merce. 
 
 HOUSEHOLD SUPPLIES. 
 
 OIL AND GAS STOVES AND HEATERS. 
 
 The use of kerosene-burning ranges is very limited in both the 
 Netherlands East Indies and British Malaya, for the reason that 
 cooking for the foreign community is done by natives and Chinese, 
 who are accustomed only to the na.±ve stoves and primitive cooking 
 utensils. There is some regular demand for two-burner oil stoves 
 from the European population. These are used for cooking break¬ 
 fasts and dishes made or superintended by the European women. 
 
 A few kerosene-oil heaters are in use in the mountain districts of 
 Java, and one American importer reports a regular trade in these 
 stoves. In British Malaya the mountain districts are almost inacces¬ 
 sible and few Europeans have mountain homes, while in the lowlands 
 there is no need of artificial heat. With few exceptions, the bath¬ 
 rooms of both colonies are equipped with a tub or tank of water, a 
 dipper being provided with which water is dashed upon the bather, 
 and sometimes a shower is added. Hot water is seldom used. In 
 Java there is a demand opening up for modern sanitary appliances, 
 and a few of the hotels in the mountain districts have installed porce¬ 
 lain bathtubs with hot and cold water. There has been some call for 
 
314 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 water heaters from the importers in Bandoeng, the capital and com¬ 
 mercial center of the mountain province. 
 
 A considerable development in the range of commodities handled 
 by merchants in both colonies has been made during the past few 
 years, and manufacturers of cooking apparatus will probably find 
 that a part of their lines is suitable to the developing requirements. 
 
 Gas stoves are sold by the gas companies in the cities where they 
 have installations. The two-burner cooker is used generally by the 
 European population. 
 
 ELECTRIC BULBS AND LAMPS. 
 
 The Philips lamps, which are made in the Netherlands, are well 
 introduced in the Netherlands Indies and hold the bulk of the trade. 
 The imports for Java and Madoera only in 1920, in units of 1,000 
 lamps, were as follows: Netherlands, 611; United States, 51; Great 
 Britain, 7; Germany, 229; Japan, 43; and China, 11. 
 
 The trade in electric bulbs for the various municipalities is con¬ 
 trolled by the companies manufacturing the current, all renewals or 
 changes being made by a man sent out from the central station. On 
 the directorate of most of these companies is a Dutch firm, which, 
 before the war, was the representative in the Netherlands East Indies 
 for the German Electric Co. (the A. E. G.). Since the war this 
 firm was incorporated, and it formed a subsidiary company that 
 specializes in electrical supplies. It may be inferred that all the 
 supplies for the big municipal plants will be routed through this 
 subsidiary company. 
 
 Outside of the above-mentioned combination, there is a large num¬ 
 ber of private installations for estates and some few municipal light¬ 
 ing systems. Three of the electric-light installations of minor mu¬ 
 nicipalities have on their directorate another company, which has 
 made considerable progress as an importer of electrical supplies dur¬ 
 ing the war years, and the supplies for these installations will natu¬ 
 rally go through this concern, which also acts as engineering adviser 
 to many of the estate installations. 
 
 There is no means of ascertaining the number of estates that have 
 electric-light installations, but it is safe to say that a very large pro¬ 
 portion of them either already have electric-light systems or are live 
 prospects for installations. 
 
 Imports of electric lamps (not bulbs) into Java and Madoera only 
 are given in the following table (1 florin=$0.402 mint par U. S.) : 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 112,000 
 
 82,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 Florins. 
 703,000 
 337,000 
 16,000 
 
 Florins. 
 
 208,000 
 
 88,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 72,000 
 
 18,000 
 
 22,000 
 
 United States.•. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Japan... 
 
 126,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 99,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 338,000 
 
 1,183,000 
 
 415,000 
 
 
 These are stocked by the electric-light companies and a few small 
 dealers working in conjunction with them. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 315 
 
 Some of the larger towns in British Malaya have electric-light 
 plants serving the down-town districts, but none of them give satis¬ 
 factory service to the residential districts. Many of the plantations 
 and tin mines have electrical installations. The market for electric- 
 light bulbs is not large and is supplied from British sources. 
 
 GAS AND OIL LAMPS. 
 
 Imports of gas lamps into the Netherlands Indies in 1919 were 
 valued at 454,000 florins, in round figures, of which 74 per cent came 
 from the United States and 18 per cent from the Netherlands. The 
 figures for 1920, for Java and Madoera only, show an import value 
 of 638,000 florins, of which 68 per cent was from the United States, 
 20 per cent from the Netherlands, and 10 per cent from Japan. These 
 imports are classified by the customs division as hanging lamps, wall 
 lamps, and lamps not otherwise mentioned. 
 
 American acetylene lamps have found a good market for use by 
 plantations and householders in districts not served by the electric 
 or gas companies. This trade, which is routed through the general 
 importer, is capable of a large expansion. 
 
 The gas works in Batavia, Soerabaya, Semarang, and Buitenzorg, 
 in Java, and Medan, in Sumatra, are owned by the same company 
 that controls the electric-light installation in the city of Batavia. It 
 imports gas fixtures and sells at retail to the gas consumers. 
 
 In British Malaya mantle gas lamps are in use in the cities where 
 gas is piped to the homes and in connection with acetylene installa¬ 
 tions and gasoline generators in the cities and throughout the out¬ 
 lying districts. 
 
 Imports of oil lamps into the Netherlands Indies are classified under 
 the following headings: “Hanging lamps with tin top,” “hanging 
 lamps with glass top,” “ wall lamps without top,” and “ lamps not 
 otherwise mentioned.” In 1919 the total value was 288,000 florins, of 
 which 54 per cent was received from Japan, 18 per cent from the 
 Netherlands, and 5 per cent from the United States. There were im¬ 
 ported into Java and Madoera in 1920 oil lamps to the value of 
 1,970,000 florins, of which 39 per cent came from Germany, 21 per 
 cent each from the Netherlands and Japan, and 11 per cent from the 
 United States. This trade is routed through the general importers. 
 
 British Malaya has a considerable trade, in oil lamps, which is 
 routed largely through the general importers. The department 
 stores carry a fairly wide range of lamps and import direct. 
 
 Under the classification of “ lamps and lamp ware,” imports into 
 British Malaya in 1920 were as follows, values being given in Straits 
 dollars (1 Straits dollar—$0.5678 mint par U. S.) : United States, 
 S$122,584; United Kingdom, S$272,018; Hongkong, S$15,725; Ger¬ 
 many, S$155.365; Netherlands, S$9,699; Sweden, S$15,007; Japan, 
 S$200,827; all other countries, S$45,947. 
 
 ALUMINUM WARE AND EARTHENWARE. 
 
 Aluminum cooking utensils are carried in stock by the depart¬ 
 ment stores and better Chinese shops in the Netherlands East Indies 
 and are usually routed through the regular importing houses. The 
 imports during 1920 for Java and Madoera amounted to 516,903 
 
316 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 florins, of which the United States supplied 54,512 florins; the Neth¬ 
 erlands, 229,721 florins; Germany, 187,488 florins; and Japan, 23,690 
 florins. 
 
 The import returns show earthenware under the classification 
 given below. The imports by countries for 1919 are in florins (1 
 florin=$0,402 mint par U. S.). 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Plates. 
 
 Cups and 
 saucers. 
 
 Slop bowls. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Florins. 
 231,747 
 
 Florins. 
 100,847 
 
 Florins. 
 16,711 
 
 Florins. 
 415,364 
 150,868 
 103,155 
 18,016 
 623,486 
 634,976 
 119,404 
 
 Florins. 
 764,669 
 150,868 
 110,881 
 23,669 
 941,296 
 1,553,546 
 125,592 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 2,445 
 
 5,281 
 
 
 Germany. 
 
 5,653 
 76,569 
 3,523 
 330 
 
 Penang and Singapore. 
 
 211, 293 
 677, 221 
 3,969 
 
 29,948 
 237,826 
 1,889 
 
 Japan 7...77.. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,126,675 
 
 375,791 
 
 102,786 
 
 2,065,269 
 
 3,670,521 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 775,115 
 351,560 
 
 292,026 
 83,765 
 
 14,978 
 87,808 
 
 1,229,258 
 836,011 
 
 2,311,377 
 1,359,144 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 
 In 1919 Japan supplied 42 per cent of the total imports; Singapore 
 and Penang, 26 per cent; the Netherlands, 21 per cent; the United 
 States, 4 per cent; and Great Britain, 3 per cent. That part im¬ 
 ported from the United States was largely sanitary supplies. In 
 1920 the imports into Java and Madoera amounted to 4,590,590 
 florins, of which 57 per cent came from Japan, 22 per cent from the 
 Netherlands, 7 per cent from Singapore, 4 per cent each from 
 Germany and England, and less than 1 per cent from the United 
 States. 
 
 No double-thick stoneware is seen in the markets. A fairly good 
 quality of ware of medium weight is required. Good packing and 
 careful stowage aboard ship and a favorable freight rate are essen¬ 
 tials to the gaining of a share in this trade. 
 
 The department stores are the principal importers of the better 
 class of tableware, including porcelain. 
 
 Plates range in size from 4 to 10 inches, outside diameter, ad¬ 
 vancing by inches. Some are decorated in gold and other colors, 
 but the bulk of the business is in plain white stoneware for the 
 popular trade. 
 
 Cups and saucers are imported in the teacup size for the general 
 trade, with and without handles. 
 
 Slop bowls are the ordinary round bowls, without covers, ranging 
 in half inches from 5 to 9^ inches, outside diameter. 
 
 Latex cups .—A large demand comes from the rubber estates for 
 latex cups. The stoneware cup is very largely used, but the glass cup 
 is preferred, as the European assistants can see at a glance if they 
 are properly cleaned. Japan is supplying both stoneware and glass 
 cups. Breakage in transit and on the estate is a serious item of 
 expense, and a stronger cup than is being used, if not heavier, will 
 undoubtedly command a higher price. 
 
 The imports of earthenware into British Malaya in 1920, by coun¬ 
 tries, were as follows (in Straits dollars) : United Kingdom, 
 S$120,766; Netherlands, S$122,814; Hongkong, S$128.524; China, 
 S$678,425; Japan, S$676,27l; all other countries, S$52,901. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 317 
 
 GLASSWARE. 
 
 The European department stores and some of the Chinese shops 
 in the Netherlands East Indies carry stocks of glass tableware, for 
 which there is a fair trade in the cheap and medium grades. The 
 department stores and jewelers stock cut glass in most of its forms. 
 
 The principal reason American glassware has not been acceptable 
 to the trade is that the packing is such that the loss by breakage has 
 wiped out all profit. In the Java ports freight is handled very 
 roughly, and therefore the packing must be most carefully done. 
 
 Manufacturers catering to this trade will be able to more nearly 
 meet the requirements by studying the designs popular in the colony 
 and filling their orders from those designs. 
 
 Japanese factories have been selling lamp chimneys and chimneys 
 for gas lamps much inferior to the American makes, but on account 
 of the breakage in shipments of American chimneys the importers 
 prefer to sell the Japanese product. 
 
 RICE BOWLS, FRYING PANS, AND COOKING UTENSILS. 
 
 There is a large demand for rice bowls in British Malaya, the 
 supply coming principally from England, and German makes are 
 beginning to appear. These have a low, flaring bowl of cast iron, 
 with cast-iron ears or handles. They are made in nests of ten, rang¬ 
 ing in size from 1 to 10, one quality weighing 55 pounds and the other 
 65 pounds to the nest. 
 
 A steady demand is made in British Malaya for bright polished 
 frying pans, in sizes from 6 to 12 inches, of a type made by a British 
 manufacturer, although, according to a leading importer, the trade 
 would take any other equally serviceable pan. 
 
 In cast-iron cooking utensils there is a considerable trade through 
 the native and British Indian shops. These come from England and 
 are well made, heavily tinned inside, and fitted with heavily tinned 
 covers. 
 
 Teakettles are very similar to those on the American market, and 
 therefore a description of them is unnecessary. 
 
 Stewpans are low in shape, with a slight flare, and have a wrought- 
 iron tubular handle of solid construction. 
 
 Saucepans are bellied similar to the “ Chinese pot ” in the Ameri¬ 
 can trade. The handle is the same as that of the stewpan. 
 
 Boiling pots are the same as the saucepans, except that they are 
 fitted with a heavy iron wire bale instead of a handle. 
 
 FILTERS AND REFRIGERATORS. 
 
 In the Netherlands East Indies the water is not fit to drink until 
 filtered. The city of Soerabaya has a very good water supply, as 
 have also Semarang and Medan. Batavia and Macassar and some 
 of the smaller towns will soon have modern water-supply systems, 
 but the denseness of the population of Java precludes the assumption 
 that any water system that may be develeoped will make filtering 
 and boiling the water unnecessary. The natives entirely disregard 
 the necessity for care in this respect. The market for filters is there¬ 
 fore limited to the whites and half-castes, who number in the neigh¬ 
 borhood of 200,000, and the more prosperous Chinese. 
 
318 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 American manufacturers desiring to secure any of this business 
 will find that all the Dutch importers of machinery are already repre¬ 
 senting European filter manufacturers. 
 
 It can not be said that there is a large market in the Netherlands 
 Indies for any product that is not used by the natives, but the use 
 of filters is general among approximately 250,000 people in the colony. 
 The larger part of the demand is for earthenware filters with a 
 capacity of from 8 to TO liters (liter=2.11 liquid pints) per day. 
 
 Such housewives in this colony as use ice boxes are satisfied with 
 a zinc-lined box made by the local Chinese carpenters. Some Ameri¬ 
 can refrigerators of wooden construction have been imported by one 
 of the department stores catering to the better class of trade, but 
 the slow sale did not encourage them to reorder. The present being 
 a time of transition in the colony, many innovations are making head¬ 
 way in home and office equipment, and the use of modern refrigera¬ 
 tors may be expected to grow with the development. 
 
 As the general importer or department store will probably make 
 little sales effort to put this line on the market, the manufacturer 
 will find helpful the circulation through the mail of attractive adver¬ 
 tising matter. Circulars to the estates and mills should be in Dutch. 
 
 Stoneware filters from Europe are in use in British Malaya by 
 the European and better class Chinese, and the probabilities are that 
 a fair sale could be developed for modern American-made filters 
 through careful introduction. 
 
 Ice boxes made by Chinese carpenters are used by the better classes 
 in districts where ice can be obtained. These are unscientifically 
 constructed, and are therefore wasteful of ice. American refrigerat¬ 
 ing devices are very expensive by the time they are offered to the 
 ultimate users, and the high prices asked preclude their use by the 
 ordinary householder who uses ice. 
 
 The Europeans in the tropical Orient seldom consider themselves 
 as permanent residents, and they are not inclined to buy expensive 
 household equipment. American manufacturers who have agents 
 carrying stocks in this territory could help their dealers sell by cir¬ 
 cularizing the various lists, showing the saving in ice that can be 
 effected as well as calling attention to the better sanitary conditions 
 possible with modern equipment. 
 
 American refrigerators and ice boxes made with wooden cases 
 are not suitable for use in British Malaya. 
 
 HARDWARE AND RELATED ARTICLES. 
 
 AXES AND ADZES. 
 
 The axes used in the Netherlands Indies come largely from 
 Holland. They have a narrow bit and a very large eye. There is 
 no balance to this tool and very little force is given to the blow by 
 the natives who use them. All hardware catalogues list American 
 axes with illustrations, but the trade is largely in favor of the so- 
 called “ inlandsch ” model. American manufacturers may expect 
 a limited trade in the American model in this colony, but it may be 
 possible to design an ax better adapted to the needs of the natives 
 of the tropical Orient than either the American or “inlandsch” 
 model. There is a large volume of sales of axes. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 319 
 
 The wood of the Tropics is harder on the cutting edge of an ax 
 than that of the United States, but the strength of the natives can 
 not be compared with that of the American axmen. The narrower 
 bit seems to have something to recommend it for use by the natives. 
 Plantation managers issue axes to their laborers, expecting them to 
 provide their own handles, and the big eye of the “ inland ” model 
 makes it possible for the native to cut a suitable handle, while he 
 could not make .one for the American ax. 
 
 One dealer offers an American hand ax which was apparently 
 specially made for this country. This has the general shape of the 
 Chinese carpenter’s hand ax and is offered in weights of 0.80 and 
 1.10 kilos. 
 
 Axes of American pattern are very generally in use in British 
 Malaya, and there is a good trade through Singapore and Penang 
 with Sumatra. While this is not what might be termed a “ big 
 line,” yet there is a very steady sale. The popular demand is for 
 single-bitted ax heads only, in weights of 2| and 3 pounds, fitted as a 
 hunter’s ax after arrival with a short handle, and 3J and 4 pound 
 heads only, which are fitted after arrival with 36-inch handles. The 
 34-pound axes find their ultimate market in Sumatra chiefly, while 
 the 4-pound ax is more popular in the peninsula. 
 
 Specifications seen call for “ Yankee pattern with bright polished 
 top and enameled bright blue, but the cutting edge to be bright 
 polished. Packing: 1 dozen to the box.” 
 
 Second-quality handles only are imported in lengths of 36 inches. 
 Hunters’ ax handles are in 16-inch lengths and of second-quality 
 material. 
 
 There is a small sale in British Malaya for carpenters’ adzes. 
 Carpenters, wheelwrights, and coffin makers are the principal buy¬ 
 ers. These adzes are narrow, the bit running from 3 to 4 inches in 
 width. The trade requires a good quality adz, blued, with bright 
 cutting edge, weighing from 3 to 3^ pounds. 
 
 HAMMERS AND SLEDGES. 
 
 There is a small market in the Netherlands East Indies for the 
 medium qualities of carpenters’ hammers, but the large demand 
 is for a cheap hammer that will sell at retail for 1 to 1.50 florins 
 (florin ==$0,402 mint par U. S.). 
 
 Machinists’ hammers of first quality are in demand, both ball and 
 cross peen, in weights ranging from 100 to 1,000 grams. These are 
 sold without handles. 
 
 In British Malaya adz-eye nail hammers are the staple in the 
 market and are imported both with and without handles. The weight 
 of the head is specified in ordering, the bulk of the business being 
 for heads of from one-half to 1 pound, although there is some de¬ 
 mand up to lj-pound heads. There is no demand for fine qualities, 
 a fair quality being required at a price that will compete with the 
 English and German manufactures that are at present being 
 imported. 
 
 Ball peen hammers in weights of from one-half to 2 pounds, with¬ 
 out handles, are in good demand. Straight or cross peen hammers 
 are not required. This trade is being supplied by England and 
 Germany. 
 
320 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 There is a considerable demand for double-faced cast-steel sledge 
 hammers up to 5 pounds. England and Germany are supplying the 
 trade. Handles are made locally. 
 
 SAWS. 
 
 In the Netherlands East Indies the best makes of American hand¬ 
 saws are carried by the dealers in the better classes of tools, but the 
 European saws with their lower prices are found in the shops cater¬ 
 ing to popular trade. The demand is for saws from 14 to 26 inches 
 in length. The woods used in building construction are harder than 
 American woods and the teeth average a larger number to the inch 
 than the American trade requires. 
 
 Many of the Chinese carpenters use the Chinese saw, similar in 
 principle to the bucksaw used in the United States, but so made that 
 the blade can be turned at any angle. The blades are from 20 to 39 
 inches long. 
 
 American crosscut saws are known to the trade and have proved 
 satisfactory in every respect. Some saws with drag teeth are seen 
 in the shops, but the greatest demand is for saws with cutting teeth 
 only. There is very little call for saws shorter than 5 feet. 
 
 Pit or whip saws are in largest demand, as most of the lumber 
 used in the colony is whipsawed. Lengths are from 4J to 7J feet. 
 
 Miners’ saws are listed “ extra heavy models.” The dimensions 
 of blades, in inches, are 24, 28, and 32 by If; 36 and 40 by 2^; 44 by 
 2f; and 48 by 2f. 
 
 There are several types of folding saws used for pruning trees on 
 the plantations and a stout saw for pruning coffee and tea plants. 
 
 The standard brands of American handsaws are not suitable to 
 the British Malaya market, being too expensive. The carpenters are 
 Chinese, who are accustomed to use web saws, and the handsaws are 
 used generally by the inexpert workmen. They are sold on a price 
 basis, and manufacturers, both American and English, usually do not 
 put on their factory marks. Sizes run from 16 to 26 inches, the reg¬ 
 ular factory assortment of tooth numbers being suitable to the trade, 
 unless specific orders are given for other assortments. The bulk of 
 the trade is for saws from 20 to 26 inches long. The English fac¬ 
 tories have been supplying this trade, and of late the Germans have 
 been getting a share of it at prices that are low. 
 
 There is a steady demand for saw blades in lengths of from 20 to 
 39 inches for the Chinese trade. These are used in a frame made 
 by the Chinese carpenters of much the same pattern as the turning 
 or cabinet saw frame. The teeth are of the “ peg ” type. 
 
 The American crosscut saws found a ready market in British 
 Malaya during the war and for a time after the armistice, but the 
 English manufacturers have been able to win the trade back on a 
 price basis, and now German makes have made their appearance. 
 
 Importers and dealers stock the ordinary types of one and two man 
 saws in 3J to 8 foot lengths, but the bulk of the demand is for 4J to 6 
 foot lengths. The “ tenon ” tooth only is required. 
 
 Saws must be equipped with strap-handle fittings, there being no 
 demand for patented handles. Brands should be etched on both 
 sides. Such brands as “ Engine ” or “ Locomotive ” are popular, with 
 an etching illustrating the name. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 321 
 
 There is a large sale of web saws for the use of the Chinese in re¬ 
 sawing. Most of the lumber is cut by hand with these web saws, 
 there being very few sawmills in the peninsula. The usual lengths 
 are from 5 to 8 feet, in widths of 2 and 2J inches. They are usually 
 imported plain, without teeth, but when filed the teeth are 1 and 1£ 
 inches, usually with a slight hook both ways from the middle of the 
 saw. The most popular size is 5J feet by 2 inches by 18 B. W. G. 
 
 All sorts of makes of hack-saw blades are on the British Malaya 
 market. American manufacturers are in a fairly good position with 
 respect to this trade. All sizes are stocked, but the bulk of the busi¬ 
 ness is in 12 to 16 inches. An adjustable frame is required. 
 
 There are no band-saw mills on the Malay Peninsula. All sorts 
 of makes and qualities of circular saws, however, are on the market 
 and sales are made on a price basis. Some demand is noted for saws 
 of 24, 30, and 36 inches, but the principal sizes required are 42, 48, 
 60, and 72 inches. 
 
 The usual mill equipment is one rack feed bench (or carriage) and 
 two “ spot ” or “ breast ” benches. 
 
 No market has been developed for inserted tooth saws, but when 
 the Chinese learn to use this type of saw it may be expected that they 
 will replace the plain tooth saws. 
 
 CARPENTERS’ TOOLS OTHER THAN SAWS AND HAMMERS. 
 
 American planes made of metal are listed in all the hardware cata¬ 
 logues of the Netherlands Indies. The Chinese are the carpenters of 
 the colony and many of them make shift with very primitive planes 
 of their own construction. European wooden planes, made to do the 
 same work as the American models, are in the market. American 
 manufacturers of wooden planes may find a market here. 
 
 There are four types of chisels carried by the jobbers, all of the 
 “ tanged ” models and listed as of English manufacture. Structural 
 timbers in this colony are always “fitted,” and there is therefore 
 considerable use for the chisel in building construction. 
 
 American ratchet braces, breast drills, and bits are all favorably 
 known, as well as other semiautomatic tools. Cheap braces without 
 ratchets, made in Germany, held this market almost exclusively 
 before the war. 
 
 There is but a limited trade for these better class American tools 
 with the larger estates and the machine shops. The business in the 
 better makes is routed through the machinery and hardware import¬ 
 ers, but the large trade is in cheap tools, which are imported by the 
 general importers. While they depend on the importers of staples 
 to handle their business, manufacturers will have to be prepared to 
 meet the requirements in small details, such as color and polish of 
 wood parts. The importers slavishly follow the market and do not 
 like the slightest change in manufacture. In this larger trade price 
 is the first essential, and the second is a duplication of the tools al¬ 
 ready popularized in the markets. 
 
 A list of these cheap tools seen in the shops comprises hammers, 
 hatchets (without claw), screw drivers, small levels, drawknives, 
 saws, pliers, pincers, try-squares, chisels, wood planes with single 
 bits, braces, bits, nail pullers, and folding meter rules (metric 
 system). 
 
322 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAY A, 
 
 Nail pullers .—There is a good demand for nail pullers in British 
 Malaya, but cast-iron pullers are not wanted. The most popular 
 puller is one in which the hammer rod is of wrought steel running 
 through a wrought-iron tube, to which it is attached by a leather 
 thong. These are supplied by England and Germany. 
 
 BLACKSMITHS' TOOLS. 
 
 The native blacksmiths of the Netherlands East Indies are found 
 in every village and along the country roads, their equipment being 
 primitive in the extreme. Their bellows is built on the principle of 
 the Chinese box bellows and the equipment of light tools is very 
 limited, mostly made by themselves. The sale of western-made 
 blacksmiths’ tools is to the sugar mills, estates, and machine shops. 
 These constitute a considerable list of users. 
 
 Anvils are sold in sizes 25, 30, 40, 60, and 200 kilos. 
 
 Swage blocks are built on metric measurements in six sizes, rang¬ 
 ing from 65 to 235 kilos. Swage-block standards or bases are used 
 in this colony in numbers from 1 to 6, corresponding to the sizes of 
 the swage blocks. These are made in weights of from 110 to 135 kilos. 
 
 The American assortment of anvil tools covers the range of sizes 
 listed in jobbers’ catalogues. 
 
 Sledges and hammers used in this colony correspond closely to the 
 American range of patterns and weights. 
 
 Blacksmiths’ vises run in numbers from 1 to 18, ranging in weight 
 from 12 to 180 kilos and in maximum jaw space from 85 to 255 milli* 
 instcrs 
 
 THREADING AND PIPE TOOLS. 
 
 American threading and pipe tools are well known in the machine 
 shops of the Netherlands East Indies, but English makes are used to 
 a larger extent, partly because of the greater ease with which they 
 may be procured and because the first use of American makes is of 
 more recent date. American manufacturers desiring to secure a 
 larger share of this trade would do well to insist that their agents 
 carry an adequate stock at the various centers and, in support of 
 their agents, circularize every machine shop and estate in the colony 
 with illustrated printed matter (in Dutch, if possible; but if not. in 
 English) showing the latest patterns of tools, as well as the full line, 
 and how to use them. 
 
 As a rule, pipe up to 2 inches is threaded by hand with the ordi¬ 
 nary stock and die. Some mills have hand-power machines for 
 threading up to 4-inch pipe, and larger pipe is usually threaded in 
 a lathe. Makers of power tap and die machines will undoubtedly 
 find some business with the sugar mills. Pipe wrenches, as well as 
 cutters and reamers, may be sold here. English thread measurements 
 are used both for pipe and bolts. 
 
 In selecting an agent, care should be taken to see that his organi¬ 
 zation covers the whole colony, and if he can not give a satisfactory 
 guaranty that he will place the tools in all parts where they are 
 required, such territory should be reserved for another representa¬ 
 tive, if the whole field is to be covered. In this line Soerabaya is 
 of first consideration, as that city is the supply point for the greatest 
 of the industries; next comes Batavia, the point of distribution for 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 323 
 
 the Preanger tea estates, as well as rubber and coffee estates; the 
 third in importance is Semarang, also an important estate district. 
 The East Coast Residency of Sumatra is probably the fourth in im¬ 
 portance, served from Medan, and should not be overlooked, as many 
 of the Java houses do not have branches there and depend on agents 
 appointed by themselves. Other commercial districts are based on 
 Padang (Sumatra) and Macassar (Celebes). 
 
 CUTLERY. 
 
 The big native trade in cutlery is limited to but a few types of 
 knives—the “ piso blati,” the fan knife or “ lakmessen,” and the 
 “pisomedja Harder.” The piso blati is a cheap, small wooden-han- 
 dled knife with a “ through ” tang, carried by the natives of central 
 and east Java in a sheath hanging from a cord or belt, and is a 
 general utility knife. Before the war they came principally from 
 the Harder factories in Germany and were sold through Carl 
 Schlieper, the German import house of the Netherlands East Indies. 
 This knife is made with a wooden handle in blade lengths of 3J, 
 5, 5£, 5J, and 5f inches. 
 
 The fan knife has one blade, which folds into a bone-mounted 
 handle of two parts. This knife is a staple throughout the Orient. 
 The Java market calls for blade lengths of 2J, 3, and 3J inches. 
 
 The pisomedja Harder is the staple table knife in the Netherlands 
 East Indian trade and is used largely by the natives as well as the 
 higher classes of the population. The name translated means table 
 knife Harder, from the factory of Harder, which factory held a 
 practical monopoly of the trade before the war, selling through Carl 
 Schlieper. These knives are made in two sizes, with blades of 
 and 5J inches long. 
 
 /Scissors and shears .—American scissors and shears competed suc¬ 
 cessfully for the trade in Java markets during the war and post¬ 
 war years until German scissors reappeared in the market. These 
 run from 5 inches up, and there is some trade in the larger sizes for 
 tailors’ use. The bulk of the trade is in sizes from 5 to 8 inches. 
 
 Pocketknives of the better grades .—The “pasirs” (Chinese and 
 Arab shop streets) carry some pocketknives of slightly better grade 
 than the fan knife, but the trade is small. The department stores 
 catering to the European and better class Chinese trade carry small 
 stocks of the better grade of pocketknives. 
 
 Pruning and grafting knives come properly under the head of 
 tools, although there are two types that are made in the form of 
 pocketknives. 
 
 Pocket cutlery .—There is a steady trade of considerable volume 
 in pocketknives of all descriptions in British Malaya, with the bulk 
 of the business in the cheaper qualities. The lines illustrated in any 
 English manufacturer’s catalogues will be a sufficient guide for 
 American salesmen making up lines of samples, but American de¬ 
 signs and novelties should not be left out. 
 
 A close*study of English and German lines and prices to other 
 markets will give the key to this trade, as those two countries prac¬ 
 tically monopolize the market. 
 
 19878°—23-22 
 
324 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Table cutlery and butchers' tools .—Table knives, forks, and spoons 
 are increasingly in use by all classes above the laboring class in 
 British Malaya. The department stores and better class Chinese 
 stores stock silver-plated and solid-silver ware, but the big trade 
 is for a medium grade to be sold at a popular price. 
 
 Knives are made of the best steel, highly polished, with a 
 “ through ” tang; handles are of xylonite or like material resembling 
 ivory, even to showing the fine ivory grain, with no rivets, and should 
 be “balanced.” Stainless and rustless knives are growing in popu¬ 
 larity with the better class of buyers. The Europeans call for the 
 table size, while the oriental demand, which is by far the larger, 
 is for medium and dessert sizes. England and, of late, Germany 
 are supplying this trade. 
 
 Tea and dessert sizes of spoons of the old English and Fiddle 
 patterns are in large demand for the better class oriental trade, as 
 well as dessert size of four-tined forks. 
 
 Butchers’ knives of straight and bent patterns find a ready sale. 
 These must be of the best steel, with a “ through ” tang, a highly 
 polished rosewood handle, and two or three large rivets through the 
 handle. 
 
 There is a small sale for butchers’ steels with ringed handles. 
 
 BRASS, GALVANIZED, AND PAINTED WIRE CLOTH. 
 
 The sale of brass wire cloth in the Netherlands Indies is chiefly 
 to the sugar and tapioca mills, ranging in sizes from 60 mesh and 
 up. This is not an important article in the trade. 
 
 There is some trade in poultry net in the colony, mainly with the 
 plantations. The bulk of the demand is for rolls of 1 by 25 meters 
 long, 30 to 100 mesh to the meter (J to 1J inches). 
 
 A comparatively large trade is noted in painted wire cloth which 
 is used for mosquito proofing. Almost every plantation house, as 
 well as many of the homes in the cities, has a mosquito-proof room. 
 The staple size is 16 mesh, 1 meter wide, and in lengths of 10 and 20 
 meters, with the bulk of the business in the latter length. 
 
 In British Malaya brass-wire cloth is used locally for making 
 sieves. It is imported in 50-yard rolls, 3 feet wide, in 24, 30, 36, 40, 
 50, and 60 mesh, with the principal demand in the last three sizes. 
 
 American makes of green-painted wire mosquito netting take an 
 important place in the British Malaya market, and the trade under 
 normal conditions is considerable. The American size (100-foot 
 rolls of 3-foot width) is wanted. There is some call for 14 mesh, but 
 most of the business is in 16 and 18 mesh. 
 
 ENAMELED WARE. 
 
 There is not a wide variety of enameled ware used in the Nether¬ 
 lands East Indies, but the quantities used are considerable. Sauce¬ 
 pans, stew kettles, and chamber sets in small sizes and simple pat¬ 
 terns, lunch buckets in sets, mugs with handles, tall cups without 
 handles, cups and saucers, teakettles, rice boilers of Indian design, 
 soup plates, and flat plates, all in various sizes, are in principal 
 demand for the native trade. The bulk of the enameled ware seen 
 in the shops is of blue and white and green and white ware, and 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 325 
 
 during 1921 large quantities of granite ware have come in from 
 Germany. 
 
 The estates use enameled latex buckets with covers and enameled 
 pans for coagulating. 
 
 Before the war a very large part of this ware came from Germany, 
 and the Japanese have since made a bid for the estate trade. The 
 Japanese ware for estate use has not been as durable as the supplies 
 brought in from Germany, according to estate managers, but con¬ 
 siderable quantities have been put into use. 
 
 Enameled-ware imports are routed through the general importing 
 houses. 
 
 Washbasins, bowls, and plates and lipped saucepans, with and 
 without enameled covers, in white and blue and white, all sizes, are 
 staples in the British Malaya market. 
 
 Dinner carriers of four and five compartments, in white and blue 
 and white, as well as in fancy flower designs, find a ready sale. They 
 are of the same pattern as those sold on the Manila market. 
 
 Enameled pails in white and blue and white are in demand for 
 general household use and for collecting rubber; sizes, 11 and 12 
 inches. Covers are ordered separately. 
 
 The demand for seamless pans for coagulating rubber in the estate 
 factories is decreasing, as most of the larger estates are using acid- 
 resisting concrete tanks. There is still considerable business offer¬ 
 ing from small estates. Sizes are 15 by 10 by 4 inches, 16 by 10 by 
 4 inches, and 18 by 9 by 3| and 4 inches. 
 
 Japan and England are the principal sources of supply. Before 
 the war Germany and Austria held a large portion of this trade, and 
 those countries, now making a bid for the business, are meeting with 
 some success. 
 
 BUCKETS. 
 
 For buckets used in collecting rubber there is a very large demand 
 in British Malaya. 
 
 Seamed galvanized-iron buckets .—The shops catering to native 
 and general trade call for a seamed galvanized bucket of light qual¬ 
 ity, from 32 to 34 pounds to the dozen for the basic size—12-inch 
 opening and 11 inches deep holding 4 imperial gallons. These have 
 a heavy hoop foot riveted to the base, strong riveted ears, and fluted 
 galvanized-iron handle, and are used by the native planters and for 
 general purposes. They are made in sizes of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, and 
 14 inches at the opening and in the same proportion throughout, 
 and are ordered in assortments of 8 to 14 inches, 10 to 14 inches, and 
 12 to 14 inches of equal numbers of each size, packed in nests of 12 
 and wired. Bright new stock is required, as appearance is a large 
 factor in both wholesale and retail trade. 
 
 Riveted galvanized-iron buckets .—European estates call for heavier 
 buckets with a riveted joint, weighing, in the 12-inch size, from 36 
 to 38 pounds to the dozen, with a heavy riveted hoop foot, heavy 
 forged and riveted ears, and a fluted handle. These are made in 
 sizes of 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14 inches at the opening, and are ordered 
 in assortments of 10 to 14 inches and 12 to 14 inches of equal num¬ 
 bers of each size, packed in nests of 12 and wired. 
 
 Some estates call for a bucket of the 12-inch basic size, weighing 
 60 pounds to the dozen, with loop ears and no handle. These are 
 
326 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 specially used on Sumatra tobacco estates. The pattern is similar to 
 the last bucket described, the only difference being that the bottom 
 is cross-strapped and two large loop ears are required for ropes to 
 be placed through. The coolie carries two of these buckets on a pole 
 when watering tobacco plants. When the price is high, the planters 
 generally use wooden tubs. ' 
 
 LOCKS, HINGES, BOLTS, AND SCREWS. 
 
 During 1921 German manufacturers flooded the Netherlands East 
 Indies market with locks and hinges of a very flimsy construction 
 for the native trade. They were cheap, however, and in the Java 
 market price is the main consideration in commodities for this trade. 
 
 Door lochs .—In door locks the big trade is in the cheap cast-iron 
 or pressed-steel lock, with porcelain or composition handles. Before 
 the German factories began to flood the market with their products 
 American locks of these types sold readily. The Japanese manu¬ 
 facturers made a bid for this business, but their lines were not 
 acceptable to any large portion of the trade even at the low prices 
 offered. 
 
 There is but a small demand for mortise locks and the better grades 
 of door locks. Locks finished in bronze and brass are not suitable 
 to the climate, as they rust quickly and lose their finish. As new 
 building starts there should be a sale for a better grade of builders’ 
 hardware, and especially for locks of solid brass or bronze. To 
 develop this trade the lines will have to be properly presented and 
 an easy channel provided through which it can be obtained. 
 
 Cupboard lochs .—There is a comparatively large demand for cup¬ 
 board locks for wardrobes in sizes up to 3 inches, with and without 
 escutcheons. The principal demand is for iron locks, but brass or 
 brass and iron locks are used for the better class of furniture. 
 
 Chest lochs .—Chest locks are in large demand, with and without 
 bells. The European manufacturers, following the demand, have 
 made chest locks with a double turn of the key, the first turn ringing 
 the bell and the other opening the lock. These are made of iron and 
 are of cheap construction. 
 
 Padlochs .—There is a big market for padlocks of all the cheap 
 
 f rades and a small demand for the better grades in Netherlands 
 ndies. American manufacturers of the better grades of padlocks 
 developed a fair demand for their products until German goods began 
 to arrive, but they report a cessation of business, due to disadvan¬ 
 tageous exchange rate and to the German competition. 
 
 The products of three American padlock manufacturers are well 
 introduced in British Malaya, that of one line on a purely quality 
 basis and the others on a price and quality basis. The big demand 
 is for cheap padlocks to sell at retail from S$0.35 to S$1.50 (Straits 
 dollars), with a smaller trade in large sizes of locks of cheap con¬ 
 struction. Brass padlocks are growing in favor. 
 
 Hinges .—In the Netherlands Indies a butt of lighter metal than 
 the lightest qualities on the American market is required in sizes of 
 (square) 2J, 3, 3-J, and 4 inches. Tee hinges are of a pattern slightly 
 different from those on the American market and in the same weights 
 as the butts. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 327 
 
 The business in strap hinges is small, but this is not a popular 
 pattern in this market. There is a limited but steady demand for 
 all sorts of chest and furniture hinges, both in steel and brass, and 
 also for cheap spring door hinges. The German factories have 
 flooded the market with cheaply made stocks of hinges of all sizes 
 and patterns suitable to the trade at very low prices. 
 
 One American manufacturer of hinges has been making light iron 
 loose and tight pin butts of an extra light weight suited to the 
 British Malaya market, and enjoyed a large portion of the trade 
 during and for some time since the war. English and German manu¬ 
 facturers, who understand the requirements of this trade thoroughly, 
 are now getting most of the business on a price basis. Sizes stocked 
 run from 2 to 4 inches. 
 
 The above applies also to brass butts, except that sizes run from 
 1^ to 6 inches, the larger size being used on the heavy front doors of 
 the Chinese houses. 
 
 Bolts .—A very large part of the demand for bolts in the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies is for hexagon machine bolts in sizes from one-fourth to 
 1J inches, mostly under 1 inch, and in lengths from one-half to 16 
 inches. All measurements are between the head and the nut when 
 the outer side of the nut is flush with the bolt end. 
 
 The principal demand for nuts is of the hexagon pattern, but 
 square nuts are also used, as well as blank nuts. 
 
 There is a steady demand in British Malaya for bolts for French 
 doors or windows, fastening at the same time into the floor and 
 lintel. These are being supplied by English manufacturers. 
 
 Several types of bolts are required. These are used in place of 
 spring chain bolts and of foot bolts. Two types of barrel bolts are 
 much in demand. One has a pressed-steel barrel in one piece with¬ 
 out a “ strike,” while the other has a cast-iron barrel and “ strike ” 
 and a brass “ shoot ” or bolt. 
 
 In September, 1920, one of the principal Dutch importers of locks 
 and hinges in the Netherlands Indies estimated the share of the whole 
 trade held by American manufacturers at 80 per cent, and expressed 
 the opinion "that there was an excellent prospect for them to retain 
 this advantage. Some factories were making up lines specially for 
 the oriental trade and they Avere well received. Most of this business 
 has gone to the Germans, partly on account of their low manufactur¬ 
 ing costs and the high dollar exchange, but principally because the 
 fine German trade organization within the colony made it possible 
 for them to market through “ all German ” channels. The German 
 importers are direct representatives of the manufacturers, and sold 
 considerable quantities of all sorts of cheap hardware, including locks 
 and hinges, to the natives through venders, who carried their stocks 
 in baskets swung on a pole, thus reducing middleman profits to a 
 minimum. 
 
 A large cheap pressed or cast iron rim lock, with porcelain or com¬ 
 position handle of the type that is standard on the American mar¬ 
 ket, finds a ready sale in British Malaya. These American locks 
 sold readily during and for some time after the Avar, but the lower 
 European exchanges and the ability of European manufacturers to 
 make deliveries has turned the business in these and in relative lines 
 to English and German makers. There is but a small demand for 
 
328 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 mortise locks, especially in the cheaper grades, due to the inability 
 of Chinese carpenters to properly fit them. 
 
 The market depression has caused a postponement of building 
 operations, but many buildings of the better classes are proposed, 
 and as soon as conditions approach normal it is expected that there 
 will be a renewed demand for locks and other builders’ hardware of 
 medium grades and for the finer grades of bronze and brass locks. 
 Some of the finest homes in British Malaya are equipped with very 
 inferior hardware, and an improvement in this respect may be ex¬ 
 pected in response to advertising and sales effort. One American 
 concern has introduced its line of padlocks so thoroughly that it is 
 in a favorable position to participate in this potential trade. 
 
 Wrought-iron and brass chest, cupboard, and wardrobe locks of 
 American makes were successfully introduced, but most of the trade 
 has now been lost to the British manufacturers, who have some 
 definite advantages, especially in time of delivery. 
 
 Two American manufacturers have had a strong position in the 
 trade for a cheap quality of locks for many years. They will have 
 to work hard to hold their place. 
 
 Night latches .—A good and growing demand is reported for cast- 
 iron and, to a lesser extent, brass night rim latches through the 
 various grades. This line should be pushed, as it will develop con¬ 
 siderably. 
 
 Iron and brass wood screws .—Brass and bright wood screws, with 
 both flat and round heads, are carried by the dealers, but the business 
 is small in the round-head type. Flat-head screws constitute a big 
 line, and both English and American makes are well known in the 
 market. With a normal exchange rate American screws would hold 
 an important share of this trade. The full range of sizes up to 3 
 inches are stocked by dealers. 
 
 A small but steady trade is had in a wide range of cheaply made 
 chest and cupboard fittings. English manufacturers dominate this 
 trade. 
 
 CARRIAGE HARDWARE. 
 
 The automobile and autotruck are rapidly replacing all sorts of 
 horse-drawn vehicles in the Netherlands East Indies. In the cities 
 and many of the smaller towns the “ cosong,” “ sado,” and “ deele- 
 man” serve as public hire vehicles, but in the cities these are all very 
 much dilapidated, and there is little evidence of a renewal of the 
 equipment. The few livery stables that exist in the coast cities are 
 not renewing the equipment, and it would seem that the owners of 
 horse-drawn vehicles have conceded that their time is short. Tn such 
 interior towns at Buitenzorg, Soekaboemi, Malang, and Bandoeng the 
 two-wheeled deelemans and sados are kept in good condition and 
 many new vehicles are in evidence. This is because the hire auto¬ 
 mobile is not much in competition and horse fodder is available at 
 a comparatively low price. It is probable that the four-wheeled 
 public vehicle is doomed, but the sado and deeleman will run on the 
 country roads for some time to come. 
 
 As stated before, in the Netherlands Indies it is customary to 
 measure bolts under the head and to the nut when the nut is flush 
 with the bolt end. Following are some of the requirements of the 
 trade: 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 329 
 
 Carriage bolts with flat head, square shank and square nut; lock bolts, half- 
 round head, square shank and nut; wagon builders’ bolts, flat countersunk 
 head, square shank and square nut; screw bolts; tire bolts with deep counter¬ 
 sunk head and square nut; and iron washers from l to inches, advancing 
 by &, and 1J and 2 inches; spring lock washers, single and double, in sizes from 
 \ to li inches. 
 
 Very few carriages are in use in British Malaya. In Singapore a 
 few “ gharries ” are still in use, but the equipment is not being re¬ 
 newed. Rickshaws are used in all the larger towns and in many 
 of the villages, and the hardware for these comes from British 
 sources. Before the war Germany was an important factor in the 
 trade in rickshaw wheels and axles, and the probabilities are that 
 that country will reenter the trade. 
 
 AXLES. v 
 
 The imports of axles into Java and Madoera only for 1913 (the 
 last full pre-war year), 1919, and 1920, by countries, are shown below. 
 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 Common axles: 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 4 ,784 
 
 200 
 
 3,078 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 4 ,480 
 
 1,801 
 
 2 ,302 
 
 Germany. 
 
 3,735 
 
 450 
 
 4 ,878 
 
 Belgium".. 
 
 '100 
 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 5 
 
 
 253 
 
 Total. 
 
 13,104 
 
 2,451 
 
 10,511 
 
 Patent axles: 
 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 539 
 
 
 120 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 273 
 
 515 
 
 205 
 
 Germany. 
 
 795 
 
 
 149 
 
 United States. 
 
 
 64 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,607 
 
 579 
 
 474 
 
 
 
 
 
 The “ grobak ” is the common means of conveyance of produce on 
 the country roads in Java. These slowly moving vehicles, pulled 
 by cattle similar to the type of the Bengali bullock, are often called 
 upon to make long hauls when the railroads can not handle the* 
 crops. They are used on the sugar and other plantations for bring¬ 
 ing in the crops where the light railways are not used, and they 
 move a large part of the incoming and outgoing cargoes from and to 
 the ports and warehouses and near-by plantations. While many of 
 these grobaks have wooden axles, practically all of the common axles 
 imported are for them. 
 
 The patent axles are imported for carriages and other light 
 vehicles. 
 
 “ Dog car ” axles are of a type which has two plates, one for the 
 outside and another for the inside of the hub. These are connected 
 by four bolts. The inside plate rests against a flange in the axle 
 and prevents the wheel from slipping off. They are used for the 
 two-wheeled passenger vehicles throughout the colony. 
 
 “Hire cars” (automobiles) are already on the streets of Batavia 
 and may be found at the large centers of population. The compe¬ 
 tition which will eventually minimize the importance of the grobak 
 is coming from the light industrial railways, from the motor trucks, 
 and from the road tractors with trailers. 
 
330 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 SANITARY GOODS. 
 
 Waslistands and flush closets comprise the principal trade in sani¬ 
 tary goods in the Netherlands East Indies. Hot-water baths are to 
 be found in only two hotels in Java, and there is no demand for 
 porcelain bathtubs worth considering at the present time. The de¬ 
 mand is growing, and it is only a question of time when a full line 
 of sanitary goods will have a place in the trade. In the meantime 
 contractors are satisfied with the European product, and American 
 manufacturers will either have to manufacture a competitive article 
 at a competitive price or make a greater sales effort in order to keep 
 their quality product on the market. 
 
 British sanitary goods of solid porcelain construction (without a 
 metal base) are selling in this market at prices which would shut out 
 American goods if considered merely on a price basis. 
 
 Bathtubs, flush closets, washstands, urinals, and such other sani¬ 
 tary equipment as is used in British Malaya comes almost entirely 
 from British factories. There are no modern sewerage systems. The 
 hotels of Singapore and Penang use the night-pail system, and but 
 few of the private residences are equipped with septic tanks. A 
 limited number of hotels and residences have porcelain bathtubs. In 
 this respect British Malaya is more backward than the Netherlands 
 Indies in sanitary equipment, but both units present a potential mar¬ 
 ket that it is reasonable to suppose will develop within the next 
 few years. It is not difficult to demonstrate the superiority of the 
 standard American sanitary products over European manufactures, 
 but the prices of metal base equipment is higher, and it will be neces¬ 
 sary to make a considerable effort to educate the ultimate buyers to 
 the use of the higher priced equipment. 
 
 ARMS, AMMUNITION, AND EXPLOSIVES. 
 
 In 1919 the import of high explosives for private account into 
 Java and Madoera was 82 metric tons, all of which came from the 
 United States. Some 42 per cent dynamite is imported, but 62 per 
 .cent' dynamite is preferred when it can be had. All of this comes 
 from the Pacific coast mills. 
 
 But one concern in the Netherlands Indies has a license to import 
 sporting powder. The volume of this business is very small and is 
 chiefly for the bird-of-paradise hunters in New Guinea. 
 
 The import of arms and ammunition is under severe restrictions, 
 and the trade is therefore very small. Licenses to carry firearms of 
 any kind are difficult to secure. What trade there is in these com¬ 
 modities is concentrated in the hands of a few licensed dealers. 
 American arms and ammunition are known in the markets, but Euro¬ 
 pean makes are well introduced, and the prejudices due to long use 
 will have to be overcome before the United States will get an im¬ 
 portant share of the trade. 
 
 BICYCLES. 
 
 Bicycles are used to a very large extent throughout the Nether¬ 
 lands East Indies by the white, half-caste, Chinese, and native popu¬ 
 lation. The following table shows the imports of bicycles into Java 
 and Madoera for 1913, 1918, 1919, 1920, and 1921: 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 331 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 
 
 1921 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Number. 
 
 14,688 
 
 Number. 
 
 243 
 
 373 
 
 264 
 
 Number. 
 2,958 
 2,251 
 557 
 
 Number. 
 10,095 
 781 
 5,376 
 3,853 
 
 Number. 
 
 12,955 
 
 508 
 
 2,898 
 
 5,727 
 
 280 
 
 United States. . .. . 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 3,304 
 1,160 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 133 
 
 1,428 
 
 24 
 
 115 
 
 150 
 
 14 
 
 Japan. 
 
 
 
 All other. 
 
 198 
 
 162 
 
 491 
 
 Total. 
 
 19, 350 
 
 2,465 
 
 6,045 
 
 20,267 
 
 22,859 
 
 
 In 1913, 19,350 bicycles were imported, of which 77 per cent was 
 credited to the Netherlands, 17 per cent to Great Britain, and 6 per 
 cent to Germany. During the war years the trade was disorganized, 
 and the imports dropped to 2,465 in 1918. The following year (1919) 
 showed an increase to 6,045, of which 49 per cent was credited to the 
 Netherlands, 37 per cent to the United States, and 10 per cent to 
 Great Britain. The 1920 returns show an import of 20,267 machines, 
 a half of which number was credited to the Netherlands, 26 per cent 
 to Great Britain, 19 per cent to Germany, and 4 per cent to the 
 United States. In 1921 the imports from the United States de¬ 
 creased to 508, or 2 per cent of the 22,859 machines imported, while 
 Germany took second place to the Netherlands, with 25 per cent of 
 the total, and Great Britain third place, with 12 per cent. 
 
 All bicycles imported into the Netherlands Indies have a coaster 
 hub on the rear wheel without the braking device. They are fitted 
 with mud guards and a brake on the front wheel. Many of them 
 are also fitted with a rack for stacking the wheel when not in use, 
 similar to the ones used on motor cycles. Kims should be fitted for 
 clincher tires, as tube tires are not wanted under any consideration. 
 Quotations are usually made for bicycles without tires. 
 
 All classes, including the European population, use bicycles, not 
 only in the cities but on the country roads and on the estates. 
 
 It is the custom for employers in this colony to assist their em¬ 
 ployees in buying bicycles, and the installment system is developed 
 to some extent. In the cities most of the errand boys and many of 
 the domestic servants ride bicycles, which are used very largely for 
 shop deliveries, having built-in racks for carriers over the fork. 
 
 But little effort has been made to sell American bicycles in the 
 colony, the dealers preferring to handle those European makes that 
 their trade is accustomed to. The retail trade is handled by Dutch 
 and Chinese dealers in the larger towns and by Chinese dealers 
 in the smaller centers. 
 
 Bicycles are used to a considerable extent in British Malaya by 
 native-born Chinese and the Malays, as well as by the various Brit¬ 
 ish Indian races and some of the European residents. English man¬ 
 ufacturers supply most of the trade at prices (June, 1921) ranging 
 from £5 to £15, without tires. The larger demand is for a cheap 
 and serviceable diamond-frame bicycle for the oriental, but there is 
 a good trade in the better makes of diamond-frame machines. 
 Ladies’ or drop-frame machines are in small demand. Sizes are 
 in 22 to 26 inch frames, with the bulk of the business in 24 and 26 
 inch frames. 
 
332 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 SAFES AND CASH BOXES. 
 
 The Dutch merchants in the Netherlands East Indies are quite 
 naturally prejudiced in favor of the Lips safes, which are made in 
 the Netherlands. Next to this the German “ Peltz ” safe is looked 
 upon most favorably. These are all key safes, in some cases with 
 two or more keys which are used in combination. 
 
 The major market for safes is with the Chinese. A burglar-proof 
 safe, as that term is understood in the United States, is entirely un¬ 
 necessary to the ordinary shopkeeper, a strong steel chest being re¬ 
 quired that will resist petty thieving and ordinary fires. The local 
 Chinese metal workers make an iron chest which opens on the top 
 and locks with a padlock, this serving all the purposes of the small 
 shopkeeper. These chests are usually set in masonry or concrete to 
 prevent their being carried off bodily. 
 
 There are numerous makes of small European safes on the mar¬ 
 ket, and during the Avar several of the well-known makes of Ameri¬ 
 can safes were imported, some in considerable quantities. There 
 Avas undoubtedly prejudice against these safes on account of their 
 having combinations and being built on wheels and because they 
 were different from Avhat the trade had been accustomed to, but they 
 all sold readily. 
 
 The prejudices against the combination safe is strong among the 
 more conservative of the Chinese and Dutch business men. The 
 Chinese argue that by having wheels on safes it is easier for thieves 
 to steal them. European safes have no wheels, but usually are built 
 so that they may be mounted on a metal standard. 
 
 The packing of American safes has been most unsatisfactory in 
 many cases, and the fact that they have wheels is one of the con¬ 
 tributing causes of this difficulty. 
 
 British makes of safes and cash boxes are imported into British 
 Malaya almost to the exclusion of all others. One American manu¬ 
 facturer of safe cabinets has made some progress in Singapore. 
 
 SCALES. - &$jgSB 
 
 The metric system has been adopted by the Netherlands East 
 Indies Government as the official system of measurement, but its use 
 has not been made compulsory. The picul and catty and the Am¬ 
 sterdam pound are used, and scales are sometimes made shoAving 
 these weights in combination. In size and capacity the scales 
 stocked by importers range from postal and apothecary scales to 
 automobile truck and light railway scales and include spring-dial 
 scales for shop and household use, platform scales for Avarehouses, 
 even-balance counter scales, automatic scales for the many indus¬ 
 tries, and various types of steelyards. A popular scale is that used 
 by the railways, which shoAvs the weight on a large dial Avhen the 
 platform is released by a leA r er. 
 
 One make of American scales is well known and is very largely 
 used, especially the portable platform pattern. 
 
 The small trade throughout the colony is carried on almost exclu- 
 siA r ely by the Chinese (excepting the market trade betAveen the 
 natures), who use the Chinese Avooden weighing stick in preference 
 to imported weighing devices. Large steelyards, either hung under 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 333 
 
 a scaffolding or slung under a pole carried by two coolies, are used 
 for weighing many kinds of produce in the exporters’ warehouses. 
 
 German-made postal scales held the market until Japanese scales 
 began to appear. The stationers are stocking these Japanese scales, 
 which are cheaply constructed and seem to fulfill all the require¬ 
 ments. A British scale (Salter’s) is well known in the market. 
 
 Standard scales of recognized marks are imported by the general 
 importers, while scales for special purposes or of slow sale are carried 
 by the machinery houses. Postal scales are sold by the stationers. 
 
 Scales of British manufacture are popular in British Malaya, but 
 one make of American scales is well known and enjoys a good trade. 
 Beams are usually cut for stones and pounds on one side and piculs 
 and catties on the other. __ 
 
 FIRE BRICK AND TILES. 
 
 The imports of fire brick into the Netherlands Indies for 1919, the 
 last year for which full figures are available, were 228,593 florins, of 
 which 27 per cent was from the United States, 16 per cent from the 
 Netherlands, 24 per cent from the Straits Settlements, 11 per cent 
 from Hongkong, and 13 per cent from Japan. The returns for Java 
 and Madoera for 1920 show an import of 1,012,692 florins, Japan 
 leading with 53 per cent, followed by the Netherlands with 28 per 
 cent, Hongkong with 8 per cent, China with 4 per cent, and the 
 United States with 1 per cent. 
 
 One user of a large quantity of fire brick claims that the American 
 product received was not entirely satisfactory and that he was using 
 Norwegian brick, although the German product is satisfactory. This 
 user was willing to try another shipment from an American factory 
 that would take an interest in his particular problem. With a nearly 
 normal exchange an American manufacturer who would make a 
 special effort to comply with the peculiar needs of the trade should 
 find a steady market in the colony. 
 
 Tiles for interior decoration were imported in 1919 to the value 
 of 1,032,722 florins, of which 86 per cent came from the Netherlands, 
 10 per cent from Japan, and a small amount from Great Britain. 
 The Dutch designs are specially suited to the trade, but American 
 manufacturers intending to bid for this business should not confine 
 their sales effort exclusively to Dutch decorative effects, as some of 
 the tiles imported from the United States during the war, which did 
 not follow the Dutch conventions, found favor with the trade. Tiles 
 and marble slabs are used for flooring almost to the entire exclusion 
 of wood. The local kilns make a fair quality of plain floor tiles and 
 supply the bulk of the trade. 
 
 BELTING. 
 
 The sugar mills of the Netherlands East Indies use more belting 
 than any other one industry. Little rubber belting is used, as the 
 engineers claim that the acids will destroy it. Both cotton and 
 leather belting is used in the sugar mills, but leather is more in favor. 
 
 Sizes of rubber belting most generally used by sugar mills are 4, 
 5, and 6 inch single and 8-inch double leather belting and 4 and 5 
 inch cotton belting. Other consumers of considerable quantities of 
 belting are the Government coal mines at Ombilin, Boekit Asem, and 
 
334 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Poeloe Laoet; the Government tin mines on the island of Banka, the 
 Marine Establishment at Soerabaya, the State railways, the machine 
 shops, the sugar estates, tea estates, coffee estates, printing shops, 
 automobile shops, the shops of the Koninklijke Paketvaart Maat- 
 schappij (Royal Packet Co.), and the dry-dock companies. 
 
 The Portland Cement Fabriek, at Padang, Sumatra, uses a 20 by -J 
 inch leather belt for its main drive, delivering 200 horsepower to the 
 dynamo. A large quantity of belting in all sizes is used in this mill. 
 
 The approach to this trade may be made direct to the larger con¬ 
 sumers and through the machinery houses and general importers, who 
 stock the staple dimensions for the immediate needs of the colony. 
 Such agricultural companies as the Nederlandsche Handel Maat- 
 schappij, Han dels vereeniging Amsterdam, and the Nederlandsch- 
 Indische Landbouw Maatschappij patronize the machinery importers 
 only for supplies needed immediately, buying through their Nether¬ 
 lands offices. 
 
 The industries using belting in British Malaya are few, including 
 the machine shops, automobile repair shops, and tin mines as the 
 principal users. On the main drives of some of the tin mines so- 
 called “ camel’s-hair ” belt was used, and the managers claimed that 
 it had a life of approximately five years. This belt has a cotton 
 face. 
 
 ENGINE-ROOM AND MILL AND MINE SUPPLIES. 
 
 The principal users of engine-room supplies in British Malaya are 
 the F. M. S. Railways; the dry docks at Singapore; the machine 
 shops at Singapore, Penang, Ivuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Seremban, and 
 Port Swettenham; the rubber-working plants at Singapore and 
 Penang; the tin mines; the rubber estates; and the steamers sailing 
 out of and calling at the principal ports. There are no industrial 
 railways of any consequence. Railway supplies are bought through 
 Crown agents in London. The Singapore Harbor Board, a branch 
 of the Straits Settlements Government, operates the dry docks and 
 the harbor works at the principal ports and acts as a separate unit, 
 buying in the local market for emergency needs; the machine shops 
 are usually controlled by machinery importing houses; the rubber¬ 
 reworking plants buy their supplies locally; some of the tin mines 
 are operated by engineering companies that buy their supplies abroad 
 or locally for emergency needs, while the smaller units purchase 
 only in the local markets or on indent through the importing houses. 
 The requirements of the rubber estates are small and are usually 
 supplied from local stocks; the locally owned steamships purchase 
 their supplies locally or on indent through the importing houses, 
 while the big steamship lines carry stocks of supplies at Singapore. 
 
 British manufacturers have some very material advantages in this 
 trade. The business organization is mostly British or under British 
 control, and there is a general community of interests between the 
 consumers and the stockists of British engineering supplies. The 
 estate companies usually pay an engineer or an engineering company 
 to visit their plants periodically, and the recommendations of these 
 visiting engineers are followed. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 335 
 
 AUTOMATIC FIRE-EXTINGUISHING APPARATUS. 
 
 According to a fire insurance agency representing British, Euro¬ 
 pean, American, and Australian fire insurance companies in Java, 
 as well as the largest Netherlands East Indian company, there 
 are no automatic fire extinguishers in use in the industries in the 
 Netherlands East Indies. The manager of this agency stated that 
 he would reduce his rates under normal conditions by 15 per cent if 
 approved apparatus were to be installed. When asked to define his 
 idea of approved apparatus he referred to the regulations of the 
 Australian Fire Insurance Association, and said that such apparatus 
 should include an alarm at the factory, at the manager’s home, and at 
 fire brigade quarters, and it would have to be proven to the satisfac¬ 
 tion of his company that the apparatus would actually extinguish or 
 prevent the spread of fire. His company will welcome the introduc¬ 
 tion of American apparatus that have proven successful in Australia 
 and any others that in actual demonstration will prove efficient. 
 
 In view of the large investment in factory buildings in Java and 
 the possible saving of a considerable part of the insurance premiums, 
 it would appear that there is a good field for the development of sales. 
 Companies introducing such equipment should protect their patents 
 in the Netherlands and the Netherlands East Indies. 
 
 ROOFING. 
 
 Cheap tile laid on bamboo poles is in common use throughout the 
 Netherlands East Indies for cheap buildings, but this tile often 
 cracks in a sudden change of temperature, such as is coincident with 
 a sudden thunderstorm. A very satisfactory tile is being used on 
 the better class of buildings, but this is expensive and an adequate 
 supply can not be obtained. Galvanized corrugated roofing can not 
 be used for schools and other public buildings on account of the heat. 
 Dutch engineers will be particularly interested in the life of the 
 fabricated roofing under actual wear, its “ insulation ” qualities, the 
 type of the under roof or the quantity of lumber required, the method 
 of attaching the under roof to steel-framed buildings, the feasibility 
 of using woven bamboo laid on slats under the roofing, and the extent 
 to which it is fireproof. 
 
 Stocks of American fabricoid roofing are carried in Sumatra and 
 Batavia and there is a small demand for it, but no general demand 
 has developed for its use in the construction of industrial buildings, 
 chiefly because it is not sufficiently fireproof. 
 
 Aside from the native dwellings, which are thatched with nipa 
 or sago palm leaves, the usual roof covering in British Malaya 
 is tiling, of which several grades are produced locally. Composition 
 shingles imported from the United Kingdom are used on the better 
 classes of houses, and some fabricated roofing in rolls is used, but 
 generally for plantation buildings. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS HARDWARE SUPPLIES. 
 
 • 
 
 The business in copper, brass, and lead pipe in the Netherlands 
 Indies is nearly all done by the machinery import houses, although 
 some of the larger milling companies buy through their Netherlands 
 houses. 
 
336 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Wood pipe. —The Bureau of Public Works has made a study of the 
 use of wood pipe, based on the experiments made with an Australian 
 product, and has decided that it was not suitable to its purposes. 
 Should American wood pipe be found to be satisfactory it is prob¬ 
 able that a large business might be developed. 
 
 Telephone cables .—There is a considerable mileage of underground 
 telephone cables in the Netherlands East Indies, and it is being con¬ 
 stantly extended. Manufacturers in Japan are the principal com¬ 
 petitors for this business. 
 
 Files. —Two American makes of files are favorably known in 
 Netherlands Indies. Most of the industries use one or the other of 
 these makes. They are considered by mill superintendents to be 
 superior to files imported from Europe before the war. 
 
 Files of one well-known American firm are firmly intrenched in 
 the trade of British Malaya, taking precedence over all other makes. 
 The following assortments, taken from actual orders, show the range 
 of the demand: Regular taper saw files, single cut; flat bastard files; 
 half-round bastard files; round smooth files; heavy handsaw, blunt 
 files; half-round wood rasps; and round bastard files. 
 
 There is a considerable demand for goldsmiths’ files, which are 
 being supplied almost entirely by one British firm. These files are 
 extremely fine, and importers express the opinion that American 
 manufacturers can not compete for this business. The following 
 assortments show the range of the demand: Three-square smooth 
 files, half-round smooth files, round smooth files, and knife smooth 
 files. Manufacturers soliciting business for this latter group of files 
 should submit samples. 
 
 Ratchets and drills .—These are used for work in the mills, on the 
 railways, and wherever iron and steel construction is under way. 
 American drills and ratchets became well known during the war 
 years, the lengths used ranging from 10 to 24 inches. 
 
 Wrenches .—“ S ” wrenches of all sizes up to 2-inch openings are in 
 use in the sugar mills and other industries. While the monkey wrench 
 is used here and all catalogues list them, the ordinary “ S ” wrench is 
 more popular, as it is thought to be better suited to the capabilities 
 of native mechanics. 
 
 Ball and roller bearings .—Portcastle & Williams and Watson 
 Laidway & Co.’s centrifugals are most largely used by the sugar 
 mills of Netherlands East Indies. The 183 sugar mills operating 
 and the other industries use large quantities of ball and roller bear¬ 
 ings. One European manufacturer maintains an organization in 
 Java to take care of this trade. 
 
 Chain. —One American make of conveyor chain is well known in 
 Java, and this factory has had a rare opportunity to get estab¬ 
 lished in this market. Each of the 183 sugar mills in Java uses 
 conveyor chain to carry the cane through the mill. There are some 
 peculiarities in the requirements here, and it would seem that a little 
 study of these conditions by the manufacturers would be worth while. 
 
 Valves. —A large range of valves is used in the sugar mills of 
 Netherlands Indies. In small sizes for steam, some of the mills pre¬ 
 fer blank flanges and buy only the best high-pressure valves. 
 The requirements range from these high-pressure valves down to 
 lightly constructed threaded valves. Rubber disks are not wanted, 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 337 
 
 as the natives do not know how to care for them, being used to the 
 brass valve with brass seat. In larger valves, for both steam and 
 conveyor pipes, there is a wide range in use. Many of the mills order 
 conveyor valves from the companies furnishing their plant’s, but some 
 of them believe they could get better prices by buying through the 
 importers. In some parts of the mills these must be lead lined. 
 There is only a small amount of renewal of these, however. All 
 threads are according to English measurements. 
 
 Gauge glasses are listed by the importers in dimensions of § to If 
 inches outside diameter and in lengths of 6 to 72 inches. 
 
 Wire brushes. —Boiler-tube brushes in all sizes noted in the list of 
 boiler tubes are used, special wire brushes being employed to clean 
 tubes of evaporators. Flat wire brushes for general use are im¬ 
 ported in various sizes. 
 
 Packing .—There is a wide range of packing used in the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies, all of which is listed in the catalogues on file with the 
 Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. American packing is 
 known in this market, and manufacturers will profit by giving some 
 attention to the sugar mills, circulajazing the special uses of their 
 various types of packing. The sugar mills are thoroughly over¬ 
 hauled from November to April, and during these months a large 
 part of the packing is renewed. 
 
 Abrasives .—The sawmills, machine shops, and sugar mills of Neth¬ 
 erlands Indies require the jobbers to stock abrasives in a wide range 
 of grit and sizes. The sugar mills are the largest consumers. Car¬ 
 borundum products are widely and favorably known and are stocked 
 by the foremost importers of machinery and supplies. 
 
 Babbitt metal .—The largest demand for Babbitt metal comes from 
 the sugar mills in Netherlands Indies for journal packing of sugar 
 trucks on the light railways. Both loose and solid packing is used, 
 with a maximum load of 6 tons and maximum speed of 15 miles per 
 hour. For the heavy rolls in the mills a slow-speed Babbitt metal is 
 required, with a load capacity up to 4,000 pounds to the inch. Other 
 consumers are the machine shops, estates of various kinds, tapioca 
 mills, and the shipping. 
 
 British Magnolia metal is sold by the leading jobber of machinery 
 supplies. The United States was the principal supplier during the 
 war years and up to 1920, but in that year European countries again 
 took the lead in the returns. 
 
 Sheet zinc .—Sheet zinc is imported into British Malaya in 5-hun¬ 
 dredweight (560-pound) casks in sheets of 6 by 3 inches, gauges 
 (B. W. G.) 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12. The bulk of the business is 
 in 10, 11, and 12 gauge in about equal proportions. Sheet zinc was 
 formerly used for making gutters and drainpipes, but the high 
 present costs have caused the house owners to use galvanized iron 
 sheets. 
 
 Before the war Germany and Austria supplied this demand. 
 American manufactures have been imported during the war and for a 
 time thereafter and proved satisfactory in every respect, but the 
 unfavorable exchange has turned the trade, which is small, to Euro¬ 
 pean markets. 
 
 Pig iron .—There is a good demand from the foundries in the 
 Straits Settlements and Federated Malay States ports for pig iron. 
 The analysis should be equal to No. 3 Shotts (English quality). 
 
338 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAY A. 
 
 SUNDRIES. 
 
 MATCHES. 
 
 There are no match factories in the Netherlands East Indies. The 
 following table shows the imports of common wood matches for 
 1913 and from 1918 to November, 1921, by countries, in units of 1,000 
 gross boxes: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 1920 1 
 
 1921 (11 
 months 
 only). 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 2,330 
 31 
 166 
 504 
 
 3 
 
 2,392 
 
 619 
 
 300 
 
 19 
 
 52 
 
 149 
 
 4 
 
 125 
 
 61 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 
 
 Sweden... 
 
 304 
 15 
 4,331 
 966 
 135 
 73 
 
 804 
 
 84 
 
 3,251 
 
 769 
 
 110 
 
 44 
 
 2,337 
 
 3 
 
 3,834 
 
 159 
 
 59 
 
 14 
 
 1,499 
 
 Other European. 
 
 Japan.T. 
 
 1,816 
 
 140 
 
 50 
 
 42 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 Hongkong. 
 
 All other. 
 
 Total._ 
 
 6,364 
 
 5,876 
 
 5,165 
 
 6,531 
 
 3,608 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 5,054 
 
 1,309 
 
 4,376 
 
 1,500 
 
 3,977 
 1,188 
 
 6,531 
 
 3,608 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 In 1913, 36 per cent of the imports came from the Netherlands, 
 8 per cent from Sweden, and 37 per cent from Japan. The war 
 conditions changed the trade materially in favor of Japan, and in 
 1919 that country supplied 63 per cent of the total imports, Sweden 
 being second with 16 per cent and the Netherlands with but 3 per¬ 
 cent. In 1921, so far as the returns are available, Japan supplied 
 but 51 per cent, against Sweden’s 41 per cent. 
 
 There has been a marked improvement in the quality of the Japa¬ 
 nese matches during the period under discussion. In 1913 that 
 country had an important part of the business with a very inferior 
 article, and with the improved product it would appear that it will 
 be able to make a stronger bid for the business. Most of the Japa¬ 
 nese matches sold here are put in boxes exactly duplicating the 
 Swedish box both in construction and label. 
 
 Some Japanese matches are sold under Japanese marks, and there 
 are also matches with Chinese marks. 
 
 American manufacturers have shown no disposition to bid for a 
 share of this trade. 
 
 Imports of matches into the Straits Settlements for 1913 and from 
 1916 to 1920 were as follows, values being given in Straits dollars, 
 one Straits dollar equaling $0.5678 United States currency: 
 
 Straits dollars. 
 
 1913 _ 967 , 874 
 
 1916 _ 1 , 721,794 
 
 1917 _ 2 , 218,678 
 
 Straits dollars. 
 
 1918 _ 2 , 579 , 825 
 
 1919 - 3 , 047 , 687 
 
 1920 _ 3 , 571 , 039 
 
 Japan was the chief supplier of matches in the years given, hav¬ 
 ing furnished as high as 96 per cent in 1918. During 1919 Japan’s 
 total fell to 75 per cent, Hongkong having supplied 21 per cent. In 
 1920 Japan’s percentage was 53, Hongkong’s 27, and Sweden’s 13. 
 
 A plant for making matches was installed near Kuala Lumpur, but 
 up to the middle of 1921 it had not been put into operation. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 339 
 
 WASHING SOAPS. 
 
 As compared with the washing soaps manufactured in the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies the imports are of secondary importance. In Java 
 alone there are 28 soap factories of some importance, while there are 
 innumerable small factories scattered throughout the colony. The 
 following statistics give the volume of imports, by countries, into 
 the colony for 1913, 1918, and 1919, imports for 1920 and 1921 being 
 for Java and Madoera only: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 (10 
 months 
 only). 1 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Florins. 
 383,000 
 1,000 
 503,000 
 69,000 
 243,000 
 2,000 
 127,000 
 39,000 
 
 Florins. 
 42,000 
 43,000 
 1,587,000 
 
 Florins. 
 
 114,000 
 
 53,000 
 
 1,556,000 
 
 Florins. 
 286,000 
 79,000 
 1,066,000 
 17,000 
 11,000 
 1,000 
 
 •Florins. 
 211,000 
 18,000 
 850,000 
 11,000 
 10,000 
 
 United States. 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Singapore and Penang. 
 
 Hongkong and China. 
 
 734,000 
 11,000 
 120,000 
 3,000 
 38,000 
 34,000 
 
 892,000 
 
 Australia^. 
 
 339,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 British India. 
 
 74,000 
 
 5,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 Japan. 
 
 71,000 
 50,000 
 
 36,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 All other. 
 
 17,000 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,384,000 
 
 2,612,000 
 
 3,075,000 
 
 1,541,000 
 
 1,162,000 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 451,000 
 933,000 
 
 964,000 
 1,648,000 
 
 1,001,000 
 2,074,000 
 
 1,541,000 
 
 1,162,000 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Great Britain has led consistently in this trade. The British com¬ 
 bination of soap manufacturers have made contracts with the prin¬ 
 cipal importers to handle their soaps exclusively, and their hold on 
 the market is such that importers have stated they are not interested 
 in taking on competitive lines. Any attempt to share this trade 
 would involve a hard fight with this strong British combination. 
 The imports from Singapore and Penang are probably British soaps, 
 either transshipped or taken out of depot there. 
 
 Imports from the United States are very small and indicate that 
 American manufacturers are not interested in the trade in view of 
 the competition presented. 
 
 The volume of local manufacture is indicated to some extent by 
 the imports of caustic soda. (See “ Chemicals.”) 
 
 TOILET SOAPS AND TOILET ARTICLES. 
 
 The use of toilet soaps is on the increase in the Netherlands East 
 Indies, as is shown in the appended table. In considering the market 
 for this commodity the great mass of the population must be elimi-. 
 nated as not being able to afford so high priced an article. The 
 buyers are the Dutch, both white and mixed bloods, the foreign ele¬ 
 ment, and a good proportion of the Chinese and Arab populations. 
 
 Everyone in the lowlands bathes at least once a day and often 
 two and three times. With the natives this means washing in the 
 streams or canals, sometimes using a cheap, locally made soap but 
 more often none at all. 
 
 19878°—23 - 23 
 
340 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The trade is used to buying soaps wrapped in a decorated paper 
 and packed three cakes to a carton. Some brands are more popular 
 than others, but a special attractiveness of the package will develop 
 a sale if the soap is of a good average quality. Besides the above 
 the first requisites of the trade are good distribution, steady quality, 
 attention to filling orders promptly, so that the line will never be 
 off the market, and the establishing of relations of mutual confidence 
 with the local representative so that suggestions from them will 
 meet with the consideration they are entitled to. 
 
 To get cooperation of any value it will be necessary to give the 
 exclusive representation to some importer in the colony. There are 
 many importers with ample distribution for the island of Java and 
 some of them have branches or connections covering other parts of 
 the colony. 
 
 The following table shows the volume of trade in toilet soaps and 
 the present tendencies: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 1921 (10 
 months 
 only).i 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 Florins. 
 494,000 
 
 Florins. 
 13,000 
 15,000 
 585,000 
 4,000 
 8,000 
 122,000 
 5,000 
 327,000 
 
 Florins. 
 77,000 
 221,000 
 519,000 
 
 Florins. 
 638,000 
 238,000 
 1,070,000 
 67,000 
 33,000 
 54,000 
 17,000 
 424,000 
 «, 000 
 12,000 
 
 Florins. 
 298,000 
 45,000 
 763,000 
 76,000 
 133,000 
 10,000 
 33,000 
 193,000 
 2,000 
 14,000 
 
 United States. 
 
 Oreat, 13 ri tain. 
 
 147,000 
 172,000 
 10,000 
 79,000 
 
 fjp.rmany and Austria. 
 
 France . 
 
 23,000 
 97,000 
 1,000 
 329,000 
 16,000 
 9,000 
 
 Penang and Singapore. 
 
 HnriP'konEr. 
 
 Japan . 
 
 
 Australia . 
 
 1,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 All other. 
 
 10,000 
 
 Total. 
 
 914,000 
 
 1,0S9,000 
 
 1,292,000 
 
 2,561,000 
 
 1,567,000 
 
 Total Java and Madoera. 
 
 Total Outer Possessions. 
 
 583,000 
 331,000 
 
 854,000 
 235,000 
 
 985,000 
 307,000 
 
 2,561,000 
 
 1, 5<?7,000 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 Before the war the Netherlands was the nominal country of origin 
 of the bulk of the imports, but the actual countries of origin for a 
 good part of these imports were the central European countries. In 
 1913 Germany and Austria stood second in the returns and Great 
 Britain third. By 1918 the business in Java and Madoera had in¬ 
 creased materially, with the Netherlands and Germany practically 
 eliminated, Great Britain in the lead, and Japan, a country that had 
 not figured in the returns in 1913, coming second. 
 
 In 1919 Great Britain was again in the lead, with Japan second, 
 but both of these countries had shared their trade with the United 
 States, which then stood third, but by 1921 this trade was practically 
 lost. 
 
 Soaps are listed in the import returns of the Straits Settlements 
 under “ soaps ” and “ toilet soaps.” Under the first heading is shown 
 a total value in 1920 of S$l,431,129 (Straits dollars), of which 
 S$l,177,139 came from the United Kingdom and S$151,130 from 
 Australia. The United States does not appear in the returns. Un¬ 
 der “toilet soaps” is shown a total import of S$941,744, of which 
 S$752,416 came from the United Kingdom, S$9,296 from Australia, 
 S$35,728 from Japan, and S$73,302 from the United States. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 341 
 
 The British soap combine has a strong hold on this trade. 
 
 In cheap cosmetics, face powders, and rouge Japan is the principal 
 supplier of the Netherlands East Indies, while the best qualities 
 come from France. 
 
 French and other European toilet waters are most favorably 
 looked upon. 
 
 To introduce or to maintain an American brand of toilet articles 
 in this market a responsible representation is requisite, one with a 
 good distribution organization. There are several such concerns in 
 the colony, and the success of one American line has shown the 
 importers that American manufacturers can, if they will, meet the 
 requirements of the trade in every respect. American manufacturers 
 can not expect their agents to sell as full lines in this colony as are 
 sold in the United States nor to maintain the same proportion between 
 the various articles. 
 
 The trade in toothbrushes is with the foreign population, the 
 Chinese, and the people of mixed blood. There would be some sale 
 for high-grade brushes if they were properly presented, but the large 
 bulk of the trade is in a popular-priced brush. One American brush 
 of this latter type is on the market and is found to be a very steady 
 and satisfactory seller. 
 
 OFFICE EQUIPMENT. 
 
 The following table shows the number of typewriters and calculat¬ 
 ing machines imported into the Netherlands East Indies during 1913, 
 1918, 1919, 1920, and 1921, by countries: 
 
 Countries. 
 
 1913 
 
 1918 
 
 1919 
 
 19201 
 
 19211 
 
 United States. 
 
 395 
 
 4,026 
 
 5,565 
 
 302 
 
 6,476 
 
 5,074 
 
 816 
 
 Netherlands. 
 
 1,540 
 
 53 
 
 911 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 128 
 
 23 
 
 77 
 
 248 
 
 294 
 
 Germany. 
 
 173 
 
 17 
 
 156 
 
 72 J 
 
 Japan. 
 
 46 
 
 26 
 
 Straits Settlements and Hongkong. 
 
 139 
 
 222 
 
 494 
 
 244 
 
 326 
 
 All other. 
 
 22 
 
 45 
 
 48 
 
 27 
 
 178 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 2,397 
 
 4,415 
 
 6,529 
 
 8,062 
 
 7,417 
 
 
 
 
 1 Java and Madoera only. 
 
 The 1920 figures were taken from the annual report of the Division 
 of Customs, and the 1921 figures were taken from the monthly 
 December issue of the monthly returns for Java and Madoera only. 
 This latter publication shows as a comparative figure the imports 
 for 1920 as 13,631 machines, or 5,569 more than are shown in the 
 annual returns. This increase was nearly all in the imports from 
 the Netherlands. An examination of the monthly returns leads to 
 the supposition that an error was discovered in the 1920 returns in 
 July. 
 
 Typewriters .—Before the war a few American typewriters were 
 imported direct to Netherlands Indies, but much the larger part of 
 them were routed through the Netherlands, and they are credited 
 to that country in the returns for 1913, besides many of the British 
 and German machines. The figures for later years show a large 
 increase in the direct import of American machines. 
 
342 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Few natives are educated as stenographers, and it is no unusual 
 thing to see the head of a large business concern writing his letters 
 with a pencil or on a typewriter, after which they are transcribed 
 by a native typist. 
 
 There is no effort on the part of the agents of the typewriters to 
 develop a force of stenographers, their attitude being that more 
 machines will be sold if each department head has a machine for his 
 own use. The typewriter is growing in use rapidly, and dealers 
 say that the country is far from adequately equipped. 
 
 Business houses in British Malaya do not yet appreciate the labor- 
 saving features of modern office equipment, and little effort is being 
 made by dealers in office supplies to introduce office machinery and 
 filing cases. American typewriters are used more than European 
 makes, and most of the standard American typewriters are repre¬ 
 sented and stocked in Singapore. 
 
 Calculating machines. —In Netherlands Indies before the war there 
 were many calculating machines in use built on the circular system 
 and principally manufactured in Germany. During the last few 
 years American machines have been imported and a steady and 
 growing business has developed. In adding machines the listing 
 and adding machine is in greater demand. 
 
 Very few adding or calculating machines are used in British 
 Malaya. There has been very little effort made to show the business 
 men the advantages to be gained from their use. 
 
 Cash registers .—A popular American cash register is well intro¬ 
 duced in the Netherlands Indies, and the trade is principally in the 
 more expensive types. In British Malaya, however, only a few 
 cash registers are in use, the large department stores and business 
 houses using the old-fashioned cash drawers. 
 
 Billing machines .—One make of billing machine is represented 
 in Java, and several have been put into use by the sugar mills. 
 There is a prospect for the development of considerable business for 
 this type of machine. No machines of this kind are in use in Brit¬ 
 ish Malaya, although there are many lines of business where they 
 would effect a great saving in time and increase efficiency materially. 
 
 Addressing machines. —Direct advertising by mail has not been 
 developed in the Netherlands Indies, but this form of appeal is re¬ 
 ceiving some attention. One office-equipment house stocks an Ameri¬ 
 can addressing machine, but few sales have been made. 
 
 The use of addressing machines in British Malaya has made but 
 little headway. The retail business is done almost entirely by the 
 Chinese, and for this reason the mailing lists of the import houses 
 are small. 
 
 Duplicating machines .—A British mimeographing machine has 
 been on the Netherlands Indies market for many years, and the 
 business houses, banks, and leading brokers have become somewhat 
 accustomed to its use. An American make has recently been intro¬ 
 duced here, and a sales campaign along modern lines is being car¬ 
 ried on for its introduction. 
 
 One British manufacturer of duplicating machines maintains a 
 branch retail establishment in Singapore. This machine is well 
 introduced. No American duplicating machine is effectively repre¬ 
 sented in the field. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 343 
 
 Filing systems .—A stock of popular American filing cabinets is 
 carried in Soerabaya and smaller stocks of other makes in Batavia. 
 The Government has begun to equip some of its departments in a 
 small way with these metal cases, and as the business community 
 comes to understand the advantages of the vertical system of filing 
 a good market should develop. At the present time the trade is in 
 its earliest stages, and a competitor of the American equipment has 
 developed in the Chinese locally made cabinets of hardwood. Most 
 of the banks and business houses are either using the old-style card¬ 
 board post files or bind their letters in the form of a book as they 
 are received. This is very laborious and permits of only the widest 
 classification. Outgoing letters go into copy books. The prejudice 
 in favor of old ways is still strong, but is gradually being overcome 
 by the pressure of work on the European staffs and the fact that 
 natives are not being trained for the work in the ratio of the increase 
 of business. 
 
 In British Malaya the Chinese-made wooden vertical filing cabinet 
 is in competition with the metal cabinet, but most houses still use 
 the cardboard-box filing system. 
 
 British Malaya is a very promising field for office equipment of all 
 kinds, as there has been scarcely any effort made to supply it. The 
 few companies handling office equipment either lack the desire or the 
 trained men to push sales. The kind of salesmanship that has been 
 used to develop the business in the United States, modified to suit the 
 local peculiarities, will bring good results, as there is a large amount 
 of business done, and under normal conditions profits are ample and 
 skilled labor is scarce. 
 
 SCHOOL SUPPLIES. 
 
 There are a few schools in the Netherlands East Indies, conducted 
 by various missionary societies and supported partly by Government 
 appropriations. While these are important, they are comparatively 
 few, and do not offer an attractive field for the sale of school sup¬ 
 plies. The Government schools, on the other hand, are scattered 
 throughout the colony and their development will require a con¬ 
 stantly growing quantity of supplies. These schools are under the 
 control of the Department of Education and Religion (Onderwijs 
 en Eeredienst), within which is the Council of Education (Onder- 
 wijsraad), to which all matters of school method and equipment 
 are referred before adoption. The active members of this council 
 are two delegated members (gedelegeerde leden), who are profes¬ 
 sional educators and students of educational methods in other coun¬ 
 tries, especially in the oriental Tropics. These delegated members 
 have studied the educational methods of the Philippine Islands and 
 are planning to adapt some of them to their requirements. They 
 were specially impressed with the industrial education and physical 
 instruction carried on in those islands. They wish to apply every 
 modern equipment consistent with efficiency to their schools, and the 
 receipt of catalogues from manufacturers of school equipment, with 
 prices and full particulars as to their adaptability to their purposes, 
 would be very welcome. 
 
344 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The supplies needed comprise school furniture, including desks 
 and benches, blackboards, maps, and scientific charts of all descrip¬ 
 tions with Dutch characters; equipment for all phases of industrial 
 education; athletic goods; educational lantern slides; projection 
 lanterns (electric and carbide); educational moving-picture films; 
 projectors for ordinary pictures; reproductions of classical statues 
 in clay; and photographic reproductions of works of art. 
 
 It would be unsafe to assume that the education in this colony can 
 compare favorably with that of the Philippine Islands. The figures 
 of attendance are large and imply a greater development than has 
 actually taken place. School equipment is most limited in the 
 schools of the second class (native primary schools, which have the 
 largest number of pupils). It is made locally by the Chinese and 
 consists of benches and desks, a table for the teacher, and black¬ 
 boards. The extent of the teaching is the most elementary arithme¬ 
 tic and a little reading and writing of the language of the district. 
 
 There are several private schools in the Straits Settlements par¬ 
 tially supported by the Government, and throughout the Straits 
 Settlements and the Federated Malay States there are schools for the 
 natives. The equipment for the better class schools is modeled 
 somewhat after English patterns, much of it being made locally. 
 There is very little equipment for the native schools. 
 
 HOSPITAL SUPPLIES. 
 
 The bulk of the supplies fqr the hospitals of the Netherlands East 
 Indies is purchased through the Colonial Department of the Nether¬ 
 lands, which maintains a purchasing bureau at The Hague and a 
 branch at 17 Battery Place, New York. Large stocks of staple sup¬ 
 plies are carried in the Netherlands. There is no regulation which 
 requires that supplies shall be bought through this agency, and the 
 administrators of the hospitals in the colony are free to make their 
 purchases direct from manufacturers. 
 
 The inspector of pharmacy and chemicals makes the requisitions 
 for all purchases for his department and in many cases when order¬ 
 ing supplies specifies the maker and the catalogue number of ma¬ 
 terials required. When mailing catalogues or other sales literature 
 to the directors of hospitals, copies should also be sent to the in¬ 
 spector, together with full information as to prices and the channels 
 through which the merchandise may be procured. 
 
 Before orders are placed for new types of hospital equipment 
 they are referred to a board of advisers made up of doctors in charge 
 of hospitals. 
 
 The medical doctors in the Government hospitals read the Ameri¬ 
 can medical journals and journals devoted to hospital service and 
 are much interested in the equipment described in articles and ad¬ 
 vertisements. Manufacturers will find them interested in catalogues 
 sent, and, as the directors of the hospitals may initiate orders, direct 
 business may result. 
 
 All of the estates in the Sumatra East Coast Residency either have 
 hospitals in connection with their property or are joined with other 
 estates for the maintenance of hospitals. All estates keep some first- 
 aid supplies on hand. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 345 
 
 In British Malaya all of the estates employing British Indian 
 labor are required by law to maintain a hospital, either alone or in 
 combination with other estates, to accommodate its sick coolies, and 
 to employ a qualified doctor to supervise it. Besides these hospitals, 
 most of which are in the Federated Malay States, there are many 
 State-supported and private hospitals at the population centers. 
 The doctors are all British subjects. 
 
 CLOTHING. 
 
 MEN’S CLOTHING AND HABERDASHERY. 
 
 On account of the extreme heat of the Netherlands East Indies men 
 wear wash clothes in the daytime exclusively. White drill and some 
 linen are worn. For common wear khaki drill is used to some extent 
 on the plantations and for rough work. These suits are made locally, 
 mostly by Chinese tailors, although the wealthier classes patronize 
 the European tailors. 
 
 White is a usual costume for evening wear, but most men have a 
 light-weight unlined serge or gaberdine coat, which is worn in the 
 late afternoons and evenings, except on formal occasions, when full- 
 dress or dinner jackets are worn. The adult Dutch are not athlet¬ 
 ically inclined, so, unlike British Malaya, there is but little call for 
 sport clothes. 
 
 Several European tailors in each of the larger towns carry stocks 
 of cloth, and some of the shops carry ready-made coats of sport 
 models. 
 
 A considerable business is done in outfits for men returning to 
 Europe on furlough. 
 
 There is a steady trade in light-weight underwear in medium and 
 large sizes for the European population and a very large trade in 
 small sizes of cheap cotton undershirts for the native trade. 
 
 Many American manufactures making up the sundries in haber¬ 
 dashery are generally stocked throughout the colony. 
 
 Men’s garters with silk fabric are not to be bought except in the 
 shops catering to the best trade, but the cotton-fabric garters are sold 
 in the Chinese shops and by the peddlers. These are bought not only 
 by the European population but by the Chinese and many of the 
 better class of natives. 
 
 Socks .—White cotton socks are the large staple in the trade. A 
 fairly good quality is required, although there is some trade in the 
 cheapest qualities. Silk socks are not usually worn, although there 
 is some trade, and it could be extended if good qualities were to be 
 marketed at reasonable prices. The British Indian factories are 
 competing for this trade with a very light-weight silk sock of poor 
 quality. 
 
 Shirts and collars .—There is a fairly steady, small market for 
 ready-made shirts in all sizes in white or with conservative markings, 
 in medium and large sizes for the European trade and small sizes 
 for the Chinese trade. Most of the shirts sold are made to order by 
 the local tailors. 
 
 Neckwear .—Only cheap qualities are displayed by the local haber¬ 
 dashers, and these are very poorly made. There is a small potential 
 market for medium-priced American neckwear, but this can not be 
 
346 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 developed without the active cooperation of the better class of re¬ 
 tailers, who are disinclined to introduce new lines. Stocks carried 
 are small. 
 
 Raincoats. —Rubber-treated raincoats in the full range of men’s 
 and women’s styles find a steady sale in the rainy season. They are 
 stocked principally by the European-owned department stores in 
 the larger cities and towns. 
 
 In British Malaya white suits are worn by the men during the 
 day and generally in the evening. These are made of fairly good 
 cotton drill and tailored by the Chinese. The British residents are 
 devoted to athletics, and by 4.30 or 5 o’clock in the afternoon most 
 of the male population is on the tennis courts or golf links or in the 
 athletic field engaged in some sort of sport. This calls for a wide 
 range of sport clothing of a quality suited to local conditions, 
 namely, white flannel trousers, sport coats, sweaters and mufflers of 
 heavy wool, and long blanket coats for wear after the game. 
 
 The half-caste population dresses according to British styles, but 
 their purchasing capacity is smaller and cheaper articles are required 
 by them. 
 
 The better classes of the younger element of Chinese dress in 
 European fashion, and many of them are able to buy the most ex¬ 
 pensive articles. They are not naturally inclined toward athletics. 
 
 Men of the European community usually dress for dinner when 
 ladies are to be present, and dinners afford a large part of the 
 pleasures of the life of these Tropics. Dress suits are usually bought 
 during the home leave, but dress collars and ties, shirts, shoes, and 
 pumps and the other accessories to formal dress are in constant 
 demand. 
 
 For day wear Europeans, half-castes, and the Chinese of all 
 classes above the coolies and house bo} 7 s wear either a sola topee or 
 a double felt hat, although the latter is more generally worn in the 
 Federated Malay States for plantation work. The sola topee is 
 made in England and some of the pith variety in India. The double 
 felt hats come from England. 
 
 Soft felt hats in a narrow range of medium qualities are on sale 
 in the department stores and European-owned stores catering espe¬ 
 cially to men. 
 
 Outside the above-mentioned shops, few stocks of haberdashery 
 are carried. 
 
 WOMEN’S WEAR. 
 
 In the Netherlands Indies lingerie, hats, corsets, and other ladies’ 
 wear are sold by the European department stores and shops cater¬ 
 ing especially to women. There is a considerable import of lingerie, 
 gowns, and hats from Paris and other European fashion centers, 
 and the demand for the better class of trade catered to by these 
 shops is for the first qualities, both in made-up garments and in 
 sundries. 
 
 The manager of one of the biggest retail organizations in Java, 
 which has an annual turnover running into millions of florins, spoke 
 of the difficulty of buying in the American market, due to the neces¬ 
 sity of depending for selection of styles on the seller, as it is not 
 possible to give definite orders on account of changes in styles. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 347 
 
 An American exporting house that studies this trade and is able 
 to demonstrate its ability to cooperate with its Java customer in 
 selection of materials and styles could secure liberal orders. 
 
 The department stores of Singapore, Penang, Kuala Lumpur, and 
 Ipoh are the principal stockists of ladies’ wear. The number of 
 European women is small as compared with the male European pop¬ 
 ulation. There is a small number of European dressmakers, besides 
 a large number of half-caste, Chinese, and British Indian dress¬ 
 makers and ladies’ tailors. The British Indian shops carry stocks 
 of such dress furnishings as are made in the Orient. 
 
 Some shops cater especially to the Chinese women, whose require¬ 
 ments in style and general design of garments is radically different 
 from those of the European women. 
 
 BOOTS, SHOES, AND SHOEMAKERS’ SUPPLIES. 
 
 The department stores of the Netherlands Indies carry small 
 stocks of shoes of cheap and medium qualities, buying from French, 
 British, and American factories. Retail prices are high, quality con¬ 
 sidered, and the volume of sales is thereby restricted, as the buyers 
 can always go to the Chinese shoemakers, whose prices are low, al¬ 
 though there is much to be desired in the quality and style of their 
 product. 
 
 Low white canvas shoes are in greatest demand, but the Chinese 
 also make leather shoes in various patterns. 
 
 A few shops which cater to women carry fancy slippers and small 
 stocks of fine shoes, one factory in Batavia making fancy shoes for 
 women, largely on order. 
 
 One American manufacturer of rubber-soled canvas shoes has had 
 a moderate initial success in introducing his product in the Nether¬ 
 lands Indies. These shoes are in good lasts and their general appear¬ 
 ance is attractive. They would undoubtedly find a ready sale at a 
 price permitting a fair profit, but the dealers are able to add large 
 profits, with a resultant restriction of the volume of business done. 
 
 For men’s leather shoes the European element of the population of 
 British Malaya draws on the department stores, as does the wealthier 
 class of Chinese, while most of the white canvas and leather shoes of 
 a cheaper quality worn by all classes of the shoe-wearing public are 
 made by the Chinese shoemakers. 
 
 British factories supply most of the leather shoes worn, as well as 
 the imported white canvas shoes, although American shoes are seen 
 in most of the stocks. In leather goods a stout tan calf, Goodyear- 
 welt, single and double sole shoe, is in greatest demand. Few fine 
 shoes are stocked, but medium-priced vici kid shoes in tans, browns, 
 and black are stocked, mostly in low bluchers and vals, and some 
 black calf. There is a good demand for turned patent-leather pumps 
 of a medium quality. 
 
 European retailers stock white canvas McKay-sewed shoes regu¬ 
 larly, but no canvas Goodyear-welt shoes. The canvas shoes made 
 by the Chinese shoemakers are more serviceable than the imported 
 stock, although they have but little style. There is a steady demand 
 for golf, football, and tennis shoes of the type used in England. 
 
 Medium qualities of women’s shoes are stocked by the department 
 stores of British Malaya, but there is a distinct lack of style in the 
 
348 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 lasts and patterns. This is particularly true of the white canvas 
 shoes, which are generally worn, except on dress occasions, on account 
 of their greater coolness, and the Chinese shoemakers get a large part 
 of this business. 
 
 There is ample wealth in British Malaya to warrant the carrying 
 of stocks of a much better grade than are carried at present. The 
 policy of the retail merchants in stocking only such styles and 
 qualities of shoes as have been called for in the past is responsible 
 for the lack of a demand for a fair proportion of high-grade shoes, 
 and when a more progressive type of merchandising is introduced 
 the trade for fine American shoes should develop, as it has already 
 done in the Philippine Islands and in Shanghai and the North 
 China ports. 
 
 It will be difficult to induce wholesale importers to stock any but 
 the styles and lasts used in the past, and salesmen in making up 
 sample assortments should include full lines of conservative styles 
 of British lasts, although they may be able to place small orders 
 for grades better in style and quality. 
 
 Shoemakers’ supplies .—The Chinese shoemakers get their supplies 
 of sundries through the British importing houses, who buy from 
 British markets. 
 
 Leather. —iN’o figures of imports by countries are available later 
 than 1920, and imports of that year can not be taken as a criterion 
 for the present trade. In that year imports of “ leather wear ” 
 (which includes shoes and shoe leather) into the Straits Settlements 
 were valued at S$l,856,632 (Straits dollars). Of this amount, im¬ 
 ports to the value of S$215,062 came from the United States, 
 S$734,964 from the United Kingdom, S$489,325 from Australia, 
 S$139,466 from British India and Burma, S$87,708 from Japan, and 
 S$40,150 from Hongkong. From trade sources it is learned that a 
 considerable part of the upper leather is still coming from the United 
 States and most of the sole leather from England. - 
 
 TRAVELING BAGS. 
 
 German, Austrian, and English leather traveling bags are stocked 
 by the department stores and men’s clothing dealers in the Nether¬ 
 lands East Indies. Some of these are of fairly good material and 
 well made, while many of them are of a medium quality. Suit¬ 
 cases, cloth and leather lined, with and without toilet sets, and kit 
 bags of various shapes cover the range carried by the men’s furnish¬ 
 ing houses, and the department stores handle in addition small suit¬ 
 case-shaped leather and fiber boxes, which are used for carrying 
 documents. There is a very good sale of bags made of woven 
 stripped rattan with leather trimmings. Most of these come from 
 Japan. The Indian (British East Indian) shops stock Japanese 
 leather bags of poor quality, as well as Japanese cheap matting 
 suitcases. 
 
 There are a few American fiber trunks offered by one department 
 store in Batavia at prices which involve a very handsome profit. 
 The trunk trade is held by European makes that are not comparable 
 with American trunks in any way. Some European-made wardrobe 
 trunks of flimsy construction are offered for sale at high prices by 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES. 
 
 349 
 
 the department stores. There is a large sale for the ordinary Eu¬ 
 ropean-made box trunks with one tray, steamer trunks with one 
 tray, and ladies’ hatboxes. 
 
 A sheet-iron box with three locks and sliding bolt, without trays, 
 is stocked in various sizes by the department stores and Chinese 
 shops for the popular trade. These boxes come from Europe and 
 are used by all classes, being rat proof and very convenient for 
 traveling in the Tropics. 
 
 The quality and design of the American fiber trunks appeal to 
 the trade in this colony, but the sale is slow at the prices asked. 
 
 In British Malaya the better class department stores at the centers 
 of population stock a full range of British-made traveling bags and 
 boxes, and the British India and Japanese shops stock Japanese 
 bags. The natives, Chinese, and many Europeans when traveling- 
 in the Tropics use the sheet-iron boxes previously mentioned. 
 
 PURCHASING DIVISIONS. 
 
 The Bureau of Public Works (Department der Burgerlijks Open- 
 bare Werken, commonly called B. O.W. in the colony), located at 
 Batavia, constructs all engineering works in the Outer Possessions, 
 with the exception of districts which have developed a capacity either 
 as municipalities or residencies to handle their own affairs. The pur¬ 
 chases for the B. O. W. are nominally made through the Purchasing 
 Bureau of the Department of the Colonies of the Netherlands Gov¬ 
 ernment, but it has the right to specify the material to be bought, and 
 if it can be obtained within the colony the function of the Purchasing 
 Office is merely nominal. The divisions controlling the purchases 
 are as follows: Afdeeling A, buildings (schools, hospitals, etc.); 
 Afdeeling B, roads and bridges; Afdeeling E, irrigation; Afdeeling 
 G, drinking water and sewerage; Afdeeling H, harbors. 
 
 In Java and Madoera and in the self-governing districts and 
 municipalities of the Outer Possessions the road works, waterworks, 
 and sewer systems are built by the local governments, unless they 
 ask the aid of the Central Government. The harbor works, irriga¬ 
 tion works, and schools, hospitals, and prisons are all built by the 
 Central Government, while the municipalities and residencies con¬ 
 struct their administrative buildings. The self-governing divisions 
 are listed below. In each case the officials to be addressed or con¬ 
 sulted are given. 
 
 Residency of Bantam, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Provincial Works. 
 
 Residency of Batavia. Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Provincial Works. 
 
 Municipality of Batavia, Java : 
 
 To the Honorable Burgemeester. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Municipality of Meester Cornelis, Batavia, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Assistant Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Municipality of Buitenzorg, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Assistant Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
350 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The Preanger Regencies, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Provincial Works. 
 
 Municipality of Bandoeng, Preanger, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Burgemeester. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Municipality of Soekaboemi, Preanger, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Assistant Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Residency of Cheribon, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Provincial Works. 
 
 Municipality of Cheribon, Cheribon, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Assistant Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Residency of Pekalongan, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Provincial Works. 
 
 Municipality of Pekalongan, Pekalongan, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Assistant Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Municipality of Tegal, Pekalongan, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Assistant Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Residency of Semarang: 
 
 To the Honorable Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Provincial Works. 
 
 Municipality of Semarang: 
 
 To the Honorable Burgemeester. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 If the attention of the Director of Waterworks is desired, address the 
 Director of Municipal Waterworks. 
 
 Municipality of Salatiga, Semarang, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Assistant Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Residency of Rembang, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Provincial Works. 
 
 Residency of Soerabaya, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Provincial Works. 
 
 Municipality of Soerabaya, Soerabaya, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Burgemeester. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 If the attention of the Director of the Waterworks is desired, address the 
 Director of Waterworks. 
 
 Municipality of Modjokerto, Soerabaya, Java: To the Honorable Chief of the 
 Government of the District of Modjokerto. 
 
 Residency of Madoera, Madoera: 
 
 To the Honorable Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Government Works. 
 
 Residency of Pasoeroean, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Government Works. 
 
 Municipality of Pasoeroean, Pasoeroean, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Chief of the Government of the District of Pasoeroean. 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Municipality of Malang, Pasoeroean, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Burgemeester. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works and Waterworks. 
 
 Municipality of Probolinggo, Pasoeroean, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Chief of the Government of the District of Probolinggo. 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Residency of Besoeki, Java : 
 
 To the Honorable Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Provincial Works. 
 
IMPORT COMMODITIES, 
 
 351 
 
 Residency of Banjoemas, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Provincial Works. 
 
 Residency of Kedoe, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Provincial Works. 
 
 Municipality of Magelang, Kedoe, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Assistant Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Residency of Madioen, Java: To the Honorable Director of Provincial Works. 
 Municipality of Madioen, Madioen, Java: To the Honorable Chief of the Gov¬ 
 ernment of the District of Madioen. 
 
 Residency of Kediri, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Provincial Works. 
 
 Municipality of Kediri, Kediri, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Assistant Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Municipality of Blitar, Kediri, Java: 
 
 To the Honorable Assistant Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Principality of Soerakarta, Java: To the Honorable Resident (send duplicate 
 of engineering data and state that it is for the engineer in charge of public 
 works). 
 
 Principality of Djokjakarta, Java: To the Honorable Resident (send duplicate 
 of engineering data and state that it is for the engineer in charge of public 
 works). 
 
 Municipality of Padangpandjang, Sumatra West Coast, Sumatra: To the 
 Honorable Chief of the Government of the District of Padangpandjang. 
 Municipality of Fort de Kock, Sumatra West Coast, Sumatra: To the Honor¬ 
 able Chief of the Government of the District of Padangpandjang. 
 Municipality of Sawah Loento, Sumatra West Coast, Sumatra: To the Honor¬ 
 able Chief of the Government of the District of Padangpandjang. 
 Municipality of Palembang, Palembang, Sumatra: 
 
 To the Honorable Burgemeester. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 The self-governing district of Ogan Ilir, Palembang, Sumatra: To the Honor¬ 
 able Controller. 
 
 The self-governing district of Komering Ilir, Palembang, Sumatra: To the 
 Honorable Controller. 
 
 The self-governing district of Lematang Ilir, Palembang, Sumatra: To the Hon¬ 
 orable Controller. 
 
 Residency of Sumatra East Coast, Sumatra: 
 
 To the Honorable Governor. 
 
 To the Director of Local Works. 
 
 Municipality of Medan, Sumatra East Coast, Sumatra: 
 
 To the Honorable Burgemeester. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Municipality of Tebingtinggi, Sumatra East Coast, Sumatra: 
 
 To the Honorable Chief of the Local Government of Tebingtinggi. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Municipality of Bindjai, Sumatra East Coast, Sumatra: 
 
 To the Honorable Chief of the Local Government of the Underdistrict of 
 Upper Langkat. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Municipality of Tandjoengbalai, Sumatra East Coast, Sumatra: 
 
 To the Honorable Chief of the Local Government of the District of Asahan. 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Municipality of Pematang Si Antar, Sumatra East Coast, Sumatra: 
 
 To the Honorable Chief of the Local Government of the Division of Si- 
 moloengoen and Karoland (send duplicates for the engineer). 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Municipality of Bandjermasin, Southern Borneo, Borneo: To the Honorable 
 Chief of the Local Government of the District of Bandjermasin. 
 Municipality of Menado, Menado, Celebes: To the Honorable Chief of the Local 
 Government (send duplicate for the engineer). 
 
 To the self-governing district of Minahasa, Menado, Celebes: To the Honor¬ 
 able Chief of the Provincial Government (send duplicate for the engineer). 
 
352 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 Municipality of Macassar, Celebes: 
 
 To the Honorable Burgemeester. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Municipality of Padang, Sumatra West Coast, Sumatra: 
 
 To the Honorable Assistant Resident. 
 
 To the Director of Municipal Works. 
 
 Other departments of the Government influencing purchases are 
 the following: 
 
 Departement van Landbouw, Nijverheid en Handel (Department of Agriculture, 
 Industry and Commerce), Afdeeling C, Bureau 2 (Division C, Bureau 2) : 
 Chemical fertilizers, chemicals and equipment for laboratories, agricultural 
 machinery and implements. 
 
 Departement van Gouvernements bedrijven (Department of Government Indus¬ 
 tries) : 
 
 Hoofdbestuur van den Post, Telegraafen en Telefoondienst (Head adminis¬ 
 tration of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephone Services). 
 
 Dienstvak Telegrafie, Afdeeling Techniek der Draad Telegraphie (Service 
 branch of telegraphs; Technical division of telegraph wires; Interurban 
 and interprovincial) : Telegraph and telephone wires and equipment, 
 cable ship supplies, shop supplies, autobusses and supplies, radio supplies, 
 telephone and telegraph central and relay station supplies. 
 
 Dienstvak Telefonie, Afdeeling Techniek der Telefonie (Service branch of 
 telephones, Technical Division) : Same as above for local and district 
 telephones. 
 
 Hoofdbureau van het Mijnwegen (Head Bureau of Mines) : Instruments 
 for assaying and surveying, mining machinery, and supplies. Under this 
 bureau are the Banka tin mines; Ombilin coal mines; Poeloe Laoet coal 
 mines; Boekit Asem coal mines; geological survey of the Malili District 
 of Celebes, and other research work, including investigations in Atjeh, 
 New Guinea, Riouw, and Timor; the Benkoelen gold mines. 
 
 Landsdrukkerij (Government Printers) : Printing and lithographing ma¬ 
 chinery and supplies of all kinds. 
 
 Staatsspoor en Tramwegen (State Railways and Tramways) : Railway 
 supplies of all kinds. 
 
 Dienst voor Waterkracht en Electriciteit (Service for Hydro and Hydro¬ 
 electric Power) : Surveying instruments, machinery, and supplies of all 
 kinds. 
 
 Departement van Onderwijs en Eredienst (Department of Education and 
 Religion) : 
 
 Onderwijsraad (Council of Education) : School supplies. 
 
 6d Afdeeling (6th Division) : Drugs, supplies, surgical instruments, and 
 hospital supplies. 
 
 Leger of Departement van Oorlog (Army, or Department of War) : Army 
 supplies. 
 
 Some of these departments make their purchases direct from 
 abroad, and all may purchase highly technical materials direct if 
 there are reasons to believe that their technical knowledge is neces¬ 
 sary for purchasing, and they may purchase materials from stocks in 
 the Netherlands Indies or stocks afloat destined for the colony, but 
 otherwise purchases must be made through the Purchasing Division 
 of the Department of the Colonies of the Netherlands, located at 
 The Hague, with branches at New York, N. Y., and at Bandoeng, 
 Java. 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 CURRENCY. 
 
 / 
 
 The Dutch monetary system was introduced into the Netherlands 
 East Indies in May, 1854. The coins in use are: Gold 5 and 10 
 florin (guilder) pieces, and silver 2-J, 1 , and one-half florin pieces. 
 Subsidiary coins are 25 and 10 cent pieces of silver, 5-cent nickel 
 coins, and copper coins of 2J, 1, and one-half cent value. Subsidiary 
 coins are legal tender to a limited extent only. 
 
 The monetary system is based on gold. The standard unit of 
 value in the United States is the gold dollar containing 25.8 grains 
 of gold, 900 fine, while the 10-florin piece contains 103.703 grains of 
 a similar fineness. Thus the mint value of the florin is 40.195 cents 
 in United States currency, or 2.4879 florins equal $1. 
 
 Under the coinage act the value of the florin (silver) was fixed 
 at one-tenth of the gold 10-florin piece, and in order to maintain 
 the silver coinage at a full legal-tender value the minting of silver 
 coins was put under certain restrictions. Gold and silver coins are 
 legal tender to any amount. 
 
 The increase in the gold price of silver during the later years of 
 the last decade made the intrinsic value of the silver coins higher 
 than their legal-tender value. This led to a scarcity of coins which 
 was met by the issue of paper notes by the colonial government of 
 2^-florin and 1-florin value, which was well received by the public. 
 
 Excepting these small notes, the Bank of Java enjoys the monop¬ 
 oly of issuing paper money in the Netherlands East Indies. Its 
 notes command general confidence and are legal tender. The amount 
 of gold in circulation is limited, and natives frequently refuse gold 
 and accept bank notes in preference, in marked distinction from the 
 native practice in British India, where the hoarding of metallic 
 coin by the natives has proved embarrassing to the Government and 
 a great economic loss to the country. 
 
 On March 14, 1922, the bank’s selling rates for cable transfer were 
 quoted by newspapers as follows: Netherlands, 1-| per cent discount; 
 London, 11.80 florins to 1 pound sterling; United States, 2.75 florins 
 to $1. In 1919 the American dollar was quoted at 2.67 florins, or 
 at a premium of about 7 per cent above mint par, tending to encour¬ 
 age exports to the United States, but acting as a sort of tariff wall 
 against imports from the United States. Ordinarily shipments of 
 gold would be made to the United States and exchange would be 
 kept at or near the gold export point, but at that time such ship¬ 
 ments were prohibited by the Government of the Netherlands East 
 Indies. 
 
 There is in Java no very marked seasonal movement in exchange 
 such as is seen in normal times in British India, but perhaps the 
 
 353 
 
354 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 months during which the supply of export bills is smallest are 
 January to May. Rates are quoted daily by the individual banks. 
 Exchange fluctuations are trifling. The dollar exchange is influ¬ 
 enced by the London-New York cross rate. In normal times Ameri¬ 
 can merchants doing business with the Netherlands East Indies 
 need hardly concern themselves with it. 
 
 BANKS. 
 
 The banking system of the Netherlands East Indies radiates to all 
 the islands where there is any considerable volume of business and 
 touches every phase of native and foreign life. The strictly Govern¬ 
 ment banks and those under the control or supervision of the Gov¬ 
 ernment look after the business of the natives principally. 
 
 GOVERNMENT AND PEOPLE’S BANKS. 
 
 Perhaps the lowliest bank in the world is the village rice bank of 
 the rice districts of Java. These banks do not deal in money but in 
 catties and piculs of rice, and were formed for the purpose of insuring 
 a supply of seed rice for the succeeding years. While these banks 
 are purely private institutions, they are under the general supervi¬ 
 sion of the Government. There are also cooperative banks in the fish¬ 
 ing districts, fostered by the Government, which guard the fisher¬ 
 men from their own extravagances and have been successful in im¬ 
 proving the condition of their patrons. Above these are the finan¬ 
 cial credit banks, which are run somewhat along the lines of the vil¬ 
 lage rice banks, except that they deal in actual cash and make small 
 loans to the farmers for the development of agriculture and some¬ 
 times to protect them from the usurers. Most of these financial credit 
 banks have deposit accounts with the divisional or residency banks, 
 which are managed by private individuals among the depositors 
 serving without pay and are financed by the Government through the 
 Centrale Kas, the central bank of the whole system. This latter 
 bank is financed entirely by the Government and, while it has been 
 in operation only a few years, has made a very good showing, not 
 only on the balance sheet but in the development of the economic 
 position of the native property holders. 
 
 Besides the above there are the State Insurance Bank, the Post 
 Office Savings Bank, the Dutch Civil Servants’ Widows and Orphans 
 Fund, and the Military and Civil Servants’ Widows and Orphans 
 Fund, which, through their loans, stimulate agriculture and indus¬ 
 try, but in no other way do they touch commerce. 
 
 Culture banks .—There are several culture banks, organized spe¬ 
 cially for the purpose of providing money for the development of 
 large agricultural enterprises. These banks are large buyers of ma¬ 
 chinery and other supplies for the plantations and industrial under¬ 
 takings under their control. The principal culture banks are the 
 Nederlandsch-Indische Landbouw Maatschappij, a subsidiary of 
 the Nederlandsch-Indische Handelsbank, the Kolonaale Bank, the 
 Handelsvereeniging Amsterdam, the N. Y. Kolonaale Cultuur en 
 Handelsbank of Amsterdam and Medan (Sumatra), and the Cultuur 
 Maatschappij der Vorstenlanden. 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 355 
 
 Mortgage banks .—The Nederlandsch-Indische Effecten en Pro- 
 longatiebank does a business in Batavia in shares and is important 
 only locally. The Nederlandsche Hypothekbank specializes in loans 
 on real estate and improvements. 
 
 The Java Bank (J avasche Bank). —This is the bank of issue for 
 all paper currency except 2-florin, 1-florin, and subsidiary notes, and 
 is the discount bank of the colony. For many years it has advanced 
 to the Government money sufficient to cover the annual deficit and 
 in 1919 underwrote a Government loan which was issued for the 
 purpose of liquidating these accumulations. A statement given out 
 by the Dutch East Indian Government in 1916 says: 
 
 The bank acts as cashier for the Government. It is the duty of the bank to 
 control both the circulation of the coin in the Dutch East Indies and also to 
 maintain the gold parity of the exchanges between the Dutch East Indies and 
 their neighbors, and between the Dutch East Indies and Europe. The bank, 
 therefore, considers it as its duty to both buy and sell telegraph transfers on 
 Holland or foreign countries and to place, wherever the rate of exchange has 
 rendered such a proceeding necessary, gold or silver at the disposal of the 
 public for the purpose of export, or to buy gold or silver which has been im¬ 
 ported either from Holland or from some foreign country. 
 
 The Nederlandsch Handels Maatschappij (commonly called the 
 “ Factorij ”) has such wide financial interests that it is difficult to 
 place it in any particular class. It owns or controls 44 of the 185 
 sugar centrals of Java and is financially interested in many more; 
 it has interests in rubber and tobacco estates, and there is hardly a 
 new undertaking without this company being in some way interested. 
 Its influence in the foreign business of the colony is very strong, as 
 it has, since its inception in 1824, been the selling agent for the 
 Government’s agricultural products, and as a buyer of the manu¬ 
 factures of the West it leads in most lines. In foreign exchange it 
 exercises a strong influence, as it has as a basis the transfers for the 
 accounts of its own companies, which run into very large figures. 
 In handling incoming bills it has such a wide knowledge of local 
 credits and its ramifications are so far-reaching that it can control, 
 if it wills, many of the transfers that go at present through other 
 channels. It is said locally that the “ Factorij ” and the Neder¬ 
 landsch-Indische Handelsbank “ take the cream off ” the business of 
 the Dutch East Indies. 
 
 The Nederlandscli-Indische Handelsbank (commonly called the 
 “ Handelsbank ”) was originally a culture bank, but in 1884 it trans¬ 
 ferred its agricultural interests to the Nederlandsch-Indische Land- 
 bouw Maatschappij, most of the stock of which it held. Like the 
 “Factorij” it has ramifications that touch many phases of the 
 business and industrial life of the colony, and this, with its knowl¬ 
 edge of credits, makes it possible for it to extend financial accommo¬ 
 dations where another bank might not safely do so. Both this bank 
 and the “ Factorij ” have offices in all the large towns and many of 
 the smaller ones throughout the archipelago. 
 
 The Nederlandsch-Indische Escompto Maatschappij (usually re¬ 
 ferred to as the “ Ecompto Maatschappij ”) claims to be a purely 
 commercial bank. It was established in 1857, being the third bank in 
 age as well as in importance in the Dutch East Indies, and has done 
 much for the business development of the colony. Its branches are in 
 every considerable city and town. 
 
 10878°—23-£4 
 
356 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The TJnie Bank voor Nederland en Colonien (the “ Unie Bank”) 
 is the smallest of the Dutch commercial banks, but it fills a large 
 place in the business life of the colony. A criticism often made of 
 the banks of the Dutch East Indies is that they do not extend the 
 accommodations that the small but financially sound merchants are 
 entitled to; that they will not be bothered with small things, no mat¬ 
 ter how good the business is otherwise. In discussing matters of 
 credit the manager of this bank gave the impression that his com¬ 
 pany makes a very close study of the minor credits. The “ Unie 
 Bank,” which has branches in all the principal cities of the archi¬ 
 pelago, was established in 1914. 
 
 The Internationale Crediet en Handelsvereeniging “ Rotter¬ 
 dam .”—This bank is not only a culture bank but also an importing 
 and exporting house and the agent for the Royal Dutch Steamship 
 Line “ Rotterdam Lloyd.” It deals in foreign exchange and is some¬ 
 times an important figure in the exchange market. 
 
 The Bank voor Indie was organized in 1920 to do a general bank¬ 
 ing business in the Netherlands East Indies. The formation of its 
 directorate indicates that Dutch, Belgian, and Swiss capital is inter¬ 
 ested in it, the Dutch interests being held by the Rotterdamsche 
 Bankvereeniging. 
 
 FOREIGN BANKS. 
 
 The International Banking Corporation has branches in Batavia 
 and in Soerabaya, at the eastern end of the island. It has corre¬ 
 spondents at Semarang, Java, at Macassar, in the Celebes, and at 
 Medan, Sumatra. Being a subsidiary of the National City Bank 
 of New York, its touch with the American manufacturing cities is 
 most thorough. This is the only American bank in this colony and 
 its success here is very important to America’s general commercial 
 interests. 
 
 The Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corporation (Ltd.) (the 
 Hongkong & Shanghai Bank) is a British corporation and one of 
 the great financial powers of the Orient. Until the business of this 
 colony was diverted into new channels by the war the Hongkong and 
 Shanghai Bank and the “ Chartered Bank ” divided most of the for¬ 
 eign exchange business with the Dutch banks then existing. The 
 large British commercial interests here make the presence of these 
 representative British banking institutions a matter of prime impor¬ 
 tance, and their relations with the British mercantile houses are 
 an object lesson in teamwork that might be studied with profit b}^ 
 not only American banks but by American manufacturers and ex¬ 
 porters. The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation has 
 branches in Batavia, Soerabaya, Semarang, and Cheribon, in Java, 
 and in the United States has branches in New York and San Fran¬ 
 cisco and correspondents in most of the cities throughout the manu¬ 
 facturing districts and in other Pacific coast cities. 
 
 The Chartered Bank of India , Australia ,, and China (Ltd.) (the 
 “ Chartered Bank ”) was the first British bank to open branches in 
 the Dutch East Indies and for a long time was the only foreign 
 bank in the colony. It has branches in Batavia and Soerabaya, in 
 Java, and in Medan, Sumatra, and correspondents in other cities. 
 It is represented in the United States by its branch office in New 
 York and by the Anglo London and Paris National Bank, the 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 357 
 
 Bank of California, and the Canadian Bank of Commerce in San 
 Francisco, besides having correspondents in other American cities. 
 
 The Mercantile Bank of India has no branches in the Dutch East 
 Indies, but transacts business through agents in the various cities 
 throughout the archipelago. 
 
 The Yokohama Specie Bank has branches in Batavia and Soera¬ 
 baya and is represented in the United States by its branches in New 
 York, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Seattle. This bank handles 
 part of the large business with Japan which has developed during 
 the war, and also finds considerable business with the many Japanese 
 who are to be found in all the larger towns in the interior. 
 
 The Bank of Taiwan .—This bank has branches in Batavia, Soera- 
 baya, and Semarang, and is represented in the United States by its 
 branch house in New York and by correspondents in the principal 
 cities. It shares with the Yokohama Specie Bank the Japanese 
 business of the colony. 
 
 SAVINGS BANKS. 
 
 The following is a list of savings banks operating in the Dutch 
 East Indies: 
 
 Algemeene Spaar- en Depositobank, Batavia, Java. 
 
 Bataviasehe Spaarbank, Batavia, Java. 
 
 Oost Indische Production Bank, Batavia, Java. 
 
 Onderlinge Spaar- en Depositobank, Weltevreden, Java. 
 
 Spaarbank te Bandoeng, Bandoeng, Java. 
 
 Nederlandsche Spaarkas te Amsterdam, Bandoeng, Java. 
 
 De Eerste Nederlandsch-Indiscke Spaarkas, Bandoeng, Java. 
 
 N. I. Bank voor gewestelijke en gemente Credieten, Soerabaya, Java. 
 
 Oost Java Bank, Soerabaya, Java. 
 
 Industrieele Bank en Handel Maatschappij te ’sGravenhage, Soerabaya, Java. 
 
 Soerabayasche Incasso, Spaar- en Hulpbank, Soerabaya, Java. 
 
 Spaarbank van de Mij. tot Nut van liet Algemeen, Soerabaya, Java. 
 
 Spaarbank te Semarang, Semarang, Java. 
 
 Padangsche Spaarbank, Padang, Sumatra. 
 
 Spaarbank van Makassar, Macassar, Celebes. 
 
 BANKS IN BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corporation and the Char¬ 
 tered Bank of India, Australia, and China are the two leading 
 British banks of British Malaya. These banks have branches at 
 Penang, Kuala Lumpur, and Ipoh, and in the principal cities of the 
 Netherlands East Indies, China, and British India. 
 
 The Mercantile Bank of India (Ltd.) has a branch at Singapore 
 and another at Khota Bharu, in Kelantan, on the east coast of the 
 Malay Peninsula, and some representation in China, but its princi¬ 
 pal activity is in British India. 
 
 The Dutch banking organization is represented by the Nether¬ 
 lands Trading Society (Nederlandsch Handels Maatschappij), the 
 Netherlands India Commercial Bank (Nederlandsch-Indische Han- 
 delsbank), and the Bank voor Indie. 
 
 The Japanese banking organization is represented by the Bank 
 of Taiwan, the Yokohama Specie Bank, and the China and Southern 
 Bank. 
 
 The Bank of Communications of Peking, China, has a branch in 
 Singapore, but the Chinese banks of importance in the local com- 
 
358 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 munity are organized under the laws of the Straits Settlements and 
 are financed by local Chinese. The principal ones are the Ho Hong 
 Bank (Ltd.) and the Chinese Commercial Bank (Ltd.). 
 
 The United States is represented by the International Banking 
 Corporation and the Asia Banking Corporation, each of which has a 
 branch at Singapore. 
 
 PRACTICES IN HANDLING BILLS OF EXCHANGE. 
 
 FINANCING OF EXPORTS. 
 
 Exports from the Netherlands East Indies are financed to a large 
 extent through bankers’ sight or time credits in favor of the seller 
 in Java. These credits are usually opened by foreign banks and 
 advised to the beneficiary through a local bank, which negotiates 
 the drafts drawn against them on the surrender of a full set of 
 shipping documents. In the ordinary procedure the seller requests 
 the buyer in the United States or in England to open by a New York 
 or London bank (the issuing bank) through some local bank in 
 the Netherlands East Indies (the advising bank) a confirmed irrev¬ 
 ocable credit, against which bills are placed in the local market 
 and are bought by the highest bidders, usually local banking insti¬ 
 tutions and branches of foreign banks. 
 
 The cost of opening such a credit is generally one-eighth of 1 per 
 cent per mensem, calculated on the usance of the bill, and as bills 
 drawn on first-class foreign banks under commercial letters of credit 
 are more readily discounted than commercial paper, the eastern 
 banks usually quote very attractive rates of exchange for such bills. 
 These bills are generally drawn at three months’ sight in the cur¬ 
 rency of the importing country. As stated above, they are offered in 
 the local market, and generally will be negotiated by any bank, 
 not necessarily the advising bank, at the day’s rate of exchange for 
 sight bills, three months’ sight bills, or as the case may be. In order 
 to take advantage of the open discount markets of New York and 
 London many shipments to other parts of the w y orld are financed by 
 means of drafts drawn on these points in sterling or dollars. 
 
 To illustrate, the cost of a credit opened by a merchant in New 
 York, bills to be drawn at three months’ sight against shipments 
 from Java, would work out like this: Commission to be paid by the 
 importer to the issuing bank (three months at f per cent), 0.375 per 
 cent. Assuming the discount rate for three months bankers’ ac¬ 
 ceptances in New York to be 4 per cent per annum, the total cost 
 of finance for the three months’ usance would be If per cent. And, 
 so far as the usance of the bill is concerned, it is the discount rate, 
 4 per cent per annum, that would be taken into account by the 
 banker buying the draft when figuring the rate of exchange. On 
 the whole, the method of financing under first-class bankers’ credits 
 is probably the most economical. 
 
 Sterling drafts are preferred in the Netherlands East Indies on 
 account of the favorable exchange rate, as the greater volume of 
 sterling exchange business makes a more competitive market and 
 hence a closer rate. Exporters’ bills on India are drawn generally 
 on the basis of credits opened through London. While the common 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 359 
 
 usance of bills is 90 days, some bills on Europe and the United 
 States are drawn at 30, 60, and even 120 days. Practically all bills 
 are sold through brokers, who are paid a commission of one-half 
 of 1 mill by the sellers. The greater part of the bills are negotiated 
 in Batavia, as most of the head offices of the business organizations 
 of the colony are located there, but there are large transactions at 
 Soerabaya and Semarang in connection with sugar shipments, and 
 also at Macassar, Medan, and Padang. 
 
 EXCHANGE QUOTATIONS. 
 
 The daily silver prices and foreign exchange rates for drafts and 
 cable transfers from New York, London, Amsterdam, and Paris 
 are quoted locally, but not the discount rates, although the banks are 
 advised of changes in the New York and London discount markets. 
 Dollar bills offered to the local banks are converted, when necessary, 
 into local currency at the buying rate of the day, which is fixed by 
 the competition for the business. The competition is based on the 
 rates between Batavia and Amsterdam, Amsterdam and London, 
 and London and New York. Exchange rates are not published and 
 “ forward ” rates of discount from New York are not quoted locally. 
 The margin between buying and selling is variable according to com¬ 
 petition for the bills. 
 
 In a highly competitive market the banks may buy at a rate 
 which on its face would appear to involve a loss, and when the 
 demand is sluggish the margin of profit may be very wide. Before 
 the war the range was within one-half of 1 per cent, but owing to 
 rapid fluctuations of exchange during the war and to the slow 
 handling of cables the banks put on a margin to cover these con¬ 
 tingencies. 
 
 FINANCING OF IMPORTS. 
 
 Practically all of the import business of the Netherlands East 
 Indies is financed by means of bills drawn in the currency of the 
 exporting country. Each bill usually bears an exchange and interest 
 clause similar in practically all essentials to the u British colonial 
 clause,” which reads: “ Payable with collection charges and ex¬ 
 change, British and colonial stamps added, at the current rate in 
 London for negotiating bills on the colonies; ” or for drafts on non- 
 British colonies the following stamp is sometimes found: “ With 
 exchange and collection charges inclusive, interest at 6 per cent per 
 annum from date hereof to approximate date of arrival of remit¬ 
 tance in-.” 
 
 The following clause is recommended by American bankers for 
 drafts drawn on the Netherlands East Indies: “ Payable at the 
 
 - 1 Bank’s selling rate for drafts (or by approved banker’s 
 
 check) on-, 2 plus interest at the rate of- 3 per cent per 
 
 annum from date hereof until approximate date of the return remit¬ 
 tance in-. 2 ” 
 
 It will be seen that by this method the exporter is relieved from 
 any dealings in exchange. The American exporter quotes his price 
 
 1 Insert the name of the collecting hank in Java. 
 
 * Insert name of town where bill is negotiated. 
 
 • The rate of interest ruling at present is 6 per cent per annum. 
 
360 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 in United States currency, f. o. b. seaport or point of shipment, or, 
 preferably, c. i. f. port of destination, draws for the cost in Ameri¬ 
 can dollars, and if he sells his draft stamped with the foregoing 
 clause to one of the banks specializing in foreign trade he gets a 
 check for the face value without deductions of any charges. 
 
 In a case where the bill does not bear the interest portion of the 
 above clause the exporter will make the proper calculation in his 
 selling price. If he draws at 30 days’ sight he will figure that he 
 will be out his money about 120 days, taking 90 days for transit to 
 and from Batavia and the usance of the bill, and if he considers the 
 money worth about 6 per cent per annum he will add 2 per cent to 
 his selling price. Sometimes the exchange clause reads: “ Payable 
 
 at the-Bank’s selling rate for telegraphic transfers,” in which 
 
 instance interest is calculated from the date of the drafts until the 
 date upon which payment thereof is effected in the Netherlands East 
 Indies, plus perhaps three to five days to offset possible cable delays. 
 
 Documentary drafts can be drawn on points throughout the Far 
 East on what is known as a D/P basis, which term means the at¬ 
 tached documents are to be delivered against payment. When a 
 merchant in the Far East asks for 30, 60, or 90 day terms it is 
 usually assumed that he means 30, 60, or 90 days D/P. 
 
 AD/P draft can be handled as follows: The shipper gives in¬ 
 structions to his collecting bank, which they in turn pass on to their 
 branch or correspondent in the Far East, stipulating that the draft 
 is to be presented to the consignee for acceptance, but the documents 
 controlling the merchandise are to be withheld until \the payment 
 is made. The shipper should instruct that the merchandise be placed 
 in the bank’s u godown ” or warehouse, and if the shipper has not 
 arranged insurance himself the bank should also be instructed to 
 cover the goods with insurance for the usual risks while in ware¬ 
 house. The relative draft would be held in the collecting bank’s 
 portfolio until maturity, at which time it must be paid, and the docu¬ 
 ments are then released to the drawee. The collecting bank can also 
 be instructed to accept partial payment of the draft against delivery 
 of a portion of the merchandise. It can be clearly seen that the fore¬ 
 going terms serve to minimize the credit risk, as no merchandise is 
 released from the control of the collecting bank until payment has 
 been received. 
 
 The other manner in which a documentary draft can be drawn is 
 termed a D/A basis, i. e., documents are to be delivered to the drawee 
 upon his acceptance of the draft. It is obvious that this manner of 
 drawing involves a direct credit risk, as the drawer of the draft has 
 no security for its payment, and in case of nonpayment at maturity 
 would have to proceed in a legal manner against the drawee on the 
 strength of the accepted draft which he or the collecting bank would 
 be holding. 
 
 The manner in which documents are to be delivered to the drawee 
 of the draft and, in general, the terms of sale with regard to pay¬ 
 ment are matters which must be carefully considered by the American 
 exporter before accepting orders from foreign merchants. 
 
 Many import bills drawn on the Netherlands East Indies are nego¬ 
 tiated by bankers in America on the strength of letters of credit or 
 authorities to purchase. Distinction must be made between irrev- 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 361 
 
 
 ocable credits, which may or may not be “ confirmed ” by the advis¬ 
 ing bank in the United States, revocable credits, and mere “ authori¬ 
 ties to draw ” or “ authorities to purchase,” which in reality are not 
 letters of credit at all. (See Federal Reserve Bulletin, August, 
 1921.) 
 
 The most satisfactory, of course, is the irrevocable letter of credit. 
 Neither the buyer nor the issuing bank can revoke it until its time 
 limit has expired, when it lapses automatically. In this case the 
 buyer arranges with the local “ issuing ” bank to open a credit with 
 the “ advising ” bank in America, which notifies or advises the seller 
 that it has certain funds for him which will be turned over to him 
 on fulfillment of the instructions in the letter of credit. This con¬ 
 firmation makes it a “ confirmed irrevocable ” letter of credit. Revo¬ 
 cable letters of credit may be canceled at any time by the issuing 
 bank; irrevocable letters of credit can not be canceled or in any way 
 changed after the beneficiary has been notified, except with his 
 consent. 
 
 Drafts drawn under “ authorities to purchase,” when not otherwise 
 provided, are with recourse to the drawer. Although the advising 
 or issuing bank may have paid his draft, the drawer is not released 
 from the obligations attaching to a drawer of a bill of exchange 
 until the draft is finally paid by the purchaser. 
 
 When drafts are drawn under revocable, irrevocable, and con¬ 
 firmed and irrevocable credits the drawer is responsible for the 
 amount involved until the draft is paid by the bank issuing the 
 credit. 
 
 When drafts are sold “ without recourse ” to the seller the trans¬ 
 action is closed, so far as the seller is concerned, when he receives 
 his money. They may be either D/A or D/P bills. 
 
 “Authority to draw ” or “ authority to purchase ” is nothing more 
 or less than a notification by one bank to another that a merchant 
 of standing has entered into a bona fide contract with another mer¬ 
 chant for the purchase of goods and that it is proper to honor drafts 
 drawn by the seller on the, buyer with due recourse in case the draft 
 should not be honored. This practice has been rather prevalent in 
 the Pacific trade, and business on this basis has been done between 
 San Francisco and New York and the Far East. While the banks 
 exercise due caution, shipments sent on this basis are practically 
 credit transactions. 
 
 In recent years exporters to the Orient have been able to dictate 
 their own terms and have generally insisted on confirmed irrevo¬ 
 cable credit, while buyers in the Orient naturally hold out for ship¬ 
 ments on basis of authorities to purchase D/P or D/A drafts, and a 
 reasonable credit extended on this basis will be a potent factor in 
 the securing and holding of trade in the Netherlands East Indies, 
 provided due safeguards are employed, such as a careful investiga¬ 
 tion of proposed credit risks. 
 
 COMMISSIONS ON BILLS. 
 
 In the import trade there is no fixed custom in regard to collec¬ 
 tion charged for clean and documentary items. Some banks make 
 no commission charge where exchange is involved and the paper is 
 in the currency of the exporting country, because they make their 
 
362 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 profits on the exchange transaction, while others make a collection 
 charge up to one-half of 1 per cent, depending upon various circum¬ 
 stances. The commission charged by “ outport ” banks for obtain¬ 
 ing acceptance or for making collection of bills on “ outport ” com¬ 
 panies is usually one-fourth of 1 per cent. As a rule, all collection 
 charges are paid by the importer when the bills are in the currency 
 of the exporting country and by the exporter when the bills are 
 drawn in local currency. The latter is very infrequent in practice. 
 The bill stamp charges are negligible. 
 
 PROTESTED ITEMS. 
 
 Official protests must be effected within 24 hours after maturity 
 and the charges are 16 florins. If the draft is paid after protest 
 the drawee usually pays the protest charges. Local banks do not 
 guarantee the payment of drafts accepted by approved firms, except, 
 of course, when credit has been opened “ without recourse.” When 
 shipment is made “ documents against payment ” the banks will 
 undertake responsibility for the goods until the drafts are paid; 
 when made “ documents against acceptance ” no responsibility is 
 assumed by the banks after acceptance has been obtained. 
 
 While the banks are responsible for the merchandise they make 
 all necessary arrangements for insurance and storage, which is 
 charged against the draft. The storage companies (“ veems”) are 
 all operating under a Government license. Storage charges are 
 placed against the merchandise and must be paid before delivery. 
 
 SHIPPING DOCUMENTS. 
 
 If goods arrive in advance of documents covering them, delivery 
 may be obtained under guaranty from a bank to the steamship 
 company. The bank makes no charge for this service. No consular 
 invoice is required. The banks do not permit the examination of 
 the goods before payment, as otherwise they lose recourse to the 
 drawer. If bills of lading are made out “to order” the consignee 
 may get possession of the goods without a bill of lading under a 
 bank guaranty. To give the shipper absolute control of the mer¬ 
 chandise, bills of lading may be indorsed to a bank, but the banks 
 prefer them to be made “to order” and indorsed in blank. “Re¬ 
 ceived for shipment ” bills of lading only are accepted by American 
 and Netherlands East Indies banks in support of credits covering 
 Netherlands Indies and United States transactions, except when 
 otherwise stipulated by the principals in the transactions. 
 
 SALE OF GOODS BY BANKS AND RESHIPMENTS. 
 
 When the drafts are dishonored, the foreign bank’s clients, i. e., 
 the drawers, may desire to sell the goods, in which case the bank 
 instructs a responsible firm to attend to such sale for the account of 
 the drawer, or the goods may be put up at auction. If the shipper 
 desires a return of the goods he must so instruct the bank. No duty 
 need be paid in such a case, but it is practically impossible to obtain 
 the refund of customs duties once paid. 
 
 COLLECTION AND INTEREST CHARGES. 
 
 When drafts are drawn in the currency of the exporting country 
 the remittance will be for the full face value, unless a collection 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 363 
 
 charge that is not paid by the drawee has been made by the collecting 
 bank. When the remitting bank desires to obtain collection charges 
 for itself it should so state on the draft, and this should also be 
 stated in the letter of transmittal. If interest is to be included, the 
 draft should contain the phrase “ with interest from date hereof 
 
 until approximate date of repayment in-.” Local banks will 
 
 undertake to remit proceeds of bills in United States currency with¬ 
 out loss of exchange; the phrase which should appear on bills in 
 such a case is “ Payable at collecting bank’s selling rate for checks 
 on New York.” (See Federal Reserve Bulletin, May, 1922.) 
 
 There is no fixed rate of rebate for retiring drafts before ma¬ 
 turity, this being a matter of negotiation between the local bank and 
 the acceptor. Very few drafts are drawn without the interest clause 
 attached. 
 
 The only charge for the return of dishonored items, other than 
 the protest fee of 16 florins, is a bank commission amounting to 
 one-fourth of 1 per cent. Payment of such charges is made through 
 the American correspondent of the local bank. 
 
 COMMERCIAL ORGANIZATIONS. 
 
 The chambers of commerce of the Netherlands East Indies are 
 quasi governmental organizations, the members being appointees of 
 the Governor General. They do not touch the business life of the 
 colony closely. 
 
 The Handelsvereeniging (merchants’ association) is an organiza¬ 
 tion of merchants for mutual protection and cooperative action in 
 all matters of common interest. It is not under the direct influence 
 of the Government as is a chamber of commerce. 
 
 The Handelsvereeniging te Soerabaya is probably the most highly 
 developed and energetic of these societies. It publishes a weekly 
 market report covering export commodities, weekly news sheet, 
 monthly price current covering import commodities, monthly trade 
 returns of the port in great detail, and an annual review and report. 
 These publications are valuable aids in studying the trade of east 
 Java. 
 
 Similar associations are organized at Batavia, Semarang, Medan, 
 Padang, Macassar, and Menado. 
 
 The following commercial organizations are established in British 
 Malaya: 
 
 Singapore .—Singapore Chamber of Commerce and Exchange, 
 Singapore Chamber of Commerce Rubber Association, and Singa¬ 
 pore Chinese Chamber of Commerce. 
 
 Penang .—Penang Chamber of Commerce and Penang Chinese 
 Chamber of Commerce. 
 
 Federated Malay States .—The Federated Malay States Cham¬ 
 ber of Commerce, divided into the Perak branch, the Selangor 
 branch, and the Negri Sembilan branch. There are also the Selan¬ 
 gor Chinese Chamber of Commerce and the Perak Chinese Chamber 
 of Commerce. 
 
 British North Borneo .—The North Borneo Chamber of Commerce 
 and North Borneo Chinese Chamber of Commerce. 
 
 Sarawak .—Chinese Chamber of Commerce. 
 
364 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The brokers of the Straits Settlements and Federated Malay 
 States cities operate usually under the authorization and rules di¬ 
 rectly or indirectly laid down by the various chambers of commerce. 
 There are brokerage firms that stand very high in the business com¬ 
 munity, while there are many firms and individuals of no financial 
 responsibility. There are some so-called brokers acting independ¬ 
 ently of the chambers of commerce rules. 
 
 MONETARY EXCHANGE. 
 
 The following table gives the monthly average rates of exchange 
 in New York for the British pound sterling (par value $4.8665) and 
 the Straits Settlements dollar (par value $0.5678), taken from the 
 Federal Reserve Bulletin: 
 
 Months. 
 
 New 
 
 York- 
 
 London. 
 
 New 
 
 York- 
 
 Singa- 
 
 pore. 
 
 Months. 
 
 New 
 
 York- 
 
 London. 
 
 New 
 
 York- 
 
 Singa- 
 
 pore. 
 
 1919 
 
 January. 
 
 $4. 7658 
 
 $0.5644 
 .5638 
 
 1921 
 
 Januarv. 
 
 $3.7419 
 
 $0.4367 
 
 February. 
 
 4.7648 
 
 February. 
 
 3.8758 
 
 .4506 
 
 March. .1. 
 
 4. 7147 
 
 .5625 
 
 March... 
 
 3.911 
 
 .4549 
 
 April.. 
 
 4.6617 
 
 .5625 
 
 April. 
 
 3.9292 
 
 .4619 
 
 May. 
 
 4.6676 
 
 .5625 
 
 May. 
 
 3.9753 
 
 .4650 
 
 June. 
 
 4.6211 
 
 .5593 
 
 June. 
 
 3.7815 
 
 .4496 
 
 July. 
 
 4. 4287 
 
 .5350 
 
 July. 
 
 3.6321 
 
 .4142 
 
 August. 
 
 4.272 
 
 .5290 
 
 August. 
 
 3.6536 
 
 .4108 
 
 September. 
 
 4.179 
 
 .505 
 
 .5047 
 
 September. 
 
 3.724 
 
 .42 
 
 October. 
 
 4.184 
 
 October. 
 
 3. 8728 
 
 .4250 
 
 November. 
 
 4.0982 
 
 .5050 
 
 November. 
 
 3.9701 
 
 .4492 
 
 December. 
 
 3. 8123 
 
 .5036 
 
 December. 
 
 4.1561 
 
 .4542 
 
 1920 
 
 anuary. 
 
 3.6779 
 
 .5015 
 
 1922 
 
 January. 
 
 4.2247 
 
 .47 
 
 February. 
 
 3.381 
 
 .4659 
 
 February. 
 
 4.3620 
 
 .4783 
 
 March..'.. 
 
 3.7258 
 
 .4419 
 
 March. 
 
 4.3757 
 
 .4953 
 
 April.. 
 
 3. 931 
 
 .4834 
 
 April. 
 
 4. 4133 
 
 .4999 
 
 May. 
 
 3. 8477 
 
 .4642 
 
 May. 
 
 4.4461 
 
 .5076 
 
 June. 
 
 3.9497 
 
 .4726 
 
 June. 
 
 4. 4519 
 
 .5114 
 
 July. 
 
 3. 8647 
 
 .4751 
 
 July. 
 
 4.4464 
 
 .5072 
 
 August. 
 
 3.6219 
 
 .4647 
 
 August. 
 
 4.4647 
 
 .5140 
 
 September. 
 
 3.5103 
 
 .4357 
 
 September. 
 
 4.4307 
 
 .5164 
 
 October. 
 
 November. 
 
 December. 
 
 3.4751 
 
 3.4372 
 3.4923 
 
 .4385 
 
 .4228 
 
 .41 
 
 
 INSURANCE. 
 
 FIRE INSURANCE. 
 
 A large business is done in the Netherlands East Indies in fire in¬ 
 surance that is satisfactory in every respect and for which there is 
 keen competition by companies that understand the risks and differ¬ 
 entiate between safe and unsafe business. 
 
 Insurance against fire loss in this colony requires a knowledge of 
 the moral credits of the colony and something of the financial condi¬ 
 tion of the insured. The “ moral hazard ” is a factor that has to be 
 as carefully watched in this colony as in any other part of the world, 
 and American fire insurance companies will find it advisable to pro¬ 
 ceed very carefully in entering the field. 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 365 
 
 MARINE INSURANCE. 
 
 The time limit set for filing claims against steamship companies 
 for damage to cargo is so short as to make it impossible to file claims 
 for damages in ordinary cases. The ports of the colony are often 
 congested with undelivered cargo and at times it is weeks after cargo 
 is discharged before it can be identified and delivery taken. Most 
 of the steamship companies operating between the United States and 
 Java ports make the collection of claims very difficult, if not impos¬ 
 sible, and the pilferage and breakage of cargo through careless or 
 intentionally rough handling is characteristic of the ports. American 
 insurance companies can not insure against pilferage under ordinary 
 rates. 
 
 Insurance against breakage involves greater risks on shipments to 
 Java and Sumatra ports than to other ports in the Orient, and the 
 question of packing, especially of machinery, is one of prime impor¬ 
 tance to the insurance companies. Some American machinery manu¬ 
 facturers are so careful in packing that the risk of breakage or of 
 damage from rust may be placed at an absolute minimum, while other 
 manufacturers are very careless, apparently depending on their in¬ 
 surance rather than the packing to protect them from financial loss. 
 
 Insurance against fresh-water damage becomes extraordinary risk 
 in this colony. The steamers are not supposed to unload in the rain, 
 but with their system of avoidance of claims for damages to cargo 
 they are not always careful in this respect. After the cargo is dis¬ 
 charged it is sometimes stowed in the open, where it may lie for 
 weeks before delivery can be taken, if it is machinery. In case of 
 foodstuffs, especially confectionery, the slightest dampness will cause 
 damage. It is almost impossible to place the responsibility on any 
 one, other than the insurance company, when a consignment shows 
 evidence of fresh-water damage. 
 
 All the principal marine insurance companies are represented in 
 Singapore and Penang. Fire and automobile insurance is usually 
 taken out in British companies, some of which have their own 
 branches in Singapore. 
 
 A Canadian life insurance company is very active throughout this 
 territory and does a large part of the most desirable business. Two 
 Shanghai companies and one Singapore company are also active 
 competitors for the business offering. 
 
 FORWARDING COMPANIES. 
 
 Until quite recently the organizations in the Netherlands East 
 Indies known as veems have chiefly operated as forwarding agents 
 for the agricultural products of the colony. They have stations on 
 the railway lines at various producing centers, where they receive 
 the products from the estates for forwarding to their establishments 
 at the ports which attend to details of shipping. 
 
 They issue official weight certificates and warehouse receipts, or 
 warrants to bearer, which are accepted by the banks as negotiable 
 commercial paper, and act as custodians of produce on which money 
 has been advanced. Lately one of the veems has undertaken to issue 
 certificates of quality for produce shipped or handled by them. 
 
366 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The veems have been called upon, from time to time, to render 
 services in connection with imports, the handling of unclaimed in¬ 
 coming cargo, usually for the account of the banks, and the forward¬ 
 ing of goods destined for inland points for the account of the con¬ 
 signees. 
 
 The development of the veem is in some respects antagonistic to 
 the interests of the established export houses. For instance, the issu¬ 
 ing of certificates of quality in connection with attending to the de¬ 
 tails of shipping would make it impossible, theoretically, to buy 
 through a broker for delivery to the veem which would inspect and 
 issue a certificate of quality, attend to preparation for shipment, 
 such as bagging or casing, and turn over the shipping papers to the 
 bank for payment. Such an arrangement as this could only be 
 effected through a veem that had a well-established reputation with 
 its clients. 
 
 One veem in Soerabaya has a laboratory in which it makes exact 
 moisture tests of all copra put into its warehouses in order to avoid 
 disputes as to loss of weight. This equipment is sufficient to make 
 exhaustive tests of produce passing through its hands. When asked 
 about this phase of the business of the veems, an exporter attacked 
 it so vigorously as to leave the impression that he had something to 
 fear in its development. 
 
 There is no doubt but that the better class of veems can be made 
 very useful to American trade, but American importers should not 
 conclude from this that they can safely dispense with the services of 
 the exporter at this time. The requirements of the brokers’ societies 
 are not sufficiently strict to make it safe to employ brokers without a 
 very careful investigation of their local standing, and the organiza¬ 
 tions of the veems have been so heavily taxed within the past few 
 years that many of them are weakened by too rapid growth. 
 
 It is possible that American exporters may wish to carry stocks in 
 warehouse in this colony from which their customers may draw. In 
 this case the veems may be useful. An American exporter could ar¬ 
 range with his bank to have stock stored with the veem and make 
 his drafts in such a way that portions of the stock could be paid for 
 and withdrawn by the customer as required. 
 
 There are no public warehouses in the Straits Settlements or Fed¬ 
 erated Malay States ports, except those of the harbor companies, the 
 rates for which are prohibitive for long-time storage. Private com¬ 
 panies have ample warehousing accommodations for normal needs. 
 
 BROKERS AND BROKERAGES. 
 
 The brokers’ organizations are no more carefully controlled than in 
 other markets, and there are many irresponsible men in the business, 
 as well as some very reliable houses with ample financial resources. 
 In Batavia, Soerabaya, and Semarang a large part of the produce 
 business is handled through brokers, but in Macassar, Medan, and 
 Padang the brokers have little or no part in commerical transactions. 
 
 The following table shows the accepted schedule of brokerage 
 charges in force in June, 1920, and indicates the range of the brokers’ 
 activities: 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 367 
 
 Commodities. 
 
 Buyer. 
 
 Seller. 
 
 Groundnuts . 
 
 Arrack. 
 
 Marine insurance- 
 
 Fire insurance.. 
 
 Loans. 
 
 Negotiations of mort¬ 
 gages. 
 
 Betel nuts.. 
 
 Locally made ferti¬ 
 lizers. 
 
 Cassia fistula. 
 
 Cocoa.. 
 
 Citron ella oil. 
 
 Copra, Java and Bali 
 (f. o. b., n.o. g.). 
 Copra, Java and Bali 
 (first cost). 
 
 Copra, Moluccas (f. o. 
 b., n. o. g., and first 
 cost). 
 
 Coca. 
 
 Sundry oil-containing 
 products. 
 
 Castor beans. 
 
 Stocks and bonds_ 
 
 Essential oils. 
 
 Mace. 
 
 Gum damar. 
 
 Copal. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 £ per cent... 
 1 per cent... 
 10 per cent 1 . 
 25 per cent 1 . 
 4 per cent 2 .. 
 £ per cent 2 .. 
 
 _do. 
 
 _do. 
 
 _do. 
 
 _do. 
 
 1 per cent... 
 £ per cent... 
 
 £ per cent... 
 
 1 per cent... 
 £ per cent... 
 
 _do. 
 
 _do. 
 
 1 per cent... 
 
 _do. 
 
 £ per cent... 
 
 -do. 
 
 2c. per picul. 
 
 £ per cent. 
 1 per cent. 
 
 £ per cent. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 1 per cent. 
 £ per cent. 
 
 £ per cent. 
 
 Do. 
 
 1 per cent. 
 £ per cent. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 1 per cent. 
 Do. 
 
 £ per cent. 
 Do. 
 
 2c. per picul. 
 
 Commodities. 
 
 Buyer. 
 
 Hides. 
 
 £ per cent... 
 .do. 
 
 Cinnamon. 
 
 Coffee. 
 
 lOc.per picul 
 £ per cent... 
 2£c.per picul 
 £ per cent... 
 .do. 
 
 Kapok. 
 
 Kapok seeds. 
 
 Coconut oil. 
 
 Quinine bark. 
 
 Cloves. 
 
 1 per cent... 
 £ per cent... 
 2c. per picul. 
 £ per cent... 
 lOc.per picul. 
 £ per cent... 
 J per cent... 
 £ per cent... 
 £ per cent... 
 2c. per picul. 
 £ per cent... 
 .do. 
 
 Indian corn. 
 
 Molasses sugar. 
 
 Nutmegs. 
 
 Pepper^. 
 
 Petroleum. 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Rattan. 
 
 Rubber. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Coal and coke. 
 
 Sesame seed. 
 
 Spirits. 
 
 1 per cent... 
 £ per cent... 
 .do. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 £ per cent... 
 £ per cent... 
 
 Tapioca. 
 
 Telegraphic transfer.. 
 
 Liquid molasses. 
 
 Hard molasses. 
 
 lc.per 2 tins, 
 lc. per picul. 
 1 per cent... 
 
 Vanilla. 
 
 Drafts. 
 
 Sacks. 
 
 £ per cent... 
 
 
 Seller. 
 
 £ per cent. 
 Do. 
 
 10c. per picul. 
 £ per cent. 
 2£c.per picul. 
 £ per cent. 
 Do. 
 
 1 per cent. 
 
 £ per cent. 
 
 2c. per picul. 
 £ per cent. 
 lOc.per picul. 
 £ per cent, 
 i per cent. 
 
 £ per cent. 
 
 | per cent. 
 Do. * 
 
 £ per cent. 
 Do. 
 
 1 per cent. 
 
 £ per cent. 
 Do. 
 
 £ per cent. 
 
 £ per cent. 
 
 £ per mille. 
 lc. per 2 tins, 
 lc.per picul. 
 1 per cent. 
 
 £ per mille. 
 
 £ per cent. 
 
 1 Of the premium to be paid by the insurer. 
 
 * Of the loan’s rent. 
 
 * One-fourth per cent for head sugar and sirup sugar; one-half per cent of selling price for sugar in bags; 
 for both sorts, maximum of 2 cents per picul. 
 
 EXPORTERS AND IMPORTERS. 
 
 EXPORTERS IN NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES. 
 
 There are a few firms and companies in the Netherlands East 
 Indies doing an exclusively export business, but a large part of the 
 export trade is handled by companies that also do an import busi¬ 
 ness. The service to trade provided by the exporter varies accord¬ 
 ing to the article exported. A few examples will illustrate this 
 point. 
 
 Pepper .—The export of pepper is in the hands of a very few con¬ 
 cerns, although the official list of exporters includes 56 names. All 
 but a few of these 56 firms are occasional shippers who have picked 
 up small lots and made shipments, thereby getting into the Gov¬ 
 ernment lists. They have contributed very little to the efficiency 
 of collection and distribution, other than providing something of a 
 balance against the weight of the few big concerns whose interests 
 lie, broadly, in one direction. The principal exporters maintain 
 branches at Telokbetong, the center of the pepper-producing district 
 of the Lampongs, and handle the Muntok (Banka) crop through 
 agents controlled from Batavia. The crop of Atjeh (the northern 
 residency of Sumatra) is handled through agents controlled through 
 Penang and Singapore. These agents have long-standing relations 
 with the chiefs and other leaders of the people, through whom they 
 make advances to the buying organization and often, through them, 
 to the growers themselves. Such exporters make a real contribution 
 to trade by partly financing crops and controlling the collection, and 
 their knowledge of the personnel of the trade gives them a hold on 
 it that would be difficult to break. 
 
368 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Hides .—The principal exporters of hides have contributed some¬ 
 thing toward the betterment of grades and the introduction of better 
 methods in killing, trimming, and drying, but they do not reach as 
 far into the trade as do the pepper exporters. The collecting is done 
 by the Chinese and Arab traders and the exporter is the last link in 
 the chain of collection. 
 
 Copra .—The copra trade is representative of that of many other 
 products. The exporter receives a firm offer from his customer 
 abroad and commissions a broker to buy for him within a stated 
 limit. Some of the brokers have connections with buyers in various 
 parts of Java or in the other islands, and they buy through these 
 agents or from local stocks for the account of the exporter. Pur¬ 
 chases are made on the reputation of the sellers who are known by 
 name or otherwise, on guaranties from other houses, or on descrip¬ 
 tion. In the latter case there must be an inspection, which is made 
 with reasonable care. Often large shipments of copra are made 
 without anyone from the exporter’s offices seeing the cargo. In such 
 cases the exporter is merely a go-between with correspondents abroad 
 who recognize his guaranties of quality, if such are made, and local 
 connections with brokers who are the real controllers of the lines 
 of collection. 
 
 The importer-exporter has a different relation to the export trade 
 from those concerns doing an exclusively export business. These 
 houses are importing merchandise, which they sell, generally on 
 credit, to the Chinese trader or shopkeeper. Each of these Chinese 
 is also a money lender or extends credit to the natives, who are 
 always willing to go into debt. When the Chinese gets ready to 
 sell he generally offers his produce to the company from which he 
 buys, and because he is generally stretching his credit with the 
 importer to the limit he often will accept a lower offer than he 
 would from an outsider. 
 
 Another type of exporter is the big culture company exporting 
 the product of its plantations and buying in the open market when 
 ordered to do so by the Netherlands office. These companies con¬ 
 sign their products and purchases to their own offices in the Nether¬ 
 lands or to the bankers who finance their current needs. 
 
 The Netherlands Trading Society (the “ Factory”) stands alone 
 as the exporter of the products of the Government plantations, as 
 well as those of its own forty or fifty plantations and industries, 
 which are all consigned to its head office in Amsterdam. 
 
 IMPORTERS IN NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES. 
 
 The importers’ organizations cover a wide field; some of them 
 have branches extending to Celebes, Sumatra, and other islands, 
 besides the principal Java cities; some cover-more intensively nar¬ 
 rower fields, such as east Java only, west Java only, Celebes and 
 the eastern islands only, or the northern part of Sumatra only, 
 based on Medan; while one big concern has 9 branches in Java 
 and 31 branches in the Outer Possessions. 
 
 Practically all the units of this magnificent organization have 
 their head offices in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, or The Hague, and 
 while there is keen competition between them they are united in 
 their efforts to concentrate their buying and selling in the Nether- 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 369 
 
 lands. The colonial offices represent the fingers at the end of the 
 long arm of the Netherlands business body, which is prepared 
 * through its banking, shipping, petroleum, and political members 
 to put up the strongest kind of a fight for its position as middle¬ 
 man between the Netherlands Indies and the rest of the world, 
 including the United States, which is the largest ultimate con¬ 
 sumer of the products of the colony. 
 
 The importers in the Netherlands Indies generally do not spe¬ 
 cialize in any one line, although some of them give more attention 
 to cotton piece goods and related lines, while others focus more 
 attention on the hardware lines. Notable exceptions to this general 
 rule are the machinery importers and automobile importers. The 
 general importers work through traveling salesmen, who travel 
 throughout the colony as trade demands, and through the Chinese 
 retailers, who deal directly with them. Their lines are so varied 
 and their European staffs so small that no special sales effort in 
 any one line can be expected. Special effort can be had only by 
 sending men into their field to cover the territory with the im¬ 
 porters’ travelers or local salesmen. In placing agencies special 
 attention should be given to the territory covered by the importer. 
 Full particulars regarding most of the importers are on file in the 
 Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 
 
 THE CHINESE AS MERCHANTS. 
 
 The position of the Chinese in the Netherlands East Indies is 
 in some respects analogous to that of their countrymen in British 
 Malaya and in the different parts of the archipelago, but there are 
 many striking differences that make the possible relation of the 
 Chinese merchants of this colony to the American manufacturers 
 and exporters somewhat different. Since the distribution of the 
 population throughout the archipelago must be understood to be 
 able to appreciate the place the Chinese have in the trade, the 
 following figures have been compiled. The last census was taken in 
 1905, but the Government has endeavored to bring the figures up 
 to date by making an estimate of population as of December 31, 
 1917, and this estimate is generally taken as authoritative. The 
 following figures are, therefore, approximate: 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Total pop¬ 
 ulation. 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 Percentage 
 of Chinese. 
 
 All other 
 Asiatics. 
 
 Java and Madoera. 
 
 34,157,383 
 
 359,862 
 
 1.05 
 
 33,861 
 
 Sumatra: 
 
 
 
 
 East Coast. 
 
 894,140 
 
 133,444 
 
 14.92 
 
 12,211 
 
 West Coast. 
 
 2,283,707 
 
 16,353 
 
 .72 
 
 1,539 
 
 Borneo: 
 
 
 Western district. 
 
 573,637 
 940,866 
 
 67,018 
 15,187 
 
 11.69 
 
 
 Southern and eastern districts. 
 
 1.61 
 
 1,429 
 
 Banka. 
 
 154,178 
 
 67,269 
 
 43.61 
 
 4,445 
 
 Billiton.. 
 
 59,481 
 
 18,976 
 
 31. 93 
 
 1,786 
 
 All other districts. 
 
 8,140,247 
 
 91,994 
 
 1.13 
 
 7,293 
 
 Total. 
 
 47,203,639 
 
 770,103 
 
 1.63 
 
 62,564 
 
 Note. —This segregation is made on the basis of the figures given for contract coolies in Banka and Bil- 
 liton in the official estimate of population of 1917. As the figures for “all other Asiatics'’ include Chinese, 
 as well as Arabs and others, the percentages of Chinese population in “all other districts” were taken from 
 the census figures of 1905. 
 
370 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 The Chinese are importers and exporters from and to Singapore 
 and China ports, but as retailers they are the one predominant factor 
 in trade in almost every part of the archipelago. 
 
 Many Chinese have acquired great wealth in dealing in the prod¬ 
 ucts of the archipelago, and they are the speculators who hold the 
 bulk of the reserves of produce. They are investors in sugar centrals 
 and operate large tracts of sugar lands. They are represented in 
 almost every branch of agricultural and industrial endeavor and 
 are the carpenters, tailors, and general mechanics of the country. In 
 the East Coast district of Sumatra Chinese coolies are used on the 
 tobacco estates for certain kinds of work, and in the tin mines on 
 the islands of Banka and Billiton they are employed under contract 
 by the Dutch Government and the Dutch and Chinese mine opera¬ 
 tors. In the western part of Borneo, in the hinterland of Pontianak, 
 Chinese plantations have been opened up with Chinese labor, which 
 accounts for the high percentage of Chinese population there. 
 
 COMPETITORS OF THE CHINESE. 
 
 In the eastern part of Java and in the islands to the east, as well 
 as along the West Coast of Sumatra, the Arab plays some part in 
 merchandising, but his effort is generally secondary to his principal 
 business of money lending. There are some well-established Arab 
 merchants who have attained recognition as business men and enjoy 
 a fair amount of confidence. Their influence with the natives as 
 leaders in the Mohammedan religion is great, but they are gener¬ 
 ally looked upon by European houses as usurers and as unreliable 
 business people. While the Chinese often is a usurer, he has a 
 faculty of keeping the regard of the community in which he lives, 
 but the Arab in Java is lacking in the qualities that command the 
 regard of westerner and native alike. Along the coasts of Java 
 and Sumatra the Malays do a successful business in a small way as 
 mariner merchants. In Palembang, Djambi, and southern Borneo 
 the Malay is the most important factor in business. To the south 
 of this Malay country is the district known as the Lampongs, from 
 which a large part of the world’s supply of pepper comes. The 
 natives here are business men and all the labor is imported from 
 Java, across the Strait of Soenda. In the eastern islands the Ma- 
 doerese are wandering traders, a hardy people, w T hose rugged island 
 home does not yield them a living. The Buganese are successful 
 mariner merchants. 
 
 CHINESE BUSINESS MORALITY. 
 
 While this report deals with the Chinese of the Netherlands East 
 Indies, it is necessary to go back to China to get the basis from which 
 to develop the facts as they are found here. In that country every 
 Chinese belongs to a guild, the rules of which, through ages of evo¬ 
 lution, cover almost every contingency that may arise in the course 
 of his business life. There are bankers’ guilds, silk merchants’ 
 guilds, goldsmiths’ guilds, beggars’ guilds, and even thieves’ guilds 
 and guilds that cover every endeayor that life involves. Every act 
 of the life of the Chinese of the old school is governed by some 
 precedent or rule with which he is thoroughly familiar, and these 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 371 
 
 rules are based on fair dealing, at least as between members. He 
 is qualified for membership by birth and absorbs a knowledge of 
 the guild rules as a child while listening to the ever-recurring dis¬ 
 cussions of their business problems by his elders. Adherence to the 
 
 f uild laws is one of the fundamentals of the life of the Chinese in their 
 ealings among themselves. This is not a matter of honesty, but of 
 “ face ” and of business economy. As they adhere to the rules of 
 their guild they retain a certain dignified place among their fellows, 
 and even a thief or a beggar is a kind of a business man who plies 
 his trade according to rule. The Chinese trader has a very high 
 standing in the social fabric of China and is looked up to by all 
 classes if he is successful, but loses caste if he fails to abide by the 
 rules and decisions of his guild. The most pitiable creature in China 
 is the man who has lost “face” with his guild, and such a catastrophe 
 is often followed by suicide. • 
 
 Knowing this the early foreign traders in China adapted their 
 business customs to those of the guilds in essentials, and they had 
 little trouble in dealing with the better class of Chinese. As time 
 went on elements of business were introduced that were not good 
 and many of the Chinese were corrupted in their dealings with the 
 less scrupulous foreigners, so that to-day the old-fashioned word-of- 
 mouth contracts are extremely dangerous, and some of the Chinese 
 have come to recognize one code of business morals in dealing with 
 foreigners and another in dealing with their own countrymen. 
 
 In the Netherlands East Indies the Chinese have the same tradi¬ 
 tions as their countrymen at home. They do not have the multi¬ 
 plicity of guilds that are found in China, but there are many organi¬ 
 zations that are hard for the westerner to understand. The Chinese 
 is essentially a gentleman and is a pleasant man to do business with, 
 for foreigners who understand certain essentials in dealing with them, 
 but it is necessary for foreigners to know these essentials and under¬ 
 stand something of the intricacies of the Chinese mind before it is 
 quite safe to do business with them. 
 
 In Java the Chinese have come under the influence of a set of busi¬ 
 ness practices to which he has been able to adapt himself in his own 
 way. He has found himself opposed to conditions he never had to 
 deal with at home, and the law of self-preservation has acted as 
 quickly on him as it would on any westerner, for he is an astute busi¬ 
 ness man. No one can say whether the questionable practices that 
 are carried on were started by the Chinese or the western business 
 man, but the former has shown that he can win at any game of busi¬ 
 ness that has been presented to him in the Orient. 
 
 THE CHINESE AS SPECULATORS. 
 
 The Dutch business men in this colony strive to do business on 
 principles that have won for them a very prosperous place in the 
 commerce of the world, and accordingly they avoid speculation when¬ 
 ever possible, but there are none in this business community more 
 capable of heavy speculation than the Dutch and the Chinese. Since 
 a country like this, which produces large quantities of raw materials, 
 must have speculators to hold the reserves of stock on their way from 
 the producer to the consumer, criticisms heard in the Java ports 
 regarding the Chinese for their speculative tendencies do not seem to 
 
 19878 °— 28 - 25 
 
372 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 be well founded. The Chinese is not a speculator because he wishes to 
 perform a useful function in the business world, but because he wants 
 money; money is the thing that he is always after, and he has sought 
 to reduce the risks to an absolute minimum. In doing this he has 
 striven to pass the risks on to the importing and exporting houses, 
 and he has had a measure of success. Whether the Dutch houses 
 have absorbed these risks or passed them on to some third party is 
 another story, but the Dutch merchants are noted for taking care of 
 themselves, and it has been a case where two very efficient business 
 systems have been constantly striving to get an advantage. 
 
 THE CHINESE AS LOCAL CREDIT RISKS. 
 
 The Chinese seek credit for merchandise bought and the importers 
 as carefully strive to keep the credits down. There is a feeling of 
 trade jealousy between the Dutch houses that prevents them from 
 using their very excellent “ handelsvereeniging,” or merchants’ associ¬ 
 ations, to disseminate credit information. The Chinese use their 
 surplus money to buy produce on which they normally make a good 
 profit, but they are not content with ordinary profits, and when 
 their judgment tells them that the price is going up they have plenty 
 of courage to back it. The importer provides the cash, or a part 
 of it, with which the small Chinese dealers speculate on the prod¬ 
 ucts of the country; this is as it appears on the face of the transac¬ 
 tion, but underneath the surface a different situation appears. The 
 importers extend the credits, but at prices that provide amply for an 
 insurance fund to take care of the losses when a sudden drop in the 
 market finds the Chinese unable to pay. 
 
 When a speculator or dealer fails, the laws and customs permit 
 a settlement on the best terms that the debtor can bargain for, after 
 which he resumes operations free of all obligations. Instances have 
 been cited of settlements made on a basis of 10 and 15 per cent 
 by Chinese who are to-day among the wealthiest men in their dis¬ 
 tricts, and these men have no thought of paying off the losses. Such 
 settlements, it is reasonable to suppose, would not be acceptable to the 
 creditors were the losses not discounted in advance. 
 
 TRANSACTION OF AMERICAN BUSINESS THROUGH CHINESE 
 
 FIRMS. 
 
 It is not fair to apply generalities to all of any class of people or 
 organizations, but it is safe to say that the Chinese themselves are 
 suspicious of corporate bodies and do not care to invest their money 
 where they do not have a constant personal control over it. The evi¬ 
 dence goes to show that many Chinese corporations are formed 
 solely for the purpose of limiting the liabilities, and the greatest care 
 should be exercised in dealing with them. There are many ways 
 of holding the Chinese in line with good business practice, and one 
 of the safest is to make one or more of them directors of a company 
 and personally responsible, because, as in China, the Chinese of this 
 colony pride themselves on their personal local reputation for integ¬ 
 rity and trustworthiness. The greatest care should, therefore, be 
 taken to involve the local reputation of the responsible individuals 
 in the corporation. The time may come when the Chinese will value 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 373 
 
 their reputations with American exporters as they now do their 
 reputations in Java, Singapore, or China, but to-day a member of 
 the local Chinese business community suffers no loss of credit by the 
 failure of a corporation with which he has been associated and to 
 which he has loaned his moral credit. There are some Chinese indi¬ 
 viduals and corporations that have already established a reputation 
 for fair dealing with American exporters and are rated alongside 
 of the responsible Dutch houses. 
 
 The care necessary in handling this trade can not be exercised 
 from a distance and no foreign representative can transfer his 
 knowledge of local conditions to his home office. Furthermore, no 
 one man can gain sufficient knowledge of the whole Chinese business 
 community of the colony to enable him to handle local credit trans¬ 
 actions, nor can he gain a knowledge of any one community without 
 an organization that brings to him daily the news of the market 
 place. American houses sending shipments to Chinese concerns in 
 this colony on D. P. and D. A. terms must be prepared to accept the 
 losses incident to the nonpayment of drafts, and in disposing of such 
 shipments they will not receive much assistance from the regular 
 importing houses, because in selling to these Chinese firms the Amer¬ 
 ican exporter is selling to the regular customers of the importers. 
 
 It should not be taken for granted that the Chinese are familiar 
 with the well-known customs of business in the American or Euro¬ 
 pean markets, but each point should be explained to them in letters 
 that they can read, preferably in Dutch or Malay, but if English is 
 used it should be simple and local expressions should be avoided. 
 They will detect and resent a patronizing tone in letters. Corre¬ 
 spondence should be worded in such a way that they will feel they 
 are known by reputation, at least, and if a member of the staff is 
 personally acquainted with any of them such information as he has 
 about the personalities and local conditions should be made available 
 to and wisely used by the correspondence department. 
 
 Prices quoted should include the cost of substantial packing. Usu¬ 
 ally domestic packing is not strong enough for shipment to the ori¬ 
 ental Tropics. If domestic packing is to be used a clear understand¬ 
 ing of the fact should be given to the customer in writing. 
 
 Until such time as each individual concern shall have established 
 his financial and moral credit, American houses will do well to 
 transact their business against confirmed credits, but care should be 
 taken not to burden the customer by keeping these confirmed credits 
 tied up for unreasonable lengths of time. Except with a few of the 
 better Dutch and foreign houses, all credits extended to this colony 
 have some element of risk and this should be taken into considera¬ 
 tion in making prices. 
 
 There is a tendency on the part of the Chinese to enter the import 
 field and the natural development of their business is toward 
 America. American houses desiring to get in line with this tendency 
 would do well to observe the strictest business rules and make a 
 close study of credits at first hand. 
 
 THE CHINESE IN THE MALAY PENINSULA. 
 
 According to an official estimate of the population of the Straits 
 Settlements made in 1921 and the 1911 census of the Native States, 
 
374 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 there was a total population in this territory of 2,734,276, of which 
 985,472, or 36 per cent, were Chinese. These figures, however, do 
 not indicate the full importance of the Chinese as a commerical fac¬ 
 tor. Singapore, the key port of southeastern Asia, has a population 
 of 380,392, of which 275,370, or 72 per cent, are Chinese, and Penang, 
 the second city and an important center of commerce, has a popu¬ 
 lation of 152,642- of which 84,391, or 55 per cent, are Chinese. These 
 Chinese and their fathers have contributed much that has made 
 these ports what they are to-day. The main distribution of the pop¬ 
 ulations is shown in the following table: 
 
 Political divisions. 
 
 • 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Per cent 
 of Chinese. 
 
 Straits Settlements: 
 
 Singapore . 
 
 275,370 
 84,391 
 34,995 
 
 380,392 
 152,642 
 141,115 
 
 72 
 
 Penang. 
 
 55 
 
 Province Wellesley. 
 
 24 
 
 Din dings. 
 
 2,579 
 43,729 
 
 11,982 
 153,008 
 1,037,044 
 686,810 
 
 21 
 
 Malacca. 
 
 28 
 
 Federated Malay States. 
 
 433,244 
 47,759 
 63,405 
 
 41 
 
 Protected Malay States, except Johore. 
 
 7 
 
 Johore.....T. 
 
 171,283 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 Total. 
 
 985,472 
 
 2,734,276 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 The Chinese mined tin in the Malay Peninsula long before the 
 British came, and many families have been in the district so long 
 that they have lost all but a sentimental interest in their ancestral 
 homes. They came almost entirely from the Provinces of Fukien 
 and Kwangtung in China and have followed the usual Chinese cus¬ 
 toms of forming into guilds, or “ kongsis,” as they are called locally, 
 to one of which every Chinese belongs. These organizations exercise a 
 great influence on the economic life of the land by settling disputes 
 between its members and protecting its membership from abuses 
 from the outside. 
 
 As the native labor of the peninsula is not suited to the heavy work 
 in the tin mines, the Chinese have recruited laborers from China, and 
 the traffic is so large that the transportation of coolies from China 
 ports is a very important item in the shipping business of south¬ 
 eastern Asia. 
 
 The Chinese population of the British part of the Malay Peninsula 
 is composed principally of four general classes—merchants, mine op¬ 
 erators, laborers, and household servants. The laborers are divided 
 into two classes—mine and plantation laborers. This has been a land 
 of opportunity for the Chinese and, while the lot of the mining coolie 
 has been cruelly hard in the past and is far from easy to-day, occa¬ 
 sionally one would rise above his fellows and start independent oper¬ 
 ations. The use of Chinese coolies on the plantations is of more re¬ 
 cent development. 
 
 WEALTHY CHINESE FURNISH MARKET FOR HIGH-PRICED COMMODITIES. 
 
 The mine operators, merchants, and other wealthy classes of 
 Chinese, with few exceptions, have evolved out of the mass of coolies 
 imported to work in the mines, and the business morals of these peo¬ 
 ple speak well for the masses of the southern Provinces of China. 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 375 
 
 The mine operators are particularly adapted to the kind of mining 
 that has been carried on in the past, which involves the handling of 
 large bodies of laborers, but this system is gradually being replaced 
 by more scientific methods and several of the larger Chinese opera¬ 
 tions have modern plants and are working on as scientific principles 
 as the British and French owned properties. The future promises 
 large sales of mining machinery as the transition from the old to 
 the new system progresses. There is a large number of wealthy 
 Chinese in this district, especially in Singapore, Penang, and Kuala 
 Lumpur, and their fortunes have increased so rapidly that there has 
 been no outlet for investment capital, as the Chinese do not care to 
 invest in securities or in operations they can not see and understand. 
 The planting of rubber and the purchase of estates already planted 
 has been a temporary outlet for much of this capital. The Chinese 
 spend their money freely and provide a large market for articles of 
 high value that contribute to their pleasure. The Straits Settlements 
 and the Federated and Protected Malay States constitute one of the 
 best markets for diamonds and expensive jewelry, bric-a-brac, showy 
 and expensive furniture, mirrors, and other articles of obvious value. 
 
 THE CHINESE MERCHANT. 
 
 The Chinese merchant is the principal factor in thje distribution 
 of western manufactures to the consumers. There is a constantly 
 increasing acreage of Chinese-owned plantations, which draw their 
 supplies largely through Chinese channels, and the smaller trade 
 depends entirely on the Chinese shops, which are found even in the 
 most remote districts. 
 
 The trade of the natives, Chinese, and Indians in all their require¬ 
 ments and of the white population in provisions is catered to almost 
 entirely by the Chinese, most of whom were born in the colony and 
 are therefore British subjects. These Chinese are keen business men 
 and drive a hard bargain, but generally prefer to do business along 
 lines they have been used to and which have proven satisfactory to 
 the white men from whom they buy. One Chinese may have several 
 stores, and often the successful merchants in the larger towns finance 
 the small Chinese dealers in the kamponge (native villages), thus 
 controlling their trade. 
 
 The Chinese retailing system reaches every part of the country 
 and every branch of the trade with the exception of the machinery 
 business. Of late years the Chinese have been putting their surplus 
 money into rubber plantations and to-day some of the largest hold¬ 
 ings are those of the Chinese u towkays ” or “ merchant princes.” 
 Supplies for these plantations are usually routed through a Chinese 
 business organization that is more than likely affiliated in some way 
 with the plantation owners. 
 
 CREDIT OF THE STRAITS CHINESE. 
 
 Many of these Chinese merchants are worthy of credit and get 
 large credits from the British houses, both for merchandise and as 
 advances of money for purchasing raw materials, but American 
 manufacturers will find that they will need to study the situation 
 very carefully before they are warranted in extending any credits 
 in this country. It is not meant to infer that the Chinese is not as 
 
376 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 honest in his dealings as other people, but he is tied up in many 
 ways with the established importers, and to assert his independence 
 of them might cost him valuable connections. The probabilities are 
 that the American exporters will not find the best houses seeking 
 credit, but the pressure for such accommodation will come from the 
 less reliable houses. Even if the financial standing is satisfactory, 
 the Chinese houses do not understand the methods and customs of 
 importing and exporting and are liable to arrive at conclusions in 
 their dealings that will be embarrassing to American exporters. 
 
 A few Chinese firms in the Straits Settlements are successfully im¬ 
 porting general lines direct from abroad. Besides these, there are 
 two or three Chinese automobile importing and distributing com¬ 
 panies which have established their credit with American automobile 
 manufacturers on the same basis as the British automobile dealers. 
 There are many Chinese concerns who either have or can get all the 
 money necessary to transact a large importing business and it would 
 seem that the Chinese are destined some day to take a very prominent 
 part in importing in the Straits Settlements. 
 
 Credits should be established by the slow process of repeated suc¬ 
 cessful business transactions, as it is built up in America. One of the 
 many reasons why credits should be extended only after a proving 
 period is the fact that a large percentage of the Chinese business men 
 are inveterate gamblers in produce and in imports, especially in 
 manufactured cotton, and a sudden drop in the price of the com¬ 
 modity gambled in might mean the collapse of a firm that had previ¬ 
 ously enjoyed the best of bank references. American credits to 
 Chinese firms are not warranted by ordinary profits, and the Ameri¬ 
 can exporter who gives credit at high prices, without an intimate 
 acquaintance with local conditions, may find he has been furnishing 
 capital to his customer for gambling. 
 
 The Chinese of the Straits Settlements have passed through a long 
 period of successful operation as merchants and as speculators. The 
 Straits Chinese is not a speculator in the same sense or degree as his 
 brothers in Netherlands East Indies, but the development of the rub¬ 
 ber industry, and especially the establishment of the rubber auction 
 in Singapore, has given a new opening for speculation there. Slow 
 declines in the market are not dangerous, but sudden drops are 
 fraught with dire consequences. Exporters extending credits to the 
 Straits Chinese would do well to watch the trade tendencies in their 
 bearing on products of the Tropics and the world markets for rubber, 
 tin, copra and coconut oil, tapioca, sugar, and other major products, 
 as well as the market for manufactured cotton. 
 
 BUSINESS ORGANIZATION IN BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 While the types of the population in British Malaya are much 
 the same as in the Netherlands East Indies and the imports have a 
 similarity to the Dutch imports, the methods of handling the trade 
 differ in many essentials. These differences are largely due to the 
 dissimilarity of the British and Dutch temperaments and of the 
 export trade of the two colonies. 
 
 Import and export houses .—The big, finely organized British 
 import and export houses constitute the first factor in introducing 
 most lines of merchandise to the trade of British Malaya. These* 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 377 
 
 houses usually have their headquarters in Singapore, with branches 
 or very close connections in Penang (also in the Straits Settlements), 
 and in Kuala Lumpur and Ipoh in the Federated Malay States. 
 The fact that the products of this colony consist of but three prin¬ 
 cipal items—rubber, tin, and copra—with the remainder negligible, 
 has eliminated to a large extent the temptation to gamble in the 
 minor products, a temptation which is largely responsible for the 
 ruin of many Chinese in the Netherlands East Indies, and this, with 
 the continued prosperity of the colony and the care which has been 
 taken by the British importing houses in extending credits to the 
 Chinese, lias built up a class of distributers that is doing a safe 
 business. 
 
 Much that is good in the organization of business in the colony 
 is due to these larger import houses, and their agencies show great 
 care in maintaining a balance between the accounts of' selling agents 
 and those of buying agents. One of the principal houses of this 
 type has the following exclusive agencies: 9 insurance agencies, 7 
 banking institutions, 1 independent Government, 1 steamship com¬ 
 pany, 2 oil-producing companies, 3 tin mines, 28 rubber estates, 9 
 engineering companies, 8 distilleries and breweries, 5 motor-car 
 manufacturers, 4 manufacturers of explosives, etc., 5 manufacturers 
 of provisions, and 1 tea agency, besides agencies for the manufacture 
 of ship composition, fencing, undershirts, miners’ candles, roofing, 
 roofing nails, canvas and twine, wire ropes, Portland cement, belt¬ 
 ing, a roof-cooling composition, disinfectants, soap, patent bolts 
 and washers, safes, patent drainpipes, tiling and sanitary appli¬ 
 ances, a pain killer and other patent medicines, mineral water, wood¬ 
 preserving and white-ant-destroying paints, tobacco and cigarettes, 
 perfumery, a sugar refinery, and several cotton mills. 
 
 The British department stores .—There are four very successful 
 and well-organized British retail institutions in the principal towns 
 of the peninsula, which cater to the white and half-caste population 
 and the better class of Chinese trade. In Singapore there are three 
 of these department stores, one of which has a branch in Kuala 
 Lumpur, a* second has nine branch stores in the larger of the towns 
 in the Native States and in Penang, and the third, while it has no 
 branches, keeps several men traveling constantly among the planta¬ 
 tions and mines. The headquarters of the fourth is at Penang, with 
 a branch in Ipoh, and travelers from this house call at the plantations 
 and mines in the northern part of the peninsula and along the coast 
 where there are good steamship communications with Penang. These 
 are long-established concerns and they carry stocks of wide range. 
 One has its head office in London and is a part of a chain of stores 
 that includes the British South African colonies and India in its 
 field of operations. The local managers of its 10 retail stores in 
 Malaya may make recommendations as to the stock needed, and their 
 recommendations carry considerable weight, but the purchases have 
 either to be made or confirmed in London. 
 
 Machinery .—The importing houses are often the channel for the 
 importation of machinery for the plantations. In many cases it is 
 bought through the home offices of the plantation companies in Lon¬ 
 don, but much of it is routed through the engineering companies 
 which have shops for repair and construction in Singapore and in 
 
378 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 the towns near the plantations. Some machinery, especially for the 
 treatment of the lower grades of rubber, is made at Singapore by one 
 of these companies. These engineering companies are desirable rep¬ 
 resentatives for such machinery as requires careful repair work and 
 periodical expert attention, such as electric-lighting outfits and in¬ 
 ternal-combustion engines. 
 
 Much of the dredging machinery that is installed in British Malaya 
 has been imported without the assistance of the import houses. Aus¬ 
 tralian capital has been largely responsible for the development of 
 tin dredging in this part of the world, and the Australian mining 
 ' companies or their contractors have imported most of this machinery. 
 The success of the tin dredgers has been quite uniform from the 
 beginning. Business can be done with these companies direct by 
 exporters who will make a careful preliminary credit investigation 
 and who keep in touch with the general trend of the tin market. 
 
 Machinery for the Chinese-owned lompongs, or open-cast mines, 
 has usually come through the ordinary importing channels, but the 
 Chinese are only beginning to use machinery in their mining opera¬ 
 tions. At present they have a heterogeneous equipment of second¬ 
 hand machinery, especially for pumping purposes, and it is thought 
 that before long these original developers of tin mining in British 
 Malaya will equip the best of their properties with modern plants, 
 as indeed some of them have already done. 
 
 Large cooperative mining operations, principally British, are often 
 allied financially with the importing houses, but the selection of the 
 type of machinery to be installed is made on the advice of experts 
 within the organization or of consulting engineers. One firm of con¬ 
 sulting engineers in Ipoh is particularly influential, and mining 
 machinery manufacturers would do well to make their products 
 known to this firm. 
 
 Building material. —Besides the engineering firms mentioned above 
 there are engineering concerns specializing on building and con¬ 
 struction work. Some of these are in a position to import the ma¬ 
 terials used in their contracts. 
 
 Drugs and druggists' supplies. —The drug business in British 
 Malaya is under the control of the medical fraternity and the or¬ 
 ganizations of most of the houses are of long standing. While the 
 import houses are resorted to for financing imports in all lines of 
 business, the drug trade nominally imports direct. 
 
 Ships' supplies. —The provisioning of ships is an important busi¬ 
 ness in Singapore and Penang. It is carried on largely by the 
 Chinese, many of whom are financially sound, but like most Chinese, 
 they leave the importing to the British or foreign houses. Ship 
 chandlery comes mostly through the import houses, from which it 
 is routed through the local Chinese or British chandlers or goes 
 direct to the shipowners. Engine-room supplies are bought through 
 the import houses, through the engineering houses, and through 
 branch houses of the manufacturers. 
 
 Musical instruments. —There are two old-established musical in¬ 
 strument houses in the Orient with branch houses throughout China 
 and British Malaya. Each has a branch at Singapore, Penang, and 
 Kuala Lumpur. 
 
 Paper and printers' supplies .—Some of the import houses stock 
 paper and printers’ supplies, but the larger users of paper, such as 
 
Special Agents Series No. 218. 
 
 FIG. 31.—RAFFLES SQUARE. THE RETAIL CENTER OF SINGAPORE. 
 
Special Agents Series No. 218. 
 
 FIG. 32.—PEDDLER OF GENERAL MERCHANDISE, JAVA. 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 379 
 
 the newspapers and the more important printers, carry their own 
 stocks of paper and other supplies well in advance of their needs. 
 
 Plantation supplies .—Many of the import houses supply the plan¬ 
 tations directly, but in the Native States there are mercantile houses 
 specializing in plantation supplies, from acetic acid and latex cups 
 to provisions and other household supplies. An important channel 
 for supplies for the plantations are the organizations making a 
 special business of representing plantations, which often receive 
 their appointment from the directors in London and are in author¬ 
 ity over the plantation managers. 
 
 British Borneo .—Conditions in Borneo are so different from those 
 in the Malay Peninsula that little of the above applies there. In 
 Sandakan and Jesselton, in British North Borneo, and Kuching, in 
 Sarawak, there are two well-organized British importing houses 
 that do practically all the business. Most of the plantations are 
 owned or controlled by large British plantation companies, some of 
 which supply their properties from London. 
 
 ASSEMBLING OF PRODUCE IN SINGAPORE OR PENANG FOR 
 
 EXPORT. 
 
 With the exception of rubber and tin, practically all of the prod¬ 
 ucts exported from Singapore and Penang reach the exporters 
 through Chinese dealers who collect and prepare them for the world’s 
 markets. With a few minor exceptions, the Chinese do little of the 
 export business to the European or American markets, but largely 
 control the export of products for Chinese and native consumption 
 to Siam, French Indo-China, and China, and are the distributers of 
 western products imported by the European houses. The Chinese 
 business organization is the foundation on which the business of 
 Singapore and Penang is built. It extends not only throughout the 
 Malay Peninsula, but to Borneo, Sumatra, Java, the Smaller Soenda 
 Islands lying to the east of Java, to the island of Celebes, the Moluc¬ 
 cas, and as far as New Guinea. In some districts, such as, Sarawak, 
 Labuan, Brunei, and British North Borneo, in British Malaya; Pon- 
 tianak, in Dutch Borneo; Palembang and Djambi, in Sumatra; and 
 Riouw, in the Riouw Archipelago, it' practically controls the forest 
 and agricultural products gathered or produced by the natives. In 
 Macassar, while there is a large direct export to western markets, the 
 branches and agencies of the Singapore Chinese merchants are a very 
 important element in the business community. Southern and eastern 
 Borneo, the Sumatra East Coast, and a part of the West Coast are 
 very largely tributary, commercially, to Singapore and Penang 
 through the Chinese. 
 
 The methods of this Chinese business organization are complicated 
 and vary according to the products handled, the local conditions, and 
 the fluctuations of the market. For instance, pepper from Atjeh 
 may be shipped past Penang to Singapore in expectation of finding 
 a better price, and then shipped back to Penang if attracted by ad¬ 
 vancing prices. The following description of the organization covers 
 the various elements. 
 
 A-l .—Throughout British Malaya and in all of the Netherlands 
 East Indies, with the exception of some districts on the west coast of 
 Sumatra, the Chinese small shopkeeper dominates the retail business. 
 
380 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 This Chinese dealer in the districts of production accumulates stocks 
 of produce in exchange for manufactures imported from Western 
 countries and from China and Japan to supply a local demand. His 
 stock in trade consists mainly of rice, salt, tobacco, cigarettes, gam- 
 bier, lime, betel nuts (pinang or areca nuts, when not grown in suffi¬ 
 cient quantities locally), cotton cloth, candles, simple hardware, 
 chunkoels (or patchoels), arits, nails, wire, cooking utensils, and 
 sundry other articles for native use or consumption. This dealer’s 
 purchases from the natives are, more often than not, taken in settle¬ 
 ment of' accounts accrued during the growing season or for cash 
 advanced. 
 
 A-2 .—Trader sent out by B to purchase for cash. This man is 
 sometimes a speculator on his own account and is often intrusted 
 with large sums of money by B. He tours the district, sometimes 
 purchasing from A-l and always from the producer direct. 
 
 B. —A large dealer in the country of origin of the produce. This 
 dealer, who is usually located at a port, has close connections with 
 A-l, whom he supplies with merchandise, often on liberal credit 
 terms, taking payment in cash or produce, also with A-2, to whom he 
 advances money for purchases, and with C, from whom he receives 
 advances in merchandise and, when needed, in cash, and to whom he 
 ships the produce on consignment. 
 
 C. —A merchant in Singapore or Penang, who acts as the banker 
 and agent of B, or controls him in some other way. He is either a 
 dealer in the various commodities sold by B to A-l or controls a 
 company from whom B buys his supplies. He invariably has a well- 
 established credit with one or more of the European importing and 
 exporting houses and is very often a heavy speculator on his own 
 account. Most of the produce he imports is received on a consign¬ 
 ment basis. He regrades, mixes, and sometimes remanufactures the 
 produce so as to get the highest returns, and sells it to the local 
 speculators or to the exporting houses in Singapore, Penang, or other 
 oriental markets. Some of the Chinese houses of this type are of 
 the highest commercial integrity, and the qualities of the produce 
 sold by them may be depended upon under any circumstances; others 
 are very careful of their reputation in the local markets and in other 
 oriental markets where they have long-established connections, but 
 would not hesitate to take unfair advantage of customers in markets 
 in which they have no established credit (or “ face”) to lose. Local 
 buyers who know how to deal with the Chinese find this class of 
 Chinese business men dependable and honorable within certain limits. 
 
 D. —There is a fourth trader who regrades the produce and, in 
 some cases, remills or otherwise prepares it for export. C often per¬ 
 forms this function, but in the specialized products, such as flie 
 guttas, rattans, and wild and native-grown rubbers, he sells the 
 produce to D, who is always a speculator. 
 
 E. —There is a fifth class, which has grown to large proportions 
 during the past few years, made up of speculators who contribute 
 little or nothing to the quality of the product or to the flow of trade. 
 The financing of imports of produce and their course through the 
 regrading or remilling processes involves a certain element of specu¬ 
 lation, but this is unavoidable, and, while A-l, A-2, B, C, and I) 
 sometimes take large chances, they are usually reasonably sure of 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 381 
 
 selling their produce at a profit, and are entitled to the credit 
 accommodations due to their position in the trade. The purely 
 speculative houses operated heavily during the period of price infla¬ 
 tion and made large profits, but most of these profits were lost during 
 the period of deflation and a large number of them failed. This 
 class constitutes the most dangerous element in the trade. 
 
 CREDIT. 
 
 In the preceding pages the matter of extending credit to the 
 Chinese has been given some attention. The foreign business com¬ 
 munities present every phase of credit risks, from the big concerns 
 subsidiary to the leading banks and shipping companies to the irre¬ 
 sponsible corporations working on insufficient capital with no moral 
 credit whatever. As a rule the larger concerns do not ask for credit, 
 and the most insistent demands for credit come from those least 
 worthy of it. There are many concerns working on limited capital 
 that are worthy of reasonable credit, and European exporters are 
 giving and will continue to give them terms up to four months’ 
 sight and even longer. A knowledge of the credit rating of these 
 concerns can only be had by a close study of the personnel of the 
 business community and the experience or repeated business trans¬ 
 actions. There are, however, a few aids to a study of credits that 
 will be of value to American exporters. 
 
 The Javasche Courant, the official Government organ, issues sup¬ 
 plements containing the articles of incorporation of all companies. 
 This publication also lists all failures and contains other business 
 notices. 
 
 The Handboek voor Cultuur en Handelsondernemmingen van 
 Nederlandsch Indie, published at Amsterdam, lists all corporations 
 doing business in the Netherlands East Indies. It contains a great 
 deal of useful information and is thoroughly cross-indexed so that 
 it is possible to know something of the relations of the various com¬ 
 panies with each other through a study of the interlocking direc¬ 
 torates. 
 
 Charts have been prepared showing the fluctuations in price of 
 sugar, coffee, copra, and a staple weave of cotton textiles, and a table 
 showing the fluctuations in the price of rubber. On the charts of 
 sugar, coffee, and copra is a line showing the approximate cost of 
 production. These charts have somewhat the same relation to credits 
 in these colonies as similar charts covering wheat, corn, hogs, and 
 beef have to credits in the Mississippi Valley, but they differ in that 
 there is a greater amount of speculation among the merchants. 
 
 When the prices reach far above production costs it is probably 
 due either to unnatural speculation in the local markets or to some 
 temporary condition abroad that can not be expected to continue and 
 credit conditions are correspondingly weakened. The period leading 
 up to June, 1920, was one of continuously rising prices for a long 
 time, but it presaged the inevitable drop which is shown graphically 
 in the sugar and coffee charts. Figures supplementary to these 
 charts may be had weekly in the Weekly Market Report of the 
 Soerabayasche Handelsvereeniging. 
 
 Importers have to cover their ordinary needs for from six months 
 to a year ahead and their commitments at speculative prices involve 
 
382 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 large risks. Therefore, the large capitals and the reserves shown do 
 not imply the same stability of credit that similar figures would mean 
 in connection with a credit in the United States. 
 
 ADVERTISING. 
 
 Any serious student of advertising in the Netherlands Indies will 
 find much in the foregoing and succeeding chapters and sections 
 that bear directly on this subject. The sections covering geography, 
 distribution of population, the oriental peoples, racial groupings, 
 labor, commercial organizations, exporters and importers, the 
 Chinese, and credit should all be read in connection with this 
 
 section, as well as the chapter on import commodities. 
 
 * 
 
 POPULATION AND EARNING CAPACITY. 
 
 As stated elsewhere, the Netherlands East Indies has an area of 
 770,000 square miles and a population of 47,000,000. Java, with 
 51,000 square miles, has a density of population of 666 people to 
 the square mile, while the Outer Possessions have a density of but 
 18; thus the main area to be considered, and the one in which all 
 initial advertising campaigns will be made, is Java. 
 
 This population is very largely agricultural, and the industries 
 draw on the agricultural population for their labor, most of which 
 is required for only a part of the year. Wages vary in the different 
 sections, ranging from 0.25 florin per day (about 10 cents U. S.) 
 for adult male coolies to 4 florins for highly skilled natives (1 
 florin=$0.402 mint par U. S.). 
 
 The advertising problem is very much complicated by the poly¬ 
 glot character of the people of the Malay Peninsula. In the Straits 
 Settlements, the Federated Malay States, and the Protected Malay 
 States west of the mountain range which divides the peninsula 
 from north to south the large bulk of the population is centered, 
 as well as the greater part of the wealth. For the purposes of this 
 analysis this district will be considered, and it may safely be said 
 that any advertising plan worked out successfully for this territory 
 can easily be adapted for the other and less thickly populated 
 districts. 
 
 While the States of Trengganoe and Kelantan have a population 
 of 440,000, of which 14,000 are .Chinese, these people are scattered 
 over a wide territory, with no transportation facilities other than 
 the waterways, and there is little economic development. British 
 Borneo, outside two small districts, is a wild country, a large part 
 of the 800,000 natives being only a few steps removed from 
 savagery. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION OF JAVAN POPULATION, BY RACES. 
 
 The native population of Java is made up of Javanese (about 
 22,000,000), Soendoenese (about 7,000,000), Madoerese (about 2,- 
 500,000 on the island of Java), and approximately 2,000,000 Malays. 
 The Chinese, who are numerically much less important, constitute 
 a purchasing and sales force of prime importance. The Arab 
 population is generally found in the larger towns and the cities and 
 is not an important factor in any ordinary advertising campaign. 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 383 
 
 The European population is approximately 110,000 and includes 
 people of pure Dutch blood and mixed blood, descendants of Dutch 
 fathers. 
 
 LANGUAGES. 
 
 In Netherlands Indies the languages to be considered in advertis* 
 ing are Javanese, Soendanese, Malay, Chinese, and Dutch. Javanese 
 should be replaced by Soendanese in campaigns in the Soendanese 
 country, while in the Outer Possessions both would be abandoned 
 for Malay and the script of the local population. Malay and Chinese 
 are usually included in all poster advertising. Dutch is the language 
 of the masters of the country and is understood and read by many 
 of the Chinese and by the European population. 
 
 English, Malay, Chinese, and Tamil are the languages to be taken 
 into consideration in advertising in British Malaya, and the Malay 
 is divided into Arabic script and Roman characters. All Europeans 
 and Eurasians speak and read English, as well as most of the 
 Chinese who have reached a position of prosperity. Many of the 
 native-born Chinese, or “ Babas,” as they are called locally, have 
 gone to the schools for Chinese and have gained a very good knowl¬ 
 edge of English, which is the language of the larger business of the 
 ports. 
 
 It is a common saying that 500 words will include the whole 
 Malay language, when, as a matter of fact, the Malay language of 
 the sultans, rajahs, and tunggkus has a very wide vocabulary. The 
 Malay of the kampong (village) has a very limited vocabulary, with 
 a mixture of English and Portuguese to express objects and customs 
 brought in by the westerners. In the schools the Arabic script is 
 taught and many of the Malays read this picturesque writing. The 
 language of the bazaar, or the market place, is a mongrel Malay, 
 popularly called “ Bazaar Malay,” and this may truthfully be said 
 to contain but a few hundred words. It is the lingua franca of busi¬ 
 ness with the Chinese and natives throughout British Malaya and 
 the Netherlands East Indies. Foreigners all attain some knowedge 
 of this language in the first year of their residence, and in its Roman¬ 
 ized form advertising in Malay is not without vajue in reaching the 
 foreigners in poster advertising. 
 
 A constant stream of Chinese laborers flows into British Malaya 
 from Fukien and Kwangtung Provinces in China, generally on con¬ 
 tract to work in the tin mines or on the rubber plantations. What 
 these Chinese know of a written language is in the Chinese char¬ 
 acters. In every large kampong will be found private Chinese 
 schools, where the children of immigrants are taught the language 
 of their fathers. 
 
 The Tamil language was imported with the Tamil or Ivling people 
 from southern India. These people are brought in under a rather 
 loose contract to work on the rubber plantations, where the work is 
 not heavy and, compared with the Indian standards, is well paid. 
 The ruling wage for the ordinary plantation coolie is 12 Straits 
 dollars per month, about 23 cents per day, with free housing and 
 hospital service. Both men and women work on what is practically 
 equality as to service. They know enough of their written language 
 to read simple words, and the advertising in Tamil is generally 
 “ written down ” to the coolie class. Jaffna people (southern Indians 
 
I 
 
 384 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 of a much better type than the Tamils), who are employed as station 
 agents and clerks in the railroad and other Government offices, and 
 the Singalese (Ceylon men), who generally have a purchasing 
 capacity above the average, also read the Tamil characters. 
 
 TRANSLATIONS. 
 
 The making of correct and effective translations is one of the most 
 serious problems in advertising in the Netherlands East Indies. 
 Translations into Dutch made in the Netherlands are likely to miss in 
 their appeal to the residents of the colony, as there are many local¬ 
 isms and conditions of life are different from those of the homeland. 
 Local translation bureaus can not be expected to take more than a 
 perfunctory interest in translations, and in translating technical 
 matter they are not to be relied upon. American manufacturers with 
 good representation in the colony would best intrust their transla¬ 
 tions to their agents who understand local conditions. 
 
 The problem of making correct translations is met with also in 
 British Malaya, as there is no organization or agency to handle these 
 matters, and the small advertiser must depend on getting the over¬ 
 time work of the few good translators working for concerns doing 
 sufficient advertising to warrant them in training a staff. The busi¬ 
 ness houses acting as agents can generally arrange to have the trans¬ 
 lations done for a small advertising campaign, but for any consider¬ 
 able campaign this matter would have to be studied on the ground. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS AND OTHER PERIODICALS. 
 
 The following publications include all the more important me¬ 
 diums in the Netherlands East Indies: 
 
 Het Nieuws van den Dag voor Nederlandsch Indie, Batavia.—Published daily; 
 language, Dutch; claims 10,000 circulation. Circulates among all classes and 
 is the most popular of Batavia’s newspapers. Caters to the general public. 
 Probably 25 per cent of its circulation is in Batavia and most of the balance 
 in the outlying districts in west Java. 
 
 Java Bode , Batavia.—Published daily; language, Dutch. Made no statement 
 as to circulation; probably from 2,000 to 3,000. This journal is said to be partly 
 owned by the Government and to be the organ of the administration. It is read 
 by Government officials. 
 
 Bataviaasch Nieuwshlad, Batavia.—Published daily; language, Dutch. Made 
 no statement as to circulation; probably not more than 1,500 copies. Manage¬ 
 ment states that it circulates among all classes. From other sources it is 
 learned that it advocates the cause of the people of mixed blood and is much 
 read by them. It is said that at one time it was the most influential and widely 
 read newspaper in the colony. 
 
 Bataviaasch Handelshlad, Batavia.—Published daily; language, Dutch. Cir¬ 
 culation probably not more than 1,200 to 1,300; no statement made. Circulates 
 among people with but small purchasing capacity. 
 
 Advertentie Bode, Batavia.—Published twice a week; language, Dutch. This 
 publication is unimportant. 
 
 Het Indische Leven, Batavia.—Published weekly (illustrated) ; language, 
 Dutch. Management made no statement as to number of copies published and 
 no reliable estimate could be made. It is the most popular weekly publication 
 in the colony and is considered to be a good medium for advertising to the better 
 classes. 
 
 De Banier, Batavia.—Published weekly; language, Dutch. Made no state¬ 
 ment as to number of copies published. Claims to circulate among the more 
 intellectual people of the colony. 
 
 Vrijzinning T Veekblad, Batavia.—Published weekly; language, Dutch. 
 
 De Taak, Batavia.—Published weekly; language, Dutch. 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 385 
 
 Netherlands India Rubber Tijdschrift, Batavia.—Published every two months; 
 language, Dutch. Circulates among rubber planters and dealers in rubber. A 
 good medium for advertising rubber-estate supplies, foodstuffs, and household 
 supplies to readers of good purchasing capacity. 
 
 Be Locomotief , Semarang.—Published daily; language, Dutch; claims 4,000 
 circulation. This newspaper is the conservative organ of Semarang. The prob¬ 
 abilities are that fully 60 per cent of its circulation is in central Java outside 
 of Semarang. 
 
 Het Dagblad, Semarang.—Published daily; language, Dutch. No statement 
 of circulation made; probably small and of little importance. 
 
 Be Beweging, Semarang.—Published weekly; language, Dutch. Circulation 
 small. 
 
 Soerabaiasch Handelsblad, Soerabaya.—Published daily; language, Dutch. 
 No statement of circulation was made. It is estimated that about 5,000 copies 
 are published daily. It is the leading paper of east Java and caters to the 
 general public rather than to the governing classes. A good advertising 
 medium. 
 
 Nieuwe Soerabaya C our ant , Soerabaya.—Published daily; language, Dutch ; 
 claims 4,000 circulation. Circulates among the working people and is consid¬ 
 ered to be radical. Not a desirable medium for advertising luxuries or articles 
 of high per unit value. 
 
 Soerabaiasch Nieuwsblad , Soerabaya.—Published daily; language, Dutch. No 
 statement of circulation made; probably in the neighborhood of 1,200. Not 
 considered of importance as an advertising medium. 
 
 Preanger Bode, Bandoeng.—Published daily; language, Dutch; claims 4,500 
 circulation, principally in Bandoeng and among the plantations. This is the 
 most important daily in the Preanger Regencies. 
 
 Be Bandoenger, Bandoeng.—Published daily; language, Dutch. Small circula¬ 
 tion ; local only. Readers usually take a coast paper also. 
 
 Algemeen Landbouweekblad voor Nederlandsch Indie, Bandoeng.—Published 
 weekly; language, Dutch. Circulates among the planters only. 
 
 Java Post, Bandoeng.—Published weekly; language, Dutch. Small circula¬ 
 tion and of minor importance. 
 
 Mataram, Djokjakarta.—Published daily; language, Dutch; claims circula¬ 
 tion of 1,100, circulating in the Residencies of Djokjakarta, Soerakarta, Kedoe, 
 and Banjoemas. This publication is of value for advertising to residents of 
 Djokjakarta and the immediate vicinity. 
 
 Jogja Vooruit, Djokjakarta.—Published daily; language, Dutch. Publication 
 small; of little consequence. 
 
 Be Nieuwe Vorstenlanden, Soerakarta.—Published daily; language, Dutch. 
 No statement made as to number of copies published; probably under 1,000. 
 Circulation possibly local only. Not an important medium. 
 
 Other Java publications comprise the following: 
 
 Archipel Post, published in Dutch, at Buitenzorg, twice a week; Dutch East 
 Indian Archipelago, published in English, at Buitenzorg, weekly; Jahn’s Adver- 
 tentieblad, published in Dutch, at Malang, twice a week; Kedirische Courant, 
 published in Dutch, at Kediri, daily; De Boers Aankondiger, published in 
 Dutch, at Tegal, weekly; and Sluyter’s Monthly, published in English, at 
 Batavia, monthly. 
 
 In the Outer Possessions the principal center of wealth is at 
 Medan, Sumatra, where the following papers are located: 
 
 Sumatra Post, Medan.—Published daily; language, Dutch. No statement of 
 the-number of copies published was made; from 1,000 to 1,500 would be a fair 
 estimate. This paper is published in the midst of the Sumatra tobacco coun¬ 
 try and the rich rubber and tea lands. It is an important medium. 
 
 Beli Courant, Medan.—Published daily; language, Dutch; claims publication 
 of 3,500 copies, mostly in northern Sumatra. This is an important publication, 
 probably standing above the Sumatra Post in point of circulation. They are 
 both important advertising mediums. 
 
386 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Other mediums in the Outer Possessions are the following: 
 
 De Padanger and Sumatra Bode, both published in Dutch, at Padang, daily; 
 Sabangsch Nieuwsblad, published in Dutch, at Sabang, Sumatra, twice a week; 
 Nieuwsblad voor Atjeh, published in Dutch, at Koeta Radja, Sumatra, twice a 
 week; Makassarsche Courant and Dagblad Celebes, both published in Dutch, 
 
 ’ at Macassar, daily; Borneo’s Advertentieblad, published in Dutch, at Bandjer- 
 masin, Borneo, twice a week; and Ambon Yooruit, published in Dutch, at 
 Amboina, in the residency of the same name, twice a week. 
 
 The following publications are printed in Malay: 
 
 Sin Po, Perniagaan, and Neratja, dailies, published in Batavia; Warna 
 Warta and Djawa Tengah, dailies, Semarang; Pewarta Soerabaia, Oetoesan 
 Hindia, and Thjioen Thioe, dailies, Soerabaya; Kaoem Moeda, daily, Bandoeng; 
 Andalas, daily, Medan; Sinar Sumatra and Oetoesan Melajoe, dailies, Padang; 
 and Sinar Matahri, daily, Macassar. 
 
 The publishers of newspapers in the Netherlands East Indies have 
 expressed great dissatisfaction with American advertising agencies, 
 especially with regard to their insistence on waiting for proofs of 
 publication before payment. This involves a wait of at least five 
 months before the publisher can get his money, and when copies 
 have been lost in the mail, as often happens with second-class matter, 
 the payment is held up indefinitely. Newspaper managers have 
 stated positively that they will not take orders placed through 
 agencies. 
 
 Printing is not carefully done, and it is not unusual to find unread¬ 
 able impressions from good electrotypes. Publishers have little diffi¬ 
 culty in selling all the space available and are correspondingly inde¬ 
 pendent. 
 
 POSTER ADVERTISING. 
 
 There are no billboards in the Netherlands Indies, but spaces on 
 walls and fences can be rented, and some privately owned boards 
 have been erected at places where traffic is congested. The heavy 
 rains make poster advertising expensive, as the replacements have 
 to be made often and the supervision can not be left to the native. 
 Poster advertising is usually done in Romanized Malay, Chinese, 
 and the script of the district in which the advertising is done. Malay 
 and Chinese are usually incorporated in the main body of the 
 poster and the other languages are printed on a separate strip. 
 
 Space is for rent inside the railway stations, and it is there that 
 most of the poster advertising is done. 
 
 Advertising by posters is becoming popular in British Malaya, 
 and some very effective advertising campaigns are being carried on. 
 One Australian patent-medicine company carried on a campaign 
 with success, and a Canadian company that has been in the field for 
 many years has pioneered this branch of advertising and has worked 
 out many interesting details. . ' 
 
 NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING. 
 
 Ten daily newspapers are published in Singapore, four in Penang, 
 one in Ipoh, and one in Kuala Lumpur. The following is a list, 
 with sworn publication figures for the close of 1919: 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 387 
 
 Daily 
 
 Singapore: circulation. 
 
 Straits Times (English)_ 4,500 
 
 Singapore Free Press (English)_ 1,500 
 
 Malaya Tribune (English)_ 1,700 
 
 Malaya Tribune (Malay)_ 800 
 
 Utusan Malayu (Malay)_ 1,100 
 
 Union Times (Chinese)_ 1,650 
 
 Chin Nam Poh (Chinese)_ 880 
 
 Lat Pau (Chinese)_ 650 
 
 Nanyo Nichinichi Shimbun (Japanese)_ 2,400 
 
 Nanyo Oyobi Nihonjin (Japanese)_ 842 
 
 Penang: 
 
 Penang Gazette (English)_ 1,500 
 
 Straits Echo (English)_ 900 
 
 Kwong Wah Yit Poh (Chinese)_ 1,050 
 
 Penang Sin Poe (Chinese)_:_ 550 
 
 Kuala Lumpur: The Malaya Mail (English)_— (*) 
 
 Ipoh: The Times of Malaya (English)_ (*) 
 
 Newspaper advertising ranks first among the advertising media 
 in British Malaya, and space is normally very much in demand. It 
 would be misleading to estimate their value on the standards applied 
 to American circulations. This is distinctly a class circulation, 
 every reader being a man or a woman of considerable purchasing 
 capacity. Except for the advertising to the coolie class, it might be 
 said that the newspaper is indispensable to a well-balanced cam¬ 
 paign. 
 
 The two Malay newspapers reach the official Malay class, which is 
 possessed of much money and spends it freely for western manu¬ 
 factures, especially for house furnishings, jewelry, and automo¬ 
 biles. 
 
 The Chinese newspapers are very important. Much of the tin is 
 mined by Chinese, and many of them have amassed large fortunes. 
 The Chinese tin miners, plantation owners, and merchants have been 
 very successful in their operations and spend their money freely 
 for anything that they want. 
 
 The Japanese newspapers of Singapore reach the Japanese busi¬ 
 ness men, planters, and other Japanese residents. 
 
 Prices for space are not high as compared with papers reaching a 
 class of a similar purchasing capacity in the United States. Good 
 locations in the leading papers are difficult to get. Business man¬ 
 agers refuse to deal with advertising agencies and generally require 
 cash with orders from abroad. Advertisers having agents in Singa¬ 
 pore would do well to place their advertising through them, as they 
 will be able to get cooperation from the publishers that could not 
 be had from abroad. 
 
 Castings from matrices are not satisfactorily done by the news¬ 
 papers, and some of them refuse to bother with them. Unless 
 mounted electrotypes are sent, advertisers from abroad should not 
 expect much in the way of make-up or general typographical ex¬ 
 cellence. 
 
 OTHER ADVERTISING MEDIA. 
 
 The following is a list of the principal weeklies, with one monthly 
 periodical, published in British Malaya, all in the English language: 
 
 1 Circulation unknown. 
 19878°—23-26 
 
388 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Singapore: Weekly circulation. 
 
 Federated Malay States Railway Timetable_5,000 
 
 Singapore Free Press_ 250 
 
 Straits Times-1, 500 
 
 St. Andrew’s Cathedral Monthly Message_ x 350 
 
 Penang: 
 
 Penang Gazette_ 200 
 
 Straits Echo_<_ 75 
 
 Ipoh : Malayan Tin and Rubber Journal_ (*) 
 
 The advertising value of these periodicals is not important, as a 
 considerable portion of the circulation is among ex-residents, who 
 keep up with the news of the colony through these media. The Tin 
 and Rubber Journal is a particularly direct medium for reaching 
 the planters and tin miners, who have much to say in deciding the 
 type and purchase of a considerable quantity of machinery and hard¬ 
 ware supplies. 
 
 Direct advertising. —A large number of trade lists have been pre¬ 
 pared, covering most of the industries and separate lines of business 
 in the Netherlands Indies. Besides these lists there are various 
 directories and Government publications that could be used with 
 good effect, among which are the following: 
 
 J. H. <Ie Bussy’s Handboek yoor Cultuur en Handelsondernemmingen in 
 Nederlandsch Indie (the “Poor’s Manual” of the Netherlands Indies). 
 
 Adresboek voor de Nederlandsch Indie Nijverheid, listing all the industries, 
 showing location, controlling companies, directors, management, power used, 
 and number of European and native employees, as well as other data valuable 
 in advertising. 
 
 Regeerings Almanak voor Nederlandsch Indie, containing the official list of 
 Government employees. 
 
 Gids voor den Interlocalen Dieust op Java (telephone directory of Java). 
 
 Cinematograph advertising .—In the Netherlands Indies moving 
 pictures are projected with a single machine, the interval needed 
 for changing the film being used for advertising. Most of this ad¬ 
 vertising is purely local and is poorly done. The moving-picture 
 houses usually run two performances, both of which are well at¬ 
 tended. This advertising, if well done, should be effective as an 
 auxiliary to a campaign including other media. 
 
 Street car advertising is poorly handled in the Netherlands Indies, 
 and inside car advertising is not favorably regarded by local ad¬ 
 vertisers. The big advertisers, however, use signboards running 
 along the tops of the cars and on the front of the locomotives. 
 There are no means of advertising with the regular railroads, but 
 most of the “ tram lines ” will sell space. Separate arrangements 
 must be made with each line. 
 
 Directories. —Two directories are published in Singapore—the 
 Singapore and Straits Directory and the Chinese Commercial Direc¬ 
 tory. Preferred locations in these directories can be made very ef¬ 
 fective supplementary media in a broad advertising campaign. 
 
 Mailing lists are not purchasable in the subdivided forms known 
 in the United States, but in the Singapore and Straits Directory, 
 which is on file in the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 
 there are some valuable lists which could well be used in any ad¬ 
 vertising campaign directed to the better class trade. Following 
 are some of the more interesting of these lists: Ladies’ list; official 
 
 1 Monthly. 
 
 2 Circulation unknown. 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 389 
 
 lists; alphabetical lists; mining companies, with staffs, etc.; planta¬ 
 tion companies, with staffs, etc.; lists of commercial houses, with 
 staffs, agencies, etc.; and church organizations, clubs, commercial 
 organizations, etc. 
 
 Hangers and other shop advertising .—Some good advertising has 
 been done along these lines in British Malaya, especially for the sell¬ 
 ing of cigarettes, liquors, and milk and other foodstuffs. Consider¬ 
 able development is yet to be done, and there is a good opportunity 
 to get advertising in this way, but it must be in very close connec¬ 
 tion with the selling campaigns. Calendars are effective in this 
 country, as the Chinese traditions lead this element of the popula¬ 
 tion to place great stress on dates. Another factor that makes the 
 calendar particularly important is the necessity in daily business to 
 harmonize the dates of the Gregorian, Chinese, and Mohammedan 
 calendars. There is an opportunity for development in this ad¬ 
 vertising. 
 
 Style in advertising .—Too much stress can not be laid on the 
 necessity for conservative statements in advertising. Patronizing 
 or familiar phrases in correspondence or general advertising are out 
 of place in British Malaya, and when addressed to the buyers of the 
 middle and better classes will result in an adverse reaction. 
 
 GOVERNMENT MONOPOLIES. 
 
 The following extracts, relating to pawnshops, the opium monopoly, 
 and the salt monopoly, are from the Netherlands East Indies Year¬ 
 book of 1920: 
 
 PAWNSHOPS. 
 
 To overcome the great disadvantages connected with the existing pawnshop 
 licenses, which went hand in hand with usury, the Government decided in 1903, 
 after a trial period, to take over the exploitation of the pawnshops. This ex¬ 
 ploitation has since been gradually introduced throughout Java and Madoera, 
 while at the same time the licenses have been withdrawn. 
 
 In 1917 this measure was completed, and the licensed pawnshop in Java is 
 now a thing of the past. It is expected that in 1921 the exploitation of Govern¬ 
 ment pawnshops will be begun in the Outer Possessions. 
 
 If it is found to be necessary, the number of these establishments in Java and 
 Madoera will be increased. 
 
 Where the Government exploitation exists it is forbidden under penalty to 
 give loans either in money or merchandise in smaller amounts than 100 florins 
 against the receipt of a pledge. 
 
 The turnover of this exploitation is steadily increasing, especially since, dur¬ 
 ing the course of 1912, the valuation of the pawns was revised, and the article 
 pledged is no longer calculated according to its intrinsic but according to its 
 market value, whereby higher amounts can be lent. 
 
 After a certain time has elapsed the unredeemed pawns are sold at auction. 
 If a profit remains after the money advanced plus the interest [is taken out], 
 this is kept for a year at the disposal of the borrower. 
 
 The exploitation shows a loss on loans for amounts of 50 cents and less, but 
 outside of that the venture seems to be profitable. The following are some 
 figures with relation to the pawnshop service: 
 
 Year. 
 
 Pawn¬ 
 
 shops. 
 
 Pawns 
 brought in. 
 
 Loans given. 
 
 Pawns 
 
 redeemed. 
 
 Pawns sold 
 at auction. 
 
 1914. 
 
 Number. 
 
 298 
 
 338 
 
 352 
 
 Number. 
 31,414,263 
 40,451,428 
 44,816,078 
 
 Florins. 
 
 66,852,018 
 
 99,622,683 
 
 116,904,358 
 
 Number. 
 
 25,986,497 
 
 34,701,692 
 
 38,841,662 
 
 Number. 
 
 3,440,038 
 
 4,344,720 
 
 4,452,089 
 
 1917. 
 
 1918. 
 
 
 Note. —The average pawn for 1914 was 2.12 florins; that of 1917, 2.46 florins; and 1918, 2.61 florins. 
 
390 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 OPIUM. 
 
 Before September, 1894, the right to retail opium in Java and Madoera was 
 leased out. This license system gave rise to many abuses and to encouraging 
 the use of opium, for which reason, on the aforesaid date and by way of a 
 trial, the Government began in the Residency of Madoera to take the opium 
 exploitation into its own hands under the name of the “ Opiumregie.” In 1904 
 this monopoly was established throughout Java and Madoera. 
 
 In the Outer Possessions the sale of opium was in some districts leased out 
 by the Government, in others by the native rulers, in still others only an import 
 duty was levied, and here and there the importing of opium was forbidden, 
 while there were also districts where the sale was entirely free and not subject 
 to any law. 
 
 Since 1913 the “ Opiumregie ” has been introduced in all the Outer Posses¬ 
 sions, with the exception of the greatest part of the Residency of Temate and 
 its dependencies (where it is only introduced in the island of Ternate and a 
 small part of the island of Batjan) and in the divisions southern and western 
 New Guinea of the Residency of Amboina. In the districts here which do not 
 belong to the monopoly region, however, the import of opium is forbidden. 
 
 In the regions of the “ Opiumregie ” the import and the sale may take place 
 only through the Government. 
 
 The raw opium required by the monopoly is bought in Bengal. The 
 “tjandoe” (prepared opium) is packed in tubes, which can not be opened with¬ 
 out being damaged, and which therefore can not be filled with other opium 
 and passed on as unopened monopoly tubes. 
 
 The sale takes place through officials, who receive a regular monthly salary. 
 In contrast with the State monopolies elsewhere the “ Opiumregie ” in Nether¬ 
 lands India recognizes no intermediary parties, who might have an interest in 
 the extension of the sale. This tends to discourage the use of opium, as do 
 still other measures which have been taken to limit its use as much as possible. 
 To name all these would take too much space, so that the following incom¬ 
 plete review must serve the purpose. 
 
 In the first place, in many parts of Netherlands India, private persons are 
 prohibited from having in their possession any opium, even though it may 
 come through the monopoly; in other districts the possession and transport of 
 Government opium are only allowed to holders of a personal license; in others 
 it is allowed to certain classes of the people without permission, but otherwise 
 prohibited to everyone who has no license. In several districts these licenses 
 may not be given to the native population nor to other specified groups o f 
 people. 
 
 Districts where such restrictions are in force are called “ prohibited areas.” 
 
 Outside the prohibited areas the possession of Government opium is forbid¬ 
 den throughout all Netherlands India to men in the service of the Royal and 
 the Government Navy and to native soldiers of the land forces; it is also for¬ 
 bidden to Government officials. 
 
 Furthermore, it is permitted to Europeans only if they hold a special license. 
 
 Opium may not be sold to young people under 18 years of age, while trade 
 in Government opium is everywhere forbidden. 
 
 Furthermore, to limit the use in most of the residencies of Netherlands India, 
 the price at which the Government opium is sold is being gradually but con¬ 
 siderably increased. 
 
 Again, a considerable decrease has been effected in the numbers of shops 
 and of dens, the latter being places where the public is given opportunity to 
 use opium. These dens may only be kept by persons who have a permit from 
 the head of the provincial government, while their exploitation is besides sub¬ 
 ject to certain limiting conditions. 
 
 Also with respect to the import, the possession, the sale, and the export of 
 morphine, cocaine, eucaine, and other surrogates of morphine, various pro¬ 
 hibiting regulations are in force, just as for the export and transport of opium. 
 
 For further details regarding the “ Opiumregie ” and the prohibition regu¬ 
 lations for opium, reference may be made to the report of this department 
 for the year 1915, which contains a brief history of the monopoly and its 
 restrictions. 
 
 The only tjandoe to be bought is that prepared from Bengal opium, of which 
 in 1918 a total of 2,336,276 thails (1 thail=38.6 grams) was sold, meaning 
 984,487 in Java and Madoera and 1,351,789 in the Outer Bossessions. 
 
BntJSIKESS FACTORS 
 
 SALT MONOPOLY. 
 
 391 
 
 With a few exceptional cases the manufacture of salt, other than for the 
 needs of the Dutch East Indian Government and with its sanction, has for 
 a long time been prohibited in Java and Madoera, while in the Outer Pos¬ 
 sessions, until recently, it was made for the most part without restrictions. 
 
 At the present time, also, salt manufacture is carried on free in a number 
 of Provinces in the Outer Possessions, but only in a primitive way by the 
 natives for their own or for local use. In the South Celebes salt is manu¬ 
 factured on a larger scale and from this source of supply is distributed to 
 the surrounding islands. 
 
 In most districts of Sumatra and Borneo the Government has established a 
 monopoly, while in some parts of Sumatra the import is free but the manu¬ 
 facture is prohibited. In these parts salt is imported, chiefly by private 
 parties, from Singapore, Penang, British India, and Siam, which import in 
 1918 amounted to 13,147 tons, principally destined for Sumatra and the sur¬ 
 rounding islands. 
 
 The manufacture by the Government takes place on the island of Madoera, 
 where the salt is converted by the natives by evaporating sea water in pans, 
 after which it is delivered to the Government at a fixed price of 10 florins 
 per kojang (1,850 kilos). 
 
 A suitable site has also been purchased by the Government for the purpose 
 of taking the manufacture partly into its own hands. The conversion of this 
 field into salt land was partially completed in 1918, at which time the Gov¬ 
 ernment began to manufacture its own salt. The product is sold in block 
 form. These blocks are made in two factories in Madoera. 
 
 The transport to the salt markets is usually done by the Government. The 
 sale is carried on for the Government by European and native salt venders. 
 
 Importation of salt into districts over which the Government exercises a 
 monopoly is forbidden unless it is fine fable salt or required for the preserva¬ 
 tion of foodstuffs and packed with them. 
 
 TAXATION. 
 
 The new tax regulations of March 18, 1921, comprise .the fol¬ 
 lowing : 
 
 (1) An increase and an extension of the existing income tax and, 
 in connection therewith, the discontinuance of the war-profit tax. 
 
 (2) The levying for three years of special taxes on some major 
 plantation enterprises, as on sugar, coffee, tea, tobacco, rubber, and 
 cinchona bark, in the form of a direct-profit tax for the four first- 
 named enterprises and for the two last-named (including an equiva¬ 
 lent for the extracted sulphate) in the form of export duties. 
 
 (3) A single levy on the sugar crop of 1919 and the quinine crop 
 of 1918 and 1919. 
 
 (4) An increase and an extension of import and export duties. 
 
 (5) An increase in the excises on domestic spirits, petroleum, and 
 matches. 
 
 Income taxes (Ind. Staatsblad 312).—The income taxes specified 
 by the law of January 1, 1908, applied before January 1, 1920, to 
 Europeans only and to those classified with them (westerners), as 
 well as to juridical persons falling under European legislation. Be¬ 
 ginning with the date last named, taxes have been made uniform or 
 applicable to all, that is, they have been extended to apply also to 
 non-European groups of the population, as natives and foreign 
 orientals, for whom on that date were discontinued all direct levies 
 on incomes, under whatever names, formerly applicable to them. 
 This income-tax extension includes practically the whole Dutch 
 
392 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Indies, with the exception of a few Government districts, where objec¬ 
 tions of a practical nature make their application temporarily un¬ 
 desirable. 
 
 The income tax is payable by all persons, physical and juridical, 
 who live or are established in the Dutch East Indies or who, if estab¬ 
 lished outside the Dutch Indies, carry on a trade or conduct an enter¬ 
 prise, wholly or partially, in the Dutch East Indies, or are repre¬ 
 sented by others in a trade or an enterprise, or who are participants 
 in the profits of an enterprise established in the Dutch East Indies 
 as a firm, or company, or a corporation. 
 
 Individuals are subject to a tax on their income derived during the 
 last preceding calendar year if this income was 120 florins or more 
 according to a progressive scale of from 1 to 25 per cent. 
 
 The income-tax rates on annual incomes are shown in the following 
 compilation: 
 
 Tax on incomes of— Per cent * 
 
 600 florins per year_ 1. 80 
 
 1,000 florins per year_ 1. 88 
 
 6,000 florins per year___ 3.18 
 
 12,000 florins per year___ 4.39 
 
 25,000 florins per year_ 6. 00 
 
 50,000 florins per year_ 8. 41 
 
 100,000 florins per year_12.17 
 
 200,000 florins per year_17. 28 
 
 500,000 florins per year..___21. 91 
 
 1,000,000 florins per year_23. 46 
 
 The income tax for juridical persons prior to January 1 , 1920, 
 was as follows: 
 
 (11 A levy on the yearly net income to the amount of 4 per cent. 
 
 (2) A levy of 8 per cent of the yearly surplus profit, by which is 
 understood the amount which, in whatever form, is paid in the last 
 preceding calendar year to shareholders entitled to participate in the 
 profits, after deduction of 5 per cent on the payments on shares, or 
 certificates of partnership actually made and not repaid. 
 
 The quotas of both levies have been increased, beginning with 
 January 1, 1920, to 6 per cent for the first and to 10 per cent for the 
 second, while the tax-free dividend is brought from 5 per cent to 
 8 per cent. 
 
 Figured from the same date, there has been added, applicable 
 to juridical persons, a third basis for income taxes, viz, the tax 
 on extra profits, whereby is understood that part of the annual net 
 profit which, after deduction of the 6 per cent levy on incomes 
 mentioned above under (1), amounts to more than the one-tenth 
 part of the amount of the paid-up capital. The tax levy on the 
 extra profit, which is meant to take the place of the war-profit tax, 
 is 6 per cent, increased by 8 per cent of part of above-mentioned 
 income over and above one-fourth of the paid-up capital; by 10 
 per cent of part of that income over and above one-lialf of the paid- 
 up capital; and by 12 per cent of part of that income over the full 
 amount of the paid-up capital. 
 
 The taxes on surplus profits and on extra profits, and on extra 
 profits of juridical persons established outside the Dutch Indies 
 but operating their trade or enterprise within the confines of the 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 393 
 
 Dutch Indies, are levied on that part of the surplus or extra profits 
 which are determined by the relation of the net profits in the 
 Indies to the total profits. 
 
 Definition of corporation capital .—Since both tax levies men¬ 
 tioned above are based directly upon the amount of the joint stock 
 of corporation, it is necessary to carefully define this capital. 
 
 To consider and to keep as permanent the regulation heretofore 
 governing the surplus profit, which regulation defined the joint 
 capital of a corporation as being the total amount of the stock 
 actually paid up and not repaid, would, because of the progressive 
 character of the extra-profit tax, lead to a grave injustice, since, as 
 a result of the methods of financing practiced by a number of cor¬ 
 porations operating in the Dutch East Indies, the amount of capital 
 actually in use is considerably larger than the amount of the capital 
 stock paid for, due to the fact that in many instances the profits 
 made in former years have been put back, to a greater or less extent, 
 into the treasury for expansion or improvement purposes. 
 
 To remedy this, a regulation has been adopted whereby for the 
 purpose of computing the income tax—both the surplus and extra 
 profit tax—there are added to the paid-up capital stock of corpora¬ 
 tions the amounts which in former years have been left in the treas¬ 
 ury as a reserve fund or which have been written off and which 
 have been put to use in the operation of the enterprise. 
 
 The task of defining the capital stock of a corporation which is to 
 serve as a basis for computing the tax levies on both the surplus 
 profits and the extra profits will be left in the hands of a committee 
 of experts in which the interests of the corporation will be repre¬ 
 sented. Corporations will be allowed, for a period of one year 
 beginning with the date on which the revised income-tax regulations 
 go into effect, to show their capital expansion for all or any amounts 
 which, prior to January 1, 1920, have been added to the treasury of 
 the corporation from the profits made, but not thereafter. 
 
 Holding companies .—Concerning holding companies, in the real 
 meaning of the word, it has been decided that the dividends which 
 juridical persons receive from registered shares in other corporations 
 will count for only one-half in the tax levy on the net income, on 
 the extra profits or on both, depending upon whether the subsidiary 
 companies have been assessed for the year for which the dividends 
 have been declared on the same basis or on the basis of both incomes 
 mentioned above. 
 
 Tariff on income taxes for juridical persons .—The figures below 
 give the percentages which by virtue of the revised income-tax regu¬ 
 lations are levied upon corporations. It has been presupposed that 
 the profits derived from operations in any one year have been paid 
 to those entitled to them in their entirety, so that the given percent¬ 
 ages for the levy on surplus profits are figured at their maximum 
 amount, which may surpass considerably the surplus-profit tax actu¬ 
 ally levied. 
 
394 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 If the net income amounts in per cent of the capital 
 stock to— 
 
 There will be due in per cent of 
 the net income— 
 
 
 In taxes 
 upon that 
 income. 
 
 In taxes 
 upon extra 
 profits. 
 
 In taxes 
 upon 
 surplus 
 profits. 
 
 Total 
 per cent. 
 
 5.. 
 
 6.00 
 
 
 
 6.00 
 
 10. 
 
 6.00 
 
 
 1.40 
 
 7.40 
 
 15. 
 
 6.00 
 
 1.64 
 
 3.90 
 
 11.54 
 
 20. 
 
 6.00 
 
 2.64 
 
 5.14 
 
 13.78 
 
 25. 
 
 6.00 
 
 3.24 
 
 5.88 
 
 15.12 
 
 30. 
 
 6.00 
 
 4.49 
 
 6.28 
 
 16.77 
 
 35. 
 
 6.00 
 
 5.73 
 
 6.54 
 
 18.27 
 
 40. 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.66 
 
 6.73 
 
 19.39 
 
 50. 
 
 6.00 
 
 7.96 
 
 7.00 
 
 20.96 
 
 60. 
 
 6.00 
 
 9.77 
 
 7.09 
 
 22.86 
 
 80. 
 
 6.00 
 
 13.06 
 
 7.09 
 
 26.15 
 
 100.. 
 
 6.00 
 
 14.96 
 
 7.10 
 
 28.06 
 
 150. 
 
 6.00 
 
 20.77 
 
 6.79 
 
 33.56 
 
 200. 
 
 6.00 
 
 24.04 
 
 6.60 
 
 36.64 
 
 500. 
 
 6.00 
 
 29.92 
 
 6.25 
 
 42.17 
 
 
 The tax on extra profits of juridical persons which do not possess 
 capital paid for shares or certificates of membership or partnership, 
 and which are not in existence for some specific purpose intended for 
 the general good, is fixed at 6 per cent of the yearly net income. 
 
 Adjustment of the extra-profit tax with relation to the war-profit 
 tax. —Since the tax on extra profits is retroactive to January 1, 1920, 
 and is levied for the first time on the basis of the extraordinary 
 profits made in 1919, which, thanks to favorable conditions, have 
 been very high, it would follow that these profits, in so far as they 
 must be marked as war profits, would be taxed in an overlapping or 
 double manner, viz, first as war-profit tax and secondly as extra¬ 
 profit tax. To avoid this, all juridical persons who have been taxed 
 for 1919 for their war profits will be allowed to deduct the amount 
 of the levy from the sum for which they will be taxed on the extra 
 profits made according to the income-tax regulations of 1920, while 
 the taxes of juridical persons whose payment of war-profit taxes for 
 1919 might be higher than the levy on the extra profits to be assessed 
 against them for 1920 will be annulled. 
 
 Taxation of foreign underwriters. —Separate mention must be 
 made of those who, established outside the Dutch Indies, sell within 
 the borders of the Dutch Indies, through the intermediary of resident 
 representatives, fire, marine, life, or other insurance policies. 
 
 These are subject to taxation, in so far as it concerns incomes de¬ 
 rived from life insurance policies, on a profit figured at 5 per cent, 
 and otherwise on a profit figured at 10 per cent of all sums derived 
 by way of premiums or capitals collected, during the preceding cal¬ 
 endar year from the insured in the Dutch Indies, or outside the terri¬ 
 tory, on account of merchandise risks situated therein. 
 
 The tax which thus far, for each total sum of 100 florins of the 
 above-mentioned profit, amounted to 4 florins is by the new tax regu¬ 
 lations brought up to 6 florins. 
 
 SPECIAL TAXES ON STAPLE PRODUCTS. 
 
 Because of the considerable increase in the quotas of the income 
 tax, it is of prime importance, both for the exchequer and for those 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 395 
 
 who are subject to taxation^ that the assessment in this taxation be 
 figured as carefully as possible. For this purpose there is required 
 an extensive and expert personnel, which must necessarily be gath¬ 
 ered and organized slowly and carefully. These and other circum¬ 
 stances, coupled with the consideration that, in connection also with 
 the above-mentioned regulation affecting the working capital of cor¬ 
 porations, there is no absolute certainty that the treasury will eventu¬ 
 ally receive that part of the extraordinary profits to w*hich it is en¬ 
 titled, have led to the plan whereby, especially in connection with the 
 profits earned by the large agricultural estates, a corrective of the 
 extra-profit tax has been decided on, which will take the form of a 
 direct tax on the profits earned from the growing of sugar, coffee, tea, 
 and tobacco and of an indirect tax (in the nature of an export duty) 
 on the profits earned from the cultivation of rubber, cinchona bark, 
 and quinine. 
 
 Sugar tax (Ind. Staatsblad 299, p. 714).—The sugar tax is paid for 
 each plantation separately, according to the number of piculs pro¬ 
 duced (1 picul=136 pounds), converted for calculation to a polariza¬ 
 tion of 100 per cent. For this purpose a polarization value of the 
 various kinds is fixed by decree of the Governor General. 
 
 Difference between proceeds and cost 
 price in per cent of the cost price. 
 
 Tax in per 
 cent of that 
 difference. 
 
 Difference between proceeds and cost 
 price in per cent of the cost price. 
 
 Tax in per 
 cent of that 
 difference. 
 
 Below 10. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 80. 
 
 13.03 
 
 10. . 
 
 1.50 
 
 85. 
 
 13.75 
 
 15.;. 
 
 2.00 
 
 90. 
 
 14.44 
 
 20. 
 
 2.50 
 
 95. 
 
 15.10 
 
 25. 
 
 3.00 
 
 100. 
 
 15.72 
 
 30... 
 
 4.00 
 
 105. 
 
 16.30 
 
 35. 
 
 5.00 
 
 no . 
 
 16.85 
 
 40. . 
 
 6.00 
 
 115. 
 
 17.37 
 
 45. 
 
 7.00 
 
 120. 
 
 17.85 
 
 50. 
 
 7.96 
 
 125. 
 
 18.29 
 
 55. 
 
 8.89 
 
 130. 
 
 18.70 
 
 60. 
 
 9.79 
 
 135. 
 
 19.08 
 
 65. 
 
 10.65 
 
 140. 
 
 19.42 
 
 70. 
 
 11.48 
 
 145. 
 
 19.73 
 
 75. 
 
 12.27 
 
 150 or more. 
 
 20.00 
 
 
 
 
 
 This works out in practice for a supposed case of an average cost 
 price of, say, 10 florins per picul crystal, converted to 100 per cent 
 polarization, as follows: 
 
 Profit per picul crystal in florins. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 Tax per 
 picul in 
 florin cents. 
 
 Profit per picul crystal in florins. 
 
 Tax per 
 picul in 
 florin cents. 
 
 Below 1.00. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 7.50. 
 
 92 
 
 1.00. 
 
 1 
 
 8.00. 
 
 104 
 
 1.25... 
 
 2 
 
 8.50. 
 
 116 
 
 1.50. 
 
 3 
 
 9.00. 
 
 129 
 
 1.75. 
 
 4 
 
 9.50. 
 
 143 
 
 2.00. 
 
 5 
 
 10.00. 
 
 157 
 
 2.50. 
 
 8 
 
 10.50. . 
 
 171 
 
 3.00. 
 
 12 
 
 11.00. 
 
 185 
 
 3.50. 
 
 18 
 
 11.50. 
 
 199 
 
 4.00.<. 
 
 24 
 
 12.00. 
 
 213 
 
 4.50. 
 
 31 
 
 12. 50. 
 
 228 
 
 5.00. 
 
 39 
 
 13.00. 
 
 244 
 
 5.50. 
 
 49 
 
 13.50. 
 
 258 
 
 6.00. 
 
 59 
 
 14.00. 
 
 272 
 
 6.50. 
 
 69 
 
 14.50. 
 
 286 
 
 7.00. 
 
 80 
 
 15.00. 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 
 
396 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 For each full amount of 0.25 florin cent, by which the profit per 
 picul exceeds 15 florins, the tax levied on this profit is increased by 
 5 florin cents. 
 
 Tobacco (Ind. Staatsblad 295, 296).—For tobacco, as also for tea, 
 the cost price of different enterprises varies considerably. It is 
 therefore not sufficient in connection with these products to take the 
 difference between the actual cost price and the actual proceeds as a 
 measure for determining the tax rate. It is easily seen that it makes 
 a great difference whether a surplus of, say, 10 florin cents per one- 
 half kilo is obtained on a cost price of from 25 to 30 florin cents per 
 kilo, as has been the case with many enterprises in middle Java up 
 to a few years ago, or the same surplus on a cost price of 1 florin or 
 more per one-half kilo, as has been the case with the tobacco planta¬ 
 tions in normal times. The taxes on equal profits must, therefore, 
 necessarily be higher in proportion to the lower cost price against 
 which the profits have been earned. 
 
 An abstract of the tariff is as follows: 
 
 Tax in florin cents per 100 kilos 
 against a cost price per one-half 
 kilo of— 
 
 Profits in cents per one-half kilo. 
 
 More than 
 but not 
 more than 
 42J cents. 
 
 More than 
 57§ but not 
 more than 
 62J cents. 
 
 More than 
 77£ but not 
 more than 
 82£ cents. 
 
 Less than 4 cents. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 4 cents and more but less than 6 cents. 
 
 12 
 
 Nil. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 6 cents and more but less than 8 cents. 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 Nil. 
 
 8 cents and more but less than 10 cents. 
 
 40 
 
 29 
 
 24 
 
 20 cents and more but less than 22 cents. 
 
 318 
 
 187 
 
 120 
 
 40 cents and more but less than 42 cents. 
 
 1,256 
 2,400 
 3,200 
 4,000 
 4,800 
 80 
 
 875 
 
 637 
 
 60 cents and more but less than 62 cents. 
 
 1, 884 
 
 1,472 
 
 80 cents and more but less than 82 cents. 
 
 3', 033 
 4,000 
 
 2,512 
 
 3,657 
 
 4,800 
 
 100 cents and more but less than 102 cents. 
 
 120 cents and more but less than 122 cents. 
 
 4,800 
 
 80 
 
 For each further increase of profits by 2 cents the tax is increased.... 
 
 80 
 
 Tea tax (Ind. Staatsblad 298, art. 4).—For this tax also the rates 
 for the various cost prices must necessarily differ. Consequently 
 four separate profit scales have been established for cost prices, viz, 
 below 25 cents, from 25 to 35 cents, from 35 to 45 cents, and above 
 45 cents per one-half kilo, of which we abstract: 
 
 Tax in cents per 100 kilos against an average 
 cost price per one-half kilo of— 
 
 Profits in cents per one-half kilo. 
 
 Not more 
 than 25 
 cents (av¬ 
 erage 
 
 20 cents). 
 
 More than 
 25 cents 
 and not 
 more than 
 35 cents. 
 
 More than 
 35 cents 
 and not 
 more than 
 45 cents. 
 
 More than 
 45 cents 
 (average 
 
 50 cents). 
 
 More than 2 cents. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 2 cents and more but less than 3 cents. 
 
 6 
 
 Nil. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 5 cents and more but less than 6 cents. 
 
 30 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 10 cents and more but less than 12 cents. 
 
 159 
 
 93 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 20 cents and more but less than 22 cents. 
 
 628 
 
 437 
 
 318 
 
 240 
 
 30 cents and more but less than 32 cents. 
 
 1,200 
 
 942 
 
 736 
 
 587 
 
 40 cents and more but less than 42 cents. 
 
 1,600 
 
 1,517 
 
 1,256 
 
 1,042 
 
 50 cents and more but less than 52 cents. 
 
 2,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,829 
 
 1,570 
 
 76 cents and more but less than 78 cents. 
 
 For each further increase of profits by 2 cents the tax 
 
 3,040 
 
 3,040 
 
 3,040 
 
 3,040 
 
 increases by. 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 397 
 
 Coffee tax (Ind. Staatsblad 297).—As the growing of coffee is 
 frequently done in connection with various other enterprises and, 
 to a considerable extent, in conjunction with other products on the 
 same plantation, it is not possible to proceed, for the purpose of 
 fixing the tax rate on coffee, from the difference between the pro¬ 
 ceeds of the product and the real average production costs run 
 up by each enterprise. 
 
 To determine, therefore, the average cost price would not only 
 be extremely difficult but also, in most cases, very arbitrary. For 
 that reason it was necessery to proceed for the purpose of this 
 taxation from the same cost price of all undertakings, viz, 35 florins 
 per picul for Java and Liberia coffee and 20 florins per picul for 
 Robust a coffee. As against the above-mentioned production taxes, 
 whose levy commences when the proceeds exceed the production 
 costs by 10 per cent, the tax on coffee will not go into effect until 
 the proceeds exceed the adopted cost price by 20 per cent'. 
 
 The special tariff for Java and Liberia coffee tax is in abstract 
 fixed as follows: 
 
 Price per picul in florins. 
 
 Tax per 
 picul in 
 cents. 
 
 Price per picul in florins. 
 
 Tax per 
 picul in 
 cents. 
 
 Below 42. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 55 .:. 
 
 185 
 
 42. 
 
 17 
 
 574. 
 
 237 
 
 424. 
 
 19 
 
 607. 
 
 292 
 
 43!. 
 
 22 
 
 624. 
 
 352 
 
 434. 
 
 25 
 
 65!. 
 
 415 
 
 44. 
 
 28 
 
 674. 
 
 480 
 
 444. 
 
 32 
 
 70!. 
 
 549 
 
 45. 
 
 37 
 
 75. 
 
 689 
 
 474. 
 
 64 
 
 80. 
 
 837 
 
 50. 
 
 99 
 
 874. 
 
 1,050 
 
 524. 
 
 139 
 
 
 For each full amount of 50 cents, whereby the profit exceeds 87-J 
 florins, the tax per picul is increased by 10 cents. 
 
 Following is the special tariff for Robusta coffee tax: 
 
 Price per picul in florins. 
 
 Tax per 
 picul in 
 cents. 
 
 Price per picul in florins. 
 
 Tax per 
 picul in 
 cents. 
 
 Below 24. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 32. 
 
 117 
 
 24. 
 
 10 
 
 34. 
 
 160 
 
 244. 
 
 12 
 
 36. 
 
 20 S 
 
 25!.. 
 
 15 
 
 38. 
 
 260 
 
 26. 
 
 24 
 
 40. 
 
 314 
 
 27. 
 
 35 
 
 424. 
 
 384 
 
 28. 
 
 48 
 
 45!.. 
 
 456 
 
 29. 
 
 63 
 
 474. 
 
 530 
 
 30. 
 
 79 
 
 50!. 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 
 
 For each full amount of 50 cents, whereby the profit exceeds 50 
 florins per picul, the tax is increased by 10 cents. 
 
398 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 EXPORT DUTIES. 
 
 The duty on exports of rubber is as follows: 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Rubber, at a market price per one-half kilo of— ad valorem. 
 
 82^ cents or less_ Nil. 
 
 More than 821 cents but less than 90 cents_ 0. 25 
 
 90 cents or more but less than 1 florin_ . 50 
 
 1.00 florin or more but less than 1.10 florins_ 1. 00 
 
 1.10 florins or more but less than 1.20 florins_ 2. 00 
 
 1.20 florins or more but less than 1.30 florins_ 3. 00 
 
 1.30 florins or more but less than 1.40 florins_ 4. 00 
 
 1.40 florins or more but less than 1.50 florins_ 5. 00 
 
 1.50 florins or more_ 7. 00 
 
 From time to time, for the purpose of fixing the tax levy, the aver¬ 
 age market price will be officially determined, this price to be based 
 on the actual prices prevailing for certain periods. 
 
 Cinchona bark. —The export duty on cinchona bark per 1 kilo of 
 sulphate in the bark is as follows: - 
 
 Less than 5 cents 
 
 5 cents. 
 
 5£ cents. 
 
 6 cents.. 
 
 6 £ cents. 
 
 7 cents.. 
 
 1\ cents. 
 
 8 cents. 
 
 8 £ cents.. 
 
 9 cents. 
 
 9£ cents. 
 
 10 cents. 
 
 11 cents. 
 
 12 cents.. 
 
 13 cents.. 
 
 14 cents.. 
 
 15 cents. 
 
 16 cents. 
 
 At a unit price of— 
 
 For manu- 
 
 For phar- 
 
 facturers’ 
 
 maceutical 
 
 bark. 
 
 bark. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 0.02 
 
 0.03 
 
 .05 
 
 .08 
 
 .14 
 
 .21 
 
 .28 
 
 .41 
 
 .45 
 
 .67 
 
 .65 
 
 .97 
 
 .89 
 
 1.31 
 
 1.14 
 
 1.69 
 
 1.40 
 
 2.09 
 
 1.70 
 
 2.53 
 
 2.00 
 
 2.98 
 
 2.57 
 
 3.83 
 
 2.99 
 
 4.47 
 
 3.39 
 
 5.07 
 
 3.79 
 
 5.67 
 
 4.19 
 
 6.27 
 
 4.59 
 
 6.87 
 
 Quinine, sulphate, and alkaloids are calculated in the same propor¬ 
 tion of sulphate as if still contained in the bark. 
 
 Temporary levy of special profit taxes. —In connection with the 
 special'levy on the above-named large agricultural enterprises in so 
 far as it is in the nature of a corrective for the extra-profit tax, 
 which, it is expected, will be generally and exclusively in effect in 
 1923 for the extraordinary profits derived from these enterprises 
 as well, the production tax will be imposed on the crops of 1920, 
 1921, and 1922, excepting the tax on tobacco, which will be levied on 
 the crops of 1919, 1920, and 1921, because about one year elapses 
 between the harvesting of the crop and the sale of the tobacco. 
 
 The export duties on rubber and quinine will be levied for a period 
 of three years, figured from the date on which they go into effect. 
 
 Adjustment of the production tax with the extra-profit tax. —When 
 calculating the plantation taxes it is permitted to include in the cost 
 of production the amounts payable according to the law governing 
 the income and surplus-profit tax. 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 399 
 
 EXTENSION AND INCREASE OF IMPORT AND EXPORT DUTIES. 
 
 In respect of these duties no change has been made in the princi¬ 
 ples which form the basis of the existing customs laws; in other 
 words, in the matter of imposing import or export duties no distinc¬ 
 tion is made between the countries of origin or destination of goods 
 nor in so far as it concerns the flag under which the goods are im¬ 
 ported or exported. The law, therefore, knows neither differential 
 nor preferential tariff; the East Indian tariff is a fiscal tariff, and is 
 in no wise connected with or for the purpose of protection of na¬ 
 tional products. Duties on goods in transit do not exist. 
 
 In framing the new import tariff regulations the following prin¬ 
 ciples have been considered: 
 
 (1) Manufactured goods only and horses and cattle have been 
 made subject to import duties or increased import duties. 
 
 (2) The ad valorem duties have been placed not higher than 12 
 per cent, the highest ad valorem duty mentioned in the tariff law. 
 
 (3) In order to conserve, as much as possible, the interrelations 
 between the existing duty percentages, duties of 10 per cent have 
 been increased to 12 per cent, and duties of 6 per cent, with few 
 exceptions, to 10 per cent. Further, the only duty of 8 per cent (on 
 wet paints) has been brought up to 12 per cent. 
 
 (4) Those articles which formerly were not subject to customs 
 duties, but which are now taxed, have been assessed for an ad valorem 
 duty of 6 per cent, the lowest duty mentioned in the new tariff law. 
 
 (5) The increased specific duties, reduced to ad valorem duties, 
 mean, for most of the goods concerned, an import duty of more than 
 12 per cent ad valorem; but one must consider that those articles are 
 all luxury articles and that the increase has been decided on for the 
 purpose of creating conformity between the tax and the present value 
 of such goods. 
 
 Export duties have been extended as follows: 
 
 (1) Temporarily, viz, for a period of three years, as far as con¬ 
 cerns rubber, cinchona bark, and quinine. 
 
 (2) For copra and pepper, which are subject to a duty levied per 
 100 kilos and for the sum of 8 per cent of the difference between the 
 average market price and the average cost price increased by 10 per 
 cent. The average market and cost price will be determined from 
 time to time by the Government. 
 
 (3) Coconut oil, whose export duties are figured on a quantity 
 basis of 100 liters and are equal to the export duties on 125 kilos 
 copra. 
 
 The existing export duties on petroleum and petroleum products 
 are increased as follows: 
 
 (a) Petroleum (kerosene) and all other by-products not included 
 under (b), from 3 florins to 7.50 florins per ton. 
 
 (b) Liquid fuel, residue, solar oil, filter press, lubricating oil, 
 fat, batching oil, pitch, and wax oil, from 0.60 florin to 1.50 florins 
 per ton. 
 
 The above tariff law went into effect on May 18, 1921, except so 
 far as concerns the new export duties on rubber, copra, coconut oil, 
 pepper, cinchona bark, and quinine, which became effective on Au¬ 
 gust 16, 1921. 
 
400 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Increase of excises. —The excise (and in connection therewith the 
 import duty) on spirits, heretofore 75 florins per 100 liters of 50 
 per cent strength, has been increased to 150 florins; the excise on 
 petroleum and all other products included in such, as per existing 
 regulations, heretofore 2.50 florins per 100 liters, has been increased 
 to 3.50 florins for kerosene and to 7.50 florins for benzine, gasoline, 
 and all other petroleum distillates which are more volatile than 
 petroleum, while the excise tax on matches is doubled, and therefore 
 brought up to 1.40 florins per gross boxes of 75 matches or less per 
 box. 
 
 NEW STAMP ACT. 
 
 The following pertains to the provisions of the new stamp act, 
 published in Het Nieuws van den Dag of October 22, 1921: 
 
 A. TARIFF OF THE STAMP TAX FOR RECEIPTS AND COMMERCIAL PAPER. 
 
 (1) For receipts and copies thereof above 10 florins the stamp tax amounts 
 to 0.15 florin. Receipts of 10 florins and less are also subject to this tax if 
 the payment is made on account of a larger sum. 
 
 Receipts for rent agreements and agreements for salaries of 10 florins or 
 less are free of tax. 
 
 (2) Certificates of membership and such are subject to 0.15 florin if the 
 certificate is given upon payment of a contribution of more than 10 florins. 
 
 (3) All certificates of crediting in account current or deposit account (with 
 the exception of the crediting by means of indorsement) and all certificates 
 of premium or receipt of money (including foreign moneys, checks, money 
 orders, coupons, etc.) are subject to 0.15 florin. 
 
 (4) Balance slip of a closed account current, also the copies of such account 
 current, are subject to 0.15 florin. 
 
 (5) For deeds of money loans and credit agreements, made at such ap¬ 
 pointed philanthropical credit institution or popular credit institution whose 
 credit operations extend to one native community, 0.15 florin is due, provided 
 they do not concern any higher amount than 300 florins. 
 
 If they concern amounts of 10 florins or less, then they are free of tax. 
 
 (6) Short drafts, assignments, checks, and other commercial paper, under 
 which is to be understood all commercial paper payable at sight or to bearer 
 or, at the latest, three days after sight or at eight days after the date of issue, 
 are subject to 0.15 florin. 
 
 (7) Long drafts, acceptances, assignment, and other commercial paper are 
 subject to a proportional tax of one-half per cent. 
 
 Duplicates of long drafts are free of tax provided they are furnished with 
 the declaration “The proportional tax has been paid on the * * * (first 
 
 or original) draft,” which declaration must precede the drawer’s signature (on 
 foreign drafts, that of the acceptor). 
 
 On foreign drafts the stamp tax can be paid on either one of the copies, no 
 matter which. 
 
 All short and long drafts and other commercial paper made up abroad must 
 be stamped here in this country before they are offered, accepted, viseed, in¬ 
 dorsed, signed for aval, paid, receipted, or before protest of nonacceptance or 
 nonpayment is made. 
 
 This stamping can be done at the post office; the stamping can also be done 
 by signing across the bill stamp at the time of the acceptance, indorsement, or 
 receipt. 
 
 Manner of paying the tax .—The tax can be paid by the use of stamped paper 
 or bill stamps. 
 
 Use of stamped paper and bill stamps together and use of more than one bill 
 stamp are permitted. 
 
 Upon the use of a bill stamp the signer must place his signature or stamped 
 signature across the bill stamp. Upon the use of additional bill stamps the 
 signature must be placed across all the bill stamps together. 
 
 The signature may occur but once in the document. 
 
 Each bill stamp must be dated. 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 401 
 
 The receipts, the certificates of crediting, premium or receipt of money, 
 certificates of membership, and balance slips are subject to taxation, even if 
 they have not been signed. 
 
 For the time being, bill stamps of 0.05 florin can be obtained in order to 
 give holders of receipt forms, stamped with 10 cents, the opportunity of con¬ 
 tinuing the use of those forms. These forms, however, can be stamped again 
 on August 1, 1922, at the office of the Controller of Post and Stamps by means 
 of the post offices. 
 
 B. TARIFF OF THE RENT STAMP. 
 
 The tax amounts to 1 per cent of the rent of the whole lease term taken 
 together. 
 
 The tax can be paid by the use of stamped paper, specially stamped paper 
 or bill stamps, distributed by the Government. 
 
 Use of stamped paper and bill stamps together and use of more than one bill 
 stamp are permitted. 
 
 Tenant or lessor, who puts down his signature first, must sign across the bill 
 stamp. By using additional bill stamps the signature must be put across all 
 the bill stamps together. 
 
 Each bill stamp must be dated. 
 
 The term of years at the option of the tenant or the lessor is taken into 
 account. 
 
 In case of rent to the time it is called in, and in case of rent for the lifetime 
 of the lessor, the tax is calculated over 10 rent years. 
 
 In case of rent for an indefinite term, the tax is calculated over 20 rent 
 years. 
 
 In case of rent for a certain number of years and further on till it is called 
 in, the tax is calculated over that fixed number of years plus 10. 
 
 In case of rent for a certain number of years after the death of the lessor, the 
 tax is calculated over that number of years plus 10. For example: 
 
 Rent for five years continuous if not called in, the tax is calculated over 15 
 years. If the rent per month is 100 florins, then there is due— 
 
 15X12X100 florins=18,000 florins at 1 per cent=180 florins. 
 
 If the tenant takes charges for his account which, without expressed agree¬ 
 ment, do not rest with him (for example, the payment of the ground tax of 
 the hired allotment of land), then those charges must be estimated and the 
 amount multiplied by the number of rent years added to the rent price. 
 
 The duplicates of private rent contracts are free of tax, provided both the 
 copies of the contract are shown to the post office within three months (at 
 the latest, within a month after the beginning of the rent). 
 
 Contracts drawn up abroad, for real estate situated in this country, must, 
 under penalty of loss of proof, be stamped again at the post office within four 
 months after the drawing up. 
 
 C. TARIFF OF THE COMMERCIAL STAMP TAX. 
 
 The tax amounts to 1 per cent for the buyer and 1 per cent for the seller. 
 
 In the stockbrokers’ business, all brokers’ bills of purchase or sale delivered 
 by brokers, commissioners, banks, and other persons whose ordinary business 
 is the stock business. Brokers’ bills of claims are not exempted from taxation. 
 
 In the produce business the brokers’ letters are subject to taxation if they 
 concern the purchase and sale to an amount of 4,000 florins or more of one of 
 the following products: Boengkil, cacao, copra, damar, djarak stones, mace, 
 groundnuts, hides and skins, indigo, kapok and kapok stones, cotton, coffee, 
 nutmeg, vegetable oils, oil cakes, pepper, pinang nuts, rattan, rubber, rice, 
 sugar, tobacco, and dried tapioca, tea, tin, and fibers, for amounts of 4,000 
 florins and more. 
 
 All purchases or sales of one and the same products between the same per¬ 
 sons done within a period of 14 days are added together for the purposes of 
 taxation, unless different brokers have rendered their intermediary services. 
 
 The bills and letters sent abroad are also subject to this taxation. 
 
402 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 Information concerning the obligations of brokers, commissioners, 
 traders, and private people is given in the following paragraphs: 
 
 A. IN THE STOCK BUSINESS. 
 
 Every broker, commissioner, or other person whose ordinary profession is the 
 business in stocks or issuing of stocks is obliged to deliver a stamped broker’s 
 bill for each purchase or sale within three days. 
 
 The brokers’ bills exchanged between brokers, commissioners, banks, and 
 other persons whose ordinary profession is the business in stocks are exempted 
 from taxation. 
 
 In case of purchase or sale on foreign exchange, the bill must be delivered 
 within three months. 
 
 The broker’s bill must be registered in a register, verified in the name of 
 the Government, of which the pages are numbered. 
 
 B. IN THE PKODUCE BUSINESS. 
 
 Each broker is obliged to deliver the broker’s note to purchaser and seller 
 within 14 days after the contracting of a purchase and sale for 4,000 florins 
 and more. 
 
 If two brokers residing in this country are concerned with the purchase and 
 sale, each of them is obliged to deliver to his principal a broker’s note con¬ 
 cerning that matter. 
 
 If the purchase and sale are achieved without the good offices of a broker, 
 purchaser and seller both are obliged to confirm the agreement in a stamped 
 letter or note within 14 days to the other party, or to state the agreement 
 in a private act made in duplicate, or by a notarial act. 
 
 Exemptions are: 
 
 (1) The documents sent to the producer for the product sold for or by him. 
 
 (2) Duplicates and other documents which have been drawn up after a 
 stamped broker’s note or bill has been delivered. 
 
 Brokers and traders whose ordinary profession is the produce business must 
 register the brokers’ notes, bills, and deeds in a register of which the pages 
 are numbered and verified in the name of the Government. 
 
 The right half of the commercial stamp must be pasted on the brokers’ 
 notes and bills, the left half in the register. 
 
 The verification will be done by the Inspector of Finances, or, in residencies 
 where there is no Inspector of Finances, by the resident. 
 
 Both halves of the commercial stamp must be dated. However, the stamp 
 need not be signed. 
 
 C. INSURANCE POLICY STAMPS. 
 
 The insurance policies are subject to a special tariff. 
 
 Policies drawn up abroad must be stamped before they are given out here 
 in this country or before the first premium payment has taken place here in 
 this country. 
 
 D. STAMP TAX FOR THE CAPITAL STOCK- IN LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANIES. 
 
 A duty of one-half per cent is due on the placed capital stock of limited 
 liability companies and other bodies of which the capital is wholly or par¬ 
 tially divided into shares. 
 
 At each issue or premium thereupon after November 1, notice must be given 
 to the Inspector of Finances. 
 
 Tariffs for the receipt stamp, for the rent stamp, and for the commercial 
 stamp can be obtained for 10 cents at the post offices. 
 
 All documents properly stamped under the old stamp ordinance do not 
 have to be stamped again. If the documents have wrongly remained un¬ 
 stamped, then the tax due can still be paid without fine before May 1, 1922, 
 by presenting it for stamping to the post office. 
 
 Preangerbode, Bandoeng, N. I., October 26, 1921. 
 Notice for Officials and Private People: 
 
 I. Requests drawn up in any form, even in the form of letters and memo¬ 
 ries addressed to the Government, officials, and colleges instituted by high 
 authority and to officials of part of territory with own means, require a 
 stamp of 1.50 florins. 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS. 
 
 403 
 
 II. Exemptions are: Medical certificates and requests for interior leave 
 on account of illness and requests for interior leave for important reasons, 
 presented by officials in fixed or temporary service with a monthly salary of 
 150 florins or less. 
 
 III. Decrees of nomination or raise of salary require a fixed tax: 
 
 (a) In case of a monthly salary less than 150 florins, 0.50 florin; in case 
 of a monthly salary of 150 florins or more, 2 florins. 
 
 ( b ) In case of raise of salary, if less than 10 florins, 0.10 florin; 10 florins 
 to less than 25 florins, 0.50 florin; 25 florins to less than 50 florins, 1 florin; 
 50 florins or more, 2 florins. 
 
 IV. The stamp tax under III must be paid by using a stamped paper issued 
 by the Government or furnished with a special stamp and also by using 
 postal stamps. 
 
 V. Extracts of decrees or resolutions containing leaves for the interior 
 because of illness or important reasons, to bestow to persons interested who 
 are officials with a monthly salary of less than 150 florins, require a fixed 
 tax of 0.25 florin. 
 
 INCOME-TAX ORDINANCE OF STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 On the 25th of January the 1921 income-tax ordinance (Ordinance 
 No. 1 of 1921) was passed by the Legislative Council of the Straits 
 Settlements with nine amendments and was assented to by the Gov¬ 
 ernor General on the 27th. It was made retroactive to January 1. 
 
 The following sections and subsections are of particular interest 
 to American companies doing business in the colony: 
 
 DEFINITION OF INCOME. 
 
 Part 1, section 2, subsection 3: 
 
 In case of a company, other than a life insurance company, which is not in¬ 
 corporated in the colony, or of an association, [income means] the net profits 
 of its business arising or received in the colony; the net annual value of lands, 
 tenements, or hereditaments owned by it and situated in the colony; interest 
 from any source arising or received in the colony; dividends, profits, commis¬ 
 sions, or bonuses credited or paid by any company, association, or person aris¬ 
 ing or received in the colony; its income from any other source arising or re¬ 
 ceived in the colony. 
 
 Subsection 5. Total income means: 
 
 The total net profits of its business wheresoever made; the net annual value 
 of lands, tenements, or hereditaments owned by it wheresoever the same may 
 be situated; interest from any source, whether within or without the colony; 
 dividends, profits, commissions, or bonuses credited or paid by any company, 
 association, or person whether within or without the colony; its income from 
 any other source wheresoever arising; provided that in any of these cases any 
 sum in respect of income tax or of any tax specially imposed for the purpose 
 of the recent war, whether paid in this colony or elsewhere, shall be deemed 
 to form a part of the total income. 
 
 EXEMPTIONS AND DEDUCTIONS. 
 
 Part 3, section 7: 
 
 Any company, association, or person whose principal place of business is not 
 situated in the colony and whose business in the colony is the sale of rubber, 
 copra, or other agricultural produce or of metals or minerals produced or won 
 by it or him outside the colony shall be exempt from taxation under this ordi¬ 
 nance in respect of the income arising from such sale. 
 
 Part 3, section 8, provides for deductions as follows: 
 
 The income for religious institutions; any income on which income tax has 
 been paid in the United Kingdom or in British protectorates, or protected 
 States, or in any British possession; income derived from interest on securities 
 issued in respect to certain loans; incomes from an association when the 
 
 19878°—23-27 
 
404 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA, 
 
 association is liable to a tax; traveling allowances; the diminished value by 
 reason of wear and tear on machinery or plant; interest on borrowed capital 
 that bears income tax in the colony or is exempt from taxation. 
 
 Part 3, section 9: 
 
 A deduction shall not, in any case, be made in respect of the following mat¬ 
 ters: (a) Money not wholly or exclusively laid out or expended for the pur¬ 
 poses of business carried on by a company * * *; (&) any loss or expense 
 
 which is recoverable under any contract of insurance or indemnity; (c) any 
 sums credited or paid as salaries to partners * * *; (d) any loss not con¬ 
 nected with or arising out of any business * * * capital withdrawn * * * 
 
 loss or expenditure of a capital nature, or * * * used or intended to bei 
 
 used as capital in any business; * * * capital used in the improvement 
 
 of premises for the purpose of any business; ( h ) any expenses of maintenance 
 of persons liable to tax * * *; (i) any sum written off for depreciation in 
 
 value of land, buildings, or leases; (fc) any interest which might have been 
 earned on any capital if lent out at interest, provided that the collector shall 
 allow * * * ( l ) any bad debts, except bad debts proved to be such to the 
 satisfaction of the collector * * *; (m) any sum paid as tax under this 
 
 ordinance or under the war-tax ordinances or as income tax in any country 
 on any income arising in the colony. 
 
 Part 4, section 10, in re returns for salaries paid; section 11, in 
 re deduction of tax on salaries. 
 
 'Section 13 provides for the dates on which income returns shall 
 be filed and for the certification. The 1921 amendment adds to this 
 section the following paragraphs: 
 
 AMENDMENT OF 1921. 
 
 7. For the purposes of section 13 of the principal ordinance the income of 
 every company, association, or person whose principal place of business is not 
 situated in the colony, and which or who either as owner or charterer of any 
 ship carries passengers*, live stock, mails, or goods shipped at any port in the 
 colony, shall be deemed to be a fixed percentage of the full amount payable 
 to it or him, whether such amount be payable in or beyond the colony, in respect 
 of the carriage of such passengers, live stock, mails, and goods. 
 
 Such fixed percentage shall be determined by the collector at a rate not less 
 than 5 per cent or greater than 10 per cent. 
 
 Section 16, subsection (1) : 
 
 In case of a company * * * selling goods in the colony for the account 
 
 of a company * * * whose principal place of business is not situated in the 
 
 colony, the company * * * on whose account such goods are sold shall, 
 if the income can not be otherwise ascertained to the satisfaction of the col¬ 
 lector, be deemed to have derived from such sale an income to be determined 
 by the collector, at a figure not exceeding 5 per cent of the price at which the 
 goods were sold. 
 
 Subsection (2) : 
 
 Goods shall be deemed to be sold in the colony under subsection (1) if any 
 company * * * in the colony receives a commission in respect of the sale 
 * * * or is paid a salary for obtaining orders for or for influencing the 
 sale of the goods. 
 
 Income tax shall be paid at the rates set out in the following scale, 
 according to Schedule A: 
 
 [In Singapore dollars; 1 dollar=$0.567 U. S. currency.] 
 
 Amount of total income per annum: Per cent. 
 
 Not less than $5,000 but less than $6,000_ 2 
 
 Not less than $6,000 but less than $7,200_ 3 
 
 Not less than $7,200 but less than $8,400_ 4 
 
 Not less than $8,400 but less than $12,000_ 5 
 
 Not less than $12,000_ 6 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS 
 
 405 
 
 The full text of the income tax ordinance, 1920 (Ordinance No. 3 
 of 1920), and of the 1921 amendments are on file with the Bureau of 
 Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 
 
 EXPORT v DUTIES, FEDERATED MALAY STATES. 
 
 * 
 
 In the table which follows are given the export duties of the Fed¬ 
 erated Malay States: 
 
 Article. 
 
 7. A gricultural products. 
 
 Coconuts and copra. 
 
 Coffee, other than dry cherry or parchment coffee, when 
 the value is: 
 
 Less than $22 per picul. 
 
 Not less than $22 per picul or more than $24. 
 
 More than $24 per picul but not more than $26. 
 
 More than $26 per picul but not more than $28. 
 
 More than $28 per picul. 
 
 Dry cherry coffee. 
 
 Parchment coffee. 
 
 Gambier. 
 
 Gutta-percha. 
 
 Pepper... 
 
 Rubber: Any cultivated rubber (including late)— 
 When the price as notified for the time being in the 
 Gazette of first-grade rubber is 50 cents per pound 
 or over but is under $1.50 per pound. 
 
 When the price as notified for the time being in the 
 Gazette of first-grade rubber is $1.50 per pound 
 or over. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Sugar cane. 
 
 Tapioca. 
 
 II. Forest products. 
 
 Rembia ataps. 
 
 Nipah ataps: 
 
 (I) Bertindeh tulang. 
 
 (II) Bertumu tulang. 
 
 (III) Bertumu daun. 
 
 (IV) Other kinds. 
 
 Getah rambong (india rubber). 
 
 Formosa camphor. 
 
 Kepong bark. 
 
 Mangrove charcoal. 
 
 Mangrove firewood exported from Pahang. 
 
 III. Metals and metalliferous ores. 
 
 Gold. . . 
 
 Tin: 
 
 Tin smelted or manufactured in Perak, Selangor, 
 and Negri Sembilan— 
 
 When the price of tin does not exceed $41 (per 
 picul). 
 
 Wnen the price of tin exceeds $41 but does not 
 exceed $42. 
 
 When the price of tin exceeds $42 but does not 
 exceed $43. 
 
 And so on, the duty per bhara being increased 
 by 50 cents for every dollar by which the price 
 of tin exceeds $41. 
 
 Tin smelted or manufactured in Pahang. 
 
 Tin ore. 
 
 Rate of export duty. 
 
 H per cent ad valorem. 
 
 Nil. 
 
 \ per cent ad valorem. 
 
 U cent ad valorem. 
 
 2 per cent ad valorem.. 
 
 2\ per cent ad valorem. 
 
 The above duty calculated on one-third of the 
 gross weight. 
 
 The above duty calculated on two-thirds of the 
 gross weight. 
 
 15 cents per picul. 
 
 21 per cent ad valorem. 
 
 30 cents per picul. 
 
 2\ per cent of the value of the rubber calculated 
 at the price as notified for the time being in the 
 Gazette of first-grade rubber. 
 
 3 per cent of the value of the rubber calculated at 
 the price as notified for the time being in the 
 Gazette of first-grade rubber. 
 
 1 per cent ad valorem. 
 
 1 cent per picul. 
 
 2\ per cent ad valorem. 
 
 10 per cent ad valorem. 
 
 $1.50 per 1,000. 
 
 $1.00 per 1,000. 
 
 $0.75 per 1,000. 
 
 10 per cent of the wholesale price in the centers 
 of production. 
 
 $5.00 per picul. 
 
 10 per cent ad valorem. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 per cent ad valorem. 
 
 $10.00 per bhara. 
 $10.50 per bhara. 
 $11.00 per bhara. 
 
 10 per cent ad valorem. 
 
 72 per cent of the duty of tin, with (in the case of 
 tin ore exported otherwise than under such 
 guaranty as the resident may require that it 
 shall be smelted in the Straits Settlements, 
 Australia, or the United Kingdom) an addi¬ 
 tional duty of $30 per picul. 
 
406 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Article. 
 
 Tin slag and hardhead tin 
 
 All other metals and metalliferous ores. 
 
 IV. Miscellaneous. 
 
 (PAHANG ONLY.) 
 
 Fish, dried: 
 
 Class A. (I) Sharks’ fins. 
 
 Class A. (II) Tenggri, ikan merah, kachang, selor 
 bileh, bawal, talang. 
 
 Class B. Selor kuning. 
 
 Class C. Pelata, gelama, selor puchat, lema. 
 
 Class D. Kempong, khe’kheh, selayang. 
 
 Class E. Tamban, udang, blachan. ikan yu. 
 
 Class F. Rampai, layor, pari, duri, bakau, budu, 
 and all other fish not mentioned above. 
 
 Oysters, dried, mother-of-pearl shell, and b^che de mer.. 
 Horns, tusks, hides, bones, and tallow... 
 
 (PERAK, SELANGOR, AND NEGRI SEMBILAN.) 
 
 Blachan. 
 
 Fish, dried and salted. 
 
 Fish maws, fish refuse, ikan gelama, prawns (dried) 
 
 Oysters, fresh. 
 
 Oysters, dried, mother-of-pearl shell, beche de mer, and 
 sharks’ fins. 
 
 Horns, tusks, hides, bones, and tallow. 
 
 Elephants. 
 
 (PERAK ONLY.) 
 
 Under the powers vested in him by section 3 of the 
 “Customs Duties Enactment, 1898,” the Resident 
 of Perak, with the approval of the Chief Secretary 
 to Government, imposes an export duty of 20 per 
 cent in respect of all elephants exported from the 
 State of Perak, to come into force from the 1st day 
 of November, 1915. 
 
 China clay or kaolin. 
 
 Potash feld spar or soda feldspar intended for use as a 
 
 flux or a glaze. 
 
 China stone. 
 
 Rate of export duty. 
 
 At the rate prescribed for tin ore, unless the con¬ 
 signment is accompanied by a certificate of 
 assay granted by the Government Geologist or 
 approved by the Warden of Mines, in which 
 case the duty shall be at the rate prescribed for 
 tin smelted or manufactured on tne amount of 
 tin estimated to be-contained in such consign¬ 
 ments. 
 
 10 per cent ad valorem. 
 
 $1.50 per picul. 
 
 $0.75 per picul. 
 
 $0.60 per picul. 
 
 $0.50 per picul. 
 
 $0.40 per picul. 
 
 $0.30 per picul. 
 
 $0.15 per picul. 
 
 10 per cent ad valorem. 
 Do. 
 
 50 cents per picul. 
 
 10 per cent ad valorem. 
 Do. 
 
 $5 per picul. 
 
 10 per cent ad valorem. 
 
 . Do. 
 
 ■2\ per cent ad valorem. 
 
 IMPORT DUTIES. 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES. 
 
 No. 
 
 Goods. 
 
 Scale. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 1 
 
 Earthenware (baked) and porcelain___ _ 
 
 Value 1 . 
 
 10 per cent 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 2 
 
 Earthenware, roofing tiles, flooring tiles and bricks. 
 
 
 1 The declared value must be the value in customs bonded warehouses (so-called “entrepdt-waarde'') 
 except, however, with regard to goods mentioned in the official price list (so-called ‘'prijscourant*’), in 
 which the value is defined for the calculation of the import and exports duties due on the goods named 
 therein, which price list, after consultation with the chambers of commerce and industry residing in the 
 customs territory, is fixed quarterly by the Director of Finance and published as an appendix of the official 
 gazette, named Javasche Courant. 
 
 By value in customs bonded warehouses is to be understood the amount of the first-hand recently quoted 
 price in the foreign country for c. i. f. delivery in the said customs bonded warehouses in Netherlands India, 
 as the result of a normal transaction of bargain and sale. This amount (i. e., the value in customs bonded 
 warehouses) in ordinary circumstances (namely, delivery not stipulated by contract, direct shipment by 
 means of the shortest route, and immediate importation after arrival) as a general rule may be estimated 
 to agree with the amount paid by the wholesale trade for the goods concerned, up to the moment of being 
 entered in the said customs bonded warehouses. Thus meaning the first-hand selling price at the phice 
 of origin increased by the costs of packing, of transport, of insurance, and of other shipping charges, up to 
 the moment of delivery into the said customs bonded warehouses. 
 
 In the above-mentioned price list are inserted only the goods of which. In the opinion of the said Director 
 of Finance, the value is to be defined according to the measure, the weight, or tne rate of sale used in the 
 ordinary business practice. 
 
No. 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 BUSINESS FACTORS 
 
 407 
 
 Goods. 
 
 Scale. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 Arrack leaguers. 
 
 Vinegar.... 
 
 Bone black. 
 
 Beer, in barrels.. 
 
 Beer, bottled.. 
 
 Tin plate.. 
 
 Tinware.... 
 
 Books, maps, and charts; prints and pictures and music, in sheets 
 stitched or bound.. 
 
 SPECIAL PROVISION. 
 
 Value 
 
 Hectoliter 
 _do_ 
 
 Value 
 
 Prints and pictures framed are dutiable as furniture, not 
 specially mentioned (No. 51). 
 
 Free. 
 
 10 per cent. 
 Free. 
 
 7.50 florins. 
 8 florins. 
 Free. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 Free. 
 
 Gunpowder. 
 
 Cement. 
 
 Beverages, not specially mentioned. 
 
 Eatables, not specially mentioned. 
 
 Donkeys and mules. 
 
 Engines for factories and steam engines, machinery, instruments, 
 apparatus, tools and implements for agriculture, manufacturing 
 and engineering, mining and crafts or professions; also parts 
 
 thereof, decided by the officials to be such. 
 
 Gambier, Riouw... 
 
 Gambier, other. 
 
 Yams and thread. 
 
 Spirits.. ; .. 
 
 Value. 
 Cask.. 
 Value. 
 ... .do 
 
 Value.. 
 
 100 kilos. 
 
 _do. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Hectoliter for 
 liquids con¬ 
 taining 50 li¬ 
 ters alcohol 
 at a temper¬ 
 ature of 15° 
 of the centi¬ 
 grade ther¬ 
 mometer. 
 
 SPECIAL PROVISIONS. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 40 cents. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Free. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 5 florins. 
 
 20 florins. 
 
 10 per cent. 
 
 The amount of 
 the excise of 
 native spir¬ 
 its. 2 
 
 1 . In case of superior or inferior strength the quantity shall be 
 reduced to the alcoholic standard of 50 per cent. The instruc¬ 
 tions, instruments, and tables for gauging and reducing the 
 strength shall be fixed by the Governor General. 
 
 2. As regards, however, liqueurs and other similar distilled 
 beverages, prepared or mixed with substances preventing the 
 direct gauging of the strength simply by means of hygrometers 
 and thermometers, such reduction is to be made in ratio to a 
 strength of 75 per cent, unless the officials presume that liquids 
 declared as such beverages have an alcoholic strength superior 
 to that of 75 per cent. In such case they are authorized to insist 
 upon gauging the real strength, and the reduction must be made 
 according to what excess in strength is found. 
 
 3. Spirits, not being real liqueurs, prepared or mixed with 
 substances preventing the direct measuring of the strength sim¬ 
 ply by means of hygrometers and thermometers, and of which 
 the actual strength does not exceed the apparent strength by 
 more than 5 per cent, shall not be charged as “liqueurs and 
 other similar distilled beverages,” but according to the real 
 strength, provided the importer in his statement has not only 
 mentioned the apparent but also the exact alcoholic strength 
 just as declared. 
 
 4. For varnish and all other liquids prepared with alcohol, 
 not being beverages, as well as for wood spirit and all liquids 
 prepared or mixed with it, the reduction shall be made in ratio 
 to a strength of 100 per cent. 
 
 5. The Governor General, however, may grant exemption 
 from import duty under the necessary provisions: 
 
 1. For wood spirit (methyl alcohol), or 
 
 2. For spirits: 
 
 (а) Mixed in Holland, in accordance with the regulations 
 there for freedom of excise, with wood spirit or any other sub¬ 
 stance indicated there for making them unfit for ordinary use: 
 
 (б) Made unfit in Netherlands India for ordinary use, in ac¬ 
 cordance with the instructions to be given for the purpose un¬ 
 der official control, by the addition of wood spirit or some other 
 substance indicated for such purpose by the Governor General; 
 
 (c) For the purpose of preparing vinegar. 
 
 6. The Governor General may also, under the necessary pro¬ 
 visions, stipulate that dyes and varnishes prepared with spir¬ 
 its made unfit for the ordinary use are allowed to be imported 
 against the payment of import duty in accordance with the 
 tariff for “other paint.” 
 
 .'he amount of this excise is fixed on 150 florins per hectoliter of a strength of 50 per cent and proportion- 
 for other quantities or strength. 
 
No. 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 Goods. 
 
 Scale. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 special provisions— continued. 
 
 7. The import duty on sulphuric ether, chloroform, and all 
 other similar substances prepared from or with alcohol shall be 
 regulated by the Governor General by colonial ordinance in ac¬ 
 cordance with the import duty on spirits. 
 
 8. Spirits imported through customhouses other than those 
 specially designed for the purpose by the Governor General, 
 shall be charged for varnish and liquids equalized therewith. 
 
 9. In the case of the import duty on spirits being increased on 
 account of increased excise in Netherlands India, the Governor 
 General may establish regulations for additional payment of 
 such increase on spirits in store above a certain maximum as 
 may be fixed by him. 
 
 Glass and glassware of all kinds... 
 
 Gold and silver, leaf. 
 
 Gold, in ingots, bars, or pieces, coined, and gold dust. 
 
 Gold, gold and silver ware, lace, trimming, and wire. 
 
 Resin.'. 
 
 Wood, sawn or unsawn, shipbuilding material, and timber, includ¬ 
 ing masts, spars, oars, and other round wood. 
 
 Wooden ware. 
 
 Ice. 
 
 Iron, in bars, pieces, rods, or plates; rails, joints, and fishplates for 
 railways; tubes for water conduits; iron gas pipes, axles, axle 
 boxes and wheels, cast or wrought; iron bridges and parts there¬ 
 of; bolts and nails; iron wire; telegraph and telephone wire, and 
 cables. 
 
 Value. 
 
 1 .do 
 
 I. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Value 
 
 SPECIAL PROVISION. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Free. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 Free. 
 
 Do. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 Free. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Axles, axle boxes, and wheels belonging to carriages are 
 charged as carriages (No. 64). 
 
 Iron: Ships’anchors, ships’ chains, ships’ spindles, ships’ rigging, 
 iron loading boats or lighters, frames of iron buildings, sheds or 
 stores, iron roofing and drains, either galvanized or not. 
 
 Iron: Ironware, not specially mentioned. 
 
 Value. 
 
 .do. 
 
 Instruments, mathematical^ physical, surgical, and optical. 
 
 
 Jewelry, pearls, and precious stones, set or unset. 
 
 . 
 
 Candles. 
 
 100 kilos. 
 
 Lime. 
 
 
 Coconuts and coconut oil. 
 
 
 Clothing, made up, woven or knitted. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Coal (pit) and coke. 
 
 
 Copper, crude and refined, wrought or rolled, including plates and 
 sheets for sheathing ships, coined copper, coining metal, copper 
 rods for crossbeams, bolts and nails, and also copper and bronze 
 telephone wire and similar wire for electric transmission. 
 
 Copper: Copperware, whether or not lacquered, gilt or painted, 
 articles of bronze and copper wire, not specially mentioned. 
 
 Small wares (mercery, haberdashery). 
 
 
 Value. 
 
 .do..’.. 
 
 SPECIAL PROVISION. 
 
 If necessary the Governor General shall further specify what 
 articles are to be considered under this heading. 
 
 Leather and leatherware. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Locomotives and their tenders. 
 
 
 Lead, crude, rolled and drawn. 
 
 
 Lead, made up, not specially mentioned. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Manufactures and tissues of cotton, linen, wool, or other fibrous 
 material, ribbon, lace, and trimmings (not of gold or silver, either 
 genuine or imitated), and also all other manufactures not differ¬ 
 ently charged. 
 
 SPECIAL PROVISION. 
 
 The Governor General is authorized to lower by colonial 
 ordinance the import duty of piece goods of cotton and half 
 wool, imitation batiks, woven cotton sarongs, kains-pandjang 
 and slendangs, cotton molton blankets, sacks and packing ma¬ 
 terial, with a maximum of 4 per cent, when the rates are such 
 that levying the full amount would be charging the population 
 too neavily. 
 
 Manufactures and tissues of silk, silk ribbon, lace and trimming 
 and all other silk goods not specially mentioned, including velvet 
 goods. 
 
 . SPECIAL PROVISION. 
 
 Exclusively of silk. Mixed material to be charged as cotton 
 manufactures. 
 
 .do. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 Free. 
 
 Do. 
 
 12 florins. 
 Free. 
 
 Do. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 Free. 
 
 Do. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 6 per cent. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 Free. 
 
 Do. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 10 per cent. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
No. 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 65 
 
 66 
 
 67 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 
 72 
 
 73 
 
 74 
 
 75 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 81 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 84 
 
 85 
 
 86 
 
 87 
 
 88 
 
 89 
 
 90 
 
 91 
 
 92 
 
 93 
 
 94 
 
 95 
 
 96 
 
 97 
 
 98 
 
 BUSINESS FACTORS 
 
 409 
 
 « 
 
 Flour... 
 Manure. 
 
 Goods. 
 
 SPECIAL PROVISION. 
 
 Scale. 
 
 Value 
 
 Duty. 
 
 10 per cent. 
 Free. 
 
 Sulphuric acid, if mixed with guano or ammonium sulphate, 
 may be admitted free of import duty as manure. The Gov¬ 
 ernor General regulates the proportion and mode of the mixing. 
 
 Furniture, lamps, not intended for gas or electric light. 
 
 Furniture, not specially mentioned. 
 
 Mineral waters, natural or artificial. 
 
 Musical instruments. 
 
 Opium. 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Paper of all kinds, hangings, music paper, marbled paper, card and 
 paste board, writing books and registers, ruled or plain. 
 
 Pitch. 
 
 Petroleum. 
 
 Photographic apparatus and parts thereof. 
 
 Plants, living. 
 
 Post and other stamps and post cards, also foreign, officially issued, 
 used or unused. 
 
 Perfumes and perfumery, not prepared with or from alcohol. 
 
 Rice, husked or not. 
 
 Carriages, and parts thereof. 
 
 Value. 
 
 -do. 
 
 100 jars or bot¬ 
 tles. 
 
 Value. 
 
 100 kilos. 
 
 Value. 
 
 .do. 
 
 Hectoliter 
 Value- 
 
 Value 
 
 Value 
 
 10 per cent. 
 12 per cent. 
 6 florins. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 450 florins. 
 12 per cent. 
 Do. 
 
 Free. 
 
 40 cents. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 Free. 
 
 Do. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 Free. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 
 SPECIAL PROVISION. 
 
 Railway carriages and parts thereof are free. 
 
 
 Paintings. 
 
 Stationery and drawing materials 
 
 Value 
 
 Free. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 SPECIAL PROVISION. 
 
 Excepting paper. 
 
 Playing cards (European), loose or in sheets. 1 kilo. 
 
 Playing cards (Chinese), loose or in sheets.do 
 
 Steel, in bars, sheets, and plates, steel axles, rails, joints, and fish- . 
 
 plates for railways. 
 
 SPECIAL PROVISION. 
 
 1.50 florins. 
 0.25 florin. 
 Free. 
 
 Axles for carriages to be charged as carriages (No. 64). 
 
 Steel: Steel ropes. 
 
 Steel: Steel wares, not specially mentioned. 
 
 Sirups, including fruit sirups, nonalcoholic. 
 
 Tobacco, tobacco and snuff. 
 
 Tobacco, cigars and cigarettes. 
 
 Tar. 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Timekeepers, watches, pendulous clocks, and all other timekeepers, 
 not specially mentioned. 
 
 Timekeepers, clocks. 
 
 Cattle living, buffaloes, and horned cattle. 
 
 Cattle, pigs. 
 
 Cattle, not specially mentioned. 
 
 Paints, liquid, in packages of 25 kilos or less. 
 
 Paints, other, turpentine and linseed oil. 
 
 Fish, salted or dried, not packed in tins, bottles, pots, or such like.. 
 
 Meat of all kinds. 
 
 Arms (fire), and parts thereof. 
 
 Wine, in casks. 
 
 Wine, bottled. 
 
 Wine, sparkling. 
 
 Seeds, agricultural. 
 
 Sailcloth. 
 
 Zinc, crude and rolled, including lining plates and sheets, bolts, and 
 nails. 
 
 Zinc: Zinc ware, whether or not varnished, lacquered, or painted.. 
 
 Salt, table salt of all kinds, also rock salt. 
 
 Salt, other than the above specified, if in the subdivision Singkel of 
 the Government Atjeh and dependencies. 
 
 Salt, other than the above specified, if elsewhere. 
 
 Salt, for industrial purposes. 
 
 Value. 
 
 _do- 
 
 100 bottles 
 100 kilos... 
 _do_ 
 
 1 kilo 
 Value... 
 
 _do.. 
 
 Per head 
 _do.. 
 
 Value. 
 
 _do_ 
 
 _do.... 
 
 _do.... 
 
 _do- 
 
 Hectoliter. 
 
 _do_ 
 
 100 bottles 
 
 Value 
 
 Value... 
 100 kilos 
 _do... 
 
 _do.. 
 
 _do.. 
 
 SPECIAL PROVISION. 
 
 The Governor General regulates the proper application of this 
 duty. 
 
 All other goods not specially mentioned or not included with the 
 above-named goods. 
 
 Value 
 
 6 per cent. 
 12 per cent. 
 
 20 florins. 
 
 8 florins. 
 
 100 florins. 
 Free. 
 
 40 cents. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
 8 florins. 
 
 50 cents. 
 Free. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 6 per cent. 
 10 per cent. 
 12 per cent. 
 6 per cent. 
 
 9 florins. 
 
 10.50 florins 
 
 21 florins. 
 Free. 
 
 10 per cent. 
 Free. 
 
 12 per cent. 
 15 florins. 
 
 10 florins. 
 
 6.50 florins. 
 2 florins. 
 
 6 per cent. 
 
410 NETHERLANDS EAST INDIES AND BRITISH MALAYA. 
 
 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 
 
 The following are the only duties levied on imports into the 
 Straits Settlements: 
 
 [In Straits dollars; 1 Straits dollar=$0,567 U. S. mint par.] 
 
 Article. 
 
 Rate of import 
 duty. 
 
 Extracts from No. 1280 .— The Liquors Ordinance, 1909. 
 
 A. Arrack or silent spirit, that is to say, spirituous liquor of whatever alcoholic 
 
 strength and of whatever origin which has been distilled in such a manner as to 
 eliminate all other constituents except water. 
 
 B. Brandy, whisky, rum, gin, liquors, bitters, Japanese saki, and Chinese samsoo, 
 
 including medicated samsoo: 
 
 (а) Containing not less than 85 per cent of proof spirit. 
 
 (б) Containing less than 85 per cent but not less than 70 per cent of proof spirit. 
 
 (c) Containing less than 70 per cent but not less than 40 per cent of proof spirit. 
 
 ( d ) Containing less than 40 per cent of proof spirit. 
 
 C. Sparkling wines containing less than 40 per cent of proof spirit. 
 
 D. All still wines (including medicated wines) containing less than 40 per cent of 
 
 proof spirit (excepting claret containing less than 26 per cent of proof spirit). 
 
 E. Claret containing less than 26 per cent of proof spirit, and ale, beer, stout, porter, 
 
 cider, and perry. 
 
 F. Intoxicating liquors, not above provided for: 
 
 (I) If strflhger than proof spirit. 
 
 (II) If containing less than 100 per cent of proof spirit. 
 
 $30 per gallon. 
 
 $9 per proof gal. 
 $7.20 per gallon. 
 $4.50 per gallon. 
 $3 per gallon. 
 $4.50 per gallon. 
 $3 per gallon. 
 
 $0.90 per gallon. 
 
 $18 per proof gal. 
 $18 per gallon. 
 
 Extracts from No. 1279 .— The Tobacco Duties Ordinance, 1916. 
 
 (а) Cigars and snuff.. 
 
 (б) Cigarettes. 
 
 (c) Unmanufactured tobacco and native tobacco other than cigars, cigarettes, and snuff. 
 
 (d) Manufactured tobacco, not above provided for. 
 
 $1.20 per pound. 
 $0.80 per pound. 
 $20 per picul. 
 
 $0.80 per pound. 
 
 Import duties on matches and petroleum are given in the following 
 table: 
 
 [In Straits dollars; 1 Straits dollar=$0,567 U. S. mint par.] 
 
 Article. 
 
 Rate of import 
 duty. 
 
 When the number of matches per receptacle or box does not exceed 85. 
 
 Per case of 7,200 
 boxes. 
 
 $60.00 
 
 When the number of matches per receptacle or box exceeds 85 but does not exceed 95.. 
 When the number of matches per receptacle or box exceeds 95 but does not exceed 105. 
 When the number of matches per receptacle or box exceeds 105 but does not exceed 115. 
 Consignments exceeding 20 boxes but less than 1 case, provided the number of matches 
 per box is less than 115. 
 
 65.00 
 
 70.00 
 
 72.00 
 
 Per box. 
 
 .01 
 
 Consignments of less than 20 boxes... 
 
 Free- 
 
 Petroleum not inelnfh'ne linnirl nrodnets with a flash noinf, higher than 150°. 
 
 Per gallon. 
 
 .10 
 
 
 
 The exemptions and other regulations are not given. There are 
 occasional changes in the tariff by executive order. Exporters may 
 obtain the latest changes from the Tariff Division of the Bureau 
 of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. 
 
BUSINESS FACTORS 
 
 411 
 
 FEDERATED MALAY STATES. 
 
 Following are the import duties of the Federated Malay States: 
 
 [in Straits dollars; 1 Straits dollar=$0.567 U. S. mint par.l 
 
 Article. 
 
 Rate of import 
 duty. 
 
 Table A. 
 
 
 A. Arrack or silent spirit, that is to say, spirituous liquor of whatever alcoholic 
 
 strength and of whatever origin which has been distilled in such a manner as 
 to eliminate other constituents except water. 
 
 B. Brandy, whisky, rum, gin, liqueurs, bitters, Japanese saki, and Chinese samsoo, 
 
 including medicated samsoo: 
 
 (а) Containing not less than 85 per cent of proof spirit. 
 
 (б) Containing less than 85 per cent but not less than 70 per cent of proof 
 
 spirit. 
 
 (c) Containing less than 70 per cent but not less than 40 per cent of proof 
 
 spirit. 
 
 (d) Containing less than 40 per cent of proof spirit. 
 
 C. Sparkling wines containing less than 40 per cent of proof spirit. 
 
 D. All still wines (including such medicated wines as have not been declared by the 
 
 Chief Secretary under section 2-A of “ The Excise Enactment, 1915”) contain¬ 
 ing less than 40 per cent of proof spirit (excepting claret containing less than 26 
 per cent of proof spirit). 
 
 E. Claret containing less than 26 per cent of proof spirit and ale, beer, stout, porter, 
 
 cider, and perry. 
 
 F. Intoxicating liquors not above provided for: 
 
 (I) If stronger than proof spirit. 
 
 (II) If containing less than 100 per cent of proof spirit. 
 
 $20 per gallon. 
 
 $6 per proof gallon. 
 $4.80 per gallon. 
 
 $3 per gallon. 
 
 $2 per gallon. 
 
 $3 per gallon. 
 
 $2 per gallon. 
 
 $0.60 per gallon. 
 
 $12 per proof gallon. 
 $12 per gallon. 
 
 “ The Customs Enactment, 1920.” 
 
 
 In exercise of the powers conferred upon him by section 5 (I) of “ The Customs 
 Enactment, 1920 : ” the Chief Secretary to Government imposes, with effect from the 
 date of the publication hereof, an import duty on alum at the rate of 50 cents per 
 
 pound. 
 
 Provided that alum may be imported duty free if imported under and in accord¬ 
 ance with the conditions of a license to import granted by the British resident of the 
 State in which the importer is resident or carrying on his business or trade, which 
 license must be produced to the principal officer of customs at the port or place of 
 import. The object of this import duty is to prevent the use of alum as a coagulant 
 of rubber. 
 
 
 O 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
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MAP 
 
 OF INSULIN D I A 
 OR THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO 
 
 (NETHERLANDS EAST- INDIA) 
 
 Scale 1:10 000 000. 
 
 MINDANAO 
 
 l ca 
 
 lboanga 
 
 SANDAKAN 
 
 Da .. . '—5'-'^ 
 
 SOrtOE-iBCHIPEL 
 
 JTSCH 
 
 P MIANGAS ‘ 
 (PALMAS E.) 
 
 Beaufort 
 V. Tinom 
 
 LABOEAN /\ 
 
 NANOESAEIL* 
 
 IRD-BORNEO 
 
 TALAUD EIL* 
 
 P SCDANAU. 
 
 Tdroen l 
 
 El LAN DEN 
 p’p MIOAI n 
 
 boundary's of territorial divisions 
 Packet service (Royal Packet) 
 
 :l LANOEN 
 
 SANGI 
 
 Capitals of divisions 
 towns 
 
 p ojEmaoja 
 
 Oelnt t 
 
 !/P. SIAOE 
 
 Vandjotnt 
 
 OJAILOLO Olf 
 
 H'AtMAHERA 
 
 ly 
 
 ST PETRUS E. 
 
 ’SQiGAPpPbv___ 
 
 OicC- )P biVtaaijriau)' 
 Aoan^joknopinanC 
 
 igsifh 
 
 TgJWATEj 
 
 TAM8tLAN EIL* 
 
 Tilamoftp 
 
 ' Ttttmdollml 
 
 iP WAIGEO 
 
 O. TOtAli 
 
 CTD ' 
 
 schTldpad- fejtr 
 
 ?Ws\P walea \ 
 
 J®6IAN OR 
 Of‘la Oeno & / 
 
 T O M I ff l ^ 
 
 Koialkkakapi 
 
 SCHOUTEN EIL* 
 
 \ P. £(«*GGA.. 
 
 'o.\biAH(i' 
 V. SINQKfiP ' 
 
 ISOEPIORK 
 
 i PANOKALASEAHO 
 
 Tape lien 
 
 Poeroektjfhdt 
 
 BatoepoOtK*' 
 
 ■R -P-AHOAN 
 
 I ticnoBI-EILANOEN 
 
 DJABONq 
 
 *Koealakocrotr 
 
 , GROEP 
 
 pjAMNA 
 
 ' Botnlok 
 
 V ' oOQ x 
 
 ARCHIPEL 0 
 
 BATAN ME (MISOOU 
 
 MoearStfmbei 
 
 iligrbgol, \ 
 
 , aR*oe6ank 
 
 KATANG KA Ti 
 
 Bongko 
 
 Bajoenghnljl 
 
 
 f LANGKOEAS 
 
 Magtoed* 
 
 (Pittari #] 
 
 Xlr TAllAHMEHAI^ 
 
 !/ . ' 
 
 aKandangan 
 
 Stkajoe 
 
 KotalakapoeaA 
 
 •ALEMBANG 
 
 PAGAI OR NASSAU E> 
 
 tela Barot 
 
 p. simIdang 
 
 a Marti peera' 
 
 i Moe&rdanm 
 
 DISCOVERT OOSTBANK 
 
 >P LAOET 
 
 i Pteiha'■ 
 
 BENKOELO^Vp 
 
 [j^sClatan 
 
 ling gale 
 
 LAOET KETJII 
 
 (T»VJt. OORAM 
 
 BOETON OR BOLig-'"' ^ 
 *QtPEKA>J«-9Isi-EIL» 
 
 PangK^dje 
 
 EI LAN OEM 
 
 P. KA8A£Nl 
 
 IORDWACHTER 
 
 Ojeniporrla* 
 
 :tong 
 
 Naroe-eil: 
 
 KARIMOENDJAWA EIL* 
 
 BOOMPJES E. 
 
 H. V.TIOAWAWG 
 
 Sotejfr 
 
 JP SALEl £ R 
 T. APATANA 
 
 'K.^Nb»A* 4 AJOE 
 
 
 zuid-wester-eil^ 
 
 ZUIQ- OOSTER - EIL* 
 
 TJjAlMBAR OF TIMOR 
 / LAOET-EIL" 
 
 10 - “ ,SAR p» 
 
 y AP-SANGMIJAUG 
 
 I (or KftJU 
 
 
 1 DELHI OR OIL LI 
 
 JAVA'S ZUIDHOEK 
 
 LOMBOK 
 
 REMARKS ON PRONUNCIATION 
 
 T. KABOSO 
 
 e like e of „the’\ 
 e „ French 6 or 6. 
 a and i like in French, 
 oe like u in rule. 
 Dutch j = English y. 
 
 „ tia = „ cha. 
 
 ,T. SeMANOjENG 
 
 ROTI 
 
 
[botngu 
 
 PRAHOEBOESOEK 
 
 ■ Uiadja 
 
 VAN PAMANOEKAN 
 
 igaadei 
 
 ' AN(3ERAN< 
 \hebj;of»na 
 
 ,Wadat 
 
 :orneuj 
 
 TBokdjambeb 
 
 Ibarang'j 
 
 i Pangkalai 
 
 ,T. PAR AT 
 
 O. PIPING 
 
 POERWAKARTA 
 
 PR1NSEN 
 
 Song go i, 
 
 • Khranganjar 
 Atdiawinancocn 
 
 IUITENZOSU 
 
 L«uwni*m 
 
 O BENDA 
 
 Ijatitoedjoei 
 
 O. LERAN 
 
 Sagalahcrai 
 
 |P0tNTJAX Tjikaloftg 
 ytfStndangdjf f" 
 
 i Pltjangakar 
 
 ^.■UNOKOEBANPRAROE Tom, 
 
 ft. TAMPOMAS 1 
 
 u,.., • m *'i 7 
 
 aahi \ ^yOsOEMBDANQ 
 
 BANDOENG NX r 
 
 Dajgjaratijj, 
 
 \vpaxoj \ 9 Nogrti 
 
 Djoeani 
 
 O LOS A l 
 
 KadipaUn 
 
 OMAtty 
 
 PEMALANQ 
 
 Wilahan' 
 
 Bantrarledok 
 
 iLONGAN 
 
 T PANTO 
 
 O. KARA WEL A NO 
 
 T. SODONG 
 
 PANOKA 
 T. AROSBAJA 
 
 ■ ''•iaranganjtir 
 
 ig Timber 
 
 Montang 
 
 Sapoelot 
 
 BATAN< 
 
 Ibajadarat 
 
 D|od|ojan 
 
 / PoOogdri — 
 lANOKA LAN 
 
 0, ^/aaaaboiaha 
 
 ptfiokoh' 
 
 Sockarcd] 
 
 Tjikidjtng ■ 
 
 Baiip<elang< 
 
 POERWODAD1 
 
 loeboeg 
 
 Kadjen \* 
 
 Oo clock 
 
 • e Pendjaloe 
 ctmitan Kidpel 
 
 ■idjocl 
 
 Raodoeblat 
 
 Ked/engpriiii 
 
 Tjandfritt" 
 
 JODJANAGARA 
 
 Raattja' 
 
 Page la r 
 
 Nglmbon't 
 
 'GAROl 
 
 0. SAWAL V* 
 
 V TJiAMIS' 
 
 .SOERaBaJA 
 
 >*1 ' TASIKMALAj A j 
 
 'bandjarnegara 
 
 ****** 
 iNOAWl 
 >v op. 
 
 iGimolonj 
 
 SRAtfl 
 
 Mangotnridja 
 
 AdJIbaang^ 
 
 J poerWakert'/v 
 
 ■ A M i 0 El 
 
 TJIdJarian. 
 
 ^Idared)a 
 
 tndangbatnng 
 
 lAOELANt 
 
 * TriUk ''L, 
 0. PANDAM Lengkoog 
 
 S T RA AT 
 
 KARANQXOKO 
 
 (ZWAANTJESDROOOTE) 
 
 BANJOEA^AS 
 
 foERAKARTA" 
 v. (SALA) 
 
 Kallpoetjani 
 
 Karanganlar 
 
 Poarlai" 
 
 •Adiredja 
 
 P. KETAPANO 
 
 ■SSthilApadid* n.a. ' 
 
 JILATJAP 
 
 )0 KARANGBOLONG yTKARANOBAT) 
 
 .TJipoti 
 
 PROBOLINOOO 
 
 Wliutngi 
 
 Besoekl 
 
 S1TOEBAND/ 
 
 ~LlgokdJawa 
 
 >j£ndloi 
 
 jWrlnglc 
 
 Kftowar 
 
 SEDA NO 
 
 kdfikan 
 
 .Wales 
 
 Bcndaengai 
 
 / !I WONOSARI fBotlot 
 
 °. 
 
 • Bed&Ja • * f/ 
 
 TJempikisarl \ f j( 
 
 OOENOENG KiDOEL */ '■* 
 
 Bm.VTJIMfl; 
 
 iiLOENGAGOENG 
 
 ^BUTAR, 
 
 Ngeenoet 
 
 Ke Andie*, 
 
 PoenoeSg 
 
 OPATJITAN 
 
 JANJOEWA) 
 
 vSonggcny 
 
 /NgrMJi 
 
 Moedfotn) 
 
 DJEMBOEWOER 
 
 SARAH 
 
 r PEUNDOE ' 
 
 r SEM&OELOENGAi 
 
 UROENG 
 
 Oradjagon 
 
 T. KEBEN 
 
 T POERWA 
 
 ^^0 
 
 MAP 
 
 O F 
 
 JAVA and MADOERA 
 
 (NETHERLANDS EAST-INDIA) 
 
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BOSTON COLLEGE 
 
 9031 
 
 01197954 
 
 (?0866 
 
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 BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY HEIGHTS 
 CHESTNUT HILL, MASS. 
 
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