... # i ^.. mHU vSe i&illliiissi 1 '-'t' •'•f-^0"-;T* ; '"' . ' • ■ — JUl SjB3t£. SiSkiitfiy if gs (a "n THE EASTERN ORIGIN OF THE CELTIC NATION'S PROVED BY A COMPABISOK OP THEIU IDIOLECTS WITH THE SANSKRIT, GREEK, LATIN, AND TEUTONIC LANGUAGES : FORMING A SUPPLEMENT TO RESEARCHES INTO THE PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MANKIND. BY JAMES COWLES PEICHAED, M.D., F.E.S., EDITED BY E. G. LATHAM, M.A., M.D., F.E.S., LONDON: HOTJLSTON AND WRIGHT, 65, PATERNOSTER ROW ; AND BERNARD QtTARITCH, ORIENTAL AND PHILOLOGICAL PUBLISHER, CASTLE STREET, LEICESTER SQUARE. 1857. BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRART CHESTNUT HILL, MASS, STEPHEN AUSTIN, PKINTHR, HERTFORD. 9587 TO THE REVEREND WILLIAM DANIEL CONYBEARE, A.M., F.R.S., ETC., RECTOR OF SULLY. PROFESSOR JACOB GRIMM, THE UNIVERSITY OE GOETTINGEN, THIS WORK IS INSCRIBED, IX TESTIMONY OF THE HIGH RESPECT AND REGARD THE AUTHOR. EDITOR'S PREFACE. When the publisher of the present edition, after stating the extent to which Dr. Prichard's Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations was a work which still kept np the interest and importance which it had at the time of its publication, added the request that I would undertake the Editorship of a reprint, the first question I asked was why he had preferred an investigator in general ethnology and philology to a special Keltic scholar, either Welsh or Irish ; remarking, at the same time, that there were many to be found who were, doubtless, both able and willing to undertake the required editorship ? Even if these were wanting, Sanskrit scholars, familiar with comparative philology, would be fitter editors than myself ; these being, at least, as abundant as the others ; and the Sanskrit language being, in the book itself, of equal prominence and importance with the Keltic. vi editor's preface. liis answer was that this had been already con- sidered ; but that the decidedly ethnological cha- racter of the work had convinced him that a minute criticism of its details was less wanted than a broad view of its principles, and leading statements ; and that an investigator, who was neither Kelt nor Sanskrit, but general, was more likely to do justice to the work than a special scholar. I thought then, as I think now, that this view was sound, and undertook the responsibility of editing one of the most important contributions ever made to philological ethnography. A great deal of the Supplementary Chapter (pp. 65 — 159) was already written, the criticism of the so-called Keltic migrations having long been a matter upon which I had employed myself ; indeed, the publication of all the notices of ancient writers upon the ancient Kelts, with a body of ethnological notes, after the manner of my edition of the Gcrmania of Tacitus, had, for some years, been contemplated by me. Again, the volume of Prichard is not merely an exposition of the reasons which induced the Author to make the Keltic tongues Indo-European, but a general explanation of the meaning of that term, founded upon a remarkably doar exposition of the editor's preface. vii nature and relations of the languages which consti- tute the group. It is more than this. It is an excellent introduction to ethnology in general ; inferior to no work on the same subject except Dr. Prichard's own larger ones. Over these even it has the advantage of brevity and conciseness. But that heavy objections (in the mind, at least, of the editor) lie against the ordinary doctrine suggested by the term Indo-European, may be seen in almost every page of the annotations. They lie, however, less against the work under notice than against current opinion in general. It is possible that this may be correct ; and, if so, my own views are exceptionable. I do not say that they are not so. I only say that, if the current views concerning what is called the Eastern origin of the so-called Indo-Europeans are correct, they are so by accident ; for they rest upon an amount of assumption far greater than what the nature of the question either requires or allows. It only remains to be added, that this edition of Dr. Prichard's < Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations,' is published with the special sanction of the proprietors of the copyright. ADVERTISEMENT. The treatise now laid before the public forms a Supplement to my Eesearches into the Physical History of Mankind, and was announced in the first edition of that work, which was printed in 1813. Of the motives which induced me so long to withhold it, and of those which have at length determined me to the publication, a sufficient ac- count will be found in the Introduction ; and I have only a few words to premise on the circumstances and designation under which the work now appears. It is termed, a Supplement to Eesearches into the Physical History of Mankind, because it was undertaken with the view of furnishing proofs of a series of facts, of which little more could be intro- duced into that work than general statements, con- taining the results of inquiries which had been sufficient for my own conviction. It forms, how- ever, a distinct treatise, in exclusion of its reference \ ADVERTISEMENT. to the history of nations or races of men; and it may be proper to remark that some of the philo- logical researches which it contains have been pur- sued into greater extent than the primary object of the work may seem to have required. If this is in one respect a fault, it may be hoped that contingent advantages in another point of view will be found to atone for it. The examination of cognate lan- guages, while it points out their resemblances, and proves the affinity of the races of men of which they formed the vernacular speech, seldom fails at the same time to elucidate, in a greater or less degree the structure of the respective idioms them- selves ; and it will appear, if I am not mistaken, that the relation of the Celtic dialects to the other languages brought into comparison with them, fur- nishes the means of throwing some light on the European idioms in general. I have followed the investigation which thus suggested itself, and have stated the results. If the latter are well established, they will be found both interesting by themselves to tin 4 philologist, and will, at the same time, strongly confirm the principal inferences obtained in respect to the origin and mutual affinity of the European nations. ADVERTISEMENT. XI As I have had occasion in several parts of this treatise to allude to the grammatical forms of some languages, with which I am but imperfectly ac- quainted, I have endeavoured to cite correctly the authorities on which I have depended for informa- tion. The names of various grammarians and other writers on philological subjects, with the designa- tions of their works, will be found in the marginal references [foot notes] scattered through the follow- ing pages, and need not be mentioned in this place. But there are four living authors to whom, in a more especial manner, I am indebted, and am anxious to acknowledge my obligation. These are Mr. H. H. "Wilson, the learned secretary of the Asiatic Society, author of the Sanskrit dictionary, and Professors Bopp, Bosen, and Grimm, to whose well known works I have made, throughout this essay, frequent references. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. PAGE Sect. I. Different opinions respecting the population of the world — Autochthones — Hypothesis of the ancients— Modern opinion — Way of investigating the subject — Physical evidence — Comparison of lan- guages — How far this inquiry has tended to elucidate the history of nations— General relations and value of philological inquiries 1 Notes 1G Sect. II. Nations of Europe at the earliest periods of history — Eastern origin of several of them proved by their languages — Indo- European languages — Is the Celtic allied to them ? — Denied by several writers — Motives for the discussion of this question 35 Notes 46 Sect. III. Of the Celtic dialects extant — Modes of orthography — Au- thorities 59 Notes 62 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER. The Keltic Nations of Antiquity. Sect. I. The term Keltic— Galatae and Galli 65 Sect. II. Did any population other than Keltic bear that name, or one like it 61) XIV CONTENTS. PAGE 9KJT. Ml. Bastern origin of the Kelts — How far real — How far neoessarj to the main question of the present treatise 7- BlOT.IY.4 - notice of the Gauls 78 B r. V. The Keltic area — Savoy and Switzerland — Helvetia 81 . VI. The Kelt io area— The Tyrol— Rhsetia 85 Sect. VII. Styria and Carintliia 90 Sect. VIII. The Kelts of Illyria '»2 Sect. I X. Kelts of Dalmatia— The country of the Iapodes ... 93 Skct. X. Kelts of the Lower Danube— Bastarna?— Galata) ib. Sect. XI. Two classes of Galatae 98 Sect. XII. The Galatse of the Olbian Inscription 100 Sect. XIII. Kelts of "Wurtemburg — Decuraates Agri and Vin- delicia ib. Sect. XIV. Kelts of Bavaria— Vindelicia 101 Sect. XV. Kelts of Bohemia 102 Sect. XVI. The Gothini ib. Sect. XVII. Kelts of Thrace, Macedon, and Greece 103 Sect. XVIII. Kelts of Galatia 101 Sect. XIX. Kelts of Belgium, and the Lower and Middle Rhine 110 S» r. XX. TheLigurians 117 Sect. XXI. The Kelts of the Spanish Peninsula 119 Sect. XXII. The Kelts of Italy 121 Sect. XXIII. The Boii 133 WIV. The Teutones and Cimbri 186 I. The Ambroncs ib. II. TheTigurini 138 III. The Teutones ib. IV. The Cimbri 112 SS i. WW The Picts, eo nomine 151 \ \ VI. On the Croithneaoh L55 \\\'II. The Lingua Rritannisa Proprior of the Amber Coasl l .~>7 Sect. X Will. The Sarmatian hypothesii 158 CONTENTS. XV CHAPTEB I. Preliminary survey of the forms of words and the permutations of letters. PAGE Sect. I. Introductory Remarks 100 Sect. II. Of the permutation of letters in composition and construc- tion — Of Sandhi and Samasa in Sanskrit — Of the same principles as discovered in the Celtic dialects — in the "Welsh — in the Erse — Of the digamma and sibilant in Greek ib. Note 170 Sect. III. Of the interchange of particular letters between different languages— Table of numerals— Observations deduced from it ib CHAPTER II. Further proofs and extension of the observations laid down in the preceding chapter. Sect. I. Introductory Remarks 178 Sect. II. Of the interchange of palatine or guttural consonants with labials in the different languages 179 Sect. III. Of the interchange of sibilant and soft palatine consonants with gutturals or hard palatines 182 Sect. IV. Of the relations of the aspirate — Of the substitution of the aspirate in several languages for S and for E — Of the aspirate as a guttural or hard palatine 186 Sect. V. Of the interchange of dental and sibilant letters 193 Sect. VI. Of the substitution of R for S 194 Sect. VII. Of the relation of different vowels and diphthongs to each other in different languages — Synoptical table of letters inter- changeable between different languages 197 xv i INTENTS. CHAPTBB III. />,.„.. rigin in the vocabulary of the Celtic and other huh,- European languages. PAGB . I. Names of persons and relations - 01 Sect. II. Names of the principal elements of nature, and of the visible objects of the universe 2or> sit. III. Names of animals 2(j(J SECT. IV. Verbal roots traced in the Celtic and other Indo-European 21 "l languages SECT. V. Adjectives, Pronouns, and Particles 226 CHAPTER IV. Proofs of a common origin derived from the grammatical structure of the Celtic and other Indo-European languages. SECT. I. Review of the preceding facts and inferences— Introductory remarks on the personal inflections of verbs 231 Note 231 Sect. II. Personal endings of the Sanskrit verbs 235 Sect. III. Terminations characteristic of the persons of the Greek verb 237 :. IV. Personal endings of the Latin verbs 239 Eta r. V. Terminations which distinguish the persons of verbs in the Teutonic dialects 210 I -2\7 VI. Persona] endings of verbs in the Bclavonian dialects, and in tbc Persian language 248 VII. Terminations characterising the persons and numbers of verbs in the Celtic languages 260 CONTENTS. XV11 CHAPTER V. Of the personal pronouns in the Indo-European languages, and of the derivation of the personal endings of verbs. PAGE Sect. I. Personal pronoun of the first person in the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Russian, Moeso-Gothic, and Old High German languages 253 Sect. II. Pronoun of the second person 257 Sect. III. Pronoun of the third person 259 Sect. IV. General observations on the preceding facts 264 Sect. V. Of the Celtic pronouns 270 Par. 1. Of the entire personal pronouns in the Erse ib. Pak. 2. Of the entire pronouns in the "Welsh 271 Par. 3. Of the pronouns in a contracted state, or as used in regimen 272 Pae. 4. Comparison of the personal endings of verbs with the con- tracted forms of the pronouns 276 Par. 5. General result of the foregoing analysis in respect to the per- sonal inflections of verbs in the Celtic language 278 Sect. VI. Conclusions respecting the personal terminations of verbs in the other Indo-European languages 279 Note 285 CHAPTER VI. Of the inflections of Verbs through tenses and moods. Sect. I. General view of the subject 287 Sect. II. Modifications of verbs common to the Sanskrit and the Greek languages 289 Note 292 Sect. III. Forms common to the Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit 296 Note 297 Sect. IV. Formation of the preterperfect tense in the Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, and Teutonic verbs 298 Par. 1. Professor Jacob Grimm's analysis of the Teutonic verbs ib. Note 301 b X\ ill CONTENTS. PAGB PAB.S. Analysis of the preterperfect in the Greek and Sanskrit verbs 302 Par. 3. Analysis of the preterperfect in Latin verbs 303 Bb i. V. Of the remaining forms of the verb— Potential, Optative, and Conjunctive moods— Future tenses— Middle and Passive voices... 30G PAR. 1. Potential moods— Professor Bopp's opinion 307 Par. 2. Future Tenses— Formation of these tenses in Sanskrit, in Greek, in Latin— General remarks on Future and Past tenses 309 Note 315 Par. 3. Middle and Passive voices 316 Note 317 CHAPTER VII. J I lustration of the principles developed in the preceding chapter — Conjugations of the verb substantive, and of attributive verbs, both in other Indo-European languages and in the Celtic dialects. Sect. I. General Remarks — Analysis of the verb substantive in several languages 318 Par. 1. Verb ^ft^ asmiand its cognates 320 Par. 2. Verb ^c||f^ bhavami and its cognates — Conjugation of this verb through its various forms 323 Bbct.IL Analysis of the Celtic verb substantive 32G Par. 1. Conjugation of b6d or bydh, and comparison of its forms with those of the verb substantive in the Sanskrit, Persian, and Sclavonic 327 Par. 2. Of defective verbs used as verbs substantive in the Celtic dialects 332 Note 335 Sect. III. Inflection of regular verbs in "Welsh analysed ib. SECT. IV. Conjugation of regular verbs in Erse 310 CONTENTS. XIX PAGE Sect. V. Concluding observations on the Celtic verbs, with general re- marks on the grammatical peculiarities of the Celtic languages 342 Sect. VI. General Inference 344 Note on the Semitic Languages 347 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER. Sect. I. Sketch of the chief works on Keltic ethnology, published since a.d. 1831 — Bopp and Pictet 354 Sect. II. Sketch of the chief works, etc. — Expansion of Prichard's doctrine — Preliminary remark — Newman 357 Sect. III. Sketch of chief works — Special German affinities — Davies — Holmboe 359 Sect. IV. Sketch, etc. — Enlargement of the so-called Indo-Euro- pean class 366 Sect. V. Sketch, etc.. arrangement, and details of the members of the Keltic class itself 369 Sect. VI. Sketch, etc. — Writings of Garnett — Zeuss — Dieffenbach 371 Sect. VII. Sketch, etc. — Speculations and controversy — The Mal- berg glosses—Leo — Meyer — Mone — Holtzmann 375 Sect. VIII. Present condition and prospects of the philological ethnography of the Kelts 382 INTRODUCTION. SECTION I. Different opinions respecting the population of the world — Autochthones — Hypothesis of the ancients — Modern opinion — Way of investigating the subject — Physical evidence — Comparison of languages— How far this inquiry has tended to elucidate the history of nations — General relations and value of philological inquiries. Many writers on natural history and geography have maintained the opinion that each particular region of the earth must have been supplied from the beginning, by a separate and distinct creation, with its peculiar «stock of indigenous or native inha- bitants. Among the ancients this notion prevailed almost universally. There existed, indeed, in the pagan world an obscure tradition of a primitive pair fashioned out of clay by the hand of Prometheus or of Jupiter ; but this belonged to mythology ; which, in its literal sense, at least, was of little authority with the best informed, and the frequent occurrence of such terms as autochthones, indigence , or abori- ginal inhabitants, whenever reference is made to the population of different countries, indicates a general prevalence of the ideas which such expressions are fitted to suggest. The prevailing opinion in modern times has referred all the nations of the earth to a Z EASTERN OKTGIX OF common parentage; and this it lias done chiefly, as it would appear, on the authority of our Sacred History, the testimony of which seems hardly to be reconciled with a different hypothesis. Of late, however, many learned men, chiefly on the con- tinent, have been strongly inclined to adopt an opinion similar to that of the ancients ; and this seems now to be gaining proselytes among the French naturalists and physiologists, and among writers on history and antiquities in Germany. Some of the former speak of the Adamic race as of one among many distinct tribes. Yon Humboldt, who has collected so many evidences of intercourse between the inhabitants of the eastern and western continents, yet seems to have regarded the primi- tive population of America as a distinct and peculiar stock. The celebrated geographer Malte Brun has plainly taken it for granted that each part of the earth had indigenous inhabitants from the earliest times, into whose origin it is vain to make inquiries; and even the accomplished Niebuhr, who is not more distinguished by the great extent of his learning than by the novelty and ingenuity of his critical speculations, has adopted a similar opinion in con- nexion with his researches into the early history of Italy. It would be no difficult matter to cite names of equal celebrity on the other side of this question, 1 ' ' Riimipclu- Oetohichte fOU B. 0. Niebuhr: Vorrcdc, p. 38 (1 Ausgabt). ir W. Jon*. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 6 but it is not by the authority of opinions that it can ever be decided. The most learned men, and those of the most profound research, are equally liable with ordinary individuals to adopt erroneous notions on subjects which lie beyond a particular sphere ; they are perhaps even more disposed to prejudices of certain kinds. It is only by examining the evi- dence which may be drawn from a variety of dif- ferent sources, that those persons who feel interested in this inquiry can hope to arrive at a satisfactory conclusion. Perhaps those arguments which bear with the greatest weight upon this question, and on which the ultimate opinion of philosophers respecting it is to be determined, are considerations resulting from a survey of the natural history of the globe, and facts connected with physical geography, and with the multiplication and dispersion of species both of animals and plants. On the evidence which is to be deduced from these sources, I shall say nothing at present. I have endeavoured to take a compre- hensive view of the whole of this subject in my Eesearches into the Physical History of Mankind. Among the investigations which belong exclu- sively to the history of our own species, an analysis of languages, affording the means of comparing their component materials and ascertaining their affinities and diversities, is one of the most important. It must be a matter of regret to those who are aware of the real value of this resource, that it has 1 EASTERN ORIGIN OF been applied with so little judgment, and that many Writers who have devoted themselves to the study of what is termed plulologjj have mixed up so much that is extravagant and chimerical with the results of their researches, as not only to throw a shade of doubt and uncertainty over them, but even to bring ridicule and contempt upon the pursuits in which they have been engaged. A fondness for wild con- jecture and for building up systems upon the most inadequate and precarious foundations has been sup- posed to belong to the whole class of writers on the history and affinities of languages, and it has cer- tainly prevailed in no ordinary degree among them. Even some of the latest works on these subjects, though abounding with curious and valuable infor- mation, are in a particular manner liable to this censure. The treatise of Professor Murray on the European languages, though it displays extensive knowledge and diligent research, is scarcely men- tioned without ridicule ; and in the Asia Polyglotta of M. Julius Klaproth, which has added very con- siderably to our acquaintance with the dialects and genealogy of the Asiatic races, we find the results of accurate investigation mixed up and blended with too much that is uncertain and hypothetical. It must, however, be allowed, that there are not a few writers, in both earlier and later times, who are scarcely, if in any degree, chargeable with the same faults, and whose acuteness and soundness of dis- cernment are equal to their extensive and profound THE CELTIC NATIONS. 5 erudition. This may be truly said of Vossius and Edward Lhuyd among the philologists of former ages, and in more recent times of Professor Yater, the Schlegels, Bopp, and Professor Jacob Grimm. The comparison of languages is perhaps incapable of affording all the results which some persons have anticipated from it. It would be too much to expect from this quarter to demonstrate the unity of race, or an original sameness of idiom in the whole human species. But this resource, if properly applied, will furnish great and indispensable assistance in many particular inquiries relating to the history and affinity of nations. It would be easy to point out instances in which the examination of languages has rendered substan- tial and undoubted services to the historian. The history of the Goths, who conquered the Eoman empire, will furnish an example. The real origin of this people could not have been known with cer- tainty, if we had not come into possession of an ample specimen of their language in the version of IJlphilas. By this we learn that they were not Getae or Thracians, as most of the writers who lived near to the era of the Gothic invasion supposed them to be, and as some modern historians have main- tained ; but, in conformity with their own traditions, nearly allied in kindred to the northern tribes of the German family. (1) The origin of the Polynesian races has been illustrated by an investigation in one respect similar. 6 i;vsn:i:\ OKIGIN OF Some of these tribes are found in islands so distant from all other inhabited regions, as to furnish an argument in favour of the opinion, that they had the beginning of their existence in their present abodes. But a comparison of their languages has furnished proof that all the most remote insular na- tions of the Great Ocean derived their origin from the same quarter, and are nearly related to some tribes of people inhabiting a part of the Indian con- tinent and the isles of the Indian archipelago. w Even the history of the African (3) and American (4) tribes has been in many particulars elucidated by an inquiry into the relations of their languages, though the results which have been obtained have not proved to be precisely those which were hypo- thetically anticipated, and with hope of arriving at which these researches were in part undertaken. Philologists have sought in vain in the old con- tinent for a nation, from whose speech the diversified idioms of America may with any degree of pro- bability be derived ; but an examination of the American languages themselves has led to some interesting results. The native races of North America are referred by a classification of their dialects to a few great divisions, several of which extend as radii issuing from a common centre in the north-western part of the continent, where it is divided from Asia by Behring's Strait. The tra- ditions prevalent among the ancient Mexicans seem to have derived credit from the discovery of a chain THE CELTIC NATIONS. 7 of nations extending almost from New Mexico to Mount St. Elias, in the neighbourhood of the Esquimaux Tschugazzi ; their languages, particu- larly those of the Ugalyachmutzi and Koluschians, bearing a curious analogy to that of the Aztecs and Tlaxcallans. Another series of nations, the Karalit, or Esquimaux, connected by affinities of dialect, has been traced from the settlements of the Tschuktschi in Asia, along the polar zone to Acadia and Green- land. Light has also been thrown in a similar manner on the history of the Lenni Lenape, and the great kindred family of Algonquin nations, on that of the Iroquois, and likewise of the Floriclian and other races of North America, by a comparison of their national traditions with the indications dis- covered in their dialects. One circumstance, which is perhaps of more importance than all the preced- ing, is the singular congruity in structure between all the American languages, from the northern to the southern extremity of the continent. To this I only allude at present, having already in another place surveyed the facts on which the observation is founded, as they have been developed by the re- searches of Barton, Hervas, Yon Humboldt, Hecke- welder, and Duponceau. In Africa a remarkable and interesting fact was the discovery of a nation occupying nearly the whole northern region of that continent, to which the Kabyles of Mauritania and the Tuarik of the Great Desert belong, and whose branches extend from the Oasis of Siwah on the S l ASTERN ORIGIN OF eastern, to the mountains of Atlas, and even to the Canary islands, on the western side; the Guanches, the old inhabitants of those islands, whose remains arc said to lie embalmed in the mummy caves of Teneriffe, spoke, as it appears, a dialect of the same language as the Kabyles and Berbers. The Felatahs, who have spread themselves over the interior countries of Nigritia, have been traced by a similar investigation to the mountainous districts above the Senegal, where the Foulahs, who speak the same language, have been long known to Europeans as a people in many respects distin- guishable from the Xegroes. To the southward of the equator a connexion still more extended has been discovered among the native tribes across the whole of the same continent from Caffraria and the Mosambique coast, on the Indian ocean, to the countries which border on the Atlantic, and form a part of the region termed the empire of Congo. I have thus pointed out some of the most strik- ing instances, well known to those who have made philological subjects their pursuit, in which re- searches of this kind have thrown some light on the origin and affinities of nations, when all other histo- rical resources have failed. I shall presently con- sider the application of this inquiry to the European nations, as this is my principal object in the present work. It is requisite, however, before I proceed so for, to make some general remarks on the evidence THE CELTIC NATIONS. 'J which languages appear to furnish in proof of the affinity of nations. The use of languages really cognate must be allowed to furnish a proof, or at least a strong pre- sumption, of kindred race. Exceptions may indeed, under very peculiar circumstances, occur to the in- ference founded on this ground. For example, the French language is likely to be the permanent idiom of the negro people of St. Domingo, though the latter are principally of African descent. Slaves imported from various districts in Africa, having no common idiom, have adopted that of their masters. But conquest, or even captivity, under different circumstances, has scarcely ever exterminated the native idiom of any people, unless after many ages of subjection, and even then vestiges have perhaps always remained of its existence. In Britain the native idiom was nowhere superseded by the Eoman, though the island was held in subjection upwards of three centuries. In Spain and in Gaul several centuries of Latin domination, and fifteen under German and other modern dynasties, have proved insufficient entirely to obliterate the ancient dialects, which were spoken by the native people before the Eoman conquest. Even the Gypsies, who have wandered in small companies over Europe for some ages, still preserve their original language in a form that can be everywhere recognised. r Without adverting to the Bas Breton, the Basque in Aquitainc and the Biscayan in Spain afford proofs of the fact above asserted. 10 EASTERN ORIGIN OF But the question is here naturally suggested, what degrees and species of resemblance must be considered as indicating any given languages to be cognate, or as constituting their affinity ? In ad- verting to this inquiry I shall be allowed to repeat some remarks which I have made on a former occasion. A comparison of various languages displays four different relations between them. 1. In comparing some languages we discover little or no analogy in their grammatical structure, but we trace, nevertheless, a resemblance more or less extensive in their vocabularies, or in the terms for particular objects, actions, and relations. If this correspondence is the result of commercial inter- course, or conquest, or the introduction of a new system of religion, literature, and manners, it will extend only to such words as belong to the new stock of ideas thus introduced, and will leave un- affected the great proportion of terms which are ex- pressive of more simple ideas and universal objects. Of the description now alluded to is the influence which the Arabic has exerted upon the idioms of the Persians and the Turks, and the Latin upon some of the dialects of Europe. But if the corres- pondence traced in the vocabularies of any two Languages is so extensive as to involve words of ilif must simple and apparently primitive class, it obviously indicates a much more ancient and inti- mate connexion. There may be instances iii which THE CELTIC NATIONS. 11 this sort of affinity is so near as to render it pro- bable, that the dialects thus connected had a com- mon origin, and owe the diversities of their gram- matical forms to subsequent changes and difference of culture. 2. There are certain languages which have very- few words in common, and which yet display, when carefully examined, a remarkable analogy in their laws of grammatical construction. The most striking instances of this relation are the polysynthetic idioms, as they are denominated by M. Duponceau, of the American tribes, and the monosyllabic languages of the Chinese and Indo- Chinese nations. 3. A third relation is discovered between lan- guages which are shewn to be connected by both of the circumstances already pointed out. These are the languages which I venture to term cognate. The epithet is applied to all those dialects which are connected by analogy in grammatical forms, and by a considerable number of primitive words or roots common to all, or in all resembling, and manifestly of the same origin. 4. A fourth relation exists between languages in which neither of the connecting characters above described can be discerned : when there is neither analogy of grammatical structure, nor any corre- spondence in words sufficient to indicate a particular affinity. Such languages are not of the same family, and they generally belong to nations remote from 12 EASTERN ORIGIN OF each other in descent, and often in physical cha- racters.^ But even among languages thus dis- covered, a few common or resembling words may often be found. These resemblances are sometimes casual, or the result of mere accident : in other instances they are perhaps too striking and too numerous to be ascribed to chance or coincidence. Such are the phenomena of connexion which M. Klaproth hypothetical ly terms antediluvian, and those which Mr. Sharon Turner has lately pointed out between the idioms of nations very remote from each other. More strongly marked are the traces of approximation observed by Professors Barton and Vater between the vocabularies of tribes in North and even in South America, and the dialects of the Samoiedes, Yukagers, and other races in North-eastern Asia. Such facts are some- times difficult of explanation ; in other instances they may lead to interesting results. Whatever may be thought of them, the variety of languages, nearly or wholly unconnected, is on a general survey so great, that it seems difficult to avoid being led to one of two conclusions : either that there existed from the beginning divers idioms, or that the languages of mankind were rendered various by a miraculous change, according to the most obvious import of a well known passage in the book of Genesis. It would be foreign to my present design to consider these opinions more fully, and 1 shall pass them by with a single THE CELTIC NATIONS. 13 remark on each. The former, besides other objec- tions, involves one which has scarcely been ad- verted to. It implies that the world contained from the beginning, not three or four, as some writers are willing to believe, but some hundreds and perhaps thousands of different human races. d With respect to the latter, it seems incumbent on those who reject this passage of Sacred History on the ground of its making a reference to a super- natural, and, as it may be termed, an unknown agency, to furnish us with some account of the first existence of our species which does not imply events, at least equally miraculous. Unless the events which certainly took place can be under- stood in a different way from that in which the Sacred Scriptures represent them, we may ration- ally adhere to the whole of the same testimony, as involving the operation of no other causes, than such as are both proved and are sufficient to account for the phenomena. In the inquiry on which I have now to enter, I must confine my view within a narrower sphere, and advert to the relations of languages which, though displaying great variety in their vocabulary, d The languages of the African nations, according to Seetzen, who has made the most extensive and original researches into this subject, amount to one hundred or one hundred and fifty. In America, there are said to he fifteen hundred idioms " notabilmente diversi." Such was the opinion of Lopez, a missionary of great knowledge in the languages both of South and North America. (See Seetzen's letters in Von Zach's Monathliche Correspondenz. 1810, p. 328, and Hervas's ' Catalogo delle Lingue,' p. 11). 14 EASTERN ORTGTN OF yet approximate in their most essential constituents and are nearly connected in their grammatical for- mation. Such phenomena can only be explained on the supposition that a different superstructure has been raised by different nations on a basis originally common. Tribes having a common idiom scanty in its stock of words, appear separately to have added to their speech, partly by new inven- tion, and partly by borrowing from their neigh- bours, such terms as the progress of knowledge among them required. The accessory parts of lan- guages may have come at length to bear a con- siderable proportion to the primitive one, or even to exceed it, and the grammatical structure may have been diversified under different modes of cul- tivation. Hence arise in the first place varieties of dialect ; but when the deviation is greater in de- gree, it constitutes diversity of language. The German and French are never termed dialects of one speech ; and yet all who compare their respec- tive sources, the old Teutonic and the Latin lan- guages, are aware that between these, a near and deeply rooted affinity subsists. Those who will duly weigh the facts which asso- ciate themselves with this last consideration, will, I believe, experience no difficulty in admitting all such languages to be cognate, which have in common, together with analogy in grammatical forms, a large number of undoubtedly original and primitive words. Such words are simple vocables, THE CELTIC NATION*. L5 expressive of the most natural and universal ob- jects and ideas, terms for family relations and for the most striking objects of visible nature, as like- wise verbal roots of the most frequent and general occurrence. These are elements of language which must have belonged to every tribe of men in their original dispersion over the world, and which must have been the most tenaciously retained, and scarcely interchanged between different nations. When such elementary parts of speech are common to several languages, and when their grammatical structure displays likewise undoubted marks of a real and fundamental affinity, we may be allowed to regard these languages as cognate, though the number of words peculiar to each may be very considerable. I have dwelt the more fully on this last con- sideration, because on it will depend the validity of the conclusions which I shall endeavour to draw in the course of the following treatise. I shall now advert particularly to the population of Europe and the history of the races of which it consists. 10 THE GOTHS. THE POLYNESIAN RACES. NOTES TO SECTION I. (1). The Goths not Thracians nor Getce. — Nothing is more certain than that the language of the Ulphiline translations is German. It is almost as certain that it was the language of the Goths. It is less certain that it was the language of their associates — the Vandals. The inference of the text is unexceptionable — viz., that the Goths who conquered the Roman Empire, were Germans. It does not, however, follow that all Goths were in this category. There may have been others, who, taking no part in the sub- version of Rome, spoke no German. Again, it by no means follows that the Germans who conquered the Roman Empire were Goths in the strict sense of the term. They may have been Goths only as the English are Britons, •'. e. they may never have been called Goths at all, until they settled in the country of the Getce, and then they may never have called themselves so. Goth, in short, may have been the name by which they were known to their neighbours ; just as Saxon is the name by which an Englishman is known to the Welsh. That both these views are real rather than hypothetical — that no German population ever called itself Gothic, except in the way that we of England call ourselves Britons, and that the true Goths belonged to another family — has been maintained by the present editor elsewhere. The statement that the tribes who spoke the language of the Ulphiline translations were neither Getae nor Thracians is accu- rate. Had its author, however, lived to see the publication of the Deutsche Sprache of Grimm, he would have seen it reversed. The doctrine of Grimm is that the Getoe and Thracians were Germans — Germans whose language was that of Ulphilas. "Whether he has made out his case is another matter. (2). The Origin of the Polynesian Races. — Polynesian means an Inhabitant of the South Sea Islands, — the islands to the south AFRICAN LANGUAGES. 17 of New Guinea, New Guinea itself, Australia, and Van Dienien's Land, or Tasmania, being excepted. These belong to a different stock. In the Fiji Islands it is believed that there is an inter- mixture. The remaining forms of speech fall under two divisions, the Micronesian and the Polynesian Proper. Micro- nesia includes the Carolines and Marianne Isles, along with Sonsoral, Lord North's Island, and the Pellew group to the east of the Philippines. The Eadack and Ralik Archipelagos lead to the Navigation Isles, with which Polynesia Proper begins. This contains the Friendly and Society Isles, the islands of Dangerous Archipelago, the distant Easter Island, the Sandwich Islands, far as they lie northwards, and New Zealand, far as it lies to the south. Nor is this all. The Micronesian group connects itself with the Philippines, the Philippines with the Moluccas, the Moluccas with Celebes, Java, etc., and these with the Malay of Sumatra and the Malayan Peninsula. Hence, in a very wide sense of the term, the whole great class has been denominated Malay. Again, distant as is the Island of Madagascar, and different as it is in its direction, its language is, in many points, Malay — a fact known to Reland and other early investigators. Lastly, it may be remarked that the lines by which the monosyllabic languages on one side, and the Papuan, Australian, and Tasmanian, on the other, are separated, are by no means of that broad and definite character once supposed. (3). African Languages. — The evidence that all the tongues of Africa are mutually related, is now conclusive. This is because, in many cases, fresh data have been accumulated ; -as is most especially the case with the Negro languages. In others, however, the process has been somewhat different. Dis- tinctions which were originally held to be broad and definite, have been broken down. This has taken place most especially with the tongues of the extreme north and the extreme south. To begin with the former. The languages akin to the Hebrew and Arabic — Semitic as they are called — were long either isolated, or, if connected with those of any other class, connected with the so-called Indo-European forms of speech. This was on the strength of the higher civilization, greater his- torical importance, and superior physical organization of the nations which spoke them. Writers, however, were not slow to 18 AFRICAN LANGUAGES. observe that the populations of northern Africa in generaltwere, to a great extent, possessed of the same characteristics. Such were the ^Egyptians, whose language was the Coptic, a lan- guage which was one of the first to be recognised as one exhibiting Semitic characteristics. This was not doubted. It was only doubted whether the Coptic was, in the ordinary sense of the word, African. Then came a language to which the French conquest of Algeria gave prominence, whilst it also made it accessible ; the language of the Kabyles, Tuaricks, Siwans, and Canary Islanders, etc. This was recognised, if not as actually Semitic, as what was designated by the new term, swi-Semitic. That other tongues, especially those in geographical contact with the Kabyle (Berber or Amazirgh), were, more or less, what the Berber was, was shown by even the Berber scholars, the foremost of whom recognised, in the Haussa of Sudania, Berber elements {See a paper by Francis Newman in the Appendix to Prichard's Physical History of Man, — Africa). Then came the turn for the tongues to the south of the Coptic area to be considered as, more or less, Coptic; e.g. the Bisharye, the Nubian, and the Galla; and, finally, that for the languages of Abyssinia in contact with the recognised Semitic tongues (such as the Tigre, Amharic, etc.), but not themselves Semitic. Of these the Agow and Falasha forms of speech are the chief. "With this relation between the Semitic and sub- Semitic classes, — a relation made patent by the name itself, — the question as to the relations of the African languages at large, must either remain stationary, or one of two alternatives be resorted to. Either languages like the Haussa, Nubian, Agow, etc., must lead to the true negro tongues, or they must be wholly separated from them. It is not too much to say that, on the part of the proper Semitic philologucs, the tendency was towards separation. This, however, was impossible. Whoever knew anything of the other African languages, knew that for every step from such languages as the Coptic and Berber, towards the Hebrew and Arabic, a similar advance could be made in the opposite di- rection, i.e. towards the Fellatah, Mandingo, and "VVoloff, and hrough these to the most Negro languages of the whole continent. AFRICAN LANGUAGES. 19 This is the way in which one of the old lines of demar- cation is broken down. The breaking down of another of them is as follows. The languages of the great Kaffre family, which, to the English- man of the Cape, have the same importance as the Berber of Algeria to the Frenchman, struck their first cultivators with two points of grammar, known under the names of the Euphonic Alliteration and the System of Prefixes. According to the former, when two words stand in certain grammatical relations to one another," the initial letter of the subordinate is changed to that of the governing, term, just as if we said, in English, hen beam instead of sun-beam. According to the latter, every noun has, as its concomitant, some non-radical prefix, so necessary, that when the missionaries would introduce such English words as priest or pkarisee, the form they took in Kaffre was um-priest, um-pharisee. The details of these two remarkable characters need not be given. They are only noticed for the sake of suggesting the extent to which they would give the languages wherein they occurred a peculiar physiognomy. Doing this, they had a tendency to create broad and definite lines of demarcation. Hence the separation between the Semitic tongues on the north, and the inland and western dialects, was repeated, in the south, between the Kaffre and the non-Kaffre languages. So is its abrogation. The ethnological import of the two characteristics in question has never been very closely con- sidered. They may mean much ; they may mean little. They are assumed, at once, to mean the former. Meanwhile, traces of both the prefixes and the alliteration are discovered elsewhere, sometimes in languages easily connected with the proper Kaffre, but sometimes in languages far distant. To such an extent has this been the case, that, in Koelle's Polyglotta Africana, a whole groupe of languages spoken on the drainages of the Gambia and Senegal are, without being called Kaffre, described as " distinguishing themselves like those of South Africa, by prefixal changes, or an initial inflection." The exact interpretation of the vast and complicated series of phenomena of this kind belongs to special African philology; the present remarks being to the effect that the African lan- guages, instead of presenting a mass of unconnected forms of speech, may now be considered as members of one group — a 20 AMERICAN LANGUAGES. group, of 0OUTB6, ofliigh classificational value, bnt still a group — indicating a fundamental unity in the way of language. (4). American Languages. — Mutatis mutandis, what applies to the languages of Africa applies to those of America also. The more we make researches into their details, the more we find likeness — likeness which breaks down lines of demarcation pre- viously recognised. The chief problems concerning the forms of speech of the Western hemisphere are : — 1. Their relations to each other. 2. Their relations to those of the Old World. 1 . In respect to the first, they have been considered from the two points of view noticed in the forthcoming pages ; viz., in respect to their grammatical structure, and in respect to their lexicography. a. In respect to the former, it has been admitted, since the time of Duponceau, at least, that they all bear a common character, a character denominated polysynaptic. I do not inquire how far this is an accurate term or the contrary. It is enough to know that all the later investigators have attributed to all the languages of America a general resemblance in respect to their grammatical structure. b. In respect to their words, the view has been different. The extent to which several languages, like each other in their grammatical principles, differed in their vocabularies, has long been enlarged upon. Hence arose the apparent paradox of some scores, or even hundreds, of languages resembling one another in their general physiognomy, yet unlike in their constituent elements. That the paradox is apparent rather than real, has been for some years the expressed opinion (supported by numerous tables of comparison) of the present writer. In other words, he has connected the American languages with each other, glossarially as well as grammatically. At the same time, the likeness by no means lies on the surface. 2. The second question has also been illustrated by recent researches ; the effect of which has been to diminish the gulph which separates the tongues of the New World from the Old. In the first place, and, as a preliminary to any further investiga- tion, we must remember that the one language common to the AMERICAN LANGUAGES. 21 two hemispheres — the Eskimo — has always been admitted to be American in grammar. It may be added that this complicated the question, inasmuch as it tended to separate it from the Asiatic, without connecting- it with the American, tongues ; for the contrast between the Eskimo vocabularies and the languages in its immediate neigh- bourhood, was as decided as that between any two languages of America — that is, according to the current doctrine. This contrast, however, was in the same category with the former one — apparent rather than real. As the Eskimo area is approached from the east, through the Samoyed, Yeniseian, Yukahiri, Kamskadale, and Koriak tongues of Asia, the American character in the way of grammar appears in Asia; and, vice versa, as the same area is approached through the languages of North Oregon, the Hudson's Bay country, and Russian America, Eskimo words appear in the western hemisphere. One of the languages of the present text, the Ugalents, or Ugalyachmutsi of the parts about Mount St.. Elias has, by more than one philologue, been considered Eskimo. This (in the stricter sense of the term) it is not. Neither is it, as has also been held, Kolosh, i.e. a member of a class intermediate to the Eskimo and certain other tongues. On the contrary, it belongs to the group which contains the Chepewyan, Beaver, Indian, Taculli, and other northern forms of speech — separated from the Eskimo as genera of the same order, but certainly orders of the same class. The Tshugatsi are actual Eskimo. The Kolosh (Koluschian) is the language of the parts about Sitka or New Archangel. The Astek or Mexican words found in these languages, were indicated in the Mithridates. Since the publication, however, of that work, they have been shown to exist in other American languages — some inland, some southern, some interjacent to the Kolosh and Mexican areas, e.g. in California and elsewhere. The inference from this fact, taken by itself, is that the Mexican and Eskimo words are portions of a common stock, ruther than elements peculiar to the two languages in question. I use the words " taken by itself" for the sake of making a reservation. The question whether the languages of the extreme north-west of America have special, or only general, affinities with the Mexican, is not decided by a mere comparison of words. 99 — i AMEK LCAN LANG UAGES. There is in the Mexican a remarkable phoncsis, as is suggested by the number of words ending in tl — axolotl, etc. — a harsh • combination. Now this phoncsis appears in the Eskimo, takes a great development in the Kolosh and other northern tongues, extends as far as Oregon, diminishes in California, nearly dis- appears as we go south, but reappears in Mexico. Is this suf- ficient to establish a special relationship ? The answer to the question has yet to be given. It is a point, however, with which the present work has little or nothing to do. "When speculation first began, the Eskimo of Greenland and Labrador was compared with the Indian of Canada and New England. Now both these were extreme forms of their re- spective classes. The Eskimo of Greenland and Labrador was the most eastern of his congeners; the Indian of the Eskimo frontier the most American of his. They were each, by the whole breadth of the American continent, separated from Asia. Yet they were the only two that could be compared. Russian America and North Oregon were terra incognita. Yet they were just the points where the phenomenon of one division graduating into another were best studied. But they were unknown. Hence the nearest comparison was between the representatives of a maximum difference. In time, however, the real areas got studied. In the first place, the Chepewyan tongues were studied in their more western dialects. Then came the researches of the admirable philologuc to the United States' Exploring Expedition — Mr. Hale. These shed a flood of light over the previously obscure interspace. The truth had been dimly surmised before. His data, however, put it beyond doubt. On the coast of the Pacific it was difficult to say where the Eskimo ended and where the Indian tongues began, a fact which made the hitherto obscure origin of the American clear. It is now easier to connect them with Asia, than it is to connect Europe, Africa, New Guinea, Australia, or Tasmania. A difficult problem has become a simple straightforward matter- of-fact phenomenon. It would not have been impossible for this to have been the case earlier. At any rate, when two languages as far removed from each other in the matter of geographical position as the Samoyed of Siberia, and the Sioux tongues of the Missouri prairies, came to possess good representatives in the shape of AMERICAN LANGUAGES. 23 Castren's Grammar and Lexicon of the first, and Riggs' Grammar of the second, it only wanted a skilful and painstaking investi- gator to show that, even with the interval between the points of comparison, likeness could be detected. The researches of Mr. Daae of Christiania have shown this. The Lenni Lenape. — The Indians of Delaware called them- selves thus — lenni = man. It is a term of great extent and importance. Change the I into t, and lenni becomes tinne, a word meaning man in all the Athabaskan tongues ; so much so, that Sir John Richardson proposed calling them the Tinne class of languages, so thoroughly does the name appear in them all. In the form tenghie, tungaas, it appears in other languages, chiefly in Russian America and Oregon. Yet it does not stop here. It is found promiscuously in numerous tongues, southwards and inland. Again, Dr. Prichard (no careless adopter of proper names) held that it was the Eskimo inn-, in innu-it = men. It may be added that it is, word for word, the aino of the Kurilian Islands. It is also the denlca, tonghus, etc., of more than one Siberian tongue, and — as Sir John Richardson had, with proper diffidence (not noticing the intermediate forms), suggested — the duinhe of the Scotch Gaels. This, however, is episodic and extraneous to the main ques- tion, which is concerning the Lenni Lenape. They were not only a single section of a very vast family, but they were early known to be so. Their congeners were spread over the greater part of the New England States, part of Canada, part of Labrador, the interior of America as far as the Rocky Mountains (the Black-foot Indians belonging to the class), Virginia, and even parts of the Carolinas : so vast was the Lenne Lenape area. Some call it Lenapean, some Algonkin, some Algik — a barbarous abbreviation of the preceding denomination. Be this, however, as it may, the class itself was one of great magnitude. The same applies to — The Iroquois. — Members of this class occupied New York, the shores of Lake Huron, and parts of the Carolinas, separated from each other by branches of the Algonkins, but still forming a large class. The Florida Indians, in like manner, belong to a group (the Creek, Muskoghc, or Muscogulghe) which is itself a branch of a 24 AMERICAN LANGUAGES. larger stock, containing the Cherokccs, and probably the Caddos, Woccons, Catawbas, and other less important tribes. Add to this, that (without inordinately raising its value) we may com- prise within it the Iroquois (just mentioned) and the great Sioux class. Such, at least, is the result to which recent researches point. All this, then, is so much in favour of a certain amount of uniformity of language over large geographical areas. A population mentioned in the text, may here be noticed : — The Yukagers. — The Yukagers, Yugaghiri, Yukajiri, or Yukahiri, are one of the most northern populations of Asia, their occupancy being the shore of the Arctic Sea. "With the ex- ception of the Tshuktshi and Asiatic Eskimo, they are also the most eastern. They are also one of those least known, a single sample of their language being all that we possess. Their country, the drainage of the Kolyma, Jana, and Indijerka rivers, is bounded on the west by the territory of the Jakuts, and on the east by that of the Sedentary Tshuktshi. On both sides it has been encroached on ; the area of the Yukahiri having at one time been much larger than it is now. Hence their language, from the obliteration of the dialects spoken on the circumference of its area, is comparatively isolated. This appearance of isolation is increased by the scantiness of its vocabulary. Hence, in the Asia Polyglotta, the Yukahiri tongue is placed by itself. And this isolation has been admitted by Prichard and most other writers. The present writer, objecting to this view, has shown that it has much in common with the Yeniscian and Samoyed. Hence, when the Samoyed came to be considered as a member of the great Finn, or XJgrian, class, the Yukahiri was placed in it also. Yet the Yukahiri has (there or thereabouts) equal affinities with the Koriak, Kamskadale, and Eskimo, as it has with the languages of north-western America. The following sample is instructive : If we compare the numerals one, two, three, four, five, of the Yukahiri with the languages of its neighbourhood, we find no resemblance. If, however, we go beyond five, and ask the nanus for seven and eight, we find that they are compounds, and com- pounds of an interesting character. To illustrate this, let us imagine the English numerals to run thus — one, pair, leash, four, five, six, five-and-tico, fivc-aiul-flircr. AMERICAN LANGUAGES. ID nine, ten. In this list the words for two and three are wanting in their proper places, being replaced by pair and leash; meanwhile they appear in the names for seven and eight. In short, they are true portions of the language, though not seen to be so at first. Indeed, in a comparison of the English with the German numerals, which run ein, zwei, drei, etc., they might be over- looked altogether, and, on the strength of their having so been overlooked, the statement might be made that the numerals for two and three were different in the two languages. Yet such would not be the case ; when we got as far as seven and eight, they would show themselves. JIutatis mutandis, this applies to the Yukahiri numerals as compared with those of certain American languages. A full explanation of all the phenomena connected with the languages of America, especially the great extent to which they differ from each other, has yet to be given. An important con- tribution to it, however, has been made by Air. Daae of Chris- tiania, in one paper published in the Edinburgh Philosophical Transactions, and in another in the Transactions of the Philo- logical Society. They belong to what may be called philological dynamics, i.e. the investigation of the forces that effect changes in language. In the first of his papers, Air. Daae gives great prominence to the habit attributed to several rude tribes (one which he shows to be commoner than is generally imagined), of always choosing wives from a different tribe from their own, or (at any rate) from some different section of the community. In the second, he gives a special monograph on the American languages, paying particular attention to the smallness of the American communities. " When language is confined to the daily use of a family or a small knot of acquaintance, it stands in a quite contrary relation to the use of men, to what it does when it is the common medium that combines millions of human beings. In the last case, the individual license in changing the adopted sounds and significations of words, whereby are introduced novel- ties of speech, is continually checked by the impossibility of making all such unnecessary changes comprehensible to the mass of those who speak. Thus we see that in the present English and French languages, this license of adding to what is the com- mon property of millions in both hemispheres, is a privilege for ouly a few distinguished inventors of new things, or authors of 26 AMERICAN LANGUAGES. widely-read books. The power of changing language is so much repressed that it can only be observed by comparing two remote periods of the history of language, as you observe the geological changes by considering generations as merely a single day. The habit of speaking distinctly is then kept up and cultivated as a necessary means to be comprehended by the many unknown persons you continually meet with. " In a small island in the South Sea, or an insignificant tribe in the wildnesses of America or Siberia, the facility of changing language may easily be conceived to be next to unbounded. Everybody who speaks must become understood, because his hearers almost know beforehand what he is to say. The most arbitraiy changes of language are thus introduced continually, as may be proved historically. "Almost all those languages that are spoken by nations living either in a natural (geographical) isolation, or in an arbitrary and artificial one, want a good number of letters. For one letter in one dialect, is substituted another letter in the next tribe ; because every word is as well understood whether you pronounce it with the letter r, or I, or v. Accidental and individual defects of uttering are thus changed into national peculiarities, and a general indistinctness of pronunciation is introduced. The sounds that are hardly perceptible to a stranger will, among close rela- tives, appear sufficiently intelligible." " The strange practices of mutilating the nose and the lips must have contributed a great deal to disfigure the enunciation of language itself. The insertion of one or more large pieces of wood into incisions in the lips or the nose, still practised on the Pacific coast (Tr. Geogr. Soc. vol. ii. p. 218), and from which custom a tribe is called Nez Perce, has no doubt been more fre- quent formerly, as we see that all such cruel absurdities as tattoo- ing, flattening the heads of children, etc., are the first prejudices a savage abandons when he comes in contact with the AVhitcs (Hooper, Tents of the Tuski, p. 270). These mutilations would evidently make it next to impossible to pronounce any labial consonant, and they would in return introduce a nasal articula- tion. Now a paucity of labial, and a superfluity of nasal, sounds is just what we observe in many American languages. " Similar permutations of letters of course happen among all languages of the world, and in fact form the ba*is and the prin- cipal means by which the differences in language arc introduced AMERICAN LANGUAGES. A I and produced. Only among those nations who lead an isolated life are these changes more violent, and appear to separate tribes that evidently, from their general habits and manners, must be very closely related. Thus the Dakotas, forming only a nation of 25,000 individuals, are split into tribes divided by such con- siderable differences of dialect as these : — one tribe changes d into t, and h into r ; another changes h into k ; a third changes It into g ; d is altogether rejected, and I substituted in its place ; an- other band only uses g at the end of syllables, and I does not occur ; thus the word hda, ' to go home,' becomes kda and gla in different dialects. This same tendency will of course introduce as violent euphonic changes within the same language or dialect in the way of declension, conjugation, and the formation or com- position of words." " In the syllabic alphabet invented for the Cherokee tongue by a native, the whole number of possible syllables is merely seventy, besides the vowels (Trans, Amer. Ethn. Soc. v. ii. 119). In the excellent Dakota dictionary of Mr. lliggs, we see abun- dant proofs how a scarcity of radical words and simple ideas is made to expand into a language of endless compositions. But from the variety of objects to be expressed, these composed words in a great measure must contain the most arbitrary description of things : a continual make-shift of substitutes for the thing that is thus obscurely brought before the mind. For instance, the word maza means 'metal of any kind,' gadi, 'merchandize ' ; hence are derived, by addition of other substantives, or adjec- tives and particles, compositions expressing an anchor, iron-pot, bracelet, bell, trap, chair, gun and all its parts, pistol, cannon, lock, ramrod, etc., nail, steelyard, blacksmith, spade, finger-ring y stove, skates, sword, iron, silver, money, dollar, shilling, batik- note, medal, gold, lead, bullet, moulds, copper, pewter, button, spoon, pan, brass, file, hammer, pincers, tongs. In like manner the syllable ta comprehends all ruminating animals and their parts. " As another instance of arbitrary contrivances may be quoted the Dakota word sungka, that originally comprehended the ideas dog, fox, and wolf. But then the dog, being the animal first em- ployed for carrying or drawing burdens, it was, after the settle- ment of the Europeans, also used of the horse when it came to be known to the Indians (sungka- wakay = spirit dog, sacred dog = horse). Thus it became the only radical word fit lor 28 AMERICAN LANGUAGES. forming the further compounds denoting horse, mare, colt, ass, saddle, whip, lasso, bridle, etc." " The state of small isolated tribes or clans in which the half-savage nations live, will as easily introduce an endless change of significations. In a family, or amongst the inmates of the same house, it is quite as easy to make arbitrary expressions or slang words understood and ultimately accepted as an in- distinct utterance of the common words. Instead of father, you may say master, governor, husband, the old one, and the original word father you may restrict to God only ; instead of child you may use any word signifying little or dear, etc. "We have special accounts of two remarkable instances of the action of this principle among the rude tribes. One is the superstitious custom of the South Sea Islanders, on the death of a king whose name is composed of a couple of common words, to abstain altogether from the use of those words that form his name, and to substitute others. The practice is either ascribed to a reve- rence for him, or to some religious sentiment connected with omens. Such a custom will, of course, in many instances, lead to a permanent instead of a temporary change of language. The other fact upon this head is the sacred language employed by the conjurors or priests. As far as this has been accurately found out, for instance, in the Greenlandic, it seems to be chiefly an arbitrary perversion of the significations of old and known words. It is, then, the same principle as in Europe has formed any slang, for instance, among vagrants and thieves. Yet these words of the conjurors have been so far altered that any double meaning is sufficiently avoided. " From the effect of these causes it appears probable that as one savage tribe may, from trifling occasions, suddenly split into two, that separate widely from each other, thus also their lan- guage may, in a comparatively short time, deviate into two very different dialects. If there were means of investigating the state of a given language of savages in different periods, it would perhaps be demonstrable that its formation as a peculiar dialect, or a variety of speech, does not require those thousands of years, as one might suppose, who starts from the fact that a great many Greek and Hebrew words have been preserved uncorruptcd for thousands of years, through the influence of literature and civilization." LANGUAGE AS A' CRITERION. 29 (5). a. Languages withfeiv words in common, yet with an analogy in respect to their grammatical construction. — These constitute the class to which, according to certain remarks lately made, the languages of America belonged. The fact, however, in this particular instance was demurred to. The general rule, however, may be true. How far it is so, is a question of some complexity ; at any rate, a question re- quiring some preliminary considerations. The further our researches carry us into the phenomena of speech the more they lead to the conclusion that the laws of language are the laws of growth and development. It seems, for instance, that a period wherein no inflexions are evolved precedes the period of inflections. In such a case, there is no declension, no conjugation, no case, no tense, no mood ; no grammar in short, but only so many separate uninflected words, related to each other by certain details in respect to their posi- tion, and with few or no modifications of their forms. Utter such a sentence as sun shine way air, and you have an imperfect instance of this condition of language ; the words mean, (the) sun shine(s) through (the) air. In the next stage, it is maintained that certain of the words which, like way (via) in the example just given, indicate the relation which the other words bear to each other, coalesce with the leading and more essential parts of the sentence, and so undergo a change of form. This is the case with the nt in cant as opposed to can not ; not being capable of reduction to ne whit (not-at-all). In this stage, the secondary words which coalesce with the main, do so in so imperfect a manner as to leave their originally separate existence visible. Languages in this state are called agglutinate. It is the state in which most of the languages of the world exist. The Mantshu and Mongol are the usual examples of this condition. Most other tongues, however, would serve as well. The coalition of the subordinate with the main word having become so perfect as for the former to look like a part of the latter, rather than a word originally separate, the combination becomes amalgamate instead of agglutinate, and the language inflectional. The Greek and Latin are the types of this form. Inflections fall off and get displaced by separate words, these words being of a peculiar kind — prepositions with substantives, 30 LANGUAGE AS A CRITERION. auxiliaries with verbs. The English is in this stage, and, doubt- less, it is destined to further changes. It is obvious that languages in the same stage will just be the languages that present the " analogy" of the text. It is also obvious that where they are separated from each other by any great distance the vocabularies will be unlike. Let the Hottentot and Fuegian be on the same stage of de- velopment and there will be grammatical analogy but glossarial difference. Let the Italian and Latin be in different stages and there will be glossarial likeness and grammatical difference. b. Languages where both the ivords and grammatical structure differ, will be languages both widely distant from each other and in different stages, e.g. the Polynesian and the French. More frequently, however — a. It means languages, concerning which, a full and sufficient comparison both of their words and inflections having been made, a certain amount of difference may be predicated : or, b. It may simply mean languages, the affinities of which have not been recognized; the doctrine being that de non apparentibus et non existentibus eadem habenda est ratio : or, c. It may mean languages between which a cursory inspec- tion has failed to discover resemblances. Of the former there are but few instances. In the mind of the present writer there are none. The majority of the tongues that stand alone, and without either particular or general affinities, only do so because few investigators have studied them ; the neglect having arisen sometimes from the insufficiency of materials, some- times from the apparent unimportance of the language itself. The more, however, they are looked to, the less is their isolation. Another class of languages is in a somewhat different pre- dicament. These are, either geographically or in respect to their cultivation, at vast distances from each other ; say at the two extremes of the world of language. When these are compared, how can we expect any notable amount of likeness — of likeness, at least, that a cursory, or even a moderately close, inspection can discover ? For this we must look to the interjacent areas. With this exception, it must be obvious that the present writer holds that languages which differ in both words and gram- LANGUAGE AS A CRITERION. 31 raatical structure, either do not do so entirely, or (if they do) constitute extreme forms. Having thus considered the chief points of detail, upon which criticism was required, we may turn to the main question of the present section, viz., the value of the evidence of language as an instrument in ethnological inquiry. A common language is prima facie evidence in favour of a common lineage. But it is by no means conclusive. If natura- lists and anatomists have laid undue stress upon differences in the way of physical conformation, and, so doing, have disparaged the phenomena of speech, philologues and scholars, ignorant of physiology, have too often overrated them. The strongest instances of a mother-tongue being forgotten or un-learned, and a new language adopted in its stead, are to be found amongst the negroes of the jSTew World. In St. Domingo, the Black languages are French and Spanish; in the United States, English ; and in South America, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese. Here, however, the conditions were peculiar. The native lan- guage was no longer connected with the soil to which it was indigenous, but transplanted to a new area. Neither was it any single homogeneous form of speech that was obliterated, but, on the contrary, a multitude of mutually unintelligible tongues, which, under any circumstances, would have ended in the esta- blishment of a Lingua Franca. With the negro languages of the Xew World we have the maximum amount of change in speech with a minimum in the way of intermixture of blood. With the native American tribes, the phenomena of change are somewhat different. As a general rule, the number of individuals who speak one and the same language is remarkably small. Every now and then, however, in contact with these small patches of speech, is to be found some language spread over a considerable area, and spoken by several tribes. Some of these the missionaries have converted into Lingua Francas; it being a matter of observation that an American Indian learns an American language, no matter how unlike his own, easier than one from Europe. Many of the minor languages of the South American Republics and Brazil have been thus replaced by the Guarani. In each of the previous cases, there is the actual replacement of one language by another. In the Lingua Franca of Europe this is not always the case. In the Levant, the Lingua Franca, 32 LANGUAGE AS A CRITERION. is spoken by numerous Arabs, Greeks, etc. The native Arabic, however, and the native Greek, co-exist by the side of it. There is no extinction as yet. Nevertheless, the tendencies towards it have set-in, inasmuch as where two languages have to be learned, the less useful is the weakest, and has a chance of going to the wall. Sometimes, with two languages thus brought in contact with each other, we have the phenomenon of intermixture rather than obliteration — an intermediate tongue being formed out of the fusion of two. A priori, it seems likely that such should be the case often. In reality, however, the development of such a language as (say) C, out of languages A and B, is very rare indeed. The ordinary phenomenon is A with a certain amount of B, or B with a certain amount of A — the original character of the fundamental language being preserved. The English (for instance), for all its Latin elements, is German ; the French, for all its German elements, Latin. This suggests, that in language we have every degree of change, from simple intermixture to absolute obliteration and replacement. It also suggests that similarity of language is a matter of degree. There may be absolutely community of tongue, or there may be an admixture of say only one per cent. of foreign terms. Language is one of those signs of community of origin which is slow to be abolished — slower than most others — slower, perhaps (on the whole), than any other ; nevertheless, it is only a sign, and a sign capable of obliteration. Its relative permanence, when compared with other criteria, is a matter upon which there is a wide discrepancy of opinion ; the facts upon which our hypotheses must rest being by no means easily ascertained. It is only cer- tain that the questions involved in it are far too complicated to be disposed of by the application of any general rule. As new ideas are introduced, language changes. As new physical in- fluences are brought into action, the anatomical conformation of the human body becomes modified. That these latter forces have some influence is universally admitted ; though many competent authorities put a close limit on its extent. It is clear, however, that, within certain limits, both language and physical con- formation may change. They may change, too, at different rates — i.e., in a given period (say ten generations) the speech may be considerably modified, LANGUAGE AS A CRITERION. 33 whilst the anatomy of the speakers remains the same. And, vice versa, the physiognomies may alter, whilst language remains fixed. Every comparison of the difference of rate between such changes should be made on the merits of the particular question under notice, no general rule being sufficient. Next comes the question of limit. Here we may safely say that the range of change in language is wider than that of which physical form is susceptible. It is, clearly, easier for a negro to be converted into a Frenchman in the matter of language, than in that of colour. Extreme forms of language may more easily be converted into each other than extreme forms of physical conformation ; and this is all that can safely be said. It is by no means certain that a population of negroes, transplanted from a low alluvial swamp to an elevated mountain range, would not retain their language, without alteration, longer than they would their physical form — within certain limits. The contact of two languages has a greater tendency to effect the obliteration of one of them than the development of a tertium quid out of their fusion. The contact of different stocks in the way of phj-sical union has a greater tendency to effect a tertium quid than the oblitera- tion of one of the constituent elements. Erom this it follows that languages are much more either one thing or another than stocks, races, or families. The language of Radnorshire and Cornwall is much more English (as opposed to Welsh) than the blood or pedigree of its speakers is English ; indeed, as a general rule, the blood of a given population is more mixed than its language. This is because, whilst A and B, in the way of stock, blood, or pedigree, will give C (a true tertium quid, or a near approach to it), A and B, in the way of lan- guage, will only give themselves, — i. e. they will give no true tertium quid, nor any very close approach to it. These, how- ever, are matters that belong to the question of Man in general rather than to Language. Language, (as an instrument of criticism in ethnology) is the most permanent of the criteria of human relationship derivable from our moral constitution, and, in some cases, equally permanent with physical form, though, in the case of extreme changes, less so. It is not, however, to be supposed that these remarks exhaust the subject, and leave all objections answered. They only bring it to the point where it comes in contact with the ordinary and 34 LANGUAGE AS A CRITERION. current doctrines of the zoologist and physiologist; these being supposed to hold moderate, rather than extreme, views concerning the immutability of specific characters, and also to acquiesce, more or less, in the usual opinion concerning the sterility of hybrids. Where these views are ignored or objected to, a whole vista of possible objections opens upon us. For instance, the naturalist, who, admitting the fundamental unity of all forms of human speech, maintained such an hypo- thesis as the following, would be hard to refute. Let there be many allied species of the genus Homo ; let them be capable, either within certain limits, or to an unlimited extent, of prolific intermixture ; let one or more of these be characterized by the possession of language, either to the absolute exclusion of the rest, or the others having it in an imperfect and rudimentary con- dition ; let intermixture take place in such a manner that the species of the less perfect language become blended with the species of the more perfect, etc. Such a doctrine might fairly be said to account for many somewhat difficult phenomena, and, at the same time, to be beyond refutation. Again, — let allied but different species construct their language on the same principles, and, unless the original difference be too great, there will be a certain amount of likeness wholly inde- pendent of imitation. Similar trains of reasoning against the ordinary inference deducible from a fundamental unity of language could (if this were the proper place for them) be pointed out. The preceding, however, stand as samples ; the position laid down in the text, that the "use of languages really cognate is — a strong presump- tion of kindred race" being correct. 35 SECTION II. Nations of Europe at the earliest periods of history — Eastern origin of several proved by their languages — Indo-European languages — Is the Celtic allied to them? — Denied by several writers — Motives for the discussion of this question. At that era when the earliest dawning of history begins to dispel the mists which had hovered over the first ages of the world, we find the different races of people in Europe nearly in the same rela- tive situations which they now occupy, and we can discern scarcely a trace, even in the oldest memo- rials, of those wanderings of tribes which may be supposed to have filled this region of the world with inhabitants. In the remotest quarters of Europe, towards the setting sun, we are told by Herodotus, that the Celtee and Cynetae dwelt about the sources of the Ister and the city — perhaps rather the moun- tains — of Pyrene, and it is unknown during how many ages they had occupied the region thus de- scribed, before the father of history obtained these earliest notices of them. It would seem, however, that before the Trojan war even Britain must have had inhabitants, since tin was at that time in use, which was brought from Britain by Phoenician traders. a We know likewise that the Teutonic * This at least would appear from the account given by Herodotus of the Phoenician commerce. 36 EASTERN ORIGIN OF nations inhabited the northern countries of Europe at a period not long subsequent to the age of Hero- dotus. Pytheas, the navigator of Marseilles, who was nearly contemporary with Aristotle, is well known to have made a voyage of discovery towards the north beyond the Pillars of Hercules, by far the most ancient that is recorded in that direction. In the course of this voyage he visited Britain, and even obtained some knowledge of Thule, or Iceland, and of the coast of the Baltic sea. Pytheas men- tions the Guttones, who inhabited the shores of an estuary which must have been the mouth of the Vistula, and who carried on with their neighbours the Teutones a traffick in amber, a native production of their country. b The Teutones are well known under that name ; the Guttones are probably the Goths ; and thus we already discern in the north of Europe two of the most celebrated nations belonging to the Germanic family, in an age when even the name of Eome had scarcely become known to the Greeks. (6) The Finns and the Sclavonians are gene- rally supposed to have been the latest among the great nations who formed the population of Europc. (7) But Finningia and the Fenni are men- tioned by Tacitus and Pliny, who place them beyond b M Pytheas Guttonibus Gcrmaniic genti accoli frstuarium occani Mento- nomon nomine spatio stadiorum : ab hoc did navigation* 1 insulani abesse Abalum: illo vcrc fluctibus advehi, it esse concreti maris purgamentum : incolas pro ligno ad ignem uti co proxiniisqnc Tcutonis venders. Huic et Timams credidit, Bed insulam Baltiam vocavit." Plin. Hist. Nat. lib. xxwii. cap. 2. The island of Abalus, or Haltia, may be Abo. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 37 Germany and towards the Vistula. In the age of these writers the Finns were situated near the eastern parts of the Baltic, and had probably extended themselves already as far as those dis- tricts, where their descendants were known under the name of Beormahs or Biarmiers, in the times of Ohthere and St. Olaf. The Sclavonians, indeed, are not early distinguished in Europe under that name, but by the appellation of Wends, given to the Sclavonic race by the Germans, we recognise them in the geographical descriptions of Pliny and Tacitus, who mention the Venedi, and place them near the Finns, and on the borders of Finningia. There the OueviScu, or Winidse, are stationed by Ptolemy and Jornandes, and the last of these writers appropriates expressly the name of Winidee to the Sclavonic nations. It is besides highly probable that the Eussians were known to Herodotus, and that they are mentioned by him under a term little varying from that which is now applied to the same people by their Finnish neighbours ; for the Finns distinguish the Muscovites by the name of Eosso-lainen, or Eussian people, and call themselves and nations of their own kindred Suoma-lainen. The word Eosso-lainen heard and written by a Greek would be Ehoxolani. The Ehoxolani, who are first described by Herodotus, are said in the ago of Strabo to have inhabited the plains near the sources of the Tanais and the Borysthenes. It appears, then, that the European races, in the 38 EASTERN ORIGIN OF earliest periods in which we have any information respecting them, held nearly the same relative situations as the tribes of people who are chiefly descended from them still continue to occupy. Thus far the facts which history developes afford no evidence against the hypothesis, that different parts of the world were originally filled with indigenous inhabitants. It would be vain to attempt, merely from traits of resemblance in some customs or superstitions, or even from the doctrines of druidism and the mythology of the sagas, to ascribe a common origin to the nations of Europe and those of the East. By a similar mode of reasoning we might perhaps as well deduce the Turks and the Tartars from Arabia, and the Buddhists of northern Asia from India or Ceylon. Nor can historical traditions fill up the void. We can only hope by an analysis of the European languages to obtain a proof, that these races of people, having preserved common elements of speech, were connected in origin with the nations of Asia. The languages of the Finnish nations, the Lap- landers, the Hungarians, the Ostiaks, and other Siberian Tschudes, have been compared and care- fully analysed by several German and other northern writers, particularly by Gyarmathi, Adelung, Gat- terer, and Julius Klaproth. The result that appears to have been sufficiently established is, as I have elsewhere remarked, that all these nations sprang from one original. The primitive seat of this great THE CELTIC NATIONS. 39 race of men, or rather the earliest station in which we can discover them by historical inquiries, is the country which lies between the chain of Caucasus and the southern extremities of the Uralian mountains. But our chief concern at present is with the Indo-European tribes. That term was designed to include a class of nations, many of them inhabitants of Europe, whose dialects are more or less nearly related to the ancient language of India. This dis- covery was originally made by comparing the Sanskrit with the Greek and Latin. A very con- siderable number of words were found to be common to these languages, and a still more striking affinity was proved to exist between the grammatical forms respectively belonging to them. It is difficult to determine which idiom, the Latin or the Greek, approaches most nearly to the Sanskrit, but they are all evidently branches of one stem. It was easily proved, that the Teutonic as well as the Sclavonian dialects, and the Lettish or Lithuanian which are in some respects intermediate between the former, stand nearly in the same relation to the ancient language of India. Several intermediate languages, as the Zend and other Persian dialects, the Armenian and the Ossete, which is one of the various idioms spoken by the nations of Caucasus, have been supposed by writers who have examined their .structure and etymology to belong to the same stock c . (8) c Klaproth, Asia Polyglotta. 40 EASTERN ORIGIN OF Thus a near relation was proved to subsist between a considerable number of dialects spoken by nations who are spread over a great part of Europe and Asia. It may be remarked that the more accurate the examination of these languages has been, the more extensive and deeply rooted their affinity has been discovered to be. Those who are acquainted with Professor Jacob Grimm's able and lucid Analysis of the Teutonic idioms, will fully admit the truth of this remark. The historical inference hence deduced is, that the European nations, who speak dialects referrible to this class of languages, are of the same race with the Indians and other Asiatics to whom the same observation may be applied ; and this conclusion seems to have been admitted by writers who in general have dis- played little indulgence towards the visionary speculations of philologists/ d The Edinburgh Reviewers, in a late critique, to which the observation in the text may particularly be applied, have remarked : " We are free to confess that the result of our inquiries has been to produce a conviction in our minds that the affinities known to subsist between the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and German languages are perfectly irreconcilable with any other supposition than that of their having all been derived from a common source or primitive lan- guage spoken by a people of whom the Indians, Greeks, Latins, and Germans were equally the descendants." Ed. Rev. No. 102, p. 562. Baron Cuvicr has admitted the same inference as far as it relates to the Indians and the Greeks, which is equivalent to its general admission. lie says, "The Pelasgi were originally from India, of which the Sanskrit roots that occur abundantly in their language do not permit us to doubt. It is probable that by crossing the mountains of Persia they penetrated as far as the Caucasus; and that from this point, instead of continuing their route by land, they embarked on the Black Sea, and made a descent upon the coasts of Greece." In another pas- sage of the same lecture, M. Cuvier observes, "that the Sanskrit language is the most regular that is known, and thai it is especially remarkable for the circumstance that it contain- the roots of the various Languages of Europe, of THE CELTIC NATIONS. 41 The inquiry has frequently been made, whether the Celtic dialects belong to the class of languages thus allied, for which the term Indo-European is the most suitable designation. The question is an interesting one, because it has a particular bearing on the origin of the nations of Western Europe, including the British Isles, as well as a more exten- sive one on the physical history of mankind. We have to inquire whether the same arguments which prove most of the other nations in this quarter of the world to have sprung from an eastern origin, may also be applied to that stock whose branches at the earliest period of history were spread over Gaul and Britain, and a part of Spain. Writers on the his- tory of languages and the antiquity of nations have been divided with respect to this question. Ade- lung and Murray have regarded the Celtic as a branch of the Indo-European stock. But the latter of these writers has passed over the subject in a very cursory manner, or rather, he has left that part of his work which relates to the Celtic dialects in an incomplete state. And Adelung, who has been followed in this particular by many foreign writers, has committed the error of supposing the Welsh tongue to be a descendant from the language of the BelgaB, and not from that of the Celta?, who inhabited the central parts of Gaul, and, as it is generally supposed, of Britain. (9) A want of access the Greek, Latin, German, and Sclavonic." (Baron Cuvier's Lectures on the Natural Sciences.) He has omitted the Celtic nations, the earliest inhabitants of Western Europe, and perhaps regards them as aborigines. 42 EASTERN ORIGIN OF to information respecting the Celtic dialects has prevented the learned men of Germany from form- ing correct opinions on their relations to each other, and hence it has arisen, that this department in the history of languages — a subject which has been principally investigated by German writers — still remains but imperfectly elucidated. Many of the continental writers, among whom may be mentioned Frederick Schlegel and Malte Brun, seem to have believed the Celtic to be a language of a distinct class, entirely unconnected with the other idioms of Europe; and in England the same opinion has been expressed by several well-known authors. Mr. Pinkerton has declared in the most positive terms that the Celtse were a people entirely distinct from the rest of mankind. He says that their language, 11 the real Celtic, is as remote from the Greek as the Hottentot from the Lapponic.'' " The mythology of the Celtse," adds Mr. Pinkerton, "resembled, in all probability, that of the Hottentots, or others the rudest savages, as the Celtae anciently were, and are little better at present, being incapable of any pro- gress in society." A late writer, in a work of extensive research, at the conclusion of a chapter, in which he has refuted some of the opinions of Pelloutier and Bullet with respect to the Celtsc and their language, thus sums up the general result of his inquiries : — "With regard," he says, "to the Eleeearcnei into the Origin and Affinity of the principal Language! of i and Europe, by Lieut -Col. Van* Kennedy, etc. London, 1828, p. 85. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 43 languages of Asia, " I may adopt the words of Davis in the preface to his Dictionary, after substituting the word nullam for manifestam. { Ausira affirmare linguam Britannicam (Celticam) turn vocibus, turn phrasibus et orationis contextu, turn literarum pronunciatione, nullam cum orientalibus habere con- gruentiam et affinitatem.' f The Celtic, therefore,'' continues the same writer, "when divested of all words which have been introduced into it by con- quest and religion, is a perfectly original language : but this originality incontrovertibly proves that neither Greek, Latin, or the Teutonic dialects, nor Arabic, Persian, or Sanskrit, were derived from the Celtic, since these languages have not any affinity whatever with that tongue." In the first edition of my Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, which was published in 1813, fifteen years before the work from which the preceding extract has been taken, I ventured to make the following statement on this subject, the result of what appeared to myself an adequate examination : — " We have remarked above that there is histo- rical proof of the connexion of the Sclavonian, German, and Pelasgian races with the ancient Asiatic nations. Kow the languages of these races and the Celtic, although differing much from each f " I dare to affirm that the British or Celtic language has no connection or affinity with the languages of the East, either in words, or phrases, or the construction of sentences, or the pronunciation of letters." 4 i EASTERN ORIGIN OF other, and constituting the four principal depart- ments of dialects which prevail in Europe, are yet so far allied in their radical elements, that we may with certainty pronounce them to be branches of the same original stock. The resemblance is re- markable in the general structure of speech, and in those parts of the vocabulary which must be sup- posed to be the most ancient, as in words descrip- tive of common objects and feelings, for which expressive terms existed in the primitive ages of society. We must therefore infer, that the nations to whom these languages belonged emigrated from the same quarter.'' g The extent which my work necessarily assumed, and the apparent incongruity of filling up any con- siderable part of a physiological essay with glossaries or remarks on grammatical forms, combined with other reasons in preventing me from entering at full into the proof of these assertions, and the same cir- cumstances operated likewise at the publication of the second edition. I have, however, had the sub- ject occasionally in view during the interval, and have collected from time to time materials for a treatise upon it, which many circumstances have at * Researches, etc., p. 534. The following note was appended to this passage : — "The author of the review of Wilkins's Sanskrit Grammar, in the thir- teenth volume of the Edinburgh Review, lias given a comparative vocabulary of the Sanskrit, Persic, Latin, and German Languages, which completely evinces the truth of the position here affirmed, as far as the above languages arc concerned. But the proof would have In en more striking, if he had added the Celtic dialects and the Greek. I have made an attempt to supply this deficiency, which I intend to make public." THE CELTIC NATIONS. 45 length determined me to lay before the public. Among these may be mentioned the decided opinion advanced in the work from which I have above cited a passage, proving, unless I am mistaken, that there is not yet sufficient information before the public on a subject of considerable moment in respect to the history of the human race, and the relation of its various branches to each other. An- other motive to this determination has been the advice of some learned friends with whom I have conversed on the subject of the following treatise, and particularly of the two highly distinguished men to whom it is dedicated. The main object which I have had in view in the composition of this work has been to institute such a comparison of the Celtic dialects with the languages allowed to belong to the Indo-European stock, as may tend to illustrate the relation of the Celtic people to the rest of mankind. In the course, however, of this inquiry, I have incidentally dis- covered that the relations between the languages above mentioned and the Celtic, is such as not merely to establish the affinity of the respective nations, but likewise to throw light upon the struc- ture of the Indo-European languages in general, and particularly to illustrate some points of ob- scurity, to which many writers on grammar and etymology have adverted without fully elucidating them. The following pages will contain such remarks as I have thought requisite on this point of view. 40 THE TEUTOXKs AXD GUTTONES. NOTES TO SECTION IT. (6). Pytheas. — That Pytheas met with Germans on the shores of either the Baltic, or the northern parts of the German Ocean, is nearly certain. If he did not do this, he at least met with populations who came in contact with Germans. Whether the evidence of the text prove this is another question. I hold that it does not. 1 . It is by no means certain that the text of Pliny makes the Teutons the neighbours to the Guttones. Instead of being rendered the "near Germans," it may mean the "Germans who are nearest." These may be very distant. 2. As little is it certain that the Teutons of Pliny were Germans. In the eyes of the earlier writers of the empire, the word Teuton meant "belonging to the same family as the Teutones conquered by Marius." Who they were was not exactly known. At first they seem to have been considered Gauls ; but when Gaul became better known, as it was in the time of Julius Ca)sar, and no Teutons, eo nomine, appeared therein, it became necessary to look for them further north. In Strabo's time they passed for Germans; yet, even in Germany, eo nomine, no Teutons were ever found. Hence it is neither certain that all the writers who used the word Teuton meant thereby a native of Germany, nor that those who meant that were correct in their notions. 3. The chief reason, however, for the widely-spread doctrine that the Teutones were Germans, is the fact of the modern German being called Dcutsch, Dutch, Tydske, etc. Whatever be the forms this name takes, it gives us the root Tout- ; since the sch, eh, she, etc., are neither more nor less than the -ish in words like srlf'ish. If BO, Dutch •= Tent-on. THE TEUTONES AND GUTTONES. 47 Plausible as this looks at first, it is the very worst reason that can be given. The word Butch could never have existed in the time of the Teutones, any more than the words Vulgar Tongue could have existed at the same time. Diot- means people, diot-isc means popular, and when the vernacular language of the Germans (as it did after the introduction of Christianity) came to be contrasted with the language of Rome, the Dutch or popular tongue came to be contrasted with the Literary, or Latin. How then could the Teutones have been Dutch in the time of Marius, long before such a contrast existed ? 4. Upon the words Germanice genti no great stress can be laid. The Germania of even Tacitus, who wrote much more precisely than did Pliny, contained populations who, in our eyes, would not be Germans. The JEstyii are specially stated to have spoken a language other than German. JSTow no two populations, bear- ing different names, can more legitimately be identified with each other than these JEstyii with the very Guttones under notice. Both names belonged to the amber country, and we shall soon see that special reasons can be given for believing that they were both borne by the same tribes. These are points, however, which, in present criticism, are but briefly noticed. They have been considered fully, and perhaps over- fully, in more than one work of the present writer's, especially in his ethnological edition of the Germania of Tacitus. Nor, indeed, are they of fundamental importance here ; the main fact that Dr. Prichard insists on, viz. that at the beginning of the historical period the nations of Europe occupied the same relative situations which they occupy at the present time, being correct. There were Germans on the Baltic ; though it may not be the text of Pliny upon which the belief in their existence best rests. There is a single word in Strabo, -which, pointing to the earliest visitors of that sea, has, in the eyes of the philological ethnologist, the same value that a single fossil, in an otherwise obscure formation, has in those of the geologist. It is the word fLsialoi, which is, doubtless, neither more nor less than JEst-yii (the form in Tacitus), which is the German East, even as it is in the present terms, Esthen, Est-land, etc. = Estonia. The men who speak, in the nineteenth century, of certain eastern popula- tions of the Baltic as Este, must be the descendants, in speech at least, of the men who, in the time of Tacitus, called the 48 THE FINS, ETC. same Este by the name sEstyii, and, in the time of Pytheas, flsialoi. Whether they meant the same people, is another ques- tion. Probably they did not; they simply meant some one east of themselves. These might be the occupants of the modern Estonia, but they might also be the occupants of East Frussia and Courland • as they probably were. At the present time the English district of Northumberland begins at the Tyne. In the time of Alfred it began at the Ilumber, as its name denotes. (7). The Fins supposed to have been the latest amongst the great nations who formed the population of Europe. — The {so-called) Fin Hypothesis. — Since this was written a great change has come over the doctrine concerning the Fins ; a chaDge which has given inordinate and unexpected prominence to an otherwise obscure population. By Fin is meant not only the Finlander of Finland, but a great deal more. All the populations whose languages be- long to the same class are, in the eyes of the ethnologist, Eins. Now these languages arc the following : — The Zap of the Laplanders. — That the Laps were Eins would never have been doubted had it not been for the difference be- tween the two populations in respect to their physical confor- mation. This was considered sufficiently great to indicate the propriety of great caution in the comparison of the other signs of ethnological affinity. And, consequently, it was not until the investigations had become close, minute, and searching, that, in the matter of both grammar and words, the place of the Lap language amongst the other members of the F'in class was un- reservedly admitted. The proper Ein has a great number of cases — no less than fifteen. The Lap was long supposed to have no more than eight or nine. Ilask, however, shewed that several forms which appeared in Fan as the cases of nouns, could, with a little care, be detected in Lap, under the guise of adverbs. At the present moment, when few lan- guages of equal political and literary unimportance are better known or more carefully studied than the Lap, there is no division of opinion on the question as to their place in the Ein class. The Magyar of Hungary. — The Pin affinities of this in- teresting language have been doubted, and, by some, they are doubted even now. The objections, however, appear to rest on patriotic rather than scientific grounds; the Magyars THE FINS. 49 themselves being by no means flattered by a connection with tribes so inferior to themselves in civilization and physical development as the Laplanders. Consequently, affinities of a different character have been set up by more than one Magyar scholar. Sometimes a Circassian, at others a Tibetan, pedigree has been claimed. The Fin alliance, however, which was pointed out by two able philologues of the last century — Sainovics and Gyarmathi — and which is recognised, though not without a certain amount of reserve, by the author of the Decline and Fall of the Eoman Empire, is not to be set aside. Wo competent judge, of other than Magyar origin, denies it ; but, on the contrary, all admit it expressly — KLaproth, Adelung, Prichard, etc. The Estonian of Estonia. — With this, as with all the forthcoming populations, there is neither doubt nor difficulty. No one has denied their affinities with one another, nor yet their affinities with the Fins of Finland. As a branch of the Estonians, we may add — The Liefs, a population of about 2,100 souls. They gave their name to the Government of Zu-onia (Z« 1£ > ^5TT> ^TT> the following, ai, oi, 6, au. There being some uncertainty as to the exact pronunciation of vowels in ancient languages, it seems allowable to use those vowels as representatives of each other, which in fact generally are found in corresponding words, provided this method is not used in such a manner as to produce an appearance of resemblance in words which are not in reality cognate. 02 BRITONS OF ARMORICA. NOTES TO SECTION III. (10). Britons of Armor ica. — The doctrine that the Bretons of Armorica are descendants from certain Britons of Britain, who, at the break-up of the Roman authority in the island, passed over to Armorica, has undergone some remarkable changes. The external evidence to the fact is insufficient. Eginhardt wrote more than four hundred years after the date assigned to the event ; Beda, who is not mentioned in the text, three hundred. Gregory of Tours lived nearer to the period in question. He also lived closer to the area upon which the migration was made. Nevertheless, his statement dates more than a century after its epoch. Practically, then, there is no satisfactory testimony at all. More than this, there are special reasons for distrusting the evidence we have. The writer who knew that on the two sides of the British Channel one and the same language was spoken and that in both cases this language was British, would have been either far behind or far before his co temporaries, had he failed to account for it by a migration. Either the Welsh would come from Armorica, or the Armoricans from Wales. I hold, then, that what we are in the habit of looking upon as testimony, is no testimony at all, but only so much inference. If so, and if there were no Welsh conquest of Brittany, the Breton, as it is now spoken, represents the ancient language of Gaul — Brittany being a portion of that country that maintained its language against the Romans, just as Wales did in Britain ; BRITONS OF ARMORICA. 63 both being impracticable, and, comparatively speaking, inac- cessible districts. There is, however, one difficulty connected with this view ; a difficulty I by no means undervalue. Neither (as we shall see anon) have others. The best evidence to the amount of likeness or difference between the Welsh and Breton, is to the following effect. Let two uneducated individuals, one a Welshman, and the other a Breton, converse, and it is nearly certain that they shall be mutually unintelligible, especially if either be at all provincial in the utterance, or the subject require an admixture of French words on one side, or English on the other. In this case, the languages are two. Let, however, two educated men, prepared for finding simi- larities, and framing their language accordingly, partly by choosing a simple subject, and partly by omitting foreign words, hold intercourse, and the languages become one; i.e. the two speakers can mutually understand each other. Such being the case, the likeness between the two tongues becomes apparent. It is greater, however, than what it should be if the languages were separated from each other for so long a period as the doctrine that the Breton is of Gallic origin requires. On the other hand, it is, there or thereabouts, the amount of difference that the fourteen hundred years between the expulsion of the Romans from Britain and the present time would make probable. In short, if the Bretons and Welsh were separated from one another ab initio, the difference should be greater than it is. On the other hand, languages change at different rates — some quickly, some slowly, some very slowly. Why may not the Breton and Welsh have been the slowest amongst the slow. A very clear and critical investigator of these matters, ignoring the so-called evidence that deduces the Bretons from Wales, and, at the same time, thoroughly recognising the complications engendered by the over-great likeness between the Welsh and Armorican, has suggested a reversal of the old doc- trine, and derived the Welsh from Brittany. England he be- lieves to have been, under the dominion of the Eomans, wholly Roman. Wales he believes to have been as Roman as England. Both he believes to have been deserted, or, at least, left defence- less. Both he believes to have been ravaged, and, subsequently, G4 BRITONS OF ARMORICA. occupied by piratical invaders from the continent. Of these, however, he makes the Angles only a portion. They occupied the eastern and northern counties. Meanwhile, the Bretons of Armorica reduced "Wales. For the fuller exposition of this view, see Mr. Wright in Transactions of the Historical Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, vol. viii. THE KELTJR OF HERODOTUS. G5 SUPPLEMENTAKY CHAPTEE. THE KELTIC NATIONS OF ANTIQUITY. SECTION I. THE TEUM KELTIC GALAT.E AND GALLI. The author who first uses the word Kelt is Herodotus, after whose time the term appears as often as the subject gives us reason to expect it in the Greek writers in general — in the Greek, but not in the Latin. The Latins used another term ; not, indeed, to the absolute exclusion of the word Celtce, but still another term. Celtce was the Greek name. The Latin name was Galli. To what population and what area did the Greek term apply ? This is a point which requires close consideration. The Kelts of Herodotus belonged to the Spanish Peninsula. This is not the current doctrine. It is the inference, however, from the text. " The river Ister runs through the whole of Europe, begin- ning with the Kelts and at the city of Pyrene." "Without going into the details of this passage, we may safely say that it points to Spain. " The Kelts, next to (/juera) the Kynetae, are the most western population of Europe." — " The Kelts are frontagers to the Kynetae, who are the most western population of Europe." This does the same. " The Kelts are beyond the Pillars of Hercules." Consider- ing the great extent to which maritime enterprise preceded overland explorations, we may reasonably suppose that a coast- ing voyage is implied in the words " beyond the Pillars of 66 THE KELT^E OF HERODOTUS. Hercules." If so, we must look for the Kelts of Herodotus somewhere on the sea-coast to the west of the Straits of Gibraltar. Whether they are to be sought in the extreme west of Spain or Portugal is uncertain ; since it is uncertain who the Kyneta3 were. They may have been occupants of the continent, as the word " frontager to the Kynetae" (o/juopooven) imply. But they may also have been Irish islanders — these being, truly and actually, the most western population of Europe. Or the geography may, altogether, be too loose to justify us in such mi nut ice as the exact relations between the Kelts and Kynetae imply. Be this as it may, the most western area beyond the Pillars of Hercules, which is not also the extreme western part of Europe, is the district between the rivers Guadalquivir and Guadiana, or the western portion of Andalusia. Let us say that it is Seville and part of Algarve ; and then ask how far this position coincides with the accounts of the later geographers. It coincides most closely. Strabo especially states that the chief population of the Anas (Guadiana) is that of the Keltae (lib. iii. p. 139) : " the Anas bends towards the south, defining the Mesopotamia, of which the Keltoe are the chief occupants." Of the other Kelts in Spain and Portugal further notice will be taken hereafter. The present remarks merely apply to the origin of the name. It seems in Herodotus to mean the Kelts of Strabo, i.e. the Kelts of Spain rather than the Kelts of Gaul. From what language did it reach the informants of Herodotus ? From one of three. a. It may have been Keltic, i.e. have been taken from the language of the population to which it applied, just as the word English is taken from the language of England. b. Or it may have been Phenician, i.e. taken from the lan- guage of the Phenician traders with Spain, just as the word British is taken from the language of any of the commercial nations who talk of British rather than of English goods. e. Or it may have been the language of the neighbouring tribes; just as Saxon is the Welsh name of an Englishman. I think that, in the first instance, at least, it was in the latter predicament. If so, who were their neighbours ? The Iberians of the eastern part of Spain. The evidence, then, as far as it goes, is in favour of deducing the word Kelt from the Iberic. THE KELT-IBERIANS. G7 The further we go the more we shall find confirmations of this view. There are Kelts in the north-west as well as in the south-west of Spain ; about what is called, by Pliny, the Celtic Promontory. Who are the frontagers here r The Iberians of Leon and xVsturias, even as the Iberians of Grenada and Cordova were the frontagers of the Keltae of Seville. There are Kelt-Iberians in the interjacent districts. Wherever, then, there is a Spanish Kelt, there is, by his side, a Spanish Iberian to call him Keltic. Add to which, that it is the Iberian that lies between him and the classical countries of Rome and Greece ; so that it is from the Iberian that the Greeks and Latins get their names for the populations further west; just as it is from England that the Europeans of the continent get the names for Wales and the several parts of Wales. Again, the name Kelt is general. Has it not been applied to three populations ? Now, in the earlier periods of their history, nations rarely apply general names to themselves. They usually know themselves as so many particular tribes. It is their neigh- bours who apply to them collective designations. So much, then, in favor of the name Kelt being Iberic in origin. It may have been the name of some of the Kelts ; but it was the Iberians who gave it its general import, just as it was the Romans who got the Hellenes called Greeks. It may, also, have been taken by the Greeks from the Phe- nicians, rather than from the Iberians direct. Nevertheless, it was from the Iberians that it previously originated. Can we speculate on its meaning ? It looks, at present, as if it meant western. It scarcely, however, means this, as we shall soon see. The Iberians extend along the coast of the Mediterranean (their inland extension need not now be investigated) into France, where, in the parts about the mouth of the Rhone, they come in contact with the Ligurians. The exact details of their fron- tier are unimportant. Strabo writes that all the parts beyond (i.e. west of) the Rhone, were called Iberia. Scylax writes that on the west of the same river, the Ligyes and Iberes were intermixed (/jivyaSes). Of course these Iberians extended to some distance inland, and where their area ended, that of the Gauls began. Now these Gauls are known to the Greeks as Kelts, being, at the same G8 THE TERM KELTIC. time, the Gauls in the closest geographical contact with the Iberians — those Iberians lying between them and the sea. Such is the history of the word during the time that it retains its original and special sense; during the time that it applies to certain populations of the Spanish Peninsula, and some of the Gauls. So long as it does this, it applies to a popu- lation conterminous with the Iberians. It is Iberic, then, in its relation to the informants of Herodotus, and Iberic in respect to its general application. Yet it need not be Iberic in origin. The word Greek is, to us, a Latin word ; yet it is no Latin word in its origin. It is the name of a particular population opposite Italy, and, as such, prominent in the eyes of Italians ; so prominent as to supply an Italian name, destined to be diffused over the world, to the Hellenes of Athens, Chios, and elsewhere. Yet the word is only Latin to a certain extent — to the extent that the Latin language generalised and promulgated it. The same may be the case with the word before us. One of the several frontagers of the Iberians may have called itself Kelt, even as one single population of Hellas called itself Greek, and this one may have supplied a name applicable to all the others. "Was this actually the case ? "We have seen how far the word is Iberic : let us now ask how far it is Keltic. Caesar wrote that the tribes who were separated by the Garonne from the (Iberian) Aquitani were called in Latin Galli, in their own language Celtcd. Some Kelts, then, designated themselves thus. From these the Iberians, and, perhaps, also the Greeks of Marseilles, and the Phenicians, took the name, and gave it a general application — general enough to apply to certain occu- pants of the Spanish peninsula in the time of Herodotus, for this amount of generality it must have had. That it was a geographical term, and used in anything like a technical or scientific sense so early, is improbable. That it was a general name used by the Kelts themselves, wherever they were, is also unlikely. The Belgians and Britons show no trace of its use. I submit, then, that the Keltic tribes of Spain were called Kelts because the Iberians, who knew them to belong to a different stock to themselves, and to the same as their frontagers in Gaul, THE TERM KELTIC. 09 so called theru, and that they bo called them because certain Galli with whom they came in contact called themselves so. This is, there or thereabouts, the history of the word Greek, A single tribe applied it to itself. The Romans promulgated it. This, too, is the general history of collective names Popu- lations know themselves only in their details. It is their neigh- hours who give them the names, which are, at once, distinctive and general. On this principle it is probable that it was the Kelts who gave the Spaniards the name of Iberians — the Kelts, or, perhaps, the Phenicians. Certainly, not the Iberians themselves. Is Keltm the same word as Galatce? The fact that the author of the treatise Be Mundo, attributed to Aristotle, calls the Gulf of Lyons koXtto? TaXairicos, is evidence in favor of its being so. And such is the current opinion. Is Galat-ce the same word as Gall-i. The fact of the Keltic plurals being formed by the addition of -at is evidence, etc. If so, the roots of the two forms are Gal- and Kel-, the -t being inflexional. This, also, is the usual doctrine. If so, the promulgators of the word — Iberian, Greek, or Pheni- cian — took the word in its inflected rather than its radical state. SECTION II. DID ANY POPULATION OTHER THAN KELTIC BEAR THAT NAME, OR ONE LIKE IT ? A question of great practical importance must now be asked. Were there any populations other than those belonging to the class before us, designated by the name of Kelt ? Or were there any called Galli, or Galatae ? Or were there any bearing the name of some Keltic tribe ? If there were, it is obvious that false inferences may be drawn; inasmuch as populations connected by name only may pass for being more nearly allied than they really are. This is a question that should always be asked in ethnology — not now and then, but invariably. It is a matter of fact (the explanation of which is foreign to the present notice) that with a very large proportion of ethnological names the phenomenon of repetition independent of connexion appears. 70 APPLICATION OF THE TERMS Take, for instance, the name Cambrian, or Kymry. It is cer- tainly so like the name Cimmerian, that, if it "were not for the vast geographical interval, the two populations who bear it would be connected. Indeed, by some writers, they are con- nected. So that the instance in question may be said to prove too much. But they are Cumbrie in Africa. "Will any one connect these with either Cambrians or Cimmerians, except in respect to the sound of their names ? Take, for instance, German. There is a population so called in Spain, and a population with a name nearly identical in more than one part of Asia — Cartnan-m, CaramanAa, etc. Take Prussia. Word for word this is as like Frisia {Fries- land) as Fars is like Persia — a word with which it is identical. Does any one, however, connect i^V^s-land and Pruss-iu ? We do not now, inasmuch as we know that they differ. But what should we do if we knew nothing but the names ? Probably identify them. What, then, if there be populations as little Keltic as the Caramani-ans are Germ-an, or as the Cumbrie are Cymry, or as the Prussi-ans are Frisi-an or Pers-ian, but which, nevertheless, bear names as like the form Kelt, etc., as these are to their fellows? We must look closely at them before we draw our inferences. But what if ancient writers have identified them with the true Kelts ? In that case we must look closer still. In few fields of research is this general caution more neces- sary than in the one before us. The Kelts, certainly, seem to be more than ordinarily ubiquitous. Let us ask whether something of the kind in question may not be the reason for it. I. Dextro Suevici maris litore JEstiorum gentes alluuntur : quibas ritus habitusque Suevorum, lingua Britannicae propior. Matrem deum venerantur : insigne super stitionis, formas aprorum gestant. Id pro armis omnique tuteld : securum decs cultorem etiam inter hostes praistat. Paries ferri, frequens fustium usus. Fru- menta ceterosque fructus patientius, qudm pro solitd Germanorum inertia, laborant. Sed et mare scrutantur ; ac soli omnium succi- num, quod ipsi glesum vocant, inter vada atque in ipso litore legunt. Nee, qua natura, quceve ratio gignat, ut barbaris, qucesitum com- pertumve. Diu quinetiam inter cetera ejectamenta maris jaccbat, donee luxuria nostra dedit nomen : ipsis in nullo usu ; rude legitur, inform* pcrfertur, pretiumque mirantes accipiunt. Suecum tamen arbor urn esse iutelligas, quia terrena quccdam atque etiam volucria KELTIC AND GALLIC. 71 animalia plerumque interlucent, quce implicata humore, mox dur- escente materid, cluduntur. Fecundiora igitur nemora lucosque, sicut Orientis secretis, ubi thura balsamaque sudantur, ita Occi- dentis insults terrisque inesse crediderim, quce vicini solis radiis expressa atque liquentia in proximum mare labuntur, ac vi tempes- tatum in adversa litora exundant. Si naturam succini admoto igne tentes, in modum tedce accenditur, alitque flammam pinguem et olentem ; mox ut in picem resinamve lenteseit. {Taciti Germ., § 45.) What do we infer from this ? Some have inferred that the language of the amber-gatherers of East Prussia was actually a Keltic form of speech. But what if Britannica mean Prussian ? Let us see whether it may not do so. The forms of the tenth and eleventh centuries are Prus&i, Pru^i, and Prufeci, showing that the sound was that of ts, or tsh, or, possibly, even shtsh rather than of a simple -s ; a matter of some importance, as it helps to account for the t required to make the root Pruss- like the root Brit-. Next comes the fact that we find the word taking an adjec- tival form in -en, in which case the s becomes th. The substan- tival forms are Pruzzi, Prussi, Pruscia, Pruschia, Prutzci, Prussia ; but the adjectival ones are Prutheni, Pruthenia, Pru- thenicus. We are now getting near the form Britannieus ; and it must be remembered that the form thus similar, is the form almost always used when the language is spoken of — Lingua Pruthenica, not Prussa. The root Puss undergoes a similar series of transformation — Russi, Russia, Ruthenicus, Ruthenia. All this, however, it may be said, applies to the Latin lan- guage, and is, consequently, out of place ; the question being whether Slavonian forms of the root Prus- can become sufficiently like an equivalent modification of the root Brit- to create con- fusion. They can. The Slavonic word which a German would translate by Brittisc, and a Roman by Britannica, would be ~Brit-skaja, and the similar equivalent to Pruttisc and Pruthenica, ~Prut-sJcaja. How like, and how different, the two adjectives may be, is shown in the following columns : — English . . British . . Prussian. Latin . . . Britannica . Pruthenica. Anglo-Saxon . Bryttisce . . Pryttisce. Slavonic . . Britshaja . . Prutskaja. 72 THE GOTHINI GALLIC. But the B has to be accounted for. "Why did not Tacitus write Yritanniccc if his informants spoke about Pruthenians ? This is answered by the following extract, which shows that a JJrut in Prussia (Pruthenia), as in Britain (Britannia), was the eponymus of the nation — "Duces fuere duo, nempe Bruteno et Wudawutto, quorum alterum scilicet Bruteno sacerdotem crearunt, alterum scilicet Wudawutto in regem elegerunt . . Rex Wudawutto duodecim liberos masculos habebat, quorum nomina fuerunt Litpho, Saimo, Sudo, JSTaidro, Scalawo, Natango, Bartho, Galindo, AVarmo, Hoggo, Pomeszo, Chelmo . . . "Warmo nonus f litis Wudawutti, a quo Warmia dicta, reliquit uxorem Arma, unde JEnnelandt." II. Nee minus valent retro Marsigni, Gothini, Osi, Burii: terga Marcomannorum, Quadorumque claiidunt : e quibus Mar- signi, et Burii sermone cultuque Suevos referunt. Gothinos Gallica, Osos Pannonica lingua coarguit, non esse Germanos ; et qudd tributa patiuntur\ partem tributorum Sarmatce, partem Quadi, ut alienigenis, imponunt : Gothini, quo magis pudeat, et ferrum effodiunt : omnesque hi populi pauca campestrium, ceterum saltus et vertices montium jugumque insederunt. {Tacit. Germ., § 43.) What do we infer from this ? Many have inferred that the language is Gallic, after the fashion of the language of Gaul. I do not, at present, say that it is not so. I only require reasons for making the undoubtedly Slavonic name of Halicz, or Gallicia, the probable locality for the Gallica Lingua of the Gothini other than Slavonic in origin. If these cannot be given, we must recognize the likelihood of there being Slavonic Galatae, as well as Keltic. The application of this will appear more than once (indeed it will appear prominently) in the sequel. SECTION III. EASTERN ORIGIN OF THE KELTS HOW FAR REAL HOW FA K NECESSARY TO THE MAIN QUESTION OF THE PRESENT TREATISE. The Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations is the title of the work before us. It is one, however, which requires a preliminary notice. In one sense, and with one school of ethnologists, the state- ment that the Kelts arc of Eastern origin is little more than a truism. EASTERN ORIGIN OF THE KELTS. 73 Out of the vast proportion of investigators who assign to the whole of the human race one common origin, there are few who place the area of that common origin, either in Europe or America, still less in Australia or Polynesia. Add to this that very few indeed have ever put in a claim for Africa being the birthplace of mankind- Such being the case, it is clear that, in the minds of many, all nations whatever are of Eastern origin — the Tasmanians, Polynesians, and Laplanders, as well as the Kelts ; the Kelts as well as the Laplanders, Polynesians, or Tasmanians. An Eastern origin of this kind, indirect and remote, is not the kind of Eastern origin upon which great ethnologists connect the history of any particular population. An Eastern origin of this kind is general, not to say universal ; and its discussion forms part of general rather than special ethnology. Neither is the Eastern origin of the present treatise an origin belonging to the historic period. It is not one like the Eastern (or British origin) of the present Americans. It is more general, indirect, and remote than this. In arguing that the Kelts were of Eastern origin, Dr. Prichard meant this — viz. that they were in the same predicament with certain other nations, to whom, by universal consent (or nearly so), an Eastern origin was attributed ; these nations being those belonging to the Gothic (or German), the Slavonic, the Lithuanic, the Greek, the Latin, and Sanskrit groups. That these formed a class was certain. It was as certain, too, as all but universal consent could make it, that they formed a class of Eastern origin. But it was not certain that to this class the Kelts belonged. Whether they did so or not, Dr. Prichard inquired ; and, after inquiry, decided the question in the affirmative. According to the views then and now generally entertained, this was to bring the Kelts from Asia, as well as to enlarge the previously constituted class ; a class originally called Indo- Ger- manic, because its most Eastern member, represented by the Sanskrit, or ancient literary language of India, was on the Indus, and its most western on the Bhine. On these grounds, the name, though awkwardly compounded, was admitted. The admission, however, of the Kelts, effected a change. Instead of Indo- Germanic, Into- European became the word, and so it remains to this day. It is clear that, in the question under notice, there are two 74 EASTERN ORIGIN OF THE KELTS. elements. Put in the form of syllogism, the reasoning runs thus : — All the Indo-European languages are of Eastern origin; The Keltic languages are Indo-European ; therefore The Keltic languages are of Eastern origin. Of these two premisses, it is the first that gives the title to the work before us ; the second which constitutes its contents. Now there is something inconvenient in this; something inconvenient, because it is not the Eastern origin for which Dr. Prichard is more especially responsible. Current opinion and common consent are responsible for this. Dr. Prichard's great service to philology and ethnography consists in his showing that the Keltic languages are Indo-European. As long as the two statements are, for all practical purposes, identical, the title-page is unexceptionable. But what if the major premiss be denied ? what if the Eastern origin of the Indo- European populations be doubted ? In such a case there is a kind of antagonism between the name of the work before us, and its contents. "Whether this be the case or not, will be seen in the sequel. Meanwhile, it will be advisable to consider the facts implied by the title-page as accidental to the main subject, from which (if need be) they may be separated without materially touching the validity of proofs brought to bear upon it. The Kelts may have originated in "Wales or Ireland, and yet, in their relations to the other populations of Europe, be all that the forthcoming dissertation makes them. Such is the Eastern origin connected with the term Indo- European. But it is not the only one. Long before the first investigator of the ancient language of India had discovered that it contained European elements, long before either the terms Indo-European or Indo-Germanic had come into existence, or even embryo, there were writers who talked and wrote about the Eastern origin of either all the Kelts or of some of them. Generally, however, it was only of some of them. Of the Asiatic extraction of the Welsh, Cornishmcn, and Britons, little was said, and that little applied to their ultimate and remote origin, rather than to any special migration EASTERN ORIGIN OF THE KELTS. 75 from Asia to Europe. With the Irish, however, it was far different. Writer upon writer asserted for them an origin from ^Egypt, Persia, Palestine, or Phenicia — especially from Phenicia. That this view differed, toto cmlo, from the present doctrine, is clear. The Phenicians were what the Hebrews were, and the Hebrews were what is called Semitic ; the Semitic class of lan- guages being contrasted with the Indo-European, rather than compared with. The minute details of the history of opinion on this matter I am unable to give. I think that, in the first instance, the extent to which the Hebrew language, on the one side, and the Keltic tongues, on the other, practised the initial permutation of letters in their grammatical formations, may have had something to do with suggesting the comparison. Then there were certain habits and superstitions amongst the Kelts which put the com- parative mythologist in mind of certain things Semitic ; e.g. the Pel-tane, or midsummer-day fire of the Highlands of Scotland, incontinently got compared with fire-worship of the Phenician Baal. Then there were the words Bearla Fene, or Language of Fene (whatever that might be), of the Irish annals; a term which was supposed to be well translated by Lingua Pana, or Lingua Punica — the language of Phenicia, or the Phenician colony of Carthage. Then there was the mileadh = soldier. Out of this, according to Dr. Meyer, arose the doctrine that certain of the oldest Irish families came from Miletus ; whence the current term Milesian, as applied to the most aristocratic portions of the Irish aristocracy. When this doctrine had taken firm root, it ran out luxuriantly into wide branches, loose foliage, and but little sound or ripe fruit. The archasologists connected the Bound Towers with Asia and the worship of Baal. Lastly came the comments upon the Carthaginian text in the Paenulus of Plautus. Were not these Punic ? and was not Punic the Bearla Eene ? Aylett Sammes, was (I believe) the first who suggested that, even at the present time, a meaning could be found for it in the modern Irish, and a meaning, accord- ingly, was found. Whether this was the meaning of the Dramatis Personae of Plautus was another matter. It was not the meaning that Bochart and others found for it in the true and undoubted Hebrew. Neither were the words divided in the same way. Neither was the absolute text of the MS. rigidly adhered 76 EASTERN ORIGIN OF THE KELTx to. In short a good deal of license was allowed, and the result was as follows : — Emendated and interpreted by Bochart, the ten first lines of a speech in Act v. s. 1, stand thus : — 1. N'yth alonira valonuth sicorath jismacon sitli 2. Chy-mlachai jytlimu mitslia mittebariim ischi 3. Liphorcancth yth beni ith jad adi ubinuthai 4. Birua rob syllobom alonim ubymisyrtohom 5. Bythtym moth ymoth othi hclech Antidamarchon 6. Ys sideli : brym tyfel yth chili schontem liphul 7. Uth bin imys dibur thim nocuth nu' Agorastocles 8. Ythcm ancti hy chyr saely choc, sith naso. 9. Binni id chi lu hilli gubylim lasibil thym 10. Body aly thera ynn' yss' immoncon lu sim — The same, in Hehrew characters. : na? \)ino'> n-io^ nui^yi &my ns *o j : »poy Dnnmo n^vo : i»na ^» *a .2 :*rom ny t> nx »aa nx mp-iisS -3 : DnrrwEm nwby nrbv in nna -4 :p3"ionTriDK -|^n »rn« nun mo dibi •& :d^bd"iuk nw aipj on im p»K P nx - 7 :kpu nar pin »W -ma *on »nun Dnin .8 : Dn nnc6 D^na n?xn 1^ ^3 ny wa -9 : db> 1 1 ? "dj» dk Wk wn : wk ynn ^y n«ia -io Six lines following these were determined to be Z/Jy-Phce- nician, or the language of the native Africans in the neighbour- hood of Carthage, mixed with Punic. These, it was stated, had the same meaning with the ten lines in Carthaginian. The following lines of Plautus have, by all commentators, been viewed in the same light ; viz. as the Latin version of the speech of the Carthaginian. 1. Dcos Deasque veneror, qui hanc urbem colunt, 2. Ut, quod de mea re hue veni, rite venerim. 3. Measque hie ut gnatas, et mei fratris filium 4. lteperire me siritis : Di vostram fidem ! 5. Quae mihi surruptae sunt, et fratris filium : 6. Sed hie mihi antehac hospes Antidamas fuit. 7. Eum fecisse aiunt, sibi quod faciendum fuit. 8. Ejus filium hie esse praxlicant Agorastoclem : 9. Dcum hospitalem et tesseram mecum fero : 10. In hisce habitare monstratum est regionibus. 11. Hos percunctabor, qui hue egrediuntur forM. EASTEKN ORIGIN OF THE KELTS, 77 Guided by the metrical paraphrase of the original author, Bochart laid before the scholars of his time a Latin version, of which the following is an English translation. Close Translation of Bocharfs Latin Version. 1. I ask the Gods and Goddesses that preside over this city, 2. That my plans may be fulfilled. — May my business prosper under their guidance ! 3. The release of my son and my daughters from the hands of a robber. 4. May the Gods grant this, through the mighty spirit that is in them, and by their providence ! 5. Before his death, Antidamarchus used to sojourn with me, 6. A man intimate with me : but he has joined the ranks of those whose dwelling is in darkness (the dead). 7. There is a general report that his son has here taken his abode; viz- Agorastocles. 8. The token (tally) of my claim to hospitality is a carven tablet, the sculp- ture whereof is my God. This I carry. 9. A witness has informed me that he lives in this neighbourhood. 10. Somebody comes this way through the gate : Behold him: I'll ask him whether he knows the name. With this compare or contrast — The Gaelic Version. 1. N'iaith all o nimh uath lonnaithe socruidshe me comsith 2. Chimi lach chuinigh ! muini is toil, miocht beiridh iar mo scith 3. Liomhtha can ati bi mitche ad eadan beannaithe 4. Bior nar ob siladh urahal : o nimh ! ibhim a frotha ! 5. Beith liom ! mo thime noctaithe ; neil ach tan ti daisic mac coinme 6. Is i de leabhraim tafach leith, chi lis con teampluibh ulla 7. Uch bin nim i is de heart inn a ccomhnuithe Agorastocles ! 8. Itche mana ith a chithirsi ; leicceath sith nosa ! 9. Buaine na iad cheile ile : gabh liom an la so bithim' ! 10. Bo dileachtach nionath n' isle, mon cothoil us im. In English. 1. Omnipotent much-dreaded Deity of this country! assuage my troubled mind! 2. Thou ! the support of feeble captives ! being now exhausted with fatigue of thy free will be guide to my children ! 3. let my prayers be perfectly acceptable in thy sight ! 4 An inexhaustible fountain to the humble ; Deity ! let me drink of its streams ! 5. Forsake me not ! my earnest desire is now disclosed, which is only that of recovering my daughters. 6. This was my fervent prayer, lamenting their misfortunes in thy sacre temples. 7. bounteous Deity ! it is reported here dwelleth Agorastocles. 8. Should my request appear just, let here my disquietudes cease. 78 (lesar's notice of THE GAULS. 9. Let them be no longer concealed; that I may this day find my daughters ? 10. They will be fatherless, and preys to the worst of men, unless it be thy pleasure that I should find them. It was clear that from all these Hebrew affinities on the part of the existing Irish, one of two things must result — either the other Keltic tongues, such as the "Welsh and Breton, must be Semitic, or the Irish must be separated from them. I know of no work of greater importance than one of Sir "William Betham's, wherein this alternative is thoroughly and fully acted on. In this, however (the Gael and Kymry), he expressly and clearly sees likenesses between the Irish and the Hebrew where he as ex- pressly and clearly does not see much closer ones between the Irish and the "Welsh. This is the way in which ingenious hypo- theses break down. The unreal coincidences are, for a while, magnified. The real ones, however, come into the field of vision and eclipse them, save and except in the case of those eyes that, afflicted with etymological nyctalopia, see better in the dark than in daylight. SECTION IY. C-aSSAJt S NOTICE OF THE GATJLS. It is in the sixth book of the Bellum Gallicum that we find Caesar's account of the Gauls ; the basis of nine- tenths of our speculation concerning their manners and religion. I give it in extenso. The extent to which Gallia is contrasted with Germania, should be noticed. Of the latter country Cassar's knowledge was limited. The days when inroads were made deep into the soil of Germany had yet to come. The arms of Drusus and Germanicus had yet to be carried northwards. Caesar, himself, knew best the army of Ariovistus, and, next to it, the Usipetes and Tenchteri of the parts about Cologne. He had crossed the lthine, but that was all. No mention in his pages occurs of the Sigambri, who, in the reign of Augustus, are often mentioned. Hence we must look upon his knowledge of Germany as imper- fect; some portions of which he procured from Gauls; some from officers of his own, especially C. Valerius Procillus, who is Cesar's notice of the gatjls. 79 stated to have conversed with Ariovistus ; and some from books, for it must be remarked that he refers to Eratosthenes for the dimensions of the great Hercynian forest. And — Lastly, it must be remarked that it is the Gauls who use the words Germani and Germania. The Germans mai/'have called themselves so. We have no proof, however, that they did. Ail we know of the word is that it was Gallic. It may or may not have been German as well. The editor thinks that it was not. * * * * * Quoniam ad hunc locum perventum est, non alienum esse videtur, de Galliae Germaniaeque moribus, et quo differant hae nationes inter sese, proponere. In Gallia non solum in omnibus civitatibus atque in omnibus pagis partibusque, sed paene etiam in singulis domibus factiones sunt : earumque factionum principes sunt, qui summam auctoritatem eorum judicio habere existi- mantur, quorum ad arbitrium judiciumque summa omnium rerum consiliorumque redeat. Idque ejus rei caussa antiquitus insti- tutum videtur, ne quis ex plebe contra potentiorem auxilii egeret : suos enim quisque opprimi et circumveniri non patitur, neque, aliter si faciant, ullam inter suos habent auctoritatem. Haec eadem ratio est in summa totius Galliae : namque omnes civitates in partes divisae sunt duas. Quum Caesar in Galliam venit, alterius factionis principes erant iEdui, alterius Sequani. Hi quum per se minus valerent, quod summa auctoritas antiquitus erat in iEduis, magnaeque eorum erant clientelae, Germanos atque Ariovistum sibi adjunx- erant eosque ad se magnis jacturis pollicitationibusque perdux- erant. PrcQliis vero compluribus factis secundis, atque omni nobilitate JEduorum interfecta, tantum potentia antecesserant, ut magnam partem clientium ab iEduis ad se transducerent obsidesque ab iis principum filios acciperent et publice jurare cogerent, nihil se contra Sequanos consilii inituros ; et partem finitimi agri, per vim occupatam, possiderent Galliaeque totius principatum obtinerent. ***** In omni Gallia eorum hominum, qui aliquo sunt numero atque honore, genera sunt duo : nam plebes paene servorum habetur loco, quae per se nihil audet et nullo adhibetur consilio. Plerique, quum aut aere alieno, aut magnitudine tributorum, aut injuria potentiorum prementur, sese in servitutem dicant nobili- 80 oesab's notice of THE GAULS. bus, in hos eadem omnia sunt jura, quae dominis in servos. Sed de his duobus generibus alterum est Druidum, alteram Equitum. Illi rebus divinis intersunt, sacrificia publica ac privata procurant, religiones interpretantur. Ad hos magnus adolescentium numerus disciplinae caussa concurrit, magnoque ii sunt apud eos honore. Nam fere de omnibus controversiis publicis privatisque consti- tuunt; et, si quod est admissum facinus, si caedes facta, si de haereditate, si de finibus controversia est, iidem decernunt ; praemia pcenasque constituunt : si qui aut privatus aut publicus eorum decreto non stetit, sacrifices interdicunt. Haec poena apud eos est gravissima. Quibus ita est interdictum, ii numero impiorum ac sceleratorum habentur; iis omnes decedunt, aditum eorum sermonemque defugiunt, ne quid ex contagione incommodi acci- piant : neque iis petentibus jus redditur, neque honos ullus communicatur. His autem omnibus Druidibus praeest unus, qui summam inter eos habet auctoritatem. Hoc mortuo, si qui ex reliquis excellit dignitate succedit : at, si sunt plures pares, suffragio Druidum adlegitur, nonnumquam etiam armis de principatu contendunt. Hi certo anni tempore in finibus Car- nutum, quae regio totius Galliae media habetur, considunt in loco consecrate Hue omnes undique, qui controversias habent, conveniunt eorumque decretis judiciisque parent. Disciplina in Britannia rcperta atque inde in Galliam translata esse existi- matur : et nunc, qui diligentius earn rem cognoscere volunt, plerumque illo discendi caussa proficiscuntur. Druides a bello abesse consuerunt, neque tribute una cum reliquis pendunt; militiae vacationcm omniumque rerum habeat immunitatem. Tantis excitati praemiis, et sua sponte multi in disciplinam conveniunt, et a parentibus propinquisque mittuntur. Magnum ibi numerum vcrsuum ediscere dicuntur : itaque annos nonnulli vicenos in disciplina permanent. Neque fas esse existimant, ea litteris mandare, quum in reliquis fere rebus, publicis privatisque rationibus, Graecis utantur litteris. Id mihi duabus de caussis instituisse videntur; quod neque in vulgum disciplinam efferri vclint, neque eos, qui discant, litteris confisos, minus memoritc studere ; quod fere plerisque accidit, ut praesidio, litterarum diligentiam in perdiscendo ac memoriam remittant. In primis hoc volunt persuadere, non interire animas, sed ab aliis post mortem transire ad alios : atque hoc maxime ad virtutem excitari putant, metu mortis neglecto. Multa practerea de sideribus atque coram motu, de mundi ac terrarum magnitudine, Cesar's notice of the gauls. 81 de renim natura, de deorum immortalium vi ac potestate disputant et juventuti transdant. Alterum genus est equitum. Hi, quum est usus, atque aliquod bellum incidit (quod ante Caesaris adventum fere quo- tannis accidere solebat, uti aut ipsi injurias inferrent, aut illatas propulsarent), omnes in bello versantur : atque eorum ut quisque est genere copiisque amplissimus, ita plurimos circum se ambactos clientcsque habent. Hanc unam gratiam potentiamque noverunt. Natio est omnis Gallorum admodum dedita religionibus : atque ob earn caussam, qui sunt adfecti gravioribus morbis, quique in proeliis perieulisque versantur, aut pro victimis homines immolant, aut se immolaturos vovent administrisque ad ea sacrificia Druidibus utuntur ; quod, pro vita hominis nisi hominis vita reddatur, non posse aliter deorum immortalium numen placari arbitrantur: publiceque ejusdem generis habent instituta sacrificia. Alii immani magnitudine simulacra habent, quorum contexta viminibus membra vivis hominibus complent, quibus succensis, circumventi fl.am.ma exanimantur homines. Supplicia eorum, qui in furto, aut in latrocinio, aut aliqua noxa sint com- prehensi, gratiora diis immortalibus esse arbitrantur ; sed, quum ejus generis copia deficit, etiam ad innocentium supplicia descen- dunt. Deum maxime Mercurium colunt : hujus sunt plurima simulacra, hunc omnium inventorem artium ferunt, hunc viarum atque itinerum ducem, hunc ad quaestus pecuniae mercaturasque habere vim maximam arbitrantur. Post hunc, Apollinem et Alartem et Jovem et Minervam : de his eamdem fere, quam reliquae gentes, habent opinionem ; Apollinem morbos depellere, Minervam operum atque artificiorum initia transdere ; Jovem imperium ccelestium tenere ; Martem bella regere. Huic, quum proelio dimicare constituerunt, ea, quae bello ceperint, plerumque devovent. Quae superaverint, animalia capta immolant ; reliquas res in unum locum conferunt. Multis in civitatibus harum rerum exstructos tumulos locis consecratis conspicari licet : neque saepe accidit, ut, neglecta quispiam religione, aut capta apud se occultare, aut posita tollere auderet; gravissimumque ei rei supplicium cum cruciatu constitutum est. Galli se omnes ab Dite patre prognatos praedicant, idque ab Druidibus proditum dicunt. Ob earn caussam spatia omnis temporis non numero dierum, sed noctium finiunt ; dies natales 82 Cesar's notice of the gauls, et mensium et annorum initia sic observant, ut noctem dies subsequatur. In reliquis vita) institutis hoc fere ab reliquis differunt, quod suos liberos, nisi quum adolevcrint, ut munns militiae sustinere possint, palam ad se adire non patiuntur, filiumque puerili actate in publico, in conspectu patris, adsistere, turpe ducunt. Yiri, quantas pecunias ab uxoribus dotis nomine acceperunt, tantas ex suis bonis, aestimatione facta, cum dotibus communi- cant. Hujus omnis pecuniae conjunctim ratio habetur, fruc- tusque servantur : uter eorum vita superarit, ad eum pars utriusque cum fructibus superiorum temporum pervenit. Yiri in uxores, sicuti in liberos, vitae necisque habent potestatem : et, quum pater familia3, illustriore loco natus, decessit, ejus propinqui conveniunt et, de morte si res in suspicionem venit, de uxoribus in servilem modum quaestionem habent et, si compertum est, igni atque omnibus tormentis excrutiatas interficiunt. Funera sunt pro cultu Gallorum mngnifica et sumptuosa; omniaque, quae vivis cordi fuisse arbitrantur, in ignem inferunt, etiam animalia ; ac paullo supra hanc memoriam servi et clientes, quos ab iis dilectos esse constabat, justis funeribus confectis, una cremabantur. Quae civitates commodius suam rem publicam administrare existimantur, habent legibus sanctum, si quis quid de re publica a finitimis rumore ac fama acceperit, uti ad magistratum deferat, neve cum quo alio communicet : quod saepe homines temerarios atque imperitos falsis rumoribus terreri et ad facinus impclli et de summis rebus consilium capere cognitum est. Hagistratus, quae visa sunt, occultant ; quaeque esse ex usu judicaverint, multitudini produnt. De re publica nisi per concilium ioqui non conceditur. Germani multum ab hac consuetudine differunt : nam neque Druides habent, qui rebus divinis praesint, neque sacrificiis student. Deorum numero cos solos ducunt, quos cernunt et quorum aperte opibus juvantur, Solem et Vulcanum et Lunam : reliquos ne fama quidem acceperunt. Vita omnis in venationibus atque in studiis rei militaris consistit: ab parvulis labori ac duritiae student. Qui diutissime impuberes permanserunt, maximam inter suos ferunt laudem : lioc ali staturam, ali hoc vires nervosque confirmari putant. Intra annum vero vieesimum feminae notitiam habuisse, in turpissimis habent rebus ; cujus rei nulla est occultatio, quod et promiscue in fluminibus perluuntur, Cesar's notice of the gauls. 83 et pellibus aut parvis rhenonum tegimentis utuntur, magna corporis parte nuda. AgriculturaB non student; majorque pars victus eorum in lacte, caseo, carne consistit : neque quisquam agri modum certum aut fines habet proprios : sed magistratus ac principes in annos singulos gentibus cognationibusque hominum, qui una coierint, quantum, et quo loco visum est, agri adtribuunt atque anno post alio transire cogunt. Ejus rei multas adferunt caussas ; ne, adsidua consuetudine capti, studium belli gerundi agricultura commutent ; ne latos fines parare studeant potentioresque humi- liores possessionibus expellant; ne adcuratius ad frigora atque aestus vitandos aedificent ; ne qua oriatur pecuniae cupiditas, qua ex re factiones dissensionesque nascuntur; ut animi aequitate plebem contineant, quum suas quisque opes cum potentissimis aequari videat. Civitatibus maxima laus est, quam latissimas circum se vas- tatis finibus solitudines habere. Hoc proprium virtutis existi- mant, expulsos agris finitimos cedere, neque quemquam prope audere consistere : simul hoc se fore tutiores arbitrantur, re- pentinae incursionis timore sublato. Quum bellum civitas aut illatum defendit, aut infert : magistratus, qui ei bello pracsint, ut vitae necisque habeant potestatem, deliguntur. In pace nullus est communis magistratus, sed principes regionum atque pagorum inter suos jus dicunt, controversiasque minuunt. Latrocinia nullam habent infamiam, quae extra fines cujusque civitatis fiunt ; atque ea juventutis exercendae ac desidiae minuendae caussa fieri praedicant. Atque, ubi quis ex principibus in concilio dixit, " se ducem fore; qui sequi velint, profiteantur," consurgunt ii, qui et caussam et hominem probant, suumque auxilium pollicentur atque ab multitudine collaudantur : qui ex iis secuti non sunt, in desertorum ac proditorum numero ducuntur omnium que iis rerum postea fides derogatur. Hospites violare, fas non putant ; qui quaque de caussa ad eos venerint, ab injuria prohibent sanctosque habent ; iis omnium domus patent, victusqne commu- nicatur. Ac fuit antea tempus, quum Germanos Galli virtute superarent, ultro bella inferrent, propter hominum multitudinem agrique inopiam trans Ehenum colonias mitterent. Itaque ea, quae fertilissima sunt, Germaniae loca circum Hercyniam silvam (quam Eratostheni et quibusdam Graecis fama notam esse video, quam illi Orcyniam adpellant), Volcae Tectosages occupaverunt atque 84 THE KELTIC AREA — SAVOY & SWITZERLAND, ETC. ibi consederunt. Quae gens ad hoc tempus iis sedibus scse con- tinet summamque habet justitioe ct bellicac laudis opinionem : nunc quoque in eadem inopia, cgcstatc, patientia, qua Germani, permanent eodem victu et cultu corporis utuntur ; Gallis autem provinciae propinquitas, et transmarinaram rerum notitia, multa ad copiara atque usus largitur. Paullatim adsuefacti superari, raultisque victi procliis, ne se quidem ipsi cum illis virtute comparant. "With Caesar's text as a preliminary, we may proceed to the investigation of the ancient Keltic area — real or supposed. SECTION V. TUE KELTIC AREA SAVOY AND SWITZERLAND HELVETIA. The original Keltic area is one thing, the areas into which the Kelts intruded is another. Germany is the original English area. England, and, still more, America, are areas into which the English have intruded. Let these two sorts of area be kept separate. The limits of Keltic Gaul en the side of Spain will be con- sidered in the sequel. So will certain statements connected with the Kelts of Dauphiny and Provence. So will Belgium, and Valley of the Rhine. We begin the series of criticisms immediately before us with Savoy. Was this Keltic ? There would be no reason to consider it otherwise, were it not for a passage in Livy, who speaks of (xxi., 38) the country about the Mons Peninus (a Keltic name, Pen = Ben) as being ohsepta gentibus semi- Germanis — Veragri incolcejugi. Zeuss takes the passage as it stands, without taking exceptions to it. He admits that, in the time of Caesar, the evidence is in favour of the population being Gallic ; but the Gauls he makes intrusive. More than this, he sees in the name Chabilci, a name which, in a passage of Avienus, occurs along with Tylangii, Daliterni, and Temenicus ager, the same word as the word KaovXtcot, of Strabo. He also sees ways in which the others may take a meaning in German. Caesar, who, as an authority, is worth all the rest put together, mentions the Veragri, the Seduni, and the Nantuates. The first of these mag be a Keltic name = the men {fear, girr) THE KELTIC AREA — -THE TYROL — RHiETIA. 85 of Alons Okria. The third cannot well be other than Keltic ; nant = valley, nantuates = dalesmen. Which is the likelier, that Livv should have used the word aemi-Germanis in a sense different to Zeuss' interpretation ? or that the changes, etc., necessary to make a German occupancy of Savoy compatible with the other facts of the case should have occurred between the time of the Second Punic War and Caesar's conquest r The further we proceed, the more we shall hesitate to make Livy's Veragri, etc., Germans. We shall find Kelts beyond their area, i.e. in — Parts of Switzerland — Helvetia. — The modern Switzerland is partly the Helvetia, partly the Rhaetia, of the ancients. Let us look to the Helvetic portion first. Caesar treats all the Helvetii as Gauls; and I see no reason, either in the way of conflicting testimony, or internal evidence, to take exceptions to the doctrine indicated by his text. A point, however, connected with it deserves notice. It bears upon the ethnological origin of the English hundred. Was it Keltic or German ? In one place Caesar says that the civitas of the Helvetii had four hundred villages ; in another, he says that it was divided into four pagi. Put these two statements together, and we get the English Hundred in Gallic Helvetia. Of two of these jpagi he gives us the names — the pagus Tigurinus, and the pagus Verbigenus. Strabo makes the number of the tribes (v\a) three, of which two (the two — tcl 8vo) were destroyed. This would leave but one, probably that of the Helvetii proper. In this he seems to have taken the two names of Caesar, and presumed that the Helvetii gave a third. This, however, is a detail of no import- ance in relation to the main question. So is a point which will be noticed in the sequel, viz. the Desert (ep^o?) of the Helvetii, and the Helvetian area in Wurtemburg. SECTION VI. THE KELTIC AREA THE TYEOL EHiETIA. Helvetic Switzerland being Keltic, was RTuetian Switzerland the same ? Rhaetia, besides a moiety of Switzerland, comprised the Tyrol. 86 THE KELTIC AREA THE TYROL — RILETIA. The ethnology of Rhcetia is the ethnology of a population of such interest and importance as to claim (if space permitted) a separate monograph. Neither would such a notice be a brief one ; the population in question being the ancient Etruscans. The opinions concerning their relations are well known to be numerous and antagonistic. The earlier doctrine was that they were the same as the Tyrseni of Herodotus ; and these the his- torian deduces from Lydia. In this view there are two assump- tions : first, that the Etruscans and Tyrseni were one and the same people ; next, that the account of Herodotus was true. Niebuhr denied the first, and drew a distinction between them. He might have demurred to the second. The views that (perhaps) are now prevalent are chiefly founded on an objection of Dionysius of Halicarnassus and a statement in Livy. The former remarks that Xanthus, the special historian of Lydia, makes no mention of the events re- lated by Herodotus ; and that Xanthus being a native investigator is important, in both what he says, and what he leaves unsaid. Livy states that the Alpine nations, and especially the Rhoeti, are of Tuscan origin ; but that the mountaineers, having become barbarized by their mountain localities, have kept nothing Tuscan but the language, and that in a corrupted form. This passage, though well-known, has scarcely had the full value given it. It has scarcely been recognised as more than an ordinary piece of ancient ethnology — the general rule being that ancient ethnology is of a very indifferent quality. It is, how- ever, something more than this. It is the statement of a co- temporary writer to a special and important fact ; i. e. to the fact of the Tuscan language being spoken in the Rhsetian Alps. It is this, and something more. The conditions of place were as favorable to Livy as those of time. He lived when the language was spoken, and, as a native of Padua, he lived in the neighbour- hood of those who spoke it. "Whether he is equally to be relied upon in deducing the Rha:ti from the Tuscans, rather than the Tuscans from the Rhacti (for so his statement runs, though it is by no means cer- tain that it was meant to be interpreted very closely), is another question. This is not a point on which he is a witness ; nor yet one upon which he was in condition that might make him one. It was an inference rather than an observation ; and, as such, stands in a different category from his notice of their language. THE KELTIC AREA THE TYROL RH^ITIA. 87 Upon this latter we must argue. To set it aside, or to post- pone it to the account of Herodotus and his Lydians is to allow legend, tradition, inference, or what not, to take precedence of historical testimony. It does not, however, follow that because the Rhoatians were Tuscan, all the other Alpine tribes were the same. It doe3 not even follow that because some of the Rhaetians were Tuscans all were so. This is what Zeuss maintains. Certain small tribes, such as the Stoni, Lepontii, and Tridentini, were remains of the Etruscans. But is it right to infer therefrom that all the Rhaeti were Etruscan? The question must be determined by other considerations. Thus criticized, the statement of Livy, according to both Zeuss and Dieffenbach, goes no further than to indicate the existence of some Tuscans in Rhaetia. What were the other tribes ? Both Zeuss and Dieffenbach make them Keltic. There is a certain amount of testimony to this effect : there are the presumptions arising out of the geographical position of the Kelt frontier, and there are certain geographical names which are Keltic in form. Is this sufficient ? Steub, in his Rhaetian Ethnology (Beitrage %ur Rhdtischen Ethnologie, 1854), thinks it is not. The more definite Keltic names, Bragodurum, Ectodurum, Ebodurum, and Thrasomagus, he refers to either the parts beyond Rhaetia Proper, or else to its extreme frontier. He also shows that the uniformity of nomencla- ture over the whole area is incompatible with the doctrine that a Keltic population was the chief population of the country. In this he seems to argue rightly. There are some traces of a Keltic population; but they are insufficient to disturb the inference drawn from the text of Livy and the internal evidence of the local names. There are some traces of a Keltic population ; but this need not even have been the occupants of any portion of the Rhaetian area. There were Kelts on the Rhaetian frontier, and the line of that frontier was, probably, very irregular. To disprove the Keltic hypothesis, is only one portion of Steub' s work. He also undertakes the identification of the Rhaetian and Etruscan tongues. This is difficult. With only a few intelligible words of the latter, and with the former repre- sented by those scanty elements of the present Rumonsch, which 88 THE KELTIC AREA TI£E TYROL RIL/ETIA. are neither of Latin nor German origin, all his acuteness was required. He has, therefore, done what was to be expected — forced some of his facts upon hard service. The sounds of b, d, g, and o, are believed to have been wanting in the Etruscan. The same sounds are said to be wanting in the Runionsch. The most, I think, that can be said upon this point, is that they have a tendency to be replaced by p, t, c, and a. Again, the personal names on the tombs of Etruria can be found in the Tyrol, but not as the names of men and women ; only as those of geographical localities. Hence the doctrine runs that the proper names of the necrology of Etruria are the proper names of Rhoetian topography. There is a great deal of assump- tion here. Again, the names, as they stand on the Etrurian sepulchres, are extremely consonantal, e.g. Carthnal, Tarchna, etc. This, however, is no part of the language. The fuller forms, without their orthographic abbreviations, are Caratunala, Taracuna, etc. The former of these he calls the epigraphic {i.e. inscriptional), the latter the Rhaetian, forms — Rhaetian meaning the Etruscan as it was spoken, or as it was in some older and more vocalic form. "With this postulate he gives the following table : — RHJETTAN". Achunusa Arathalusa Auluna Cafata Cafatala Capuna Capatuna Capatusa Calusa Calusuna Calutuva Caruna Carunala Caracuna Caracusa Carutuna OLD TYROL.* Aguns EPIGRAPHIC Achunisa Arthalisa Aulinna Cafate Cafatial Caffeciol Capna Capatine Cuvedun Capatesa Calisa Calusna Cholsaun Clutiva Cam a Carnal Carcuna Carcusa Chorzes Cartuna(St.N.) Cardun MODERN TYROL. Agums. Ortles. Aulinna. Gfad. Tschafatsch. Tschafon. Gufidaun. Gebatsch. Tscholis, Glis. Galsaun. KaldifF. Gam, Graun. Karnel, Karnol. Tschirgant. Kortsch. Kardaun. * From documents. THE KELTIC AREA. THE TYROL — RH^TIA. 89 RHJ2TIAN. Carutusa Caratunala Caratalusa Laruna Marucanusa Maruna Matuluna Perusala Perusalusa Patusa Ra3una Suthuruna Suthurusa Taluna Taracuna Taracusa Thurunusa Thurusa Thurusuna Thusuna Varuna; Venalusa Vulana Yularusa Vulusa Vulasuna Yuluta Yulutuna Yulatura Yulaturunusa EPIGRAPHIC. Ciarthisa Carthnal Ciarthialisa Lama ALarcanisa Marina Methlna Perisal Perisalisa Patis Rasna Suthrina Suthrisa Thalna Tarchna Tarchisa Thrinisa Thauris Tursna Thuseni Yarna Yenalisa Yelani Yelarisa Yelisa Yelsuna Yelta Yelthuna Yelthuria Yelthurnisa OLD TYROL. Zardes Jtfarzshenis Maduleno Preseh Patse Tarcis Truns Tiere8 Tusen Varna Venls Fulano Volar es Veils Valduna MODERN TYROL. Tschars. Karthnal. Gretles. Larein. Marschlins. IMarein. Madulein. Persall. Presels. Patsch. Rasein. Sadrun. Sauters. Talluna. Tertschein. Tartsch. Trins. Tiers. Torsanna. Tisen. Yarn. Yen dels. Yollan. Yolders. Yels. Yalsun. Yilt. Yalduna. Yuldera. Yelthurns. Velthurne8 It cannot be denied that there is much assumption here. Nevertheless, the doctrine that Pthgetia was Tuscan, and Etruria Rhaetian, is sound. The investigations of Steub prove that the language was one over the whole province ; and the proper con- firmation of them will appear when, after an elimination of the Latin and German elements of the Rumonsch language, and a similar ejection of the Latin from the Etrurian dialect of the Italian, the residue of the two shall be found to coincide. As it is, however, the evidence to the fact of the Tuscan language having been spoken by the Rhaeti, is historical, to say the 90 STYRIA AND CARINTIIIA — XORICUM. least of it; which is more than can be said of any contrary assertion. But the Tuscans may have been Kelts. I do not say that the evidence of antiquity is quite conclusive against this view. I only say that I know of no author who has ever identified the two — the Tuscans of Etruria and the Gauls of the Cisalpines. Were the Rha3tian Tuscans of Livy foreign to the Alpine ocalities in which the author places them ? This they may have been ; in which case they must be looked upon as recent, intrusive, and exceptional populations. The Gauls, who took so many cities from the Tuscans of the valley of the Po, may have driven the remainder into the moun- tains. Common as is this method of accounting for the exist- ence of an isolated population, it is hardly ever correct. Im- practicable mountains are not the places of refuge to tribes who have been driven from the level country. They are rather the districts which the conquerors of the plain leave untouched; the population which they contain being, for the most part, aboriginal. Upon the whole, I infer that Rhsetia, originally other than Keltic, was not only in contact with the Keltic areas of Helvetia and Northern Italy, but was deeply indented by extensions of the Keltic frontier. It might have contained Keltic colonies — especially in the time of the Empire. What the Rha3ti, and what the Etrusci were, taken collec- tively, is another question. SECTION VII. STYRIA AND CAMNTHIA NOEICUM. Prichard, in making the occupants of the Western Alps Keltic, gives the following extract from Polybius — an excellent authority : On the " side which looks towards the north, and the river Rhone, dwelt those termed Transalpine Gauls, who are of the same origin with the rest, meaning the Cisalpine tribes, and are only so termed on account of their local situation. On the other side, he adds, are the Taurisci, the Agones (Lingones), and other nations." I submit that this suggests a difference between the populations of the western and eastern ranges, and STYRIA AND CARINTHIA NORICUM. 91 that it favours, rather than opposes, the view just exhibited respecting the Rhaeti. Nevertheless, the authors who call the population of Noricum Kelts and Galatcz are numerous and respectable, Strabo being one of them. The exception, however, that lies against the inference deducible from the use of these terms has been pointed out. And, in the present case, it is taken. The presumptions are against JSToricum having been Keltic, inasmuch as Rhaetia, on its Gallic side, was other than Gallic. The evidence of the local names, which was anything but conclusive in respect to Rhaetia, is still less conclusive here ; indeed, undeniable forms like the compounds in durum, magus, etc., are wanting. A name synonymous, or nearly so, with JNorici, is Taurisci. Now the form in -isc, though Slavonic, German, and Latin (Volsci), is, by no means, Keltic Zeuss, indeed, claims for it the Kelts {note in voe. Norici), but only by arguing in a circle. The name Scordua is from the mountain Scordus, and the Scord^a are Kelts. But this is just the point that requires better proof than it has met with. Out of the six Noric populations of Ptolemy, three require notice, from the fact of their names beginning with the same element, viz. the Amb-isontii, the ^mfl-idravi, and the Amb~ ilici. As the latter halves of these compounds are the names of the rivers Isonzo, Brave, and Lech, the import of the combination ami- is easily divined. It denotes the occupants of the water- systems in question. The particular way in which it does this is doubtful. It is, probably, a preposition, like Cis- and Trans-, in words like CVs-alpine and Tnms-alpine, or like the Slavonic To- in Po-merania = on the sea. Granted this — to what language does it belong ? Zeuss finds it in the Gallic, and holds that it is the Amb- in Amb-actus, and Amb-arri; the latter being supposed to =Amb-arari = the occupants of the Arar. It may, perhaps, be this ; but it may easily be the Greek a/jus rbv fiev curb QpaKwv ir6\e/j.ov Kara, r)}v avvi]Beiav ava9r)0~av' avrov Se Kare/xeivav, dia rb (f>i\oxa)pripa titereXovv ol Bv^dvrioi dtSSvres, ava rpio~x^ovs, Kal irevraKicrx^ovs , irore Se Kal fivplovs xP V(ro ^ s ^ V H-^l KaraTol to 7re5/a. Ta /xev ovv irpwra Kal irepl ras avaroXas rov TldSov Keifxeva Aaoi Kal AefieKioi, fiera 5e tovtovs 'lao/A/Spes KaTcpKijaav, b /xeyiaTOV eQvos i\v avruv, e|f}s 8e tovtois irapa. top iroTa/j.bv Kevo/xdvof to v Se irpbs rbv 'ASpiav fjdri irpoo~7)KOVTa yevos &XXo irdvv iraXaibv Sio/taTea^e, irporayopevovTai Se OveveToi . . Ta 5e irepav tov HdSov to irepl rbv 'Airevvivov irpu>TOi fxev "Avaves, fxera Se tovtovs Boiol KaT(f>KT)o~av' e|vjs Se tovtcov &s irpbs Tbv 'ASpiav Atyooves' to Se TeXevTaTa irpbs OaXaTT-p s,i]vo}ves. — Polyb. ii. 17. That many of the geographical terms in Central Italy are Keltic, I believe. I believe that the word Aborigines itself is. Against 9 130 THE KELTS OF ITALY. the current notion there is a strong argument in the form it takes in Greek. It is only in the later writers that it is translated ^Avro^dove^, and here it is not the name of a people ; except in the way that, at the present moment, the term Aborigines of Australia (or America) is the name of a people ; a way that makes it no name at all. Anterior to the appearance of the word in any Latin writer, Lycophron makes Cassandra predict that JEneas will build thirty castles in the land of the Borigoni. Callias, too, speaks of Latinus, the king of the Aborigines (not of the Autochthones) . Now, if we believe that the Greek writers, Callias and Lycophron, took their terms, Borigoni and Aborigines, from a Latin dialect, we may continue to believe that the word in question is a bond fide Latin word. But if we do so continue to believe, we must also hold that, in the time of those writers, two facts had taken place. 1. That there was a sufficient amount of ethnography in Rome to evolve a term so abstract as Aborigines. 2. That the term so evolved was taken by the Greek writers from the Latin ones, not for what it was (i.e. the equivalent to ^Avro^Oove^), but for what it was not {i.e. a true proper name). Considering the difficulties attending these suppositions, I come to the conclusion that, both in the Greek language and in the Latin, the term represented by Aborigines and Borigoni is in the same predicament with the term sparrow-grass in English ; i.e. that it is a word indigenous to neither language, but that it is an instance of adoption with transformation from a third. Passing over the particular question as to whether the Latins incorporated the term from the Greeks, or the Greeks from the Latins, as of subordinate importance, the problem to be solved is the language to which the word was indigenous; i.e. the language which was to the Latin and Greek, as the Latin language, with its term asparagus, is to the English with its term sparrow-grass. The conditions under which such a language must come are as follows : — 1. It must have been spoken sufficiently near the locality of the people in question to have contained a name for either the locality or its inhabitants. 2. It must have been a language from which, either directly THE KELTS OF ITALY. 131 or indirectly, one of its words might be incorporated with either the Latin or the Greek language — probably with both. In other words, it must have been an Italian language, and at the same time a language neither Greek nor Latin. Laying the Ligurian out of the question, and precluding our- selves from assuming the existence of any wholly new language for the existence of which we have no proofs, we find only two languages that come under this category. a. The language of Etruria. b. The language of Cispadane Gaul. Which of these two tongues is the likelier to have supplied the term in question depends upon the view we take of its history. If the Latins took it in a direct way, and not from the Greeks, or if the Greeks took it from their colonies on the Tyrrhenian Sea, the a priori probabilities would be in favour of the Etruscan. On the other hand, if Latin writers (like Cato) took it from Greek writers (like Callias), and if the Greeks got it from their settlers on the Hadriatic Sea, the likelihood would be in the other direction ; i.e. the Keltic would be the language in which we should look for it. Cceteris paribus, however, the language that will supply the best meaning to the word is the language from which it should be derived. Now the Keltic supplies the data for the following hypothesis : That the Abor- in Aborigines, or the Bop- in Bopuyovoi, is the Aber- in Scotch words like Aber-neihy, and in Welsh words like Aber-jstwith ; the locality to which it applied being either the confluence of the rivers Anio and Tiber, or the mouth of the Tiber. Hence the hypothetical name was some word not very unlike the word Aber-ygyn or Aber-ygwyn, the latter half of the compound not being accounted for, and a flaw in the argument being thereby left, upon which others will probably lay more stress than is laid by the author. Such, however, is the hypothesis. Assuming its truth, we limit the inferences deducible from it. It does not prove that the Aborigines were Kelts. This they may or may not have been. It only proves that Kelts were in the neighbourhood. Umbria, by a parity of reasoning, gives us the root -ml- in H umber, another Keltic gloss ; proving that there were Kelts on the Umbrian frontier who used the word ; proving, too, that they 132 THE KELTS OF ITALY. lay on the side of Home, inasmuch as the word was adopted by the Romans. But it was also adopted by the Greeks of the Adriatic — so, at least, I infer from the use of the word in Herodotus. If so, there were Kelts on both frontiers. More probably, how- ever, the Umbrians themselves were more or less Keltic — intrusive, of course. That the Eugubine tables contain a language allied to the Latin no more proves the exclusion of a Keltic form of speech than an English inscription from Edinburgh would prove the absence of any Gaelic in Argyleshire. The notice of the Aborigines leads to that of the Prisci, or (as they are oftener called) Prisci Latini. There is no doubt as to the difficulties engendered by this combination. To suppose that it meant the original area of Latium in its oldest and most restricted sense (of Latium, minus, the countries of the Yolsci, Ausones, ^Equi, and Hernici ; of the Latium Antiquum of Pliny, as opposed to his Latium Adjectum) is to ignore the fact of its having all the appearance of being an old word. On the other hand, the notion that it meant the towns founded from Alba, as opposed to Alba itself, is at variance with the idea conveyed by the terms metropolis and colony. Niebuhr, holding that Prisci Latini is the same as Prisci et Latini, makes the former word the name of a nation, adding in a note that it would be absurd to suppose that Prisci Latini meant ancient Latins. The Prisci he himself identifies with the Aborigines of Yarro, Varro (followed by Dionysius) having de- duced the people so-called from the Sabine frontier, and con- ducted them to the parts about Alba as a conquering nation, the nation whom they conquered having been the Siculi. Now there is an assumption that runs throughout all the trains of reasoning upon this term which, general as it is, is by no means legitimate. It is to the effect that, in the combination Prisci Latini, it is the former word which qualities the latter, and not the latter that qualifies the former. Hence, the mean- ing given is, the Latins who were Priscans, or the Priscan Latins, rather than the Prisci who were Latin, or the Latin Priscan*. Yet no one translates Suessa Pumetia as the Pometia that was Suessa; but, on the contrarj', every one renders it, Saessa that was Pometia; for there are two towns so-called ; the Suessa Pometia, QQ the boit. 13 i.e.. the Pomctian Suessa, and the Suessa Aurunca or the Auruncan Suessa. In these pair of words it is undoubtedly the qualifying word that comes last. There are more Suessce than one. "Why not more Prisci also ? In like manner Tarquinius Priscus = Tarquin who was Priscan (whatever be the meaning of the term), rather than Priscus who was Tarquinian. This exception makes it possible that the Prisci Latini, not- withstanding their name, were other than Latin — or Latin only in respect to their geography and denomination. Were they Kelt or Etrurian ? This is another question. The application of the name to Tarquin is in favour of their being Etrurian. SECTION XXIII. THE BOII. The Keltic areas — actual, probable, and possible — have been noticed. Certain details — actual, probable, or possible — of the Keltic name still stand over for investigation. It is only the more im- portant of these that claim attention. Two questions connect themselves with the name Boii. 1. "Was the population Keltic, and, if so, was the name Keltic also ? It would be hyper-criticism to deny that some Boii were Kelts. There are reasons, however, which forbid us to make them all so. In the time of Attila and his Huns, the name Boisci (see Zeuss, in voc. Hunni) appears in Scythia ; a country where Sla- vonian names abounded, — a country, indeed, which many of the Eastern Galatae occupied. In the Russian maps of the Government of Caucasus and Circassia, we find the word Boisci, where, in English, we should find the word KossacJcs, denoting the occupants of a military settlement. In a passage of Constantine Porphyrogenita (Zeuss, v. Serbi, Chorwati), there is the statement that the parts about Bavaria (Bar/iftapela) were called by the Slavonic occupants Boitci, and that these parts were on the frontier of the Prank Empire. As such they might be a March. 134 THE BOII. So might any, and all, of the Boian occupancies of Gaul, Germany, and Italy. Let us say, then, that, provided we can show reason for believ- ing that there were Slavonians, to give the name, on the frontiers of the Boii of Caesar and other writers, we have made out a prima facie case in favour of the word itself being Slavonic. If so, it may have been applied to Kelts, and to populations other than Keltic ; a fact which should regulate our criticism, when we find not only Boii in more places than one, but Dcserta Boiorum — Deserta possibly meaning Marches, or Debatcablc Lands. 2. What are the modern countries to which the Boii gave these names ? Or is there only one ? The usual doctrine makes only one ; at any rate, it takes but little cognizance of the second. The criticism rests chiefly on the following passage from Tacitus : — "Nunc singularum gentium instituta, ritusque, quatenus differant, quae nationes e Germania in Gallias commigraverint, cxpediam. Yalidiores olim -Gallorum res fuisse summus auctorum divus Julius tradit: eoque credibile est, etiam Gallos in Ger- maniani transgressos. Quantulum enim amnis obstabat, quo- minus, ut quseque gens evaluerat, occuparet permutaretque sedes promiscuas adhuc, et nulla regnorum potentia divisas? Igitur inter Hercyniam silvam, Bhenumque et Moenum amnes, Hel- vetii, ulteriora Boii, Gallica utraque gens, tenuere. Manet adhuc Boiemi nomen, significatque loci veterem nrcmoriam, quamvis mutatis cultoribus." — Germania, §28. Word for word Boiemnm is Bohemia. Nor is Tacitus the first writer who uses it. Yellcius Paterculus had done the same. Boio-hem-um is truly and unequivocally German — a German gloss. The -hem = occupation, residence, being the same word as the -heim in Mann-heim in High German ; the -hem in Arn-hem in Dutch ; the -urn in Dohk-um in Frisian ; the -ham in Threhing-ham in English. Hence Boi-o-hem-um = the home of the Boii. Some of the other compounds of the root Boi- are in- teresting. Be-heim-are, a triple compound, combines the elements of both Ba-varia and Bo-hem- ia, and stands for Be-heim-ware = the occupants of the home of the Boii. Boe-manni = the Boian men. Bco-winidi = the Boian Wends, or Slavonians. THE BOII. 135 Ptolemy's form is Baivo^alfxat ; a form taken from some dialect where the h was pronounced as a stronger guttural than elsewhere. "Word for word, and element for element, Boiohemum = Bo- hemia; but whether the localities coincide as closely as the forms of the name, is another question. It has been too readily assumed that they do. It cannot be denied that identity of name is prima facie evidence of identity of place. But it is not more. Hence, although it would be likely enough, if the question were wholly uncomplicated, that the Boiohemum of Paterculus and Tacitus were the Bohemia of the present century, doubts arise as soon as the name and the description disagree, and they increase when the identification of either the Boii, or their German invaders, with the inhabitants of Bohemia leads to ethnological and geo- graphical difficulties. All this is really the case. The disagreement between the name Boio-hem and the posi- tion of the present country of Bohemia, meets us in the very passage before us. The former lies between the Main, the Rhine, and the Hercynian Forest. No part of Bohemia is thus bounded. Hence, I believe the Boi-o-hem-um of Tacitus to have been, not Bohemia, but Bavaria ; Bavaria and Bohemia being nearly the same words. a. The first element in each is the proper name Boii. In the sixth and seventh centuries the fuller form of Bavaria is Bojo- aria, Bai-varia, Bajo-aria, Baiu-varii, etc. b. The second element is equivalent in power, though not in form, to the second element in Bo-hemia. It is the word ware = inhabitants or occupants in the Anglo-Saxon form, Cantware = people of Kent. Hence Bohemia = the Boian occupancy ; Bavaria = the occu- pant Boians. This leads us to the fact that however much we may place the Boii in Bo-hemia, we cannot do so exclusively. As far as the name goes, there were Boii in Bavaria as well ; Boii, too, who gave their name to their land. I collect, from the numerous and valuable quotations of ZeusSj that — 1. The evidence of the present country of Bavaria being 136 THE TEUTON RS AND CIMBRI. called by a compound of Boio + ware, begins as early as the sixth century. 2. That the evidence of the present country of Bohemia being called by a compound of Boio + heim is no earlier than the eleventh. I also collect from the same data, that, though the Bavarians of Bavaria are called Boii as late as the eleventh century, there is no conclusive instance of the Bohemians being so called. In my edition of the Germania, I have made Boiohemum Bavaria to the exclusion of Bohemia. I would now modify this view. Some of Bohemia and some of Bavaria constituted the Boiohemum of antiquity. More than this, I think that the greater portion of it was Bavarian. SECTION XXIV. THE TEUTONES AND CIMBBI. In the difficult and unsatisfactory investigation of the ethno- logy of these populations we find four names — (1), Ambrones; (2), Tigurini; (3), Teutones; (4), Cimbri. To each of these I shall give a separate Subsection, beginning with — SUB-SECTION I. THE AMB BONES. The current accounts, as is well known, give two decisive battles to the skill of Marius — one won b.c. 102, at Aquae Sextiaa in Trovence ; the other b.c. 101 near Vercelke. In the former, the Teutones, Tigurini, and Ambrones are more particularly engaged ; in the latter, the Cimbri. Now it is only in the first of these battles that the Ambrones appear. The notices of them, herein, arc important ; relating, as they mainly do, to the word as a gloss. Thus — Plutarch writes that before the battle they advanced beating their arms, and crying "Ambrones! Ambrones!" At this the Ligurian portion of the Roman army echoed the word, it being their own ancient name — acfras yap a^'novs ovtoos ovofxd^ovai Kara yevos Aiyves- — (77/. Jfan'i, 14). THE AMBROSES. 137 Supposing the Ambrones to be a population of some portion of the Ligurian frontier, external to the districts reduced by, or in alliance with, Rome, this is highly probable. They are opposed to their own countrymen, much as the Ionians of Asia were, during the Persian war, opposed to the Greeks ; or as, in later times, the Gauls of Roman Gallia might be opposed to the still unconquered tribes of the north. Under such conditions, what more natural than that they should parade their nationality in the way mentioned in the text, and that it should be the Ligurian portion of the opposing army that should, at least, understand them. Whether it was equally natural that it should be taken up in the manner described is another question. Next — as a geographical term for some portion of the popula- tions on the drainage of the Rhone, few names are more intrin- sically probable than the one before us. As a geographical term, it may easily be the -mbr- in Huniber and Umhria. Let the term have lost something of its original extent, and the fact of the text is the natural result. There was once a time when both the reduced Ligurians and their free conquerors were Ambrones. There was, then, a time when the southern tribes changed their denomination, or allowed it to become obsolete, the northern tribes retaining it. This is, as near as may be, the history of the word in England. At one time everything between the Humber and Tweed was 'North.-hicmbrian. At present, it is only the northern portion of the original Xorth-Humbria that retains its name. Imagine a battle in (say) the tenth century between the Scotch and the English, the Yorkshiremen being on the side of the latter, whilst Durham and Northumberland fought for Scotland, and some- thing akin to what occurred in Provence might occur in one of our northern counties. The Scotch Northumbrians might scream out " Northumberland, Northumberland ! " (with or without epithets or additions) to the now transmuted Yorkshiremen, who, whether they echoed it back or not, would still understand it, and, perhaps, recognise it as originally their own designation. A further notice of the meaning of the word is found in Festus — " Ambrones fuerunt gens quaedam Gallica quae, qui subita inundatione maris cum amersissent sedes suas, rapinis et prae- dationibus se suosque alere cceperunt, ex quo tractum est ut turpis vitae homines Ambrones dicerentur." This extract is almost too confirmative of the text of Plutarch, as just interpreted. It confirms the view that -mbr- was a 138 THE TIGURINT. geographical term. It confirms the view that it was the -mbr- in Humier (the river) and Vmbria (the country of waters). It confirms the view that the drainage of the Rhone was the dis- trict of the Ambrones, and, as it certainly was, of some of the Ligurians. Respecting, then, the Ambrones, who were conquered at Aqua3 Sextioe by Marius, I hold that they were Gauls of the frontier between Liguria and Helvetia, though not the only Gauls so named. Wherever there were those relations of land and water which the combination -mbr- expressed, there might be Ambrones. Further notices of the word may be found in Section ymbee, in my ethnological edition of the Germania of Tacitus. SUB-SECTION II. TUE TIGUEINI. In like manner, the Tigurini were Helvetians of the pagus Tigurinus. SUB-SECTION III. THE TEUTONES. The illegitimacy of all arguments in favour of the Teutones having been Germans, so often deduced from the name, has been already indicated. In the present section it will be dealt with more fully. Germany is not the name by which a German denotes his own country. He calls it Deutschland. The German term Leutsch is an adjective ; the earlier form of the word being diutisc. Here the -isc is the same as the -ish in words like self-ish. Diut, on the other hand, means people, or nation. Hence, diut-isc is to diut, as popularis is to populus. This adjective was first applied to the language; and served to distinguish the popular, national, native, or vulgar tongue of the populations to which it belonged from the Latin. It first appears in documents of the ninth century : — " Ut quilibct episcopus homilias apcrtc transfcrrc studcat in rusticam Romanam linguam THE TEUTOXES. 139 aut theotiscam, quo tandem cuncti possint intelligere quae di- cantur." — Synodus Turonensis, a.d. 813. u Quod in lingua Thiudisca scaftlegi, id est armorum depositio, vocatur." — Capit. Wormatieme. "De collectis quas Theudisca lingua heriszuph appellat." — Convent us Silvacensis. "Si, barlara, quam Teutiscam dicunt, lingua loqueretur. — Yita Adalhardi, etc." — D.G., i. p. 14, Introduction. As to the different forms in which either the root or the adjective appears, the most important of them are as follows : — 1. In Mceso-Gothic, fiudukd === iOvuc&s — Galatians ii. 14; a form which implies the substantive ]>iuda = eOvos. 2. In Old High-German, diot — populus, gives the adjective diutisc = popul-aris. 3. In Anglo Saxon we have ]>eod and \eodisc. Sometimes this adjective means heathen ; in which case it applies to religion, and is opposed to Christian. Oftener it means intelligible, or vernacular, and applies to language ; in which case it is opposed to Latin. The particular Gothic dialect to which it was first applied was the German of the iliddle Ehine. Here the forms are various: — theodisca, thiudisca, theudisca, teudisca, teutisca. "When we reach parts less in contact with the Latin language of Eome, its use is rarer. Even the Germans of the Ehine frequently use the equivalent term Alemannic, and Francic ; whilst the Saxons and Scandinavians never seem to have recognised the word at all. Hence it is only the Germans of Germany that are Theot- isci, or Deutsche. We of England, on the other hand, apply it only to the Dut-ch of Holland. Up to a certain time in its earlier history, the term Dutch {Teutisca, Theodisca, etc.) is, to a certain degree, one of dis- paragement ; meaning non-Roman, or vulgar. It soon, however, changes its character; and in an Old High- German gloss — uncadiuti (ungideuti) = un-dutch is translated barbarus. The standard has changed. Barbarism now means a departure from what is Dutch. Nevertheless, originally Deutsche = vulgar. Like high as opposed to low, rich to poor, etc., the word Deut-sch was originally a correlative term — i.e. it denoted some- thing which was popular, vulgar, national, unlearned — to some- thing which was not. 140 THE TEUTONES. "What is the inference from all this? That the word Teuton = Dutch could have had no existence until the relations between the learned and lettered language of Rome, and the comparatively unlearned and unlettered vulgar tongue of the Franks and Alemanni had developed some notable points of contrast. Deutsche, as a name for Germans, in the sense in which it occurs in the ninth century, was an impossibility in the first, or second. To continue the history of the word. About the tenth cen- tury the Latin writers upon German affairs began to use the words Teutonicus and Teutonice. Upon this Grimm remarks that the latter term sounded more learned ; since Teutonicus was a classical word, an adjective derived from the Gentile name of the Teutones conquered by Marine. I imagine that, as a general rule, this is what is meant from the beginning. Did the classical writers use it as equivalent to German ? Some did — Yelleius Paterculus most especially. Nevertheless, the usual meaning of the word Teutones in the classical writers is to denote a popu- lation identical with, or similar to, the Teutones conquered by Harius. In like manner the adjective Teutonicus meant after the fashion of the Teutones. I imagine that if a poet of the times in question were asked what he meant by the epithet, such would be his answer. That he would say that Teutonicus was only another word for Germanicus, and that the Teutones were Germans, I do not imagine, admitting, however, that a geographer or historian might do so. The classical meaning of Teutones and Teutonici is — like the men whom Marius conquered, whoever they were. Of course this term connoted something else. It was applied to the colour and texture of the hair ; so that we read of Teutonici capilli. It was applied to the manner of throwing javelins, so that we hear of men who were — Teutonico ritu soliti torquerc cateias. JEneid, lib. vii. 1. 741. It was applied to several other characteristics besides. This should be enough to lay the fallacy involved in the identification of the Teut-oucs and Deutsche. I doubt, however, whether it will do so; so wonderful is the vitality of an old error. Let us say, however, that Teut-on and Dutch, the latter word retaining the power by which it originally came to denote the German language (viz., the power of popular, vernacular, vulgar, THE TEUTONES. 141 etc.), are impossible connexions; and prepare for another view of the relation. Though the Teut- in Teut-ones be not the Teut- in Teut -iscus in its secondary sense of vulgar, or popular, as opposed to learned and cultivated, it may still be the same word with its primary meaning of people. It is by no means unlikely for an invading nation to call themselves the nation, the nations, the people, etc. Neither, if a German tribe had done so, would the word em- ployed be very unlike Teuton-es. Again — we have the Saltus Teut- o-h erg ins mentioned by Tacitus {Annul, lib. i. p. 60). "Whatever may be the power of the Teut- in Teutones, it is highly probable that here it means people, in other words, that it is the Teut- in Dut-ch, and that in its primary sense populus, rather than valgus. It means either the hill of the people, or the city of the people ; according as the syllable -berg- is derived from hdirgs = a hill, or from baurgs = a city. In either case the compound is allowable, e. g. diot ivec, public way, Old High-German ; thiod-scatho, robber of the people Old Saxon ; ydod-cyning, ]>eod-mearc, boundary of the nation, Anglo-Saxon; ]A6d-land, )nvd-vegr, people's way, Icelandic. Teut- then is, after all, a German gloss. Ee it so. Eut what is the evidence of its being so, and meaning people, in the name of the Marian Teutones ? None. That people, however, was actually its meaning is only a pro- bability at best. Eut supposing that it were so, it would by no means follow that because it was a German word it was exclusively German. The root p-llc (v-lg) is equally Slavonic and Latin — palk = valg-us as well as the German folk. "What, then, does the gloss prove ? Thus much. That, if we were sure it meant people, we should, certainly, have a German word, and, probably, a word exclusively German. Eut we are sure of nothing of the kind. As the matter stands, Teat- proves that the Tent-ones were Deutsche just as the word Truss-inn proves that the Ters-ians were Sarmatians; just as the word Lithuan-'mn. proves that the Latin-i were from the Ealtic, just as a great many other words prove a deal of something else, i.e., not at all. Let the name, then, go for nothing in our enquiry, and, with this preliminary, let the few trust-worthy notices of the popula- tion conquered by Marius, and associated with the Cimbri, Tigu- rini, and Ambroncs, be considered. 142 THE CIMBRI. The Teutones belonged, as decidedly as the Ambrones, to the western field of operations — i.e., the battle against them is fought in Provence, not in Lombardy. Appian is (I believe) the only author who gives them any share in the eastern movements. The name associated with the Ambrones in Strabo is TcovyevoL This, however, has so generally been admitted to be neither more nor less than Tevrovoi, that we may be allowed to identify the two. If not, the Teutones must be considered as unnoticed by Strabo ; Strabo' s notice of them being that of Posidonius. It is to the effect that the Cimbri, after several previous invasions of other countries, at length invaded Helvetia, and associated with them- selves the Tigurini, and Toygeni (Tcovyevot) which (by hypo- thesis) means Teutones. I see no reason to refine on this statement, which makes them a Helvetian population. Helvetia is the country where they were most in contact with their allies, the Ambrones; the country whence a descent upon Provence would be eminently likely ; the country whereof the geographical details (especially in the direction of Liguria) are so imperfectly described, as to make it an eminently probable area for such a population as the one under notice — a population of which we find no definite trace afterwards. (See Teutones and Tetttonarii in my edition of the Germania of Tacitus. — Epilegomena, section 44. I see, then, in the Teutones simply, certain otherwise ob- scurely-known neighbours of the Ambrones and Tigurini. SUB-SECTION IV. THE CIMBRI. Of the Cimbri, I have investigated the extremely complex ethnology elsewhere ; have repeated the investigation ; and now return to it. Now, however, as before, I come to nothing but a negative conclusion. I think they were more likely to have been Kelts than Germans, and quite as likely to have been Slavonians as Kelts. The doctrine which, in a contribution to the Transactions of the Philological Society, I propounded more than twelve years ago, is to the effect that the Romans of the times between the battle of Yercellrc and the conquest of Gaul, knew little about them in respect to their origin and relations ; that when Gaul was conquered, and neither Teutones nor Cimbri had appeared, THE CIMBRI. 143 either iis nominibus, or in any definite locality, speculation arose ; that when Germany had been explored, and no Teutones or Cimbri been found, their area was transferred to the Cimbric Chersonese. Speaking more generally, I maintained that when a given district, with which they had been previously connected, had been traversed and found wanting, the unknown parts imme- diately beyond it became the accredited starting-point. But these receded and receded till, at length, having begun with Gaul we end in Scandinavia. Now this view arises out of the examination of the lan- guage of the historians and geographers as examined in order, from Sallust to Ptolemy and Plutarch. Of Sallust and Cicero, the language points to Gaul as the home of the nation in question ; and that without the least inti- mation of its being any particularly distant portion of that country. "Per idem tempus adversus Gallos ab ducibus nostris, Q. Ca>pione et M. Hanlio, male pugnatum — Marius consul absens factus, et ei decreta provincia Gallia." — Bell. Jugurth. 114. "Ipse ille Marius — influentes in Italiam Gallorum maximas copias repressit." — Cicero de Prov. Consul. 13. Csesar, whose evidence ought to be conclusive (inasmuch as he knew of Germany as well as of Gaul), fixes them to the south of the Marne and Seine. This we learn, not from the direct text, but from inference : " Gallos — a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit." — Bell. Gall. i. 1. "Belgas — solos esse qui, patrum nostrorum memoria, omni Gallia vexata, Teutones Cim- brosque intra fines suos ingredi prohibuerint." — Bell. Gall. ii. 4. Now if the Teutones and Cimbri had moved from north to south, they would have clashed with the Belgae first, and with the other Gauls afterwards. The converse, however, was the fact. Diodorus Siculus, without defining their locality, deals throughout with the Cimbri as a Gaulish tribe. Besides this, he gives us one of the elements of the assumed indistinctness of ideas in regard to their origin, viz., their hypothetical con- nection with the Cimmerii. In this recognition of what might have been called the Cimmerian theory, he is followed by Strabo and Plutarch. — Diod. Sicul. v., 32. Strabo, vii. Plutarch, Fit. Marii. The next writer who mentions them is Strabo. In con- 144 THE CIMBRI. firmation of the view taken above, this author places the Cimbri on the northernmost limit of the area geographically known to him, viz., beyond Gaul, and in Germany, between the llhine and the Elbe : Twv Se Tepfidvcov, a>? elirov, ol /xev irpoaapKTioi TraprjKovac tw 'flfceava). TvwpiCpvTai 8' dirb rwv ifc/3o\(x)V rod 'Prjvov Xdfiovre? rrjv dpyy)V ^XP 1 T0 ^ "A\{3los. Tovtcov Be elal yvcopt/jLcoraroL ^ovyafifipoL re Kal Klfi/3poc. Td Se irkpav rov "A\/3lo<; rd irpo^ to> 'flfceavw iravrdirao-tv dyvcoara rjfilv iarcv. — Lib. iv. Further proof that this was the frontier of the Roman world we get from the statement which soon follows, viz , that " thus much was known to the Romans from their successful wars, and that more would have been known had it not been for the injunc- tion of Augustus forbidding his generals to cross the Elbe." — Lib. iv. Yelleius Paterculus agrees with his contemporary Strabo. He places them beyond the llhine, and deals with them as Germans : — " Turn Cimbri et Teutoni transcendere Rhenum, multis mox nostris suisque cladibus nobilcs." — ii. 8. " Effusa — immanis vis Germanarum gentium quibus nomen Cimbris ac Teutonis erat." — ii. 12. Marmor Ancyranum. — " Cimeeique et charttdes et seu- NONES ET EIUSDEM TEACTUS ALII GERMANORFM POPULI PEE LEGATOS AMICITIAM MEAil ET POPULI ROHAKI PETIEErXT." Tacitus. — Eumdem Germanise sitem proximi Oceano Cimbri tenent, parva nunc civitas, sed gloria ingens : veterisque famse late vestigia manent, utraque ripa castra, ac spatia, quorum ambitu nunc quoque metiaris molem manusque gentis, et tarn magni exercitus fidem. Sexcentesimum et quadragesimum annum TJrbs nostra agebat, cum primum Cimbrorum audita sunt arma, Caecilio Metello ac Papirio Carbone consulibus. Ex quo si ad alterum Imperatoris Trajani consulatum computemus, ducenti ferme et decern anni colliguntur : tamdiu Gcrmania vincitur. Medio tarn longi aevi spatio, multa invicem damna. ]S T on Samnis non Pceni, non Hispania), Galliaevc, ne Parthi quidem sa?pius admonuere : quippe regno Arsacis acrior est Germanorum libertas. Quid enim aliud nobis, quam ca)dcm Crassi, amisso et ipse Pacoro, infra Yentidium dejectus Oriens objecerit ? At Gcrmani Carbone, et Cassio, et Scauro Aurelio, et Servilio Caopione, Cn. quoque Manlio fusis vel captis, quinque simid consulares exercitus populo Romano, Varum, trcsquc cum eo legiones, etiam Cassari abstule- THE CIMBia. 145 runt: -nee impune C. Marius in Italia, divus Julius in Gallia, Drusus ac Nero et Germanicus in suis cos sedibus perculerunt. Mox ingentes C. Caesaris minse in ludibrium versae. Inde otium, donee occasione discordise nostra3 et civilium armorum, expugnatis legionum hibernis, etiam Gallias affectavere : ac rursus pulsi inde, proximis temporibus triumpliati magis quiim victi sunt. In respect to the veteris famce vestigia, the disbeliever in the existence of either Cimbri or Teutones in Germany sees only an inference. Certain monuments required explanation. The Hornan antiquaries referred them to the populations in question. There is not a shadow of evidence that makes this belief native. I think that the Marmor Ancyranum suggested portions of the preceding extract. The populations of the Marmor are the Cimbri, the Charudes, and the Semnones. Now, the order in Tacitus is nearly this. The Cherusci (probably the Charudes in the eye of Tacitus, who nowhere gives that name) are noticed just before, the Semnones just after, the Cimbri. Ptolemy. — Now the author who most mentions in detail the tribes beyond the Elbe, is also the author who most pushes back the Cimbri towards the north. Coincident with his improved information as to the parts southward, he places them at the extremity of the area known to him : K.avyoi ol fieltyves peyjpi rod '^4A,/3/o? 7rorafiov' e<£efj}? Be eVl av%eva rrjs Kcfj,{3ptfcr]<; Xepaovrjaov Xd^over avrrjv Be rrjv Xepao- vrjaov virep fiev rovs %dj;ovas, HvyovXcoves diro Bvct/jLcoV elra HafiaXlyycoi,, elra KofiavBol' virep oD? XdXot' /cat etl virep tovtovs Bvcr fiuccorepoi fiev ^ovvBovawt, dvaroXiKcorepot, Be XapovBe?, Trdvrwv Be dp/cruccorepoi KlfJu^poL. Pliny not only fixes the Cimbri in three places at once, but also (as far as we can find any meaning in his language) removes them so far northward as Norway : " Alterum genus Ingsevones; quorum pars Cimbri Teutoni, ac Chaucorum gentes. Proximi Rheno Istaevones: quorum pars Cimbri mediterranei." — iv. 28. " Promontorium Cimbrorum excurrens in maria longe peninsulam efficit, quae Cartris appellator."— Ibid. 27. "Sevo Mons" (the mountain-chains of Norway) "immanem ad Cimbrorum usque pro- montorium efficit sinum, qui Codanus vocatur, refertus insulis, quarum clarissima Scandinavia est, incompertoe magnitudinis." — Ibid. I conclude with Plutarch's notice: "They had no sooner 10 146 THE CIMBRI. received the news that Jugurtha was taken, than reports were spread of an invasion from the Teutones and the Cimbri. And, though the account of the number and strength of their armies seemed at first incredible, it subsequently appeared short of the truth. For three hundred thousand well-armed warriors were upon the march; and the women and children, whom they brought along with them, were said to be still more numerous. This vast multitude were in search of lands on which they might subsist, and cities wherein to live and settle ; as they had heard that the Celtae before them had expelled the Tuscans, and pos- sessed themselves of the best part of Italy. As for these, who now hovered like a cloud over Gaul and Italy, it was not known who they were, or whence they came, on account of their small commerce with the rest of the world, and the length of way which they had marched. It was conjectured, indeed, from the largeness of their stature, and the blueness of their eyes, as well as because the Germans called banditti Cimbri, that they were some of those German nations who dwell by the north sea. " Some say the country of the Celtae is of such immense extent, that it stretched from the Western Ocean and the most northern climes, to the lake Hseotis eastward, and to that part of Scy thia which borders upon Pontus ; that there the two nations mingle, and thence issue, not all at once, nor at all seasons, but in the spring of 'the year ; that, by means of these annual supplies, they had gradually opened themselves a way over the chief part of the European continent ; and that, though they are distinguished by different names, according to their tribes, yet their whole body is comprehended under the general appella- tion of Celto-Scythae. " Others assert that they were a small part of the Cimme- rians, well known to the ancient Greeks ; and that quitting their native soil, or having been expelled by the Scythians, on account of some sedition, they passed from the Palus Maeotis into Asia, under the conduct of Lygdamis their chief; but that the greater and more warlike part dwelt in the extremities of the earth, near the North Sea. These inhabit a country so dark and woody, that the sun is seldom seen, on account of the many high and spreading trees, which reach inward as far as the Hercynian forest. They are under that part of the heavens where the elevation of the pole is such, that, by the deelination of the THE CIMBRI. 147 parallels, it makes almost a vertical point to the inhabitants, and their day and night are of such a length, that they serve to divide the year into two equal parts, which gave occasion to Homer's fiction concerning the infernal regions. "Hence, therefore, these barbarians, who came into Italy, first issued ; being anciently called Cimmerii, and subsequently Cimbri, but not at all from any reference to their manners. Yet these things rest rather upon conjecture than upon his- torical certainty. Most historians, however, agree that their numbers, instead of being less, were rather greater than we have related. " As to their courage, their spirit, and the force and vivacity with which they made an impression, we may compare them to a devouring flame. Nothing could resist their impetuosity ; all that came in the way were trodden down, or driven before them like cattle. Many respectable armies and generals, employed by the Romans to guard the Transalpine Gaul, were shamefully routed ; and the feeble resistance which they made to the first efforts of the barbarians was the chief thing which drew them toward Rome. For having beaten all they met, and loaded themselves with plunder, they determined to settle nowhere till they had destroyed Rome and laid waste the whole of Italy." Such is the literary history of the name ; a name implying an amount of ignorance on the part of our authorities which many will be unwilling to admit, and which some may say that no discreet critic should presume to impute. Let us see how far this is the case. The ordinary doctrine is that the Cimbro-Teutonic wars were spread over a period of nearly twelve years : b c. 113, Papirius Carbo is defeated near Noreia in Xoricum ; and b.c. 101, the final slaughter of the Cimbri is effected by Marius and Catulus at Vercellae. Between these two points the field of operations changes from Noricum to Helvetia, Gaul, Spain, and Cisalpine Italy. The authorities of the different details of this series of battles and migrations are by no means of uniform value. The great and final battle of Yercellae is, probably, known accurately and in detail — so far as it is known at all. Catulus, the colleague of Marius, wrote the memoirs of his own consulate ; and Sylla, who was also in the battle, wrote his commentaries (T7rofLvr}/jLaTa). Let these stand as the authorities for the last great action of the Cimbri — the Cimbri as opposed to the 148 THE CIMBRI. Teutones and Ambrones, who were annihilated elsewhere, and in the previous year. There were, certainly, no memoirs of Catulu3 for the action at Aqua Sextias ; probably none of Sylla, who, we must remem- ber, was a young man. This throws us upon the general historians of the period — Q. C. Quadrigarius and Yalerius Antias — writers who had, cer- tainly, opportunities of kno wing the details of all that was done by the Roman armies, either in or out of the presence of the enemy, as well as much of what was done by the enemy in presence of the Roman armies. In allowing them all due and reasonable accuracy on these points, it is not too much to hold that a great deal of what was effected between the several engagements, such as invasions of neutral countries, alliances, and the like, must have been most imperfectly under- stood. That the original accounts, however, are lost, is well known. We have nothing, at first-hand, of either of the authors just named. Neither have we the books of Livy which treated of the years b.c. 113 — 101. We have the Epitome, and we have the copyists and compilers ; but we have not Livy himself. The nearest authorities are Strabo, representing Posidonius, and Plutarch. Of these, the former gives us nothiDg definite ; the latter confesses his ignorance as to their origin. Surely this justifies a considerable amount of doubt ; the more so as the question is one of great importance. Who the Cimbri, and who the Teutones were, are points which complicate numberless ethnological investigations. They complicate those of the Cambrian Welshmen ; the Cumbrians of Cumberland, the Belgae, the populations of Jutland or the Cimbric Chersonese, the Cimmerii, the Crim Tartars, the scrip- tural descendants of Gomer, etc. They complicate also the history of the Teutonarii, the Saltus Teutobcrgius, and the Dutch in general, by which is meant anything German, any- thing Gothic. The names alone do this — Teutones on one side, Cimbri on the other. The false inferences connected with the first have been noticed. The criticism concerning the second is as follows : — 1. It is, probably, a Gallic word, though it may be German. Plutarch writes thai it is German, Festus that it is Gallic, for THE CIMBRI. 140 roller. Granted, then, that it is Gallic (or German). What follows ? Simply that certain Gauls or Germans called a certain population by a certain name, — a fact that fully proves that the Cimbri came in contact with Gauls and Germans, but nothing more. Evidence that the name is native, there is none. 2. In the matter of its medial consonants, Ci-m5r-i is the same word as A-mJr-ones. This, however, may be accidental. Be it so. There are, nevertheless, signs of either identity or con- fusion between the two. Have we not seen that Amlrones, if not exactly meaning rollers, meant something very like it ? Have we not also seen that the Ambrones came from a district that had been flooded ? So did the Cimbri. Strabo tell us this. He places them, however, in the parts between the mouth of the Rhine and the mouth of the Elbe. 3. "With either of these meanings, " Cimbri" and " Ambrones" might be as common in either Gaul or Germany as " robbers" or " inundations." Their alliance with the (probably) Keltic Teutones and Ambrones is prima facie evidence of their being Gauls, but nothing more. A Kelto-Slavonic confederation is possible, and not improbable. The utter ignorance of all the writers of antiquity respecting their origin, after all Gallia, and much of Germany had been explored, points to some of the more unknown areas j and these are generally Slavonic. The German hypothesis, eminently untenable, rests on the wrong interpretation of the word Teutones, and the fact of the Cimbri being placed by Ptolemy, on the principle suggested above, in Jutland. Say, then, that whilst the ignorance of antiquity is best accounted for by making them Slavonic, their alliance with the Ambrones, Tigurini, and Teutones favors the notion of their being Kelts, — favors it, but nothing more. As Slavonians, either from or through ]S"oricum, they may have joined the alliance. But is the evidence of the alliance itself unexceptionable ? That the attacks were concurrent is certain. But is it so certain that they were conjoint ? The details as to the two populations having proceeded from some distant point together, and then having drawn lots con- cerning the countries that they are respectively to attack, are im- probable. 150 THE CIMBRI. Then come the sequela of the battle of Aquae Sextiae. In the first place, Marius is recalled to Rome, where he might have had a triumph if he chose. He defers it, however. He then moves to join Catulus ; but waits for the army, which he sends for from Gaul, before he crosses the Po. He is now in front of the Cimbri. But they (the recital is from Plutarch) defer the " combat, pretending that they expected the Teutones, and wondered at their delay; either being really ignorant of their fate, or choosing to appear so, for they punished those who brought them an account of it with stripes, and sent to ask Marius for lands and cities, sufficient both for themselves and for their brethren. "When Marius inquired of the ambassadors, '"Who their brethren were?' they told him, 'The Teutones.' The assembly burst into laughter, and Marius tauntingly replied, 1 Don't trouble yourselves about your brethren, for they had land enough of our giving, and they shall have it for ever.' The ambassadors, perceiving the irony, scurrilously assured him, in reply, ' That the Cimbri would chastise him immediately, and the Teutones when they came up.' ' And they are not far off,' said Marius ; ' it will be very unkind in you, therefore, to go away without saluting your brethren.' At the same time, he ordered the kings of the Teutones to be brought out, loaded as they were with chains ; for they had been taken by the Sequani as they were endeavouring to escape across the Alps." Is this credible ? First, Marius is recalled ; then he travels to Rome, as rapidly as we please. There he makes speeches and the like. Thence, he marches to the Po. Meanwhile (supposing the movements of the army to be simultaneous with those of Marius), but, afterwards, (if we main- tain that he had a previous interview with Catulus,) the army moves from Aquae Sextiae to Vercellae. Is all this done with greater rapidity than the news of a defeat could pass from the Rhine to the Po ? Did Marius reach Rome first, and the quarters of Catulus afterwards, in less time than the messengers from the Teutones reached the Cimbri ? Did 1 is army move over the same ground more quickly than those messengers ? Then, is the incredulity of the Cimbri probable ? "Were they members of an alliance sufficiently large to be formidable to Rome, and yet without communication with their allies ? or was it part of their system to believe only what they chose ? This is THE PICTS, 151 mere child's play. According to hypothesis, the two divisions had been acting in unison for more than ten years, having ravaged Illyria, Gaul, and Spain. Was this an organization that could give such results as the conquests with which they are credited ? The account is Plutarch's; and it may have been taken from the commentaries of either Sylla or Catulus. It may, however, have been a mere floating anecdote. This, however, is irrelevant to the main question, and is brought forward more with a view of showing how little we know about the populations in question. I think that the Cimbri were Slavonians. That they had as little to do with Cimbric Chersonese, as the Teutones had with the Dutch, I am sure. SECTION XXV. THE PICTS, EO NOMINE. The meaning of the words eo nomine will be explained in the next chapter ; the present being devoted to the question — Who were the Picts ? Some make them Kelts of the British branch. Others make them Scandinavians. Others make them something else ; but these are the only hypotheses which command our notice. The following facts, in favour of the former, are from a paper of Mr. Garnett's, in the Transactions of the Philological Society: — 1. When St. Columba, whose mother-tongue was the Irish Gaelic, preached to the Picts, he used an interpreter — Adamnanus apud Colganum, 1, 11, c. 32. This shows the difference between the Pict and Gaelic. 2. A manuscript in the Colbertine Library contains a list of Pict kings from the fifth century downwards. These names are not only more Keltic than Gothic, but more Welsh than Gaelic. Taran = thunder in Welsh. Uvan is the Welsh Owen. The first syllable in Talorg ( = forehead) is the tal in Talhaiarn= iron forehead, Taliessin = splendid forehead, Welsh names. Wrgust is nearer to the Welsh Gwrgust than to the Irish Fergus. Finally, Drust, Drostan, Wrad, Necton, closely resemble the Welsh Trwst, 152 THE PICTS. Trwstan, Gwriad, Nwython, whilst Cineod, and Bomhnall [Kenneth and Donnell) are the only true Erse forms in the list. This shows the affinity between the Pict and Welsh. 3. The only Pict common name extant, is the well-known compound pen val, which is in the oldest MS. of Beda peann fahel. This means caput valli, and is the name for the eastern termination of the Valium of Antoninus. Herein pen is un- equivocally Welsh, meaning head. It is an impossible form in Gaelic. Fal, on the other hand, is apparently Gaelic, the Welsh for a rampart being gwall. Fal, however, occurs in Welsh also, and means inclosure. " Incepit autem duorum ferme millium spatii a monasterio ^burcurnig ad occidentem, in loco qui sermone Pictorum Peanfahel, lingua autem Anglorum Penneltun appellatur; et tendens contra occidentem terminatur juxtaTJrbem Alcluith." — Hist. Fee. i. 12. In an interpolation, apparently of the twelfth centuiy, of the Durham MS. of Nennius, it is stated that the spot in question was called in Gaelic Cenail. Now Cenail is the modern name Kinneil, and it is also a Gaelic trans- lation of the Pict pen val, since cean is the Gaelic for head, and fhail for rampart or wall. If the older form were Gaelic, the substitution, or translation, would have been superfluous. 4. The name of the Ochil Hills in Perthshire is better explained from the Pict uchel = high, than from the Gaelic uasal. 5. Bryneich, the British form of the province of Bernicia, is better explained by the Welsh byrn = ridge {hilly country), than by any word in Gaelic. — Garnett, in Transactions of Philological Society. All this is in favour of the Picts having been not only Kelts, but Kelts of the British branch. At the same time, it is any- thing but conclusive. Claudian often mentions the Picts. That he mentions them in company with the Saxons is a point of no great importance. He mentions them, however, as the occupants of a northern locality — a locality, at least, as far north as the Orkneys. u Quid rigor seternus cceli ; quid sidcra prosunt I^notumque frctum ? maducrunt Sax one fuso Orcades ; incaluit Pictorum sanguine Thule, Scotoruni cuniulos flcvit glacialis Terne." • De quart. Consul. lion 30-31. The northern locality indicated by this quotation points to- THE PICTS. 153 wards Scandinavia. So do the local traditions of the Orkney and Shetland Islands, where the ruins of numerous ancient dwelling-places are called Pict Houses. The next locality notable for traditions respecting the Picts is the Scottish border, or rather the line of the Eoman wall; which is again attributed to the Picts. So that we have the Picts' Wall in Cumberland and Northum- berland, and the Picts' Houses in Orkney and Shetland ; not to mention the Pentland (Pihtland) Firth, which is generally con- sidered to befretwn Pictorum. Again — the most Scandinavian parts of Scotland are Caithness, Orkney, and Shetland ; also Pict. Finally — the Danish termination -by occurs in Scotland no- where between Dunscanby Head, on the Poland Firth, and Annandale, in the parts about the Picts 1 Wall ; where we have LockerJ^, etc. I submit that no doctrine respecting the Pict ethnology should pretermit these facts, however strong those of the opposite view may be. Again — Nennius writes, "Post intervallum multorum annorum Picti venerunt et occupaverunt insulas quae Or cades vocantur ; et postea ex insulis affinitimis vastaverunt non modicas et multas regiones, occupaver unique eas in sinistrali plaga Britanniae ; et manent usque in hodiernum diem. Ibi tertiam partem Britannia tenuerunt et tenent usque nuncT — Nenn., cv. Again — "Ut Brittones a Scottis vastati Pictisque Eomanorum auxilia quaesierint, qui secundo venientes, murum trans insulam fecerint ; sed hoc confestim a praefatis hostibus interrupto, majore sint calamitate depressi. " Exin Brittania in parte Brittonum, omni armato milite, militaribus copiis universis, tota fioridae juventutis alacritate spoliata, quae tyrannorum temeritate abducta nusquam ultra domum rediit, proadae tantum patuit, utpote omnis bellici usus prorsus ignara : denique subito duabus gentibus transmarinis vehementer saevis, Scottorum a Circio, Pictorum ab Aquilone, multos stupet gemitque per annos. Transmarinas autem dicimus has gentes, non quod extra Brittaniam essent positae ; sed quia a parte Brittonum erant remotae, duobus sinibus maris interja- centibus, quorum unus ab Orientali mari, alter ab Occidentali, Brittaniae terras longe lateque inrumpit, quamvis ad sc invicem pertingcre non possint. Orientalis habet in medio sui urbcm 154 THE PICTS. Giudi, Occidentalis supra se, hoc est, ad dexteram sui habet urbem Alcluith, quod lingua eorum significat ' petram cluith ; ' est enim juxta fluvium nominis illius. " Et cum plurimam insula) partem, incipientis ab austro, pos- sedissent, contigit gentem Pictorum de Scythia, ut perhibent, longis navibus non multis oceanum ingressam, circumagente flatu ventorum, extra fines omnes Brittaniae Hiberniam pervenisse, ejusque scptentrionales oras intrasse, atque inventa ibi gente Scottorum, sibi quoque in partibus illius sedes petisse, nee im- petrare potuisse. Ad banc ergo usque pervenientes navigio Picti ut diximus, petierunt in ea sibi quoque sedes et habitationem donari. Respondebant Scotti, quia non ambos eos caperet insula : 'Sed possumus,' inquiunt, 'salubre vobis dare consilium quid agere valeatis. Novimus insulam aliam esse non procul a nostra, contra ortum solis, quam sa3pe lucidioribus diebus de longe aspi- cere solemus. Hanc adire si vultis, habitabilem vobis facere valetis : Tel si qui restiterit, nobis auxiliariis utimini/ Itaque patentes Brittaniam Picti, habitare per septentrionales insulae partes coeperunt ; nam Austrina Brittones occupaverant. Cum- que uxores Picti non habentes peterent a Scottis, ea solum con- ditione dare consenserunt, ut ubi res perveniret in dubium, magis de feminea regum prosapia, quam de masculina regem sibi elige- rent : quod usque hodie apud Pictos constat esse servatum" In these extracts a third of Britain is given to the Picts. Now a third is the portion which is afterwards given to the Scandinavians. The fact of the royal blood running in the female line invali- dates the inference drawn from the British character of the names of the Pict kings. But there is the evidence of the Pict glosses, which are British. But is it certain that they are Pict ? Take a series of names from some of the more English parts of Wales ; c. g. the parts about Swansea. They will be Welsh, in respect to the country they come from, but they will not be from the language of the Welshmen. May not this be the case here ? We must choose between a conflict of difficulties. The British hypothesis will not account for the Picts of Orkney, nor the Scandinavian for words like Peanfahel. 1 conclude with the following extract from Beda : — "Pro- ccdentc autem tempore, Britannia post Brittones et Pictos, tertiam ON THE CRUITHREACH. 155 Scottorum nationem in Pictorum parte recepit, qui duce Reuda de Hibernia progressi, vel amicitia vel ferro sibimet inter eos sedes quas hactenus habent, vindicarunt : a quo videlicet duce usque hodie Dalreudini vocantur, nam lingua eorum dual partem signincat." But one view has been taken of the construction of this passage, viz., that qui refers to the word Scottorum ; so that it was the Scots who came from Ireland, the Scots whom Eeuda led, the Scots in whose language dual meant part. Nevertheless, the true antecedent may be the word Pictorum. At any rate, we remember that dal = pars is not a Scotch, and is a Scandinavian word. SECTION XXVI. ON THE CKUITHNEACH. The investigation of the ethnological relations of the Cruith- neach is part and parcel of the question concerning the position of the Picts. It is generally, perhaps universally, stated that the name by which the Picts were known to the Irish was Cruithneach, or rather it should be said that the general or universal translation of the word Cruithneach, a word which appears frequently in the Irish Chronicles, is Pict. The fact, however, has never been proved. I may, indeed, say that it has never been investigated. What does it rest on in the way of external evidence ? Nothing. What in the way of internal ? That, word for word, Cruithneach is Pict, is what no one has pretended. Neither has any one maintained that the one term is a translation of the other. Pict, where it has been translated at all, has been connected with the Latin pictus, painted. Cruithneach, on the other hand, where it has been interpreted, has been made a derivative of the Greek word KpiOov (Jcrithon) = barley. Neither of these views is correct; the latter being absurd. These are noticed, however, for the sake of shewing that the two names have never been looked upon as equivalents in the way of signification. If Cruithneach, then, mean Pict, it means it in the same way that German means Dutch : the words being different, and their meanings, so far as they have any, being different also. But 156 ON THE CRUITHNEACH. before it is stated that two words unconnected both in form and power mean the same thing, special evidence should be adduced ; and this, in the case before us, has not been done. It may be said, however, that the history of the Cruith- neach is that of the Picts. This, however, is saying too much. All that can be stated with accuracy is that there is nothing incompatible between the two. What likelier place and time for a Pict invasion than Ireland in the sixth century ? But this is not enough. The following is an argument against the two words being identical. All the nations w4th which the Picts have ever been connected were known to the Irish under names other than Cruithneach. Were they Kelts? If so, the name, even in Ireland, would be Briton, or Scot, or Gael. Were they Scandinavians ? If so, Llochlin was what the Irish would call them — Llochlin or Tuath-da-Danaim {i.e. Danes). Let us take a purely formal view of the word. Suppose Cruithneach had been a name, totidem Uteris, of a nation in the north of Europe, occupant of a seacoast, and situated in a country from which Ireland could be invaded ? What should we have made of the word then ? There is, assuredly, something which we should not have done. We should not have made it mean Pict, however well the Pict history might have suited. On the contrary, we should have taken it as we found it, and simply said that, besides such and such invasions of Ireland, there was a Cruithneach one also. We might, indeed, if the identification of the Picts gave us trouble, make the Picts Cruithneach ; but this would be very different from making the Cruithneach Picts. We may put the case differently. We may take some nation actually existing, under conditions of time and place, that would give them the same position in the Irish annals that is given to the Cruithneach. We may indeed, write their name instead of Cruithneach, wherever that word appears. Let us do this ; and let the name be Fin. Who will say that, if the Fins appeared instead of the Cruithneach throughout the pages of the Irish historians, he would refine upon the fact so patently suggested by the name, viz., that there was a Fin invasion of Ireland. All that he could say was that it was not exactly the inva- sion he expected — that Picts in their place would be the likelier population. This, and the like, he mJAt say ; but he would never deny a Fin invasion, simply on the strength of its com- THE LINGUA, ETC., OF THE AMBER COAST. 157 parative improbability. He would be satisfied with what the name suggested. What we have hitherto only supposed, is now stated to be a real fact ; not exactly one according to the strict terms of the previous hypotheses, but one closely approaching them. No such name as Cruithneach is known in any part of Europe whence Ireland could be accessible — no such name, totidem liter is. Neither is any name exactly like it universally admitted to have prevailed in any part of Europe whence Ireland was accessible at the time of the Cruithneach invasions. We have not the thing, then, exactly. But we have a near approach to it. It is submitted : — 1. That the parts on the Lower Vistula are parts from which invasions of Ireland were practicable. 2. That the name for the population occupant of these parts in the eleventh century, is universally admitted to have been some form of the root Pr-th ; and good reason can be given for the same designation having been current at the time of the Cruithneach. 3. Pruth- is not Cruth- exactly, i.e. totidem Uteris. But it is as nearly the same word as the absence of p in the Irish Gaelic will allow. Cruth- is the form that Pruth- would take in Irish Gaelic, where c replaces p. "Word for word, then, we may deal with Cruithneach as if it were actually Pruthneach; at any rate, it is the only form which the word could take in Gaelic. SECTION XXVII. THE LINGUA BEITANNL^ PKOPKIOE, OF THE AMBER COAST. For this, see Section ii., which is really an anticipation of the chapter which otherwise would appear here. Eor the further notice of the Picts and Cruithneach, see the next section. 158 THE SARMATIAN HYPOTHESIS. SECTION XXVIII. THE SARMATIAN HYPOTHESIS. Separating the Picts from the Cruithneach, we have found reasons in favour of the former having been Scandinavians, i.e. Norwegians, Swedes, or Danes. Separating the Cruithneach from the Pict, we have found reasons in favour of them (the Cruithneach) having been Pruthneach, i.e. Pruthenians, or Prussians. "With the two populations thus isolated, the doctrine sug- gested by the latter inference is free from complications. It may, indeed, be erroneous. It is not, however, traversed by any real or apparent incompatibilities. Is it equally uncomplicated if the current identification of the two stand good ? I submit that it is so to a great extent. Prussians would come from the north ; Scandinavians would do no more. Prussians might settle in the Pict localities just as easily as Danes. If a Prussian origin is impugned by the state- ments at the beginning of Section xxv., so is an origin from Norway. If the objections, however, are insufficient against the Norwegian, they are equally so against the Prussian, hypothesis. On the other hand, however, it must be admitted that the forms in -hy, and the gloss daal, are more Scandinavian than Prussian ; though the latter is not a word on which much stress is laid. The identity, then, of the Cruithneach with the Picts is compatible with a Scandinavian (Northern), incompatible with a Keltic, affinity for the latter. I add to this remark the following. Supposing the Picts not to have been Kelts, there is a slight fact against their being Scandinavians in the term Pentland. It is Norse. But is it a term that one Norse, or Scandinavian population, in the limited sense of the word, would apply to another ? I think not. When the Norwegians, Danes, or Swedes, spoke of Picts, they certainly meant something other than Swedish, Danish, or Norwegian. THE SARMATIAN HYPOTHESIS. 159 Such, then, is the Prussian hypothesis — an hypothesis for which I only claim a share of the credit, in case it be true. I am at liberty to connect it with the name of my friend Professor Graves, who, on the strength of a wholly independent series of researches, not only identifies the Cruithneach of the Irish Chronicles with the Prussians, but also the Fomorians of the same with the Pomoranians. If this be the case (as I believe it is), the northern elements in Great Britain and Ireland are as follows : — (1) Scandinavian, = Danish, Norwegian, Swedish; (2) Sarmatian ; a. Slavonic = Pomeranian ; b. Lithuanic = Prussian. I am inclined to add Fin, or Ugrian, elements as well. The exposition, however, of this doctrine forms no part of the present work. 1G0 EASTERN ORIGIN OF cnArTEB, i. Preliminary survey of the forms of words and the permutations of letters. SECTION I. Introductory Remarks. In order to display, in its real extent, the affinity which subsists between the Celtic dialects and other languages, it will be necessary to compare them in two different points of view, and to examine, in the first place, the relations between their respective vocabularies or stocks of primitive words or roots ; and secondly, the peculiarities and coincidences in their grammatical structure. But before we enter into details which properly belong to either of these subjects, we must consider some general principles of inflection, which have an important influence on the structure of words and sentences in several of the languages to be examined. SECTION II. Of the permutation of letters in composition and construction — Of Sandhi and Samasa in Sanskrit — Of the same principles as discovered in the Celtic dialects— in the Welsh— in the Erse— Of the digamma and sibilant in Greek. It is a habit common to many of the Indo-Euro- pean languages to interchange certain letters accord- THE CELTIC XATIOXS. 101 ing to rules founded originally on euphony, or on the facility of utterance ; and from this circum- stance arises the great capability, which these lan- guages possess, of composition, or the formation of compound words. The substitution of consonants of particular orders for their cognates, which takes place in Greek in the composition of words, and in some other instances, is an example of this pecu- liarity. In Greek, in Latin, and in the German dialects, the mutation of consonants is confined to words brought together under very peculiar circumstances, as chiefly when they enter into the formation of compound terms, and it is scarcely observed in words which still remain distinct, and are merely constituent parts of sentences. Either the attention to euphony and the case of utterance has not ex- tended so far, or the purpose was attained by a choice of collocation, the words themselves remain- ing unaltered. But in the Sanskrit language words merely in sequence have an influence upon each other in the change of terminations, and sometimes of initial letters, on the principle above alluded to. Thus, instead of cdishthal manujah } stabat homo, the man stood, we find the words written atishthan ma- nujah, the final t of the verb atishthat, stabat, being altered into n on account of the liquid consonant with which the next word begins. This change in distinct words is termed by the Sanskrit gramma- rians tffvr, Sandhi, conjunction ; but the laws ac- ll 162 EASTERN ORIGIN OF cording to which compound words are formed, and which have a similar reference to euphony, are designated WTCT, Samasa, coalition. This last process is to be observed in most, if not in all the European languages, and the rules which govern it in all instances are very similar ; but the altera- tion of consonants in entire words, according to the rules of Sandhi, have been considered as in a great measure peculiar to the Sanskrit. It is, however, a remarkable fact, that in the Celtic dialects, and more especially in the Welsh, permutations in many respects analogous to those of Sandhi are constant and indispensable in the formation of sentences. It is impossible to bring three or four words together in the Celtic languages, without modifications similar in their principle to those of Sandhi. The general principle of these changes in Sanskrit may be understood by the following table of consonants, arranged according to the organs by means of which they are pronounced, and like- wise according to the intensity and mode of utter- ance. The former arrangement is analogous in some respects to that of the Greek mutes, but more numerous and comprehensive. It consists of five classes, termed Guttural, Palatine, Lingual, Dental, and Labial. To these is added a sixth, consisting of semivowels ; and a seventh, containing Sibilants and an Aspirate, which is associated with the Sibilants. The second division is into two orders termed Surds and Sonants. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 163 Gutturals SURDS. SONANTS. K K'h G G'h Ng. Palatines Ch Ch'h J J'h Gn. Linguals T T'h P D'h jr. Dentals T T'h D D'h N. Labials p P'h B B'h M. Semivowels Y R L V. Sibilants 8 Sh S H The vowels are included among the Sonants. The laws of Sandhi forbid the meeting of con- sonants of different orders. Hence a surd conso- nant at the end of a word is changed with the corresponding sonant, if the next word begins with a sonant ; and sonants are changed into surds if the following words begin with surds. Nearly of the same description are the muta- tions of consonants in the Celtic language ; but in order to obtain a view of the whole system of these changes, it is necessary to compare several dialects, as there is not one which preserves them all in an entire state. The Welsh alphabet has them, how- ever, in greater variety than the others. In this all mute consonants of the order termed above surds have four forms, and those which correspond with the sonants have three. The semivowels or liquids have two. The sibilant letter had probably its mutation into the aspirate ; but this is lost in Welsh, though preserved, as we shall see, in the Erse. 1G4 EASTERN ORIGIN OF First order, the primitive letters being surds. Gutturals Dentals Labials First form, Sharp. Second form, Obtuse. Third form, Aspirate. Fourth form, Liquid. C t P s d b ch th P h ngh nh mh Second order, in which the primitives are sonants. These have two changes. Gutturals Dentals Labials Primitive. Obtuse. Liquid. g d b initial omitted dh or Saxon ]> V ng n m Third order, Liquids. These have one change. lh (corresponding with the surd i lh or lr of the Vedas) • m V rh r OF THE MT7TATTONS OF CONSONANTS IN THE EESE OE GAELIC. In the Erse dialect of the Celtic language the mutations of consonants are not so varied. Each consonant appears in two forms only, which are termed the plain and the aspirated. But the aspi- rated forms in the Erse are often the obtuse forms in Welsh, the aspiration being deceptive, and aris- ing from the imperfect orthography adopted in this language. The addition of h to the primitive con- sonants serves only to render it obtrusive, or, in other instances, to obliterate it. On this account I THE CELTIC NATIONS. 1G5 shall set down the table of consonants, with one column for the obtuse letters as usually spelled, and another indicating their pronunciation, which is in general similar to that of the obtuse forms in Welsh. Gutturals Plain or primitive form. Secondary form as spelled. Secondary form as articulated. CorK Ch X aspirate ) orKh ) G hard Gh • Dentals T Th H D Dh Labials P Ph F B Bh Y M Mh v F Ph orH H Liquids L (like Welsh Lh) L L plain N X B (like Bh) B Sibilants S • jorH | It is to be observed that H never stands as the initial of a word in Erse in the primitive form, or is never in fact an independent radical letter. It is merely a secondary form or representative of some other initial, viz. F or S. It must likewise be no- ticed, that the same words which begin with S or F as their primitive initial in the Erse, taking H in their secondary form, have in Welsh H as their primitive initial. This fact affords an instance exactly parallel to the substitution in Greek of the rough and soft breathings for the ^olic digamma, and, in other 166 EASTERN ORIGIN OF words, for the sigma. 0!W, as it is well known, stands for F oiv bo -p> a Q 3 bC d o rd 03 o d £ 03 -1-3 09 „ d CO d i-H • ■-1 rd F-4 O «d CO 03 d d d « co 03 d d rd •a d d rd •rH 03 a d bfi d be Pi rd d d rd o 3 8 <0 n-. b o m co "o» ^ 8 t~> a B d Ph rd o CD rd o rd -g •a ^ ^ bo « c3 «u be fl -d d fee S d be • rH d r« -4J rd o o H-a rd o o ^ .'2 •rH .2 rd O Q O d H3 ed p .2 r-l rH 5-5 o d o m o* P-O a o Ph O co a a O Oj d t3 d be .s ^ bo p •ja « -P o o fcH r*» •p rC o 03 CD £» ^ r— CO a a § OJ CO o CO O r* ^ r* CO r d -d 03 N 03 > 03 N S3 o t-> HJ H-J CO 03 Ip r*-» ^ v> : rd a rd o d 03 Ph o3 rd rd d d rd 03 'd 'd IrH C3 co to \>J S-l d H-> 03 rd o 03 rd o d 03 Ph n co o3 52 & Gr. iriavpes, pedwar, petor, fidwor, fiuuar, ch T 7T ) become pancha, panj, irevre, 7ri/jL7re, pump, fimf, shash, shash, sex, saihs, saptan, septem, Welsh \ Oscan. ) Goth. | Tent. J f Numeral 5 Sansk. p and ch . Pers. p and j Gr. 7r and t Gr. 7r and it Welsh p and p Goth, f and f quatuor, k, keathair, Lat. Erse q and q, quinque, k and g, kuig, Lat. Erse Numeral 6. Sans, sh and sh Pers. sh and sh Lat. s and x Goth, s and s B o o a ch and ch guttural (') and f, «f, Numeral 7. Sansk. s and pt | o /s and cht, Lat. s and pt [ § ] h and ft, saith, Welsh s and th / -^ I ( f ) and 7Tt, ashtan, Sansk. hasht, Pers. wyth, Welsh Numeral 8. cht ocht, KT dtCTCO, ct octo, ht ahtan, chwech, Welsh Greek Erse Pers. Greek Erse Greek Lat. Goth. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 175 dasan, Sansk. trinsat, Sansk. satam, Sansk. sad, Pers. sh NUMERAL 10. C ch g h h o o o XlJMERAL 20. vinsati, Sansk. sh \ o f £ o o o g g K ch decern, deich, tehan, taihun, viginti, ugain, etKoat, fichid, Numeral 30. sh o o o a: g rpiaKovra, triginta, Numeral 100. sh o B o o o C c k h etcarov, centum, cant, kett, hunt, Greek Lat. Erse Welsh Teut. Goth. Lat. Welsh Greek Erse Greek Lat. Greek Lat. Welsh Erse Goth. The preceding facts suggest the following ob- servations. The Sanskrit and some other languages holding a near relation to it in the forms of words abound in sibilants and soft palatine consonants. They have these letters in several instances, in which cognate words in other languages have in the place of them gutturals, or hard palatines, or dentals. ' sIkocti was probably FsIkovti. 17C EASTERN ORIGIN OF The Greek substitutes for the sibilants and soft palatines of the Sanskrit, chiefly the tenues of the hard palatine or guttural class and of the dental, viz., x and r. In several instances the Greek, par- ticularly the JEolic, has tt in the place of the Sanskrit soft palatine, or ^ ch; as in iri^irt for pancha, wEvvpoL (w&Tupa. ?) for chatur. The Welsh makes nearly the same substitutions as the iEolic Greek. It puts p for the soft palatine ch in the instances before mentioned. It substitutes more generally hard palatines or gutturals (either c, i.e. k), or ch for the soft palatines and sibilants of Sanskrit. It has the aspirate guttural ch instead of the aspirate sibilant sh. It has th in the place of ct and pt. The Erse substitutes for the sibilants and soft palatines of the Sanskrit, gutturals, as the hard c or k, as also in some instances the guttural aspirate ch. The Latin displays nearly the same phenomena as the Erse. It puts c or qu, equivalent to k, in the places of the letters above mentioned. Neither the Erse nor the Latin adopts the p of the Welsh and ^Eolic Greek, but they have c or q instead of it, as in other instances where the Sanskrit has ch ^". The Gothic and other Teutonic dialects resemble the Welsh and the iEolic Greek, except in the cir- cumstance that they prefer aspirate consonants, as finfe for irk\>jKs or pump, fidwor for pedwar, or irervp, thri for tri. They likewise substitute the simple li in the place of palatines and sibilants in other Ian THE CELTIC NATIONS. 177 guages, as may be seen in a variety of instances, as in the numerals, 6, 8, 9, 10, 100. The Persic and the Greek languages use the aspirate in some in- stances in a similar manner. We are not yet prepared for entering on a com- parison of the vowels and diphthongs as they are related to each other in these cognate languages. 12 178 EASTERN ORIGIN OF CHAPTEE II. Further proofs and extension of the observations laid down in the preceding chapter. SECTION I. Introductory remarks. The changes which I have pointed ont in the pre- ceding section between particular consonants in the derivation of words from one language to another, appear, in some instances, so unlikely, and the analogy, if any, in pronunciation is so remote, that many of my readers may be disposed to regard the examples on which I have founded my remarks as a mere result of accidental coincidence. These changes are, notwithstanding, regular and systematic. I shall not attempt to account for them, or to say how they took place, but they are accordant with observations which may be traced to a great extent in the comparison of kindred languages. As I can- not, however, expect that any person should be convinced of this fact on my assertion, I shall here adduce some further evidence. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 179 SECTION II. Of the interchange of palatine or guttural consonants with labials in the different languages. The interchange of cognate letters, both mntes and liquids,* is a thing familiar to every body, but the permutation of palatines into labials appears much more improbable. We have observed that this interchange has taken place in several instances in the numerals of Indo-European languages. Great as the difference is between such elements of articu- lation as k and p, we find them to stand as repre- sentatives for each other even in two different dia- lects of the same language. Some dialects of the Greek language afford a well-known exemplification of this remark. The Ionians and ^Eolians inserted Kainra in a variety of words, instead of w*, used in the other Grecian dialects. This remark has been made by many of the scholiasts and old grammarians, and more fully by Vossius, b who says, " Iones in interrogativis et relativis mutant ir in tc. Ita «w? dicunt pro 7ro>? ; 6/cm pro 07roj? ; Krj pro ttt) ; 7TOO-0?, tcoaos ; O7T0O-O?, o/coaos ; iroios, kolos ; ottoZos, okolos ; rrore, * The cognate mutes are t, a, th. k, g, ch. P, », ph- Cognate liquids or semivowels are in many languages the following : 1, r, v. h Gerard. Joh. Vossii de Litterarum pernuitatione Tractatus, Etymol. Ling. Lat. prefix., p. 24 : ed. Neap. 1762. 180 EASTERN ORIGIN OF xots J o7tot£ 7 oxoT£. Grsecis quoque xvapog est faba. iEoles quoque uti x pro ir testatur Etymologici auctor in xolog. Sic Latini jecur a Gr. vjVap, et scintilla, quasi spintilla, a tnrwhfyP The same writer has adduced other instances in which this interchange has taken place between the Greek and Latin. Lupus. \vkos. Sepes. 7)/cd<;. " Maxime tamen locum id habet in iis vocibus, in quibus juxta Ionicse et ^EolicaB dialecti proprie- tatem, it transiit in k. Equus ab ^Eolico i/c/co Kod, Koda, Kuyd. Pa? what ? Ka? Pask, Easter, Kasg. Pencas, Corn. Whitsuntide, Kaikis. Peiswin, W. chaff, Kaithsloan. Pesuch, a cough, Kasachd. Pen, a head, Keann. Puy, who ? Kia? Puylh, sense or meaning, Kial. Plant, children, Klann and Kland. Plyv, feathers, Kluyv. Peduar, four, Kathair. Pymp, five, Kuig. Pair, a furnace or cauldron, Kuir and Koire. Pren, a ton, Kran Par, a couple, Koraid. Pridh, earth or clay, Kriadh. Pa raid, wherefore, K'red. Pryv, a worm, Kruv. Pob, every, Ceach or Gach. 182 EASTERN ORIGIN OF And sometimes in other parts of the words we find the same : as Yspydhad, a hawthorn, Skiathach. Map or Mab, a son, Mak. The preceding examples are quite sufficient to establish the fact asserted in the present section. "We shall hereafter find the application of this remark. SECTION III. Of the interchange of sibilant and soft palatine consonants with gutturals or hard palatines. It has been customary in many languages, and in our own among others, to soften the guttural or hard palatine letters, or to interchange them with other elements of pronunciation which are termed sibilants and soft palatines. We substitute the ordinary ch in the place of the hard c, or the k of other cognate languages, and say church for kirk or kirche. The Italians pronounce Tschitschero a name which the Greeks wrote Ki/cipwv. Secondly, many nations are in the habit of softening the g, and giving it the pronunciation of our j, as we are accustomed to do when this consonant comes before the vowels e and i. Thirdly, we shall find some languages converting the guttural aspirate % or! ch into sh, as the Welsh substitute chwech for the Sanskrit shash. It will illustrate the two former of these changes THE CELTIC NATIONS. 183 to observe that the Sanskrit ^ ch d is interchange- able in the regular inflexions of that language for ^ k, r.nd ^ j likewise for *i g. Thus, verbs be- ginning with k, in the reduplication of the initial, which in Sanskrit, as in Greek, is a character of the preterperfect tense, substitute ch for k, and verbs beginning with g substitute j for that con- sonant. The following are examples. ROOT. PRESENT. PRETERPERFECT. 3f kri, (to make) e^fa, karoti xjchi<, chakara. % gai, (to sing) JlNlH, gayati ^ft, jagau. "We cannot find a parallel fact in the Sanskrit language for the third remark, which respects the interchange of the aspirate sibilant for the aspirate guttural, because the Sanskrit has no consonant analogous to the Greek %i or the Welsh ch. The preceding remarks will be more perspicuous if we place these changes in a tabular form, as follows : — ^ k, or c, or q, interchanged for ^ ch. ,, ,, ,, sometimes for IT s, xf sh, or ^r s. Xi as or chpirate guttaral, for ^ s, *r sh, or q s. It must be observed that the Greek al and Zrjra are to be included in many instances among the palatine letters, and fall under the same rules of permutation. Ht is sometimes represented in San- skrit by ^ ksh, but frequently by the simple cha- d Ch, as in cherry. 184 EASTERN ORIGIN OF racter corresponding with sh. Zrjra^ when it is the characteristic of verbs making the future in f o, may properly be considered as a palatine letter, and it will be found represented in Sanskrit by palatine consonants. I shall exemplify these remarks by some lists of words in addition to those instances already dis- covered among the numerals, in which the above- mentioned interchanges occur. The first series con- tains examples of soft palatines in one language, and hard palatines or gutturals in another ; the second, cases in which j is substituted for hard g, and the third, words in which sibilants appear in the place of gutturals or hard palatines. I. Words in which ^ ch or ch soft is inter- changed with hard palatine letters. WORDS HAVING cf CH OR CH SOFT. ^ cha, and, subjoined ) to the noun, ) chatur, locha, lochate, Xevcraei, lochayati, lochanam (an eye) vachas, vachati, or ) vakti, ( chyotati, richch'hati (S.) reacheth (Eng .] WORDS HAVING HARD PALATINES. koX (Gr.), que (Lat.) quatuor. look (Eng.) looketh. lucet (Lat.) lhygad, i.e. lhugad (W.) voces (Lat.) fld&i,, i.e. (BaiceL, nude ^everac, ykeTai. opiyerai. erreicht Germ..] THE CELTIC NATIONS. 185 WORDS HAVING ^f CH OR CH SOFT. WORDS HAVING HARD PALATINES. uchcha, and ) , . , ( uch, uchel ("W.) hoch (Germ.) uchad (W.), act of rising. fcvpiafcr), kirche, etc. uchchaih, ) ° uchchata, (arrogance) church, IT. The following are examples of j or ^ in Sanskrit supplying the place of 7 or g in Greek and other European words. SANSKRIT. EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. januh, genu, yow, knee jani, yvvrj. jaran, yepcov. jarati, ypavs. jarjati, jurgat. jagaras, 67/37770/309. jatas, begotten, yerr)$. tejayati, he sharpens. Oiyyerai. ajah, alya, goat. raj am, regem. III. Instances of sibilant consonants interchanged for gutturals. 6 SIBILANTS. GUTTURALS dris, root. hepKetv. dadarsa, BeSop/ca. dans, root, haicveiv. dasati, Bd/evet. misrayati, filo-yeTac. misram, mixtum, ■ The words in the left hand columns not otherwise specified, and neither English, nor Latin or Greek, are Sanskrit. 186 EASTERN ORIGIN OF SIBILANTS. GUTTURALS as-wali i ( equus. ( each (Erse) asp (Persian) swasuram, socerum. swasrus, socrus pasus, pecus. swasaram, \ sororem, schwester (Germ suir (Erse) X •1 ( khwahar (Pers.) ' khwaer (Welsh.) sister, / S/90CT09, druchd (Erse.) seta (Lat.) XCUT7J. kesah (Sansk.) suess (Germ.), sweet, chwys (W.) silex (Lat.) XaXi^- schwan (Germ.), swan, KVK,VO<$. short (Eng.) curtus, court. chien (French) canis. sus (Lat.) ) fc(Gr.) I f khuk (Pers.) { hwch (Welsh.) SECTION IV. Of the relations of the aspirate.— Of the substitution' of the aspirate in several languages for S and for F.— Of the aspirate as> guttural or hard palatine. The state of Greek words begiiiriing with the aspirate, or with the digamma, has long been an object of attention among grammarians. Some of the facts connected with this subject arc capable of THE CELTIC NATIONS. 187 elucidation by a reference to the laws of the Celtic language. It was observed by Edward Lhuyd, that H is never the first or proper initial of any word in the Erse language, but that words beginning with E or with S change that initial according to the laws of permutation peculiar to this dialect of the Celtic into H. Hence he infers with probability, that in the primitive form of these words they began with F or S, and that cognate words which begin with H in other languages have lost their proper initial. In like manner some Greek words now beginning with an aspirate have lost an original digamma, while others, as eirra and ef ? corresponding with septem and sex in Latin, and with sapta and shash in San- skrit, have in all probability lost an initial #. a The following words, collected by Lhuyd, are cognate in the Welsh and Erse languages. In the Erse they begin with S in their primitive form, and with H in a secondary form, or in regimine. In Welsh they have only one beginning, with H. I add a third column to shew the correspondences pre- sented by other languages, or merely to point out the meaning. ERSE. WELSH. OTHER LANGUAGES. MEANING, saileog or haileog helig salix (L.) willow. salan or halan halen sal, aX? salt. a Lhuyd remarks with great probability, that such phenomena indicate the former existence of a system of permutation in other languages, similar to that which is still preserved in the Celtic dialects. 188 EASTERN ORIGIN OF ] 3RSE. "WELSH. OTHER LANGUAGES. MEANING. sailte or hailte halht salitus salted. saith or haith haid swarm. saith or haith huth thrust. sav or h; iiv hav summer. savail or havail havail similis like. skoiltea holht cleft. se e he. seavak hebog hawk. sealv helva herd. sealva helu possession. sealga hela hunting. sealgaire 1 helliwr huntsman. sean hen senex old. seasg hesg sedge and hedge. seile haliu saliva. seol huyl a sail. si hi sie, she. sin hyn this. sith hedh, and \ hedhwch ) - peace. sil hil seed. sir Mr long. soinean hinon fair weather. suan hyn somnus, V7TVOS, Sometimes the II in Welsh is lost, as in segh ych ox suas yuch super, virep. silastar elestyr flag. It would be easy to point out numerous instances of a parallel description, in which words beginning in Greek with the aspirate have in Latin and other languages either S or the F— Y. b The following are examples chiefly from Vossius: — '■ Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik, p. 583. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 189 1. Aspirate substituted for S. ( sus. €p7TCO, a\?, serpo. sal. aWojjLcu, salis. ayco? sacer. apTTCO, a\t?, sarpo. satis. se. e/ea?, secus. eSo?, sedes. TJlJLLCTVy eireaOai, eipfjbbsy epTTvXkov, eft?, semis. sequi. sermo. Scaliger. / serpyllum. Servius in 1 Eclog. 2. sexus. Festus. 6yLta\o?, similis. l(TTCO, lOTTTJfAl, sisto. efcvpos, socer. tKVpa, oXos, 6\ov, socrus. solus. vTrap, sopor. vpa^ f tSpw?, and i8a>p, sorex. sudor. ov, sui. ok/cos, sulcus. r \ V7TO sub. virep, super. eirra septem. 8f. sex. c Lacones, Argivi, Pamphylii et Eretrienscs 2 eximere solcnt atque aspir- ationem ejus loco sufficere ; ita fiovcra iis est jxS>a : fiovaiK^i, /xcciKa ; iraaa, iraa ; fioixrSa, fiovod : iroirjacu, iroirjai, etc. Voss. vid. Prise. L. V. Lhuyd, p. 30. 190 EASTERN ORIGIN OF VTrepfttos, 1/7TT40?, €09, superbus. supinus. suus. sylva. 2. Instances of the rough aspirate substituted for F or V. d ecrirepa, eliXco, 'Everos, f E\la, vespera volvo. Yenetus. Yelia. Serv. ad -ZEneid. 1. 359. festum. familia. ferme. Scaliger. firmus. eanav, o/icXla, dp/JLOl, ep/jua and \ elp/jibs, ) In other instances the Greek language seems even to have lost the spiritus asper, and pronounces such words with the gentle aspiration e , as in the llowing : a\8o?, Dorice, •> pro aXcros, saltus. sequo, dico. si. avev, sine. dveco, dvco, dpiarepos, optica, v. pocpeco, sino. sinister. sorbeo. In these instances the spiritus lenis stands, where probably the spiritus asper once stood, for an ori- d Chiefly from G. I. Vossius, llbi supra. ' Grimm, tli. i. p. 587. THE CF.LTIC NATIONS. 191 ginal S. In the following, the digamma was ori- ginally the initial letter : eap, ver. ( videinus, Sansk. vidmus, scimus. a\a)7rr)%, vulpes. IraXbs, vitulus. t8/JL€V, Perhaps we may trace the effect of a similar dis- position to soften and obliterate the initial S in the following words beginning with consonants. , 'x&o-kw. hir, X €l P- hirundo, XeXcScov. hortus, XppTOS. humi, %afial. humilis, ^aixaXo^. humor, XVfibs. veho, jFO^W. In the following instances the Teutonic languages substitute H for a palatine in Greek and Latin words. g claudus, Kavvaftis, caput, icaphia, cor. kvoov, cauis. kolXos, celare, Kokafio^, calamus, K&pTOS, Kaprepbs, cornu, collum, halts, halz, halt, (lame.) hanpr, hanaf, hemp, haubith, houbith, haupt. haerto, herza, heart, hunths, hund, hound, hoi, hole, hollow, hilan, hem. halam, halm, hardus, hart, haurn, horn, hals. f G. I. Vossius, ubi supra, « The list is taken from Dr. Jacob Grimm's Deutsche Gramniatik. The Teutonic words are Mceso-Gothic, Old High German, and English. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 193 KpVflOS, hrim, rhyme (old Norse.) KKaletv, hlahan (Goth.) /cpdfav, Lrakjan (Goth.) fcXeTrrr)?, hleftus (Goth.) lux, (i.e. luks,) liuhad, light, licht. 61ko<$, veihs (Goth.), house. tacere, thahan, dagen. socer, svaihra (Goth.) In Sanskrit we often find f h corresponding to the r in Greek words. maha, fiiya. ahan, or Shon, iy Festus. helesa. ) asa. asena. Varro. casmen. fesise. lases. esit. Auselii. Fusii. Quintilian. Papisii. Yalesii. labos. clamos. vapos. Quintilian. The same change may be inferred to have taken place in all words which take r in the increment in- stead of s ; as, acus, pecus, fcedus, pignus. The Latins substituted r for s in other words cognate with the Greek : as celer cruor for /cpvos. The importance of this observation will hereafter be apparent, when we come to trace the relationship of Latin words with those of other languages. We shall find r frequently substituted in the former for an s or some equivalent in the Latin, and the re- semblance is more decided between such words when • Vossius, ubi Blip. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 197 we restore the original s. Thus sororeni, perhaps originally sosorem, is almost identified with the Sanskrit swasaram. The same change of letters has an useful application to the inflections of verbs, as we shall have occasion to observe. SECTION VII. Of the relation of different vowels and diphthongs to each other in different languages. — Synoptical table of letters interchangeable between differ- ent languages. The vowels are by no means to be discarded in tracing the derivations of words and the relations of languages, as some learned philologists have erro- neously maintained. If any proof is necessary of this remark, a very striking and sufficient one may be found in Dr. Jacob Grimm's analysis of the Teu- tonic verbs. The first letter of the Sanskrit alphabet, ^, or the a-kara, which we generally represent by a, is a short vowel, and, as it has been already observed by Pro- fessor Bopp, corresponds in different instances with nearly all the short vowels of the Greek and Latin languages. It is easy to point out many examples in which it occupies the place of the short e and of the Greek epsilon, and the short 6 and omicron, as, dasan (S.) hena, decern. ashta (S.) oktw, octo. 198 EASTERN OEIGIN OF It corresponds also very frequently with the Latin 11 before s or m in the terminations of words. The endings of Sanskrit adjectives and nouns are fre- quently in (^r:) or (^0 f° r ^ ne masculine, (^n") for the feminine, and (^l or ^5jr() for the neuter : these are most correctly represented by ah or as or o?, a, and am or cv. Instances may be found in which ^ corresponds with other short vowels, but they are not so fre- quent ; as agnis, ignis, fire. The Sanskrit W or long a is most frequently found to occupy the place of 6 or w in Latin and Greek words ; as in dadanii, 8lSo)/jli. The other Sanskrit vowels, i and u, long and short, correspond with those nearly related to them in sounds ; viz. the long and short i or twTa, and the long and short u or vyjnXbv. OF DIPHTHONGS. The semivowels ^ ya, and ^ va, or wa, and the diphthongs TT e, and ^ ai, correspond with the Greek and Latin vowels ; thus, ^ ya, and ^ e, with at Gr. and e Lat. or wa, „ T£ ai, ,, g> and o. Examples of the former kind occur in the ier- THE CELTIC NATIONS. 199 minations of verbs in the middle and passive voices in Sanskrit and Greek. They are thus : IN SANSKRIT. IN GREEK. e, fiat. se, at and aat. te, tcu. H ya is used in Sanskrit where at occurs in Greek and e in Latin, in very many cases. One example occurs in the form of verbs having in San- skrit a future signification, but used in Greek and Latin with a preterite potential sense. Thus, from the root Bhu or Fuo, we have Bhavishyami — fuissem \ related to / aatfit. yasi es > the Greek < at?. yati et ) form in ( at. Cf VA OR WA. en" VA OR WA. swanam (S.) sonum (L.) swasaram, socerum. vacham, vocem. vakshate, av^erat. swasaram, . sororem I shall conclude the foregoing remarks on sub- stitutions or interchanges of letters in different languages by an attempt at a table of correspond- ences. 200 EASTERN ORIGIN OF d OQ O ^ H ,x| C+H C«H rO M _C rC pTj r^J 3 o 18 o ^ 8H8H ^ ^ r^ © 02 <^H 02 ^ r-H c3 H • 9 X CO 1 £ t-3 W > fcC © P4 8 rQ Ph bo fee bD ©^ rX t£ 0? K* *. b k h pq h rt 02. « x»n X*xj>X° ° ° o ^ b -*-~*v ^— ^ J ^— ^ fc -e-<^ h b ooG. ^ s? »? s*^^^ CO p-> •>—} CD 00 CO g H pq tr s w 3 M 1 Ph .Q nd So ••-* t» ^^ 3- 3-3 fc/ u -D J *j *» 1 -S:S r^ rC . r-a . 3 A ,£3 <-g o nd nd "^ 00 H- » r£ 02 so P" frP If • i-i »i-t IF ^ Vr & CO THE CELTIC NATIONS. 201 CHAPTEE III. Proofs of common origin in the vocabulary of the Celtic and other Indo- European languages. SECTION I. Names of persons and relations. It is now time to examine how far the Celtic and other Indo-European languages are related to each other in their vocabularies, or by the posses- sion of a considerable number of common roots or primitive words. From the comparison to be insti- tuted for this purpose, it is obviously requisite to exclude all such words as from their nature appear likely to have been introduced at a late period by foreign commerce, by conquest, or with the adop- tion of a new religion or system of manners. I must confine my observations to the original materials of speech, and to expressions which de- note simple and primitive ideas. On entering on this part of my inquiry, I shall take some of the groups of words collected in the Amara Cosha, or Sanskrit Vocabulary of Amara Sinha, and try whether the corresponding terms in the Celtic dialects have any resemblance to them. 3 a I do not confine myself to the particular vocables given in the Cosha, when other genuine words can be found which arc more to my purpose, nor do I think it necessary to follow the exact order of arrangement observed by the author of that vocabularv. 202 EASTERN ORIGIN OF In general, I shall place the Sanskrit words first, and then the Celtic, subjoining any terms which appear to be of cognate origin in the other European languages. Words denoting persons and family or other relations. b Celtic, Eussian, Celtic, Celtic, Latin, Celtic, Greek, Celtic, jani (a woman). gean, Erse. (Lhuyd.) Jena ; Gr. Tvvj) ; Pers. Zen, Zenne. Varna (a woman). (Am. Cosh.) fem, Erse. (Lh.) vamani (a woman). femen, Erse. (Lh.) foemina. vanita (a woman). Bean and Bhean or vean, Erse ; benw and benyw, "Welsh. In regimen venw and venyw. Brjva et Bam, Boeotice vel Dorice, est mu- lier vel filia (Salmasius, p. 402, de Hel- lenistica) Baz^re?, (Bceot. pro ywaltces,) mulieres. virah, a hero, warrior ; vir. fear, Erse ; man. Gwr and wr, Welsh, man ; pi. gwyr and wyr; viri. Hence, gwraig and wraig, a woman. Com- h Amara Cosha, book ii. i\r}, vtyas ; Lat. nebula, nubes. ^*t udam, water; whence ^3*^ unda, to wet or moisten. Euss. voda, water ; Pol. woda. Latin, udus, uda, udum, and unda. Goth, wato; A.S. waeter, water. Compare wet, weather. Greek, vSwp, i.e. fvScop, or vudor. Celtic, dwvyr, pi. duvrau. ^r dyu. (a day.) Celtic, Di and dia, Erse ; dydh, Welsh Latin, dies. Goth, dags ; A.S. deeg, day. faun nisa. night. Celtic, Nos, Welsh. Notch', Eussian. More remote are the following : Nochd, Erse ; nahts, Goth. ; nacht, night, Germ. ; iwf , nox. *ft^: mlrah, ocean, sea. Celtic, Mor, Welsh ; muir, Erse ; More, Eussian ; meer, mere, Germ. D. ; mare, Lat. \TCT dhara, earth. Celtic. Daiar, Welsh, (in regim. dhaiar.) There is another Welsh word, tir. Compare terra, Lat. ; airtha, Goth. ; talamh and tellur, Erse, with tellurem, Lat. ^5rnj ashtra, ether, air. Celtic, athair, Erse. Greek, aWrjp — atOpia, dtjp. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 209 Celtic, awyr, Welsh ; aer, Lat. ^rfa: agnih (fire.) Latin, Ignis ; Welsh, tan, i.e. taan. MoesoGoth. fon. s|: druh (a tree) ; dirakht, Pers. ; Apvs, Gr.; Derw, Welsh; dair, Erse (an oak tree.) SECTION III. Names of animals. Of the terms for different species of animals, it appears that few, comparatively, are common to the Sanskrit and the European languages. Nor is this circumstance difficult of explanation : emigrating tribes, in seeking a new climate, and leaving behind them a great part of the stock of animals for which they had previously names, are obviously under the necessity of inventing other significant appellations for those peculiar to their new country. In this re- spect the Celtic dialects are under the same circum- stances as the other European languages ; and it may be clearly shewn that they partake of a common stock of terms with these languages ; for though the European idioms differ from the Sanskrit, they have a common stock of such terms among themselves. There are, however, some instances of agreement with the Sanskrit, and this remark includes nearly all the domestic animals. In all the following in- stances the Celtic terms are cognate with those 14 210 EASTERN ORIGIN OF belonging to the other European languages, and in some they bear a remarkable resemblance to the Sanskrit. The interchange of sibilant with guttural conso- nants is here to be observed, as in the instances before cited. Eefer to numbers 1, 2, and 3. Dog. Sanskrit, Sunah and shuni ; shuni, bitch. Celtic, Ki, pi. cwn, Welsh ; chana, Erse. Greek, kvwv, pi. Kvves ; Lat. canis ; Goth, hunths, hound. Hog and Sow. Sanskrit, Sukarah (hog) ; Pers. khuk (hog or sow.) Celtic, Ilwch, Welsh (sow.) Greek, 7 T? ; Lat. sus. Horse. Sanskrit, as wall. Latin, (changing sibilants into gutturals) equus. Greek, tWo?, JEol. im? (?) Celtic, Each, Erse ; asp, Pers. Also, Greek, Ka/SaX?^; Lat. caballus. Celtic, keflylj Welsh ; caual, Arm.; capul, Erse. Also, Pers. far as; Germ.ross; Eng. horse. Ass. Greek, ovog- ; Lat. asinus. Celtic, Asyn, Welsh, asal, Erse. Goat. Sanskrit, ajah and chhaga ; Gr. alya. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 211 Latin, caper. Celtic, gavar, Welsh; gobhar, Erse. Earn. Sanskrit, Uranah. Celtic, Hwrdh, Welsh ; nrdh, Arm. ; hor and hordh, Corn. Latin, aries. Oxen. Sanskrit. Ukshan, ox or bull. Celtic, Ych, Welsh; agh, Erse; ochs, Ger. Also, Greek, fiovg ; Lat. bos, boves. Celtic, Buw, Welsh; bo, Erse. Also, Latin, bucula ; Welsh, buwch. Bull. Greek, raupog ; Lat. taurus. Celtic, tarw, Welsh; tarbh, Erse. (Compare Tor, Chaldee.) Cow. Sanskrit, Go ; Germ, kuh, cow. Fish. Greek, ^yhvs (olim Fi^bg ?) Latin, piscis. Celtic, Pysg, Welsh ; jasg, Erse. Germ. fisch, fish. Swan. Latin, olor. Celtic, alarch, Welsh ; eala, Erse. Pigeon. Latin, columba ; golub', Eussian. 212 EASTERN ORIGTN OF Celtic, colommen, Welsh; cwlm, Arm.; colm, columan, Erse. Frog. Latin, rana. Celtic, kranag, Corn.; ran, Arm. Fawn. Greek, ?Xar/yo dorus dvpa (thur (Germ.) (dwara(Sansk.) parth pairt parte creuan Kapi)vov mynydh ■ f monte \ mountain fynnon fonte avon amhain amne tir tir terra talamli tellus ( mare, mor muii* (meer (Germ.) cylha Koikia ( circulus, ( circus cylch Kip/cos deigryn hdicpvov lachryma eigion wKeavov oceanum hedhwch, pi. \ hedhychau [ 7), oTSa. ol. Feibscu, or Yeihico. Latin, video. ( vide, to know ; vidende, knowledge, ) Danish. Teutonic, \ ^ J J weise, wissen, German. V wit, wot, wise, English. Celtic, 1. Welsh, gwydh and wydh, knowledge. gwydhad and wydhad, to learn. gwydhai, gwydhawl, wise. gwybod (irreg. verb), whence. gwydhost and wydhost, knowest. 218 EASTERN ORIGIN OF 2. Erse, fis, or fios, knowledge. (Lh.) fisc, a seer ; fiosaighim, to know. Here the roots are vid, S.; iSor eiS; vid. Lat.; vid, wit, Teutonic ; wydh, or gwydh, Welsh. ^ Budh, a root, whence - the verb bodhati, he knows or understands. budhah, a sage. Celtic, Erse, fode, knowledge. fodhach, wise. ^j Sru, a verbal root signifying to hear. Infinitive mood, srotum. srutah, heard, adj. and part. In Sclavonic, changing I for r. Eussian, sluch, hearing. slutat,' to hear. In Greek, sibilants changed to gutturals (ch. 2. sec. 3.) xXuttj, to hear. xhvTog, adj. In Celtic, Welsh, clyw, hearing. clust, an ear. Erse, cluinam, I hear. clu, hearing, fame, cluas, an ear. clotha, he heard. — Lh. Here the roots in all the above languages are shru, slu, xXo, clu. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 219 *ft^ loch, a verbal root, to which are referred the two following verbs : 1. lochate, he sees ; whence lochan, an eye. Greek, Ksvtro-ei, he looketh. English, looketh. Celtic, lhygad (W.), an eye. 2. lochayati, lucet. Latin, lux, luceo. Teutonic, licht, light, etc. Celtic, Welsh, lhwg, light ; lhuched, lightning, lhewychu, to light, lhygu, to brighten, etc. ^ Dris, a verbal root, signifying to see. Pret. dadarsa, I saw. Greek, Sipxa). SeSopxa Celtic, Erse, dearc, a verbal root, signifying sight, seeing, also an eye. dearcam, to see. dearcadh, seeing, sight. Welsh, drem, sight, etc. Here the roots are dris, or rather dars, $spx } and Celtic, dearc. ftr^ lih, a verbal root, signifying to lick. 220 EASTERN OBIGIN OF 1. person, proper form lihb, lingor. Greek, Xs/^o). Latin, lingo. Goth, laigwan; A. S. liccan. Eng. lick. Celtic, Welsh. lhyaw, lhyvu, to lick. llyviad, licking. Erse, lighim. do leigh se, he licked. HT shtha, in inflection ^n, stha, a verbal root, whence the verb tishthati, he stands, tishthami, I stand. Greek, icttol^i or 7 err?) juu, i.e. , n. oSoWa. Latin, dens, dentes. Celtic, Welsh, daint, n. aggr. the teeth, dant, pi. dannedh. deintiaw, verb, to bite. Corn, danta, to bite. The following verbs, or etymons of verbs, are common to the Celtic and some of the other Euro- pean languages. Where the resemblance is only with the Latin, it may be thought probable that the Britons derived them from the Eomans ; but when the coincidence is between the Celtic and Greek, or Sanskrit, or other remote branches, the fact will admit of no similar explanation. dagru and deigraw (W.) Sa/cpvco and and deigryn (W.) Bd/cpvov lachryma. darhunaw SapOdva) deu, and \ dyvod (W.), to come \ Svco and Svvco donet (Armor.) ) dysgu (W.) SiBdatcco disco et doceo dylu, and •) Bet and BovXos dylyaw, to be obliged (W.)J SovXevco dyro'i (W.) Scopeco canu (W.), sing ] ' \ f cano canam (Erse) J fganam (Sa.) (singing, song THE CELTIC NATIONS. 225 iachau, to heal, from iach, sane, whole } cusau, cusanu (W.), to kiss issJ elu (TV.), to go elsynt, they came galw (TV.), to call cleiniaw (TV.), to lie cleisiaw (TV.), to bruise cudhiaw (TV.), to hide, kith and kitha, Cornish curaw, to beat, knock cyriaw, to limit, border chwareii, to gambol, sport balaii, to spring out, and balaw, noun dalw, to catch eb, to say, as ~| eb eve, said he J elwi, to gain ambylu, to blunt ambylus, blunt, adj. degadu eichiaw, to sound from aich, pi. eichiau gwthiaw and wthiaw, to thrust lholiaw, to babble lhipau, to droop maelu, to earn wages men, a place, } } } laofjbcu > /r* i \ I kus and kus • Kvcrco ((jrreek.) i " . * kiissen (Ger.) y&m ! ^' I amplector. iXevdco rjXvcrav KaXeo) call fcXlvecv (kXcio), /ckdaoo let /ckdcns K€V0(t) KpOVCO fcelpco %cupeco /3a\\ecr0ao /3o\r}, i/cfioXr) SeXo), inesco eVft), dico ecfnj, said he iXelv dfx/3\vvo) dfji/SXvs Se/caTOCD ( mlanah (S.), ( languid. VX e(0 > n - vx o(i ' pi. r)xza 0)06(0 \a\ico iXX,6i7reLV fieXerdco 226 EASTERN RIG IX OF medw, the mind firjheco medito mcru to droop \ merwinaw, to benumb, > fxapaivco or deaden / tormu, to assemble round turma ystyr and ygtyriaw, to} consider, note, reflect 3 [(Tropica cam, to love carus cob, cobio, to strike KOTTTCD man (S.), to j menw, mind know, under- stand. [mens (Lat.) novio (W.) | snav (E.) 3 credu (W.) ] credeim (E.) j veco, no (Lat.) credo - eliaw (W.) dosparthu d\€L(f)CO dispertior SECTION V. Adjectives, Pronouns, and Particles. Parag. 1. adjectives. *Wtt alah, a, m. (ample, vast.) all, alle, whole, Germ. oAos, Gr. holl, oil, Welsh ; uile, Erse. ^: uchchah, a. m. (high). uch, higher, upper ; uchel, uchach. ( W.) uchchata, pride (Sanskrit) ; uchediad, soar- ing (Welsh). THE CELTIC NATIONS. 227 fo}/ot), Greek. Compare Styrftog and uchel in Welsh, hoch, high. Germ. *TfT and ^Tf?^, maha and mahat, great. Greek, juiya. Latin, magnus, major. "Welsh, mawr. Erse, mor. Germ, mehr, more, etc. g^ ynvan. yuvan, Pers. jau, jeuant, jenanc, Welsh, juvenes, jnvencus, Latin, jnng, young, Germ. ; yanuii, Eussian. wfa: jinah, an old man. sean, Erse ; hen, Welsh ; senex, Lat. ?m nava (Am. Cosh.). Greek, veog ; Latin, novns. Germ, neu, new ; Eussian, novaii. Celtic, newydh, Welsh ; nuadh, Erse. The following are chiefly adjectives common to the Celtic and the Greek languages, alh (W.) eile (E.) aWos alius cloff ^wXo? claudi medhws misgeach HeOvaos melus, sweet milis /jLeiXlacrcD melvn, yellow lirfkivos tlawd Tokas caled ^oXeiro^ car chara Xapkt* carus trist tuirseach rpvcrabs tristis KVpTOS brevis eripoi caeteri ayU./3\t>9 &7A09 ( Oepiibs \0€fjL€pO<; Irjios 228 EASTERN ORIGIN OF byr gear either ambylus dilys twym iachaus Parag. 2. pronouns. The personal pronouns must be given in full when we proceed to the inflections of verbs, which are conjugated by means of them. It is only requi- site at present to anticipate the remark, of the truth of which the reader will be afterwards convinced, that the personal pronouns in the Celtic dialects consist of the very same elements, and these but slightly modified, which pervade all, or nearly all, the other languages referred to the Indo-European class. The possessive pronouns are in the Celtic formed, as in other languages, by a modification in the end- ing of the corresponding personal pronouns. Thus in Welsh. PERSONAL rilONOUNS. rOSSESSIVES. 1 Sing. mi, I, becomes mau 2 ,, ti, thou, ,, tau 3 Sing. masc. ev, in Erse so, ,, ei fern, hi, in Erse si, „ ei 1 Plur. ni, we, ,, ein 2 „ cliwi, ,, cich hwy or J ori -nt J (Ml THE CELTIC NATIONS. 229 The interrogative pronouns serve to exemplify the remarks made on the interchange of consonants in chapter 1, section 2. Interrogative Pronoun. In Greek. rig L N.B. The existence of the interrogative particles irS>$, iro?, etc. renders it probable that there was an older Greek interrogative pronoun corresponding, as nis, «i In Latin, quis qui qu89 quid In Erse, Ida kidh kad In Sanskrit, kah ka kim In Welsh, pwy pa. Parag. 3. particles. ni — na (Welsh) yna wng, yng, near agaws, or agos, prep. cyd, cyda, pron. cuda ani, round heb, without oc, out of trwy neu, particle of affirmation cyn, with, cum, con (Latin) either V7) na (Sansk.) r/ IVCL iyyvs 19 eyyvs Kara afMpl um in German. U7T0 ab, abs €K ex through, durch vol o-w(G.)^T^, sam (Sans.) arep di (insep. part.) di, dis (Latin) SI 230 EASTERN ORIGIN OF dyre, veni 8 evpo afjba en yet evo etto mo, negative ) I fia after ni j \ov fia blaen 7rX?)^ THE CELTIC NATIONS. 231 CHAPTER IV. Proofs of a common origin derived from the grammatical structure of the Celtic and other Indo-European languages. SECTION I. lie view of the preceding facts and inferences. — Introductory remarks on the personal inflections of verbs. The instances which have been pointed out in the last chapter, to which I believe that it would be easy to make great additions, are sufficient to prove that there is an extensive affinity in the component vocabularies of the Celtic dialects and those of the other languages with which they have been com- pared. The examples of analogy already adduced are bv far too numerous and too regular, or in ac- cordance with certain general observations, to be the result of mere chance or accidental coincidence. It must likewise be remarked that they are found in that class of words which are not commonly derived from one language into another. I allude particu- larly to such terms as denote the most familiar ob- jects and relations, for which no tribe of people is without expressive terms. When such relations as those of father, mother, brother, and sister are expressed by really cognate words, an affinity be- tween the several languages in which these analogies 232 EASTERN ORIGIN OF are found is strongly indicated. The same remark may be made in respect to the names of visible bodies and the elements of nature, such as sun, moon, air, sky, water, earth. Lastly, the inference is confirmed by finding many of the verbal roots of most frequent occurrence, as the verb substantive, and those which express generation, birth, living, dying, knowing, seeing, hearing, and the like, to be common to all these lauguages. It may be remarked, that in the Celtic language, as well as in the Persian, and in some German dialects, the Sanskrit and Greek words are repre- sented by terms in a shortened and broken form, which have lost the regularity and beauty of their terminations^ l2) Yet there are several instances in which the Celtic words resemble more nearly their Sanskrit analogues than those belonging to other European languages, as the terms tad and brawd for tatah and bhrata, meaning father and brother. In many examples the Sclavonic dialects and the Persian language display the transition from the form of words peculiar to the Sanskrit to that of the northern European idioms. The root sru, meaning to hear, becomes in Eussian slu ; but in Greek and in Celtic xhu and clyw, or clu. Aswan, a horse, becomes asp in Persian, and in Erse each. Sukarah, a hog, is in Persian khuk, and in Welsh hwch. In most cases wo discover something to confirm the laws of deviation laid down in the preceding chapters, according to which it appears THE CELTIC NATIONS. 233 that words derived by the western from the eastern languages are changed in a peculiar way. The most general of these alterations is the substituting of guttural for sibilant letters, which by the Celtic dialects is made almost uniformly, and very fre- quently by the Greek and the Teutonic. There is a still more striking resemblance in the grammatical forms of these languages, which I shall now endeavour to point out. Professor Murray has attempted to illustrate the grammatical structure of the European languages from a quarter to which few persons would have been inclined to look with any hope of success for the means of its elucidation, I mean the Teutonic idioms, and even some of the modern dialects of the German language. It would really appear that in these idioms some words, affording traces of ancient forms and derivations, have still survived, which can no longer be recognised in the classical lan- guages of India, of Greece, and of Italy. In the following pages it will more evidently appear, if I am not mistaken, that from the Celtic dialects a part of the grammatical inflections — and that a very important part — common to the Sanskrit, the iEolic Greek, the Latin, and the Teutonic languages, is capable of an elucidation which it has never yet received. This can only be accounted for by the remark that the Celtic people have been more tenacious of the peculiarities of their language, as they have been in many respects of their cus- 234 EASTERN ORIGIN OF toms and manners, than the other nations of Europe. The mode of conjugating verbs appears to be essentially the same in all these languages. It con- sists partly in certain variations indicating time and mood, and partly in the addition of particular end- ings, by which the differences of number and person are denoted. The former class of variations will be considered in the sequel At present I shall inves- tigate the nature and origin of the personal termi- nations, or of those increments or suffixes which the verbal roots receive for the purpose of distin- guishing the person and number. It will appear that these are all pronominal suffixes, or abbreviated or otherwise modified pronouns. This has been conjectured and shown to be probable by many philological writers, but the proof has always been defective in several particulars, because this subject has not been surveyed in a sufficiently comprehen- sive manner, and with attention to all the evidence which can be brought to bear upon it, and especially to that portion which is derivable from a comparison of the Celtic dialects. In proceeding to this investigation, I shall in the first place show by examples what are the character- istic endings of the different persons of the verb in several languages. NOTE ON SECTION I. (12). In the Critic language words ore represented by terms in a shortened and broken form, which hare lost the regularity of their THE CELTIC NATIONS. 235 terminations. — This assumes that the inflections of the present language are non-existent, because they have been lost. But what if they have never been developed ? A fuller exposition of the exception here suggested is to be found in the notes (by the present editor) upon Dr. Young's article on Language in the last edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. SECTION II. Personal endings of the Sanskrit verbs. One system of personal terminations belongs to all Sanskrit verbs, and the differences of conjugation which are distinguished by grammarians, consist in the changes which the verbal roots undergo. The following is an example displaying the terminations of the present tense as they are subjoined to the verbal root tud, to strike, in Latin tundo. 1. Person. 2. Person. 3. Person. Singular, Tudami Tudasi Tudati Dual, Tudiivas Tudathas Tudatas Plural, Tudamas Tudatha Tudanti. This verb belongs to those classes of roots which insert a vowel a between the theme and the per- sonal endings. Others subjoin these endings im- mediately. The personal endings alone are as follows : — 1. Person. 2. Person. 3. Person. Sing. -mi -si ti Dual, -vas -thas -tas Plur. -mas -tha -anti. 236 EASTERN ORIGIN OF The same terminations belong to the future tenses as to the present; but those tenses which have the augment prefixed to the verb have the personal endings, as in Greek, in a more contracted form. The following is the first preterite of the verb tudami, corresponding closely to the Greek imperfecta Prreteritum augmentatum 1. 1. Person. 2. Person. 3. Person. Sing. Atudam Atudas Atudat Dual, Atudava Atudatam Atudatiim Plur. Atudama Atudata Atudan. The abbreviated personal endings in Sanskrit verbs are as follows : Sing. -am -s -t Dual, -va -tarn -tarn Plur. -ma -ta -an. b There is another form of the indicative tenses in the parasmaipada, or active voice, which it may be right here to exhibit. It is that of the reduplicated preterite, formed by rules nearly the same as those of the prcterperfect in Greek verbs. The pra)tcritum reduplicatum of the verb tud or tudami is as follows : 1. Person. 2. Person. 3. Person. Sing. Tutoda c Tutoditha Tutoda Dual, Tutudiva Tutudathus Tutudatus Plur. Tutudima Tutuda Tutudus. * I represent the augment ^Jf by an n in following Sir W. Jones's or- thography ; but it might perhaps as correctly be represented by the Greek e. b Bopp, Gram. Grift. Sansk., p. 144. c In Latin, tutudi. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 237 N.B. It may be observed that the vowel of the root, it, is changed into o in this instance by the form termed gttna, of the influence of which we trace the result in the Greek reduplicate preterite of the old form, commonly termed the preterperfect of the middle voice. We shall observe likewise the influence of guna to be very extensive in the inflections of verbs in the different European languages. SECTION III. Terminations characteristic of the persons of the Greek verb. Of the two principal forms of inflection by which Greek verbs are conjugated, one, viz. that of verbs in jju, corresponds nearly with the Sanskrit. There are strong reasons for believing this to be an ancient and perhaps the original method of conjugating verbs used in the Greek language, a independently of the circumstance that it so nearly resembles the forms of the Sanskrit. This conjugation comprises the verb substantive and a great many old and very anomalous and defective verbs, and those of very common and familiar occurrence. 1 ' The conjugations of verbs in a> are so much more regular, that they bear the appearance of a designed and systematic scheme introduced for the sake of simplifying the inflections of the language. The Doric form of the verbs in juu will probably serve to exemplify a Matthias indeed, seems inclined to believe that there was a still older form of Greek verbs than those now extant, and that the termination was in rres. I. Smsr. -u (-m) -s -t mood ) ° ; Jrlur. -mes -t -nt 246 EASTERN ORIGIN OF 1. Person. 2. Person. 3. Person. Pret, T. Sing. -ta -tos -ta „-. . . Plur. Subjunct. preg T mood j p ^ -tumes (vowel) -mes -tut -s -t -tun (vowel) -n Pret. T. Sing. Plur. -ti j A A -times -tis -tit -ti -tin Imper. Sing. Plur. (vowel) -t Infinitive -n. Part. pres. -nter, -ter. Dr. Grimm has added an analysis of the gram- matical forms in the other dialects belonging to the Teutonic family of languages, viz. the Old Saxon, the Anglo-Saxon, the Old Frisian, the Old Norse or northern dialect of the Yoluspa and the Edda, the Middle High German, the Middle Netherlandish, the modern High German, the modern Netherland dialect, the modern English, the Swedish, and the Danish. The comparison of these varying forms of one original speech is extremely interesting to the philologer, and indispensable to those who wish to be thoroughly and fundamentally acquainted with the relations of our own mother tongue ; but it would be foreign to my present design to pursue this subject further. I shall here add merely an outline of the personal endings of the Gothic and Old High German verbs in comparison with each other, confining myself to the present tense. Personal endings of the Moeso-Gothic and Old High German verbs in the present tense. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 247 1st Pers. Sing, a vowel (often -a or -u), or -dm, or em. 2d Pers. Sing, -is, -es, -6s. 3d Pers. Sing, -ith, -it, -et, -6t. 1st Pers. Plur. -m, -am, -ames, -ernes, -omes, etc. 2d Pers. Plur. -ith, -it, -et, -6t. 3d Pers. Plur. -nd, -and, -ant, -ent, -ont. Examples of these terminations which so much resemble the classical languages, and which are now lost to so great a degree in the Germanic dialects, occur in the following verses of a trans- lation of that magnificent hymn of the ancient church, the Te Deum, which I copy from Hickes's Thesaurus. 1. Thih Cot loperaes, Te Deum laudamus, Thih Trutinan gehemes, Te Dominum confitemur, Thih euuigan Eater, Te aeternum Patrem, Eokiuuelih erda uuirdit. Omnis terra veneratur. 2. Thir alle engila, thir himila, Inti alio kiuualtido, Thir Cherubim inti Seraphim Unbilibanlicheru stimmo fo- raharent, 3. Uuiher, uuiher, uuiher, Truhtin Cot herro, Eolliu sint himila inti erda Thera meginchrefti tiurda thinera. Tibi omnes angeli, tibi coeli, Et universae potestates, Tibi Cherubim et Seraphim Incessabili voce proclamant, Sanctus, sanctus, sanctus, Dominus Deus Sabaoth. Pleni sunt cceli et terra Majestatis gloriae tuse. NOTE ON SECTION V. (13). Strong and weak conjugations. — Exceptions to the doc- trine that gives two conjugations to one and the same tense, are to be found in the editor's English Language, part iv., chap. xxxix. (fourth edition). 248 EASTERN ORIGIN OF SECTION VI. Personal endings of verbs in the Sclavonian dialects and in the Persian language. As the Sclavonian dialects constitute one im- portant branch of the European languages, they must not be entirely passed over in a treatise, the object of which is to point out and illustrate the relations of these idioms to each other. I shall, however, confine myself to one dialect belonging to this division, and on this I shall touch but briefly. The following examples will afford my readers a specimen of the inflection of verbs in the Eussian language, so far as the personal endings are con- cerned; and they will be sufficient to show that these terminations belong to the generally prevailing system which we have traced in other languages. The Eussian verbs are complicated in other re- spects, but their personal terminations present very little variety. In several tenses these endings are entirely wanting, and the personal pronouns alone distinguish the modifications of meaning ; but the present tense has a perfect inflection. The follow- ing is the present tense of the verb stoyu, I stand. a Singular. Plural. 1. ya stoyu mi stoim 2. ti stoish vi stoite 3. on' stoit oni stoyat. ' Elemcns de la Languc Russc, par M. Charpcntier . Petcrsb. 1768, p. 148. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 249 The following paradigm of the terminations of Eussian verbs in the two forms which differ most widely from each other is given by Professor Vater in his excellent Eussian Grammar. First Form. Fifth Form. Singular. Singular. 1. -yu 1. -u 2. -esh 2. -ish 3. et 3. -it Plural. Plural. 1. -em 1. im 2. -ete 2. -ite 3. -yut 3. yat. b The Persian verbs display the same general analogy; their terminations are even more nearly allied to those of the Teutonic verbs than the Scla- vonian. Of this the reader will judge from the present tense of the verb substantive, which is re- garded as a model for the variations of the persons in all tenses. Sing. 1. -am 2. -I 3. -ast Plur. 1. -Im 2. -Id 3. -and The following is the preterite of the verb budan, and may serve as an example of past tenses in general. Sing. 1. budam 2. budl 3. bud Plur. 1. budlm 2. budld 3. budand. b Dr. Johann Severin Vatci^s Praktischc Grammatik der Russischen Sprachc, p. 88. 250 EASTERN ORIGIN 'OF SECTION VII. Terminations characterising the persons and numbers of verbs in the Celtic languages. I now proceed to the personal endings of verbs in the Celtic language ; and as they appear to have been preserved in a more complete state in the Welsh than in any other dialect of this language, I shall take the Welsh verbs at present as my prin- cipal subject. In the sequel , the formations peculiar to the Erse will be examined, and compared with those belonging to other idioms. It has been observed, that the Teutonic verbs have only one form for the future and the present tense. The same remark applies to the Welsh ; for the Welsh language, except in the instance of the verb substantive, which has two distinct forms, one for the present and the other for the future tense, has only one modification of the verb, which is used to represent both. In the German dialects the single form above referred to is properly a present tense ; but the Welsh grammarians consider that their lan- guage has only a future, and say that the future is put for the present. It is, however, used as such in cases where no license of expression or trope can have place, as in the Creed : " Credav yn Nuw Dad," Credo in Deum Patrem. The Welsh verbs present a considerable variety THE CELTIC NATIONS. 251 in their terminations, as the following examples will show. First Form, Future Tense, of the verb caru, to love. Singular. Plural. 1. carav carwn 2. ceri, i.e. keri cerwcli 3. car carant It must be noticed that the third person of the future tense is the root of the verb. The endings of the other persons are pronominal suffixes, as we shall clearly perceive in the sequel. The termina- tion of the first person in av is equivalent to amh, or the v to a soft m. In the present tense of verbs in the Erse dialect the corresponding termination is always aim or im. Second Form, Preterperfect Tense. a Singular. Plural. 1. cerais carasom 2. ceraist carasoch 3. carodh carasant Third Form, Preterpluperfect Tense Singular. Plural. 1. carwn carem 2, carit carech 3. carai carent a It may be worth while to add the same tense of the verb substantive, as it displays somewhat more strikingly the affinity of the Celtic to other Euro- pean inflections. 1. bum fui buom fuimus. 2. buost fuisti buoch fuistis. 3. bu fuit buont fuerunt. 252 EASTERN ORIGIN OF The pretcrpluperfect caraswn changes its endings exactly as the foregoing. There are some other varieties, an account of which will be given in a following chapter. It is only my object at present to deduce a general principle. The following are the terminations. I begin with the plural, as presenting more regularity. Plural Tarminations. 1st Form. 2d Form. 3rd Form. 4th Form. 1. -wn -om -em -ym 2. -wch -och -ech -ych 3. -ant -ant -ent -ynt The fourth column contains a modification used by the poets. The terminations proper to the singular number are as follows : 1st Form. 2d Form. 3d Form. 1. -av -ais -wn 2. -i -aist -it 3. no addition) ... _ [ -odn -ai to the root. ) It will be observed at once that there is suffi- cient resemblance between these inflections and those of other Indo-European languages to connect them indubitably with that class. This is particularly manifest in the plural endings. There are some apparent anomalies, but these will be explained in the sequel, and will be found illustrative of the general result to be deduced. b Note, dhy commonly written dd, is pronounced as th in other. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 253 CHAPTEE V. Of the personal pronouns in the Indo-European languages, and of the derivation of the personal terminations of verbs. SECTION I. Personal pronoun of the first person. Having examined in the preceding chapter the systems of terminations which characterise the per- sons of verbs, I now proceed to compare with them the personal pronouns still extant in the same lan- guages, and to show that the endings of verbs which distinguish the persons and numbers are supplied by abbreviated forms of those pronouns subjoined to the verbal roots. In what degrees the pronouns belonging to each language have contributed to the formation of these endings or suffixes will appear in the course of the following investigation. Personal pronoun of the first person in the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Russian, Moeso- Gothic, and Old High German languages. Singular. Nominative. Ht*K aham; iymv, ir/a>, itaya, lavya] ego ; ya, Buss.; ik, Goth. ; ih, 0. H. Germ. Genitive. *?*T mama and ^ me ; iiWev, e/xeo, ^ov ; mei ; 254 EASTERN ORIGIN OF menya, Euss. ; meina, Goth. ; min, Old High German. Dative. *Tir*t mahyam and ^ me ; ifilv, ifiol, pol ; mihi ; mne, Euss.; mis, Goth.; mir, Old H. German. Accusative. *rr*C mam and wt ma; sjuls jxs Ijui/v ; me; menya, Euss.; mik, Goth.; mih, 0. H. German. Ablative. *T<^ mat ; oltt ejxou ; a, me, etc. Instrumental. W%\ maya ; me, Lat. ; mnoiu and mnoi, Euss. Locative. *rfa mayi ; in me. Prepositive. mne, Euss. Dual. Nominative. ^TRT^ avam; a/i/xe, v&i, v', ugkis, Gotli.; unch, 0. H. Germ. Accusative. WT^T R avam and ^ nau ; a^ce, vwi, v$ ; ugkis, Goth. ; unch, 0. H. Germ. THE CEI/1IC NATIONS. 255 Ablative and Instrumental. 41141*411 avabhyam. Locative. ^rr^Efr^ avayos. Plural. Nominative. WQ*{ vayam ; a/^?, i.e. vames, ^ee?, ^efc ; nos ; mi, Buss. ; veis, Goth. ; wir, 0. H. Germ. Genitive. IfT^ asmakam ; a/icbv, rj^cov ; nas, Euss. ; unsara, Goth. ; unsar, 0. H. Germ. ; our. Dative. ^hj^h^ asmabhyam and ^f^ nas ; a^uv, r^fuv ; nobis ; name, Euss. ; unsis, Goth. ; uns, 0. H. Germ. Accusative. -*l«^l^ asman and ?n^ nas ; a^as rj/xia^ ; nos ; nas, Euss. ; unsis (uns), Goth. ; unsih, Old H. Germ. Ablative. ^WK asmat ; a' fjfi&v ; a nobis. Instrumental. ^TWTf^ asmabhis ; nobis ; nami, Euss, Locative. VOT3 asmasu ; in nobis. Prsepositive. nas, Euss. Xote. An attentive examination will enable the reader to ascertain, that, notwithstanding the great variety of these pro- nouns and their inflections, a few common elements are the 250 EASTERN ORIGIN OF foundation of them all. A satisfactory analysis of the Sanskrit pronoun has been given us by Professor Bopp, who has dissected the elements which enter into its declension with his usual ingenuity and discernment. His object is the Sanskrit pronoun, but his remarks may tend to elucidate the corresponding forms in all the cognate languages. He observes that the Sanskrit aham, ego, which is quite unconnected with its oblique cases, consists of two elements, viz. ^raf, ah and ^jtjj , am ; the latter is a mere termination, occurring as such in other pronouns : ah is the root. Compare it with ih, ik, ek, ego, h being considered as a gut- tural consonant. The oblique cases in the Sanskrit pronoun are derived from two similar roots T{ ma and if me, which, however, have no existence as distinct words in the Sanskrit language. "We may observe that from a root allied to the last, the oblique cases in the European languages are formed. This root is not to be found as an independent word, or as a nominative case in any of those idioms of which the pronouns have been hitherto com- pared. "We shall discover it in the Celtic. The plural nominative is if ve, prefixed to the above-men- tioned termination am. The plural oblique cases come from an ety- mon common to all these languages, but not existing in any of them as «, distinct word. From it we derive the Russian nas, and &Vi and nos in Greek and Latin. We shall find this etymon to be the Celtic nominative plural. Asmfin and d/x/xe (originally aa^e. as also vfifj-e was vcr/xe ?) contain an epenthesis of sma. M. Bopp supposes the endings of the cases to have been formed by involved prepositions ; as asmabhis, nobis, from the Sanskrit preposition abhi, added to the elements of the word. The same termination is to be traced in the Latin nobis, and perhaps in the Greek 17/Mr, which may have been originally ri/xuplv or aixfiKpiv. On this subject M\ Bopp refers to a dissertation of his own on the origin of cases, in the Abhandlungen der Historisch-Philologischen Klasse der K. akad. der Wissenchaften (viz. at Berlin), ann. 1826. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 257 SECTION II. Pronoun of the second person. Singular. Nominative. c^ twam ; ri 3 a-b, ruya ; tu ; tii, Euss.; thu, M. Goth. ; dii, 0. II. Germ. Genitive. rT^ tava or W te ; tso, reug, cio, etc.; tui ; tebya, Euss. ; theina, Goth. ; din, 0. II. Germ. Dative. ffin^ tubhyam and ^ te ; tjv, retv, aroi ; tibi ; tebe, Euss. ; thus, Goth. ; dir, 0. H. Germ. Accusative. ^ twam and t^T twa ; rh, ; yut (?), Goth.; yiz, iz (?), O. H. Germ. 17 258 EASTERN ORIGIN OF Genitive. ^^f^ yuvayos and TR, vam ; igqvara, Goth. ; in- char, O. II. Germ. Dative. ^<4l^l*i yuvabhyam and ^T^ vam ; t>jufis ; x. r. x. igqvis, Goth.; inch, 0. H. Germ. Accusative. Sanskrit and Greek the same as the nom.; Gothic and Old High German the same as the dative. Ablative and Instrumental, m^ yuvabhyam. Locative. ijcufl^ yuvayos. Plural. Nominative. ^^H yuyam ; u/xees, ufxeg, x. r. X.; vos ; vii, Euss. ; yus, Goth. ; ir, 0. H. German. Genitive. ^^I«h*l yushmakam and ^^ vas ; u^saiv, upcov ; vostrum, vestrum ; vas, Euss. ; izvara, Goth. ; hvar, 0. H. Germ. Dative. ^tHUIH, yushmabhyam, w^ vas ; fyuv ; vobis ; vam, Euss.; izvis, Goth. ; iu, 0. II. Germ. Accusative. $&HK yushman, ^ vas ; b^ag, b^dg ; vos ; vas, Euss.; izvis, Goth.; iwih, 0. li. Germ. Ablative. gm^ yushmat ; a vobis. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 209 Instrumental, ^pnf^ yushmabhis ; yobis ; vami, Euss. Locative. "gxFrrg yushmasu. Prepositive, vas, Euss. Note. The pronouns of the second person are susceptible of an analysis similar to that of the preceding, as may be seen by the reader of Bopp's critical observations on these pronouns in his Sanskrit Grammar. The cases of the singular number are formed from the elements rT tu, (as nominative twam), and ^ twa, or ^" twe. The dual cases are formed from Itt yuva, and agree in terminations with those of the pronoun of the first person. The plural cases are formed from ^ yu, and from ^^ vas, or vos. SECTION III. Pronouns of the third person. The pronouns of the third person are still more varied and numerous in their inflections than the preceding. The personal pronouns of the third person, which are properly so termed, and chiefly in use as such, appear to have little or no relation either to the corresponding personal pronoun in Sanskrit, or to the personal endings of verbs. But there are some other words in these languages, which, though chiefly used as demonstrative pro- nouns or definite articles, appear to have been ori- ginally personal pronouns. For example, the definite article in Greek was used, as Matthire has observed, 260 EASTERN ORIGIN OF for oirog, and was in fact a prononn. It bears also in its forms a near analogy to the Sanskrit personal pronoun. The Gothic demonstrative pronoun or article sa, so, thata is closely allied to both of these, and all the three were apparently the same word very slightly modified. The Latin pronoun ap- proaching most nearly to these is iste. I shall collate the forms of all of them, that the reader may perceive their affinities. It must be observed, that the chief reason for selecting these rather than any other pronouns of the third person is the circum- stance, that the verbal endings of the third person which have been traced in the preceding chapter are perhaps formed by suffixes, or abbreviations of them, and arc quite unconnected with those personal pronouns, which in the actual state of the respective languages are more regularly used as such. MatthisG has conjectured that the primitive form of what is called the definite article in Greek was to$, Tr}, to', but the analogy of permutations indicates the aspirate to have taken place rather of a sibilant than of a dental, and it is probable that cog, o-a, to, was the form which preceded the present one. Yet the sigma is peculiar to the masculine and feminine nominative, and the real etymon of the pronoun must have been in Greek similar to the root which exists in Sanskrit and the other cognate languages. TTc^ tat, is the nominal root, as given by gramma- rians, but the real etymon, as Professor Bopp has observed, must have been 7f ta ; and cf ta, to, te, THE Cl-XTIC NATIONS. 201 and tha seem to have been the roots in the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and Teutonic languages. Iste is pro- bably a compound word formed of is the personal pronoun and an old demonstrative, strikingly ana- logous to the Sanskrit personal pronoun. Singular. Nominative. MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEfTKK ) or [ ^r: sah. ) Sausk. *TT sa is changed into \ aw and 1 ° attaw ) > to him. atto ) hi / Vi atti, to her. ni ) ( om > becomes < och ) (ynt as attorn, to us. chwi attoch, to you. hwynt attynt, to them. The preposition tan, under, changes them in a similar manner, as — 1 tanav tanom. 2 tanat tanoch. 3 tano and tani tanynt. • In what remains to be said on the subject of the pronouns, I shall, to avoid perplexity, confine myself to the Welsh dialect of the Celtic, premising that in the Erse dialect very nearly the same facts are to be observed. 18 274 EASTERN ORIGIN 01" Ehwng, between, changes them as follows : 1 rhyng-or rhyng-om. 2 rhyng-otf rhyng-och. I rhyng-d/io rhyng-dh-ynt or I rhyng-dhi Yn, in, changes them thus : rhyng-ih-ynt. ynom, m us. ynocli, in you. in him. < in her. ynov, in me. ynot, in thee, yntho, or yndho, ynthi, or yndhi, Trwy, through, alters them thus : fcrwyov, trwyot, trwydho, ) ^ trwydhi, ) Wrth, by, thus : wrthyv, wrthyt, wrtho, ) wrthi, J The preceding are all very analogous, but an- other form occurs in the combination of the pronouns with the preposition i, to, of which it is important to take notice. ynthynt, or yndhynt, in them. trwyom. trwyoch. trwydhynt. wrthym. wrthych. wrthynt. 1. im' or ym', to me. 2. if or yt' to thee. 3. idho, to him. idhi, to her. in' or yn', to us. iwch, to you. idhynt, to them. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 275 Nor are these mutations of the personal pro- nouns confined to the instance of their combinations with prepositions. They are thus compounded with the possessive pronoun or adjective eidho, own. eidhov, my own. eidhom, our own. eidhot, thy own. eidhoch, your own, eidho, his own. eidhont ) , . . ,, . , . „ A J their own. eidhi, her own. eidhynt ) The Welsh grammarians deduce analytically the following series of forms under which the personal pronouns occur when thus modified by the preceding words. mi ti evo hi ni chwi hwvnt ^ ( ) becomes { av, ov, yv, or m . at, ot, yt, or t\ aw, o, or dho. i or dhi. om, ym, or n\ och, ych, or ch. ynt, sometimes dhynt. The reader can hardly fail to be struck with the very obvious relation which discovers itself between this series of pronouns and the personal endings of the Welsh verbs, of which the different forms were given in the preceding chapter. The comparison of the two tables will at once prove that the termina- tions of the verbs are in fact a series of pronominal suffixes, and the problem which regards the origin of these personal inflections may be considered as solved, in so far as it regards the Welsh and the other dialects of the Celtic language. There is in- 276 EASTERN ORIGIN OF deed in Welsh a considerable variety in the personal terminations of the verbs, and this may be supposed with probability to have been a consequence of the poverty of the Celtic language in respect to the conjugations in temporal and modal inflections, or in those changes by which the differences of mood and tense are indicated. In these modifications the Celtic has fewer resources than many other lan- guages; and it was probably found necessary to supply the deficiency by a considerable variety in the personal endings, which in some measure help to characterise the tenses. There is not, however, in these a greater diversity than among the abbre- viated pronouns, and nearly all the verbal termina- tions are to be found in the preceding table. This I shall now shew by a comparison of the verbal endings with the pronouns. Paragraph 4. Comparison of the personal endings of verbs with the contracted forms of the pronouns. It may be remembered that in a former section the personal endings of the verbs in the Welsh lan- guage were said to be reducible for the most part to four, or rather three principal forms. These are as follows : First form. Second form. Third form. SING. SING. SING. 1. -av -ais -wn 2. -i -aist -it 3. root simply -odh -ai. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 277 PLUR. PLUR. PLUR. 1. -wn -om -em or -ym 2. -welt -och -ech or -ych 3. -ant -ont -ent or -ynt. If the reader will only compare this table with that of abbreviated pronouns contained in the end of the last paragraph, he will perceive at once their relation. The plural terminations are precisely the pro- nouns. The first set presents the greatest variety, but even these are traced among the pronouns ; in' or yn' and iwch, being the forms which the pro- nouns ni and chwi assume after the proposition i. The first of these, in' or yn', seems a more natural change of ni, than the more usual om or ym, which is so remote from ni as to give rise to suspicion that the Welsh language had once a pronoun resembling the ap£ or aps$ of the Greeks, and that this has been lost, notwithstanding the permanent character of the Celtic dialects. The personal endings in the singular number are more various, but they are still analogous to the ab- breviated pronouns. In the first form, for example, which is that of the future or present tense, the first person has the ending in av^ which the pronoun mi or vi generally assumes in regimen, as above shewn. The ais of the second form is not pronominal, but an inflection characteristic of the tense, the syllable ais or as being introduced in the past tenses of the Celtic verb, nearly as the od or ed in the Teutonic 278 EASTERN ORIGIN OF conjugations ; it is brought in before the pronominal termination, as in the plurals carasom, carasoch, carasant. The second person, in two out of the three forms, has the abbreviated pronoun as a suffix, either in it or t. In the first form, the ending t, though it does not appear among the abbreviated pronouns, is the termination of the separate pronoun of the second person ; and this is therefore probably a suffix. The third person is differently constituted. In the first form of the verb, as in carav, ceri, car, from the word cam to love, or in bydhav, bydhi, bydh, from the verb substantive, the third person is merely the verbal root used, as in the Semitic lan- guages, without any suffix. In the third form ai was perhaps ae, and derived from eve, or its modi- fication as used in regimen e. The ending in oclh seems anomalous in the Welsh language, though it nearly resembles the termination of the third person in other idioms, as the Teutonic aith or ot. d The Welsh suffix, if formed regularly from the pronoun, would be in o or aw ; and this actually occurs in the future tense of the subjunctive mood, which docs not fall under either of the forms above stated, but has the singular number thus : 1. bydhwyv, 2. bydhych, 3. bydho. Paragraph 5. General result in respect to the Celtic verbs. On a review of this analysis it appears clearly that the Welsh verbal terminations are in general ■' Is ii the abbreviated form <>( tli" pronoun (dko) reversed? THE CELTIC NATIONS. 279 merely abbreviated or modified pronouns, affixed to the verbal roots ; and this conclusion does not rest merely upon a probable conjecture, on which the grammarians of other Indo-European languages have been obliged to found it, but on the more sub- stantial fact, that the very terminations in question are actually to be identified with the pronouns as they are used on other occasions in an abbreviated form. SECTION VI. Conclusions respecting the personal inflections of verbs in the other Indo-European languages. As it has been, I trust, satisfactorily proved that the inflection of verbs in the Welsh language con- sists in the addition of pronominal suffixes to the verbal roots, and as in a former section sufficient evidence appeared, of the affinity and original same- ness of the verbal inflections in all these languages, we are entitled to infer without hesitation, that in the other languages which belong to this stock, the verbs are inflected on the same principle, and that, although in many instances they are no longer extant, pronouns formerly existed in all these idioms more or less analogous to the Welsh pronouns. It will be worth while to go a little more minutely into this consideration. 1. The pronoun of the third person plural in Welsh is hwynt in the entire form, and ynt in the 280 EASTERN ORIGIN OF contracted one, which, as a verbal suffix, is ynt, ent, ont, ant. In the other languages the terminations of the verb are as follows : In Greek, ovri } evn, ai/, ovto, x.r.X. In Sanskrit, anti, antu, an. In Latin, ant, ent, unt, anto, ento, etc. In Teutonic, and, aina, ont, ant, on, etc. These languages have no personal pronoun now extant similar to hwynt or ynt ; but, from the con- siderations above adverted to, it is probable that such a pronoun existed in them. 2. The Welsh separate pronoun of the first person plural is ni, which is to be recognised in other languages in the oblique, if not in the nomi- native cases. a The contracted form of this pronoun in n' enters into some of the Welsh tenses as a suffix, but most of them have the other Welsh pronoun of this person, om or ym. This, as we have observed, can scarcely be derived from ni, but rather comes from some separate pronoun originally common to all these languages, which must have been analogous to the Greek ape or apsg, or perhaps a plural formed from the nominative singular mi. However this may have been, the termination, am, em, ym is really a contracted pronoun in the Welsh ■ Viz. in Sanskrit, •ft nau. in Greek, vwi. in Latin, nos. in Russian, nas. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 281 language, and must have existed as such in the cognate idioms. The following endings may there- fore be regarded as pronominal suffixes : In Greek, ol^zs, opsg. In Sanskrit, amah, or amas, ma. In Latin, amus, emus, imus, umus. In Teutonic, ames, omes, aima, am. 3. The separate pronoun of the second person plural in Welsh is chwi, and the abbreviated one och or ych, which, as we have seen, is also the suffix in the endings of verbs for this person. All the other Indo-European languages have a dental -consonant in the place of the Welsh guttural or palatine letter, as in the Teutonic dialects, aith, ith, uth, ot, et. In Sanskrit, atha, tha, or ta. In Greek, are, ste, ts. In Latin, atis, ate, etis, ete, itis, ite. What the separate pronoun was in these languages from which the termination of the verb is contracted, we can scarcely hope to discover ; but the fact being proved that the Celtic verb is here formed by means of a pronominal suffix, we may infer from analogy that the same construction holds in the other lan- guages. 4. We have seen that the separate pronoun of the first person singular in Welsh is mi or vi, and the constructive pronoun av, ov, yv, or m\ The 282 EASTERN ORIGIN OF verbal suffix is av or yv : in the Erse dialect it is am, aim, or im. In most other languages m is the characteristic consonant of this person, with or with- out a subsequent vowel, as, In Greek, jiu, as tip}, t/Stjjuu. In Sanskrit, mi, or m, as bhavami, abhavishyam. In Latin, m, as inquam, sum, amabam. Although the pronouns extant in these lan- guages do not come so near to the above termina- tions as the Welsh mi, vi, and m', still they may account for it tolerably well. In Greek and in Latin, the sycb or ego probably gave rise to the ending of verbs in o, which is perhaps a later form than the termination in mi. b In other instances the first person singular has no addition to the simple verb, or to the common characteristic of the tense. The verb was used in this state either with the separate pronoun or with- out any. The other persons are marked by cha- racteristic additions, and it was sufficient for the first to be without any suffix. But while the Teutonic dialects have the first person in this state, the Celtic dialects, like the Semitic languages, have the third person most frequently in the simple state, or in that which is nearest to the verbal root. 11 This is contrary t<> the opinion of some eminent grammarians, who regard the form in m as mere recent than that in o. Before this opinion can be allowed to he probable, some answer must he given to the question, How it can have happened that the newer Form in the Greek language should resemble these of the Sanskrit so much more than the older ones, as they would do on the hypoth THE CELTIC NATIONS. 283 5. The second and third persons singular end as follows : SECOND PERSON. THIRD PEBSON. Greek, between the verbal root and the personal endings, as the verb £e'uy-*u-jxi. There is likewise a particular class of Sanskrit verbs analogous to these, and having the same distinction, which is considered as the character of the fifth conjugation : but these are, as in Greek, a compara- tively small number of verbs. Those Greek verbs in p, however, which bear the nearest resemblance to the generality of Sanskrit verbs, are such as make no prefix to the initial of the root, nor any inser- tion, but merely add the personal termination. Among these we reckon ;pjjxi, senesco ; and this last may be compared to the Sanskrit verb jarami, of the same meaning. THE CEI/flC NATIONS. 291 8ANSKUIT. GREEK. DOBIC »OBMS. Sing, jarami rnpv/u jarasi 7W? jarati yrjprjcn yr)pa,Ti. Dual jaravas jarathas yrjparov jaratas yrjparov Plural jariimas ytfpafiev yr}pa/j,e<; (?) jaratlia yrjpare jaranti yrjpaai yijpavri. Of the Pr ester ita Augmentata, or Preter 'imperfect Tense and Aorists. There are two preterite tenses in Sanskrit verbs, which are deserving of particular notice, as they are formed in a manner very similar to that of two tenses of the Greek verb. One of them is analogous to the imperfect, and the other to the aorists; and there is no reason that forbids their being distin- guished by these terms. 1. The imperfect is formed from the present tense by prefixing an augment, and abbreviating the personal endings. The augment is the first short vowel "3T a, which, corresponding with the short vowels of the Greeks, might be represented indifferently by a or s. Thus are formed from tudami tudasi tudati atudam atudas atudat. 2. The aorist has three, or rather, according to Professor Bopp's division, seven forms. Of these it 292 EASTERN ORIGIN OF is observed, that the four first agree more or less closely with the Greek first aorist, the fifth and sixth with the second aorist, and the seventh, which, besides an augment, admits a reduplication of the first syllable, with the preterpluperfect. Thus in the four first some make this tense by inserting s, or the syllable is, or sa, or sas, between the root and the personal endings, and by prefixing the augment to the root, the vowel of which undergoes a change by the forms guna and vriddhi. The root kship, present tense kshipami, makes the aorist akshepam. This is one of the examples given by Bopp, and the analogy is more striking, if the words are written as the Greeks would have written them, thus : BOOT PRESENT TENSE. The two succeeding forms of the aorist differ from the imperfect tense very nearly in the same manner in which the second aorist in Greek differs from the Greek imperfect. We shall find the insertion of s, sa, or as, to be a method used in other instances for the formation of tenses with a past signification. (,f)) NOTE ON SECTION II. (15). On the s of the Greek aorist.— The following is the re- print of a paper published by the editor in the 'Transactions of the Philological Society' (read March 11, 1853). It takes an ex- ception to a portion of the doctrine of Bopp, in respect to the THE CELTIC NATIONS. 293 origin of the * in the first aorist. It is headed — ■ On the Aorists in -/ca. y "A well-known rule in the Eton Greek Grammar may serve to introduce the subject of the present remarks : — ■ Quinque sunt aoristi primi qui futuri primi characteristicam non assumunt : eOrjica posui, eScotca dedi, rjfca misi, elira dixi, rjveyfca tuli.' The absolute accuracy of this sentence is no part of our consider- ations : it has merely been quoted for the sake of illustration. " What is the import of this abnormal k ? or, changing the ex- pression, what is the explanation of the aorist in -tea ? Is it certain that it is an aorist ? or, granting this, is it certain that its relations to the future are exceptional ? " The present writer was at one time inclined to the doubts implied by the first of these alternatives, and gave some reasons* for making the form a perfect rather than an aorist. He finds, however, that this is only shifting the difficulty. How do per- fects come to end in -tea ? The typical and unequivocal perfects are formed by a reduplication at the beginning, and a modifica- tion of the final radical consonant atjthe end, of words, tv7t(t)(o, Te-TV(f)-a ; and this is the origin of the % in XeXe^a, etc., which represents the 7 of the root. Hence, even if we allow ourselves to put the k in eOrjica in the same category with the k in 6/jLG)/jLOfca, etc., we are as far as ever from the true origin of the form. " In this same category, however, the two words — and the classes they represent — can be placed, notwithstanding some 6mall difficulties of detail. At any rate, it is easier to refer o/jLco/jLo/ca and eOrjKa to the same tense, than it is to do so with 6/j,(OjjLOfca and rirvepa. "The next step is to be sought in Bopp's Comparative Grammar. Here we find the following extract : — ' The old Slavonic dakh, 'I gave,' and analogous formations remind us, through their guttural, which takes the place of a sibilant, of the Greek aorists eOrjKa, eScoKa, tjkcl. That which in the old Slavonic has become a rule in the first person of the three numbers, viz. the guttu- ralization of an original s, may have occasionally taken place in the Greek, but carried throughout all numbers. No conjecture lies closer at hand than that of regarding e8a)fca as a corruption of eScoaa,' etc ' The Lithuanian also presents a form which is akin to the Greek and Sanscrit aorist, in which, as it 8 English Language, p. 489. 294 EASTERN OBIGIN OF appears to me, k assumes the place of an original s,' (vol. ii. p. 791, Eastwick's translation.) The italics indicate the words that most demand attention. " The old Slavonic inflection alluded to is as follows : — SINGULAB. DUAL. PLUBAL. 1. ~Nes-och TXes-ochowa Ises-ochotn. 2. Nes-0 ~Nes-osta ~Nvs-oste. 3. Nes-0 Nes-osta Ncs-osza. "Now it is clear that the doctrine to which, these extracts commit the author is that of the secondary or derivative cha- racter of the form of k, and the primary or fundamental cha- racter of the forms in a. The former is deduced from the latter. And this is the doctrine which the present writer would reverse. He would just reverse it, agreeing with the distinguished scholar whom he quotes, in the identification of the Greek form with the Slavonic. So much more common is the change from 1c, g, and the allied sounds, to s, %, etc., than that from s, z, etc. to h, g, that the d priori probabilities are strongly against Bopp's view. Again, the languages that pre-eminently encourage the change are the Slavonic ; yet it is just in these languages that the form in h is assumed to be secondary. For s to become h, and for h to become h (or g), is no improbable change : still, as compared with the transition from 1c to s, it is exceedingly rare. "As few writers are better aware of the phenomena connected with the direction of letter-changes than the philologist before us, it may be worth while to ask, why he has ignored them in the present instances. He has probably done so because the Sanskrit forms were in s ; the habit of considering whatever is the more Sanskritic of two forms to be the older being well-nigh universal. Nevertheless, the difference between a language which is old because it is represented by old samples of its literature, and a language which is old because it contains primary forms, is manifest upon a very little reflection. The positive argument, however, in favour of the k being the older form, lies in the well-known phenomenon connected with the vowels e and i, as opposed to a, o, and u. All the world over, e and i have a tendency to convert a h or g, when it precedes them, into s, z, sh, %h, hsh, gzh, tsh, and dzh, or some similar sibilant. Hence, as often as a sign of tense, consisting of K, is followed by a sign of person, beginning with e or », an s lias a chance of being evolved. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 295 In this case such a form as i(f>t\rj(Ta, i(f>tkr] and frigesco, the av, in afo-Qavo/jux*, ajmapTava), and the numerous verbs resembling them, which are analogous to the verbs of the ninth con- jugation in Sanskrit : the latter insert na between THE CELTIC NATIONS. 297 the root and the termination in the present tense. a These insertions are retained only in those tenses derived immediately from the present, as the imper- fect is in Latin and Greek : they are dropped in the preterperfect and other forms of the verb. The Teutonic language wants all these and many other variations : it has no tense formed by a modi- fication of the present. " The capability of flection in the German verbs seems," says Professor Grimm, " to have been greatly impaired. Of the passive voice the last remains disappear with the Mocso- Gothic : the middle voice is everywhere wanting, with the exception of a reflected form in the old northern dialect, which is in some degree analogous to a middle voice. Four moods exist ; the infini- tive, imperative, indicative, conjunctive, but there is no optative. What is most to be regretted is the loss of many tenses : only a present tense and a pre- terite remain to us : the future, and all the different degrees of the past signification, can no longer be expressed by a change in the form of the verb it- self." b NOTE ON SECTION III. (16). The Latin language has nothing analogous to the aorist. — Exceptions to the doctrine here exhibited are taken by the editor in his English Language. Part iv. chap. xxvi. In Latin, forms like cucurri and vixi (vic-si) are both looked upon as perfects. One, however, is (if tested by its form) a perfect like rervcpa, the other an aorist, like eTv^raa, only under a different name. * As krinami, krinftsi, etc. from the root krl, pret. chi-kra-ya. b Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik. Theil. i. 298 EASTERN ORIGIN OF SECTION IV. Formation of the preterperfect in Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, and Teutonic verbs. The preterperfect seems originally to have been formed on the same principle in the Greek, Latin, Sanskrit and Teutonic languages. Many changes in the forms of verbs have been produced by the addition of auxiliaries, or of particles inserted in or added to the root ; but the preterperfect, in that me- thod of conjugation which appears to have been the primitive one, is an inflection properly so termed. A partial repetition of the verbal root itself seems to have been originally adopted to denote a past signi- fication, implying the act to have been done and completed. Paragraph 1. Preterite in Teutonic Verbs. The preterite of the strongly inflected conjuga- tion, says Dr. Grimm, " must be considered as a chief beauty of our language, as a character intimately connected with its antiquity and its whole constitu- tion. Independently of the inflection in the endings, of which the nature has already been pointed out, it affects the roots themselves, and that in a double manner ; either the beginning of the root is repeated before itself, or the vowel of the root, whether initial or medial, is modified. The Gothic language THE CELTIC NATIONS. 299 yet retains both methods ; it reduplicates and modi- fies : sometimes it applies both methods at once. Eeduplication never affects the terminating conso- nants of the root. In the other Teutonic dialects reduplication disappears, if we except slight traces, and instead of it an unorganized diphthong has been formed, the doubling of the consonant being no more thought of. The reduplicating conjugation leaves the vowel sound of the root unaltered, and only puts the doubled syllable before the singular and plural of the preterite both indicative and conjunctive, but not before the participle. The modifying conjuga- tion never leaves the vowel of the present tense unaltered in the preterite. On this principal are formed six reduplicating conjugations, and six of the latter description." I must refer the reader for further particulars to Dr. Grimm's work, and shall here give merely an example of each of these twelve conjugations, all belonging to the strong or primitive Gothic inflection. Under each verb are inserted the present indicative, the preterite first person singular and first person plural, and the participle. J. Conjugation. Salta, salio, I leap. Salta ; pret. saisalt, saisaltum ; saltans. 2. Maita ; abscido, I cut. Maita ; pret. maim ait, maimaitum ; maitans. 3. Hlaupa ; curro, I run. Illaupa; pret. hlaihlaup, hlaihlaupum ; hlaupans. 300 EASTERN ORIGIN OF 4. Slepa, dormio, I sleep. Slepa ; pret. saislep, saislepum ; slepans. 5. Laia, irrideo, I laugh. Laia ; pret. lailo, lailoum ; laians. 6. Greta, ploro, I weep or grete, Scottish. Greta ; pret. gaigrot, gaigrotum ; gretans. Sixth Conjugation without reduplication. 7. Svara, juro, I swear. Svara ; pret. svor, svorum ; svarans. 8. Skeina, luceo, I shine. Skeina ; pret. skain, skinum ; skinans. 9. Liuga, mentior, I lie. ■ Liuga ; pret. laug, lugum ; lugans. 10. Giba, do, I give. Giba ; pret. gab, gebum ; gibans. 11. Stila, furor, I steal. Stila; pret. stal, stelum; stalans. 12. Hilpa, adjuvo, I help. Hilpa ; pret. halp, hulpum ; hulpans. I have taken these examples in full, because the analogies which they display to the forms of our tongue are interesting to English readers. The Mceso-Gothic is far more perfect in its inflections than any other language of the same stock. In the later dialects they gradually fade away, but still the remains are reducible to the same system. The weaker form of verbal inflections is, accord- ing to Grimm, modern in comparison of the stronger form. For the grounds of this opinion I must refer THE CELTIC NATIONS. 301 the reader to his work.' The preterite is formed by the insertion of a syllable of which d is the con- sonant, and this is regarded by Grimm as an abbre- viated auxiliary, derived from the verb to do, which in the Old High German is tuon. Thus sokida, I sought, is I "seek — did." The inflections of this verb tuon are. very distinct in the Old High German and appear to give some probability to Dr. Grimm's conjecture (l7) as to the origin of the preterperfect tense, in the form which has become most frequently used in the modern German and English languages. b NOTE ON PAKAGRAPH 1. (17). Grimm's conjecture that soh'da = I seek — did. — The text scarcely puts Grimm's doctrine in its true view ; according to which did is formed from do by reduplication, then placed after the verb (to which it gives a past power), then incorporated with it as an inseparable affix, and then acted upon by certain euphonic processes, which eliminate one of the ds. Yet this statement scarcely does justice to the hypothesis; inasmuch as the text of Grimm gives us certain forms wherein we find a second d. The Mceso ■ Gothic plural preterite ends in -dedum ; e. g. nas-i- d^d-um nas-i-ded-uth, nas-i-d£d-un from nas-ja, and, similarly, soh-i-ded-um, etc., and salb-6ded-um, etc. from s6h-ja and sal-bo. The same takes place in the dual forms, as, salb-6-dMuts, etc. "Without going further than a mere suspension of judgement as to the accuracy of this derivation, I have suggested (Eng- lish Language, part iv., chap, xxxii.) the possibility of the d of the past tense being the d of the participle, that being the t in words like voc-a-t-us, and the 6 in words like rvcp-O-eis. 1 Deutsche Grammatik : th. i., p. 1040. b Seep. 885, 1039, 1042, of Grimm's Deutsche Grammatik. 302 EASTERN ORIGIN OF Paragraph 2. Preterperfect tense in Greek and Sanskrit. The formation of the preterfect tense in Greek and in Sanskrit is on principles so similar, that it requires more care to sum np the points in which they differ than those in which they agree. In both, the root, which frequently consists of one syllable, is preserved nearly in its entire state, with a final short vowel added to it, and a short syllabic gene- rally prefixed, which is termed the reduplication. In Greek the vowel of the reduplication is always s, but in Sanskrit the vowel is the short one corresponding with that of the verbal root : thus from the root . The middle voice oAe, from Aeya), Trs'ida). The present tense is often used for the future by the poets ; and this form seems to have been originally a mere change in the accent or emphasis of the present, designed thus to mark a variety in the sense. Some grammarians have indeed maintained that the supposed second future is merely a first future in a different form, in which case there would be no second future in Greek. This would be con- trary to the analogy of the cognate languages. However, it must be allowed that there is not in Greek, as there is in Latin and in Sanskrit, a second future distinguished from the first by a difference of sense. Latin Futures. The future tenses in the Latin language are formed in a great variety of ways. 1. The most simple form is a slight modification of the present, regam, reges, reget being substituted • See Dawes, Miscellanea Critica, p. 372. 312 EASTERN ORIGIN OF for rego (which, according to the analogy already pointed out, was perhaps originally regim), regis, regit. This recals those languages in which the present tense is used for a future, and the British future credav is nearly like it. It is still more closely allied to the conjunctive present regam, regas, regat. A slight difference in pronunciation was adopted, to mark these varieties in the meaning or in the relations of the verb to time and mode. This is an instance of simple inflection. Here is no place for the hypothesis of compound verbs, or of particles introduced and interpolated. 2. Another mode of giving to verbs a future signification adopted by the Latin grammarians was that of inserting a syllable, a method analogous to that practised in Greek and in Sanskrit conjuga- tions ; but instead of the so- or rj, is changed into hftorai, so bhavati is converted into bhavate. I cannot but believe that the original form of the verb in Sanskrit was bhavame, \ / bhavami. bhavase, > from < bhavasi. bhavate, J ' bhavati. But the first person is, according to the established inflections of the Sanskrit language, bhave, instead of bhavame. I shall not pursue further at present the inflec- tions of verbs in the different voices. The reader will find enough to answer my chief design in a THE CELTIC NATIONS. 317 succeeding chapter, in which examples of the re- gular verbs are inserted. The termination most characteristic of passive tenses in Latin, viz. r, must here be mentioned, as it serves as a point of comparison between the Celtic and the Latin verbs. Another point in which we shall find a relation between the Latin and the Celtic verbs, as likewise between the Greek and Celtic, is the defective state of the inflection of persons in the passive tenses. But we shall again take notice of this circumstance in its proper place. (19) NOTE ON PAKAGRAPH 3. (19). Middle and Passive voices. — Many, perhaps most passives, are originally middle. Many, .perhaps most middles, were originally the verb plus, the reflective pronoun. This is eminently the case in the Scandinavian languages. In the particular case of the Latin language, excellent au- thorities have maintained that the r in amor (I am loved) is the s of se ; just as is the s in jag Icallas = I am called, in Swedish. 318 EASTERN ORIGIN OF CHAPTEE VII. Illustration of the principles developed in the preceding chapter. Conju- gation of the verb substantive and of attributive verbs, both in the other Indo-European languages and in the Celtic dialects. SECTION I General Remarks. Analysis of *he Verb Substantive in several languages. The preceding remarks will perhaps be deemed suf- ficient to explain the general principles of verbal inflection in the languages to which they refer ; but before I can proceed to my ultimate object, which is to compare the Celtic verbs with those of the idioms supposed to be cognate with the Celtic language, it is requisite to illustrate the principles now developed by some particular examples. I shall with this view lay before my readers a brief analysis of the verb substantive in Sanskrit, pointing out in the first place the agreements of the Sanskrit with the other languages generally allowed to be allied to it. I shall afterwards endeavour to illustrate in a similar manner the Celtic inflections, and to shew that they manifestly partake in the same general analogies. I have already observed, in the list of verbal roots contained in a preceding section, that there are in Sanskrit two verbs substantive, of which cognates are found in various idioms. They are the verb ^rf^T asmi, from the root AS, a corresponding with esse Rosen, Radices Sanskrits, p. 52, 63. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 319 or sum in Latin and sip in Greek, and M4\Ui bhavami from the root bhu, allied to the old Latin verb fuo, and in the sense of oriri, nasci, which also belongs to this Sanskrit root, to the verb vvai in Greek. There is, I believe, no language in which both of these verbs are extant in a complete state, but they are least defective in Sanskrit, which has lost many tenses of the verb asmi, though it has preserved the whole of bhavami. The Persian has two corresponding verbs, budan, and am resembling asmi : they are both defective, and each contributes some tenses towards the conjugation of the verb sub- stantive, which is thus made up of their fragments. [Eather say that the Persian has the root b-d, and certain personal forms which point to the root -s. See p. 320. Ed.] The Sclavonian verb substantive is formed from similar elements ; the present tense and those dependent on it are nearly allied to asmi, and the past tenses are derived from but' or bud' the cognate of biidan or bhu. The Teutonic languages display the same formation : ist or is belongs to the former ; beon, be, been, to the latter element. In Latin fuo and esse are combined in a similar manner. The Celtic language, as I shall shew in the following section, has one of these verbs in a more perfect state than any other language except the Sanskrit. The verb bu or bydh, corresponding with bhu or buden, is nearly complete, if not entirely so ; but there are only fragments, as in other languages, which resemble the cognates of asmi. 320 eastern origin of Paragraph 1. Verb asmi and its Cognates. I shall now compare the principal parts of the verb asmi, and subjoin some corresponding forms in the cognate languages. Present tense. 1. In Sanskrit. FIBST PEBSON. SECOND PEBSON. THIBD PEBSON. Sing, asmi asi asti Plur. smah stha santi N. These plural forms "were originally (?) asmus astha asanti. 2. In Greek according to the old forms. Sing. i/jL/jl eacri eart, Plur. €1/16$ 1 \ care 3. In Latin. 5 \ Sing. esum es est Plur. sumus estis 4. In Persian. sunt Sing. am I ast Plur. Im Id 5. Sclavonian. b and Sing. yesm' yesi yest' Plur. yesmi yeste sut' for jesut' 6. In Lettish or Lithuanian. Sing. esmi essi esti Plur. esme este esti b Grimm, i, p. 1064. Vater, p. 98. • Grimm, ibid. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 321 7. In Moeso- Gothic. Sing, i'm is ist Plur. siyum siyuth sind which according to Dr. Grimm was originally in the plural. isum isuth isind or, "isam isith isand It is at once evident, that all these are slight modifications of the same element conjugated by means of the same suffixes. The variation between the different languages is not exceeding such as exists between proximate dialects of the same speech. The preterimperfect tense is not to be traced with so much regularity. It is in Sanskrit : Sing, asam asls aslt Plur. asma asta asan. In Latin, esam was probably the old form of eram, for s, as we have seen, was often changed into r, and esam would regularly form esem in the sub- junctive, which is actually found : Sing, esam esas esat Plur. esamus esatis esant. The second form of the verb in the arrangement adopted by Sanskrit grammarians is the potential. The potential form of the verb asmi bears a strong analogy to the old Latin potential siem, and, as M. Bopp has also shewn, to the Moeso-Gothic potential. 21 322 EASTERN ORIGIN OF Singular. Sanskrit, syam syas syat Latin, siem sies siet Gothic, siyau d siyais Plural. siyai Sanskrit, syama syiita syus Latin, siemus sietis sient Gothic, siyaima siyaith siyai] It may be observed that all these words have lost the initial vowel a or s, and that if it were restored the preceding forms would bear a near analogy to £va, Tretyvas, 7rive, 7T€vafiev, 7re(f)vaT€, irefyvacri. Babhuvima in its termination is allied to fuvimus from fuo g 7. First Future. Sing, bhavitasmi. The personal endings nearly as in the present tense. f The ten conjugations or forms of Sanskrit verbs differ from each other only in those tenses which are formed from the present. The first modifies the root and interposes a between it and the suffixes, as bhav-a-mi from bhij. The second subjoins the suffixes immediately, as asmi from as. The third reduplicates in the present, as dadami (5t'5a>,ui) from da. The fourth inserts ya. between the root and suffixes, as damyami (domo) from dam (tame, domitus). The fifth inserts nu after the root, and corresponds exactly with the conjugation of (evy-yv-/xi. The sixth modifies the termination of the root somewhat differently from the first, as mriyate (moritur) from the root mri. The seventh inserts n in the root, as in Latin we find jungo from the root juo-tjm. The eighth resembles the fifth, but adds only u to roots ending in n. The ninth adds na to the root, and is analogous to the form of , i\edva>. The tenth inserts » in the root, and inflects like the first. These analogies have been pointed out fully by Dr. Murray (Hist, of European Languages). • As by Ennius, "Nos Hiimu' Romani, qui fuvimus ante Rudini." THE CELTIC NATIONS. 325 8. Precative. Sing, bhiiyasam. The personal endings abbreviated. 9. Second Future. Sing, bhavishyami. The personal endings in full. In Latin fuissem nearly ap- proaches to the above form, or perhaps more closely to the following : 10. Conditional. Sing. Abhavishyam. Personal endings abbreviated. Infinitive Mood. Bhavitum. The infinitive mood in Sanskrit bears an analogy to the Latin supine. Participles. Adverbial Participle, bbutwa. Passive, bhiitah. Pret. Reduplicate, babhilvah. Present, bhavat. Future, bbavishyat. The participles are given without their termina- tions, which are added in declining them, and resemble those of adjectives. The preceding forms are given by grammarians as those of the active voice ; but this verb is inflected through two other voices, analogous to the middle and passive. Of these I shall only extract the present, the reduplicate preterite, and the parti- ciples. 326 EASTERN ORIGIN OF Middle Voice or Atmanepadam. Sing, bhave bhavase bhavate Dual, bhavavahe bhavethe bhavete Plur. bhavamahe bhavadhve bhavante In this we have only to supply the first personal ending f^T, which the analogy of the other persons seems clearly to suggest, and the whole form will correspond nearly with the Greek. Eeduplicate Preterite. Sing, babhuve babhiivishe babhuve Dual, babhuvivahe babhiivathe babhuvate Plur. babhuvimahe babhuvidvc babhuvire. Passive Present Tense. Sing, bhuye bhuyase. Personal endings as in the middle voice. Eeduplicate Preterite. Same as in the Middle Voice. Participles in the Middle Voice : Present : Bhavamanah bhavamana bhavamanain. Reduplicate Preterite : Babhuvanah, a, am. Future : Bhavishyamanah. Passive Present : bhuyamanah, a, am. The terminations would he represented correctly thus ; p&vog, jmava, pavov : and it is needless to re- mind the reader of the near correspondence of these forms with the Greek. SECTION II. Analysis of the Celtic Verb Substantive. The verb substantive in Welsh grammars appears to a learner as if made up of the fragments of two THE CELTIC NATIONS. 327 or three defective roots, like the verbs substantive of other European languages. But in reality there is in the Welsh a verbal root, which is cognate with the Sanskrit bh'u and the Persian budan, and which is like the former, perfect, or very nearly so, having as many extant forms as the Welsh verbs generally possess. This verb is in the infinitive mood bod, and bod may perhaps be regarded as the root, although Dr. Davies gives that term to the third person singular of the preterite, which is bu, fuit. The third person of the future is, however, often the root of Welsh verbs, and this in the verb sub- stantive is bydh, erit. Bydh, if not the root, is the basis on which most of the modifications of this verb are formed. Eegular verbs have in Welsh, besides the infini- tive and imperative moods, five distinct tenses or forms : these are two futures, one of which is indi- cative and the other conditional or subjunctive, a preterimperfect, preterperfect, and preterpluperfect tense. All these forms are extant in the verb bod. They are as follows : Paragraph 1. 1. Future Indicative. Sing, bydhav bydhi bydh. Pliir. bydhwn bydhwch bydhant. N. It must be observed that the Welsh y in the penultima is a short u. The ending av in Welsh stands for am in Erse, and the v is equivalent to mh, or is a secondary form of m. 328 EASTERN ORIGIN OF It may be worth while before we proceed further to compare with this the future tense of the verb substantive in the Kussian, as a specimen of resem- blance in one of the eastern branches of the Euro- pean languages. Sing, budu budet' budut' Plur. budem' budete budut'. Compare also the potential form of the verb budan, to be, in Persian : Sing, budaml budl biidl Plur. budlmi budldl budandl. 2. Future Potential, Conditional or Subjunctive. Sing, bydhwyv bydhych bydho Plur. bydhom bydhoch bydhout. This form is varied as follows : Sing, bythwyv bythych bytho, etc. and contractedly thus : Sing, bwyv bych bo Plur. bom boch bout. Compare with the preceding the indefinite or subjunctive form in the Persian, which is also termed a future. Sing, buvam buvl buvad Plur. buvlm buvld biivand. 3. Preterimperfect. Sing, bydhwn bydhit bydhai Plur. bydhem bydliech bydheut. This likewise is contracted b} r dropping the dh, as bawn for bydhwn. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 329 N". This form is considered by Dr. Davies as appropriated to the subjunctive mood, oedhwn, which is derived from another root being used in the indicative. In regular verbs, in general, this tense belongs rather to the subjunctive than the indicative. Compare with the preceding the preterite of the verb substantive in Persian. Sing, budam budl bud Plur. budlm budld budand. 4. Preterperfect Tense. Sing. 1. bum, poetice buum and buym. Lat. fui (olim fuim ?) 2. buost fuisti. 3. bu fuit. Plur. 1. buom fuimus. 2. buoch fuistis. 3. buont and buant fuerunt. "N. The relation of these inflections to the Latin is obvious. In Greek and in Sanskrit the forms most allied to this preterite are the aorists, as, Sing. abhuvam abhus abhut, ecfrvv evs €(f)V, Plur. abhuma abhiita abhuvan, i(pv/ieu €(j)VT€ i(f)vaav. 5. Preterpluperfect Tense. The preterpluperfect tense bears also a near re- semblance to the corresponding form in Latin, and this is still more striking if we restore the s in the place of r, where we have reason to believe that it originally stood. 330 EASTERN ORIGIN OF fuesam bhuaswn fuesamus bhuesym fuesas bhuasit fuesatis bhuesych fuesat bhuasai fuesant bhuesynt. Imperative Mood. Sing. 2. bydh, be thou. 3. bydhed, boed, bid. Plur. bydhwn. bydhwch. bydhant. Infinitive Mood, bod. Persian, budan ; Russian, buit'. The preceding are all the forms properly belong- ing to the verb bod in the active voice, and, as be- fore observed, they are as many as belong to any regular verb in Welsh. Before we proceed further, it will be worth while to compare the present tense of the verb sub- stantive in the Erse dialect of the Celtic, with a corresponding form in the Sclavonic language. The Erse has a present tense properly so called, although it is wanting in Welsh. The infinitive mood and the root of this verb in Erse is beith, to be. The following is the negative form of the present tense : 1. In the Erse, properly so termed, or Irish Celtic. Sing. Plural. 1. ni fhuilhim ni fhuilmid 2 ni f huilhir ni f huilthidh 3. ni fhuilh ni fhuilidh. a » Gaelic (i.e. Irish) Grammar, by E. O'C , printed by J. Barlow, Dublin, 1808. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 331 2. In the Gaelic of Scotland. Sing. Plural. 1. ni bheil mi ni bheil siim 2. ni bheil thu ni bheil sibh 3. ni bheil e ni bheil iad. b Conditional form of the verb buit', to be, in Eussian Sing. Plural. 1. ya bui buile mii bui buili 2. tii bui buile vu bui buili 3. one bui buile oni bui buili. Passive Voice, The Celtic grammarians, like the Sanskrit, dis- tinguish passive forms of the verb substantive. The passive voice, however, in the Celtic, has only the third person singular throughout the moods and tenses. 1. Future Indicative, bydhir. 2. Future Subjunctive, bydher, byther, and contractedly, baer. Note. "With byther or bydhir the Latin futurus is evidently cognate. 3. Preterimperfect. bydhid, contracted beid. Note. Compare the Sanskrit, bhuyate. 4. Preterperfect. buwyd. Note. Compare the Sanskrit bhutwa. b Grammar prefixed to the Gaelic Dictionary published by order of the Highland Society. c Elemens de la Langue Russe, Petersbourg, 1768, p. 133. Traktische Grammatik der Russischen Sprache, von D. Johann Severin Vater : Leipzig, 1814, Tab. 7. 332 EASTERN ORIGIN OF 5. Pretcrperfect. buasid and buesid. Note. Compare in Latin fuisset or rather fuesit, the old form of fuerit. Paragraph 2. Of defective verbs used as verbs substantive in the Celtic dialects. Besides the verb bod, which we have compared with its cognates, there are other defective verbs in the Celtic dialects nsed as parts of the verb substan- tive. In the Welsh it has been remarked that re- gular verbs want a present tense properly so termed. In fact, the "Welsh grammarians give the denomina- tion of a future to a particular form of the verb, which is used with both a future and present signi- fication ; and it is perhaps somewhat doubtful to which tense it properly belongs. That it is capable of expressing a present signification, without any metaphor or reference to the future, is fully evident from the instances adduced by the Welsh gram- marian Dr. Davies, who observes that, in the Creed, the expression " Credo in Deum Patrem" is rendered by u Credav yn Nuw Dad," and that in conversation " Mi a welav" means "I see," and " Beth medhi di," " what sayest thou?" The following forms are considered as belonging to the present tense : 1. Sydh, and by apocope sy ; est, is. This is used indefinitely in all numbers and persons. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 333 2. Mae, est j the third pergon extant Maent, sunt, ) 3. Oes, est. This has no inflections, and is used only as a third person singular. 4. Yw, pronounced yu; est. This is also used in the same way as sydh, and it is likewise inflected, as follows : Singular. 1. wyv, perhaps originally ywyv. 2. wyt or wyd. 3. yw. Plural. 1. ym 2. ych 3. ynt. There is another form of yw, with a sort of reduplication, thus : Sing. 1. ydwyv 2. ydwyt 3. ydyw. Plur. 1. ydym 2. ydych 3. ydynt. There is a poetical form yttwyv, yttwyt, etc. Passive Form, Welsh grammarians distinguish likewise a passive form of this verb. It is as follows : In the poets, and in the dialects of South "Wales and Powys, ys. The poets have also ydis ; it is commonly ydys. Note. It must be observed that the Welsh ys is pronounced like us in English, and exactly as the root "^f^ as, in Sanskrit. The same root slightly modified, viz. is or isi, is 334 EASTERN ORIGIN OF extant in tho Erse and Scottish dialects of the Celtic ; d as Sing. is mi, or is misi, I am. is tu, thou art. is e, he is. Plur. 1. is sinn. 2. is sibh. 3. is iad. e Preterimperfect tense, in Welsh. 1. Active or variable form. Sing. 1. oedhwn. 2. oedhit or 3. oedh. oedhyt. Plur. 1. oedhym or 2. oedhych or 3. oedhynt or oedhem. oedhech. oedhent. 2. Passive or invariable form, oedhid. Cognates. The form ys, which is perhaps the real etymon, is precisely the root in Sanskrit and in the European languages, which, adding the pronominal suffix always wanting in Welsh in the third person sin- gular, as well as in the passive form, make of the same word, e L\e2v, I am loving. Note. All the other tenses may be formed by a similar cir- cumlocution. Preterimperfect Tense. Sing. 1. carwn 2. carit 3. carai Plur. 1. carem 2. carech 3. carent. A tense seldom used in the indicative. Preterperfect Tense. Sing. 1. cerais, e.e.-kerais 2. ceraist 3. carodh Plur. 1. carasom 2. carasocli 3. carasant. a The principle on which this and the following tense are formed seems to be the insertion of the syllable as or ais between the root and the personal endings, and a change of the radical vowel in a mode analogous to the Sanskrit form guna. Both these changes have been traced in the inflection of verbs in the Sanskrit and European languages. And the modification of the vowel by guna is, in Sanskrit, as in Welsh, confined to particular persons in the tense. Preterpluperfect Tense. Sing. 1. caraswn 2. carasit 3. carasai Plur. 1. carasem 2. carasech 3. carasent. a See Dr. Davies's Grammar, entitled, Antiques Lingua? Britannieoe Rudi- menta, from whioh, and from the grammar \ Tfixed to Richards's Dictionary, the following as well as the preceding conjugations of Welsh verbs are extracted. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 337 Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 1. carav 1. carwn Future Tense. 2. ceri 2. cerwch Imperative Mood. 1. 2. car 1. carwn 2. cerwch 3. car 3. carant. 3. cared 3. carant. Potential, Optative, and Subjunctive Mood. Present Tense wanting. Preterimperfect Tense. Sing. 1. carwn 2. cerit 3. carai Plur. 1. carem 2. carech Poetic Form. 3. carent. Plur. 1. cerym 2. cerych 3. cerynt. Preterperfect and Preterpluperfect. Sing. 1. caraswn 2. carasit 3. carasai Plur. 1. carasem 2. carasech 3. carasent Plur. Or, Poetic Form. 1. caresym 2. caresych Sing. 1. carwyv Plur. 1. carom 3. caresynt. 3. caro. 3. caront. Future Tense. 2. cerych 2. carech Infinitive Mood, caru, amare. This one form, taking various prefixes, as yn caru, in amando, serves the purpose of Infinitive, Gerunds, and Supines. 22 338 EASTERN ORIGIN OF Passive Voice. The Welsh language has a proper passive voice ; b but the tenses have no variety of endings to distin- guish the persons. Indicative Mood, Present Tense. Formed by a circumlocution, the infinitive used as a gerund, being constructed with the passive form of the verb substantive ; as Ivy ngharu, amor, dy garu, amaris. ei garu, amatur. Note. Literally el/M ev ra> /xov o. There arc likewise some indications of a middle voice in the Gothic version. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 339 Imperative Mood. Sing, and Plur. Carer vi, di, ev, ni, ch-wi, hwynt. Potential Mood, Present Tense. Sing, and Plur. Cerir vi, di, etc. Preterimperfect Tense. Sing, and Plur. Cerid vi, di, etc. Preterpluperfect Tense. Sing, and Plur. Caresid vi, di, etc. Future Tense. Sing, and Plur. Carer vi, di, etc. Participles. !i dhyn, amans homini. gan dhyn, amatus ab homine. dyn, amatus vel dilectus he-minis. Caradwy, amandus. Note. This form is nearly analogous to the Sanskrit adverbial participle bhu-twa. Such are the inflections of passive verbs in the "Welsh language. They contain but a few instances of interpolated syllables, and those have been already remarked. The greater part of these inflections con- sists, excluding the personal endings or affixes, of slight variations in the final syllables, and chiefly in the vowels, very analogous to the changes which distinguish the moods and tenses of the passive voice of Latin verbs, particularly in the third conju- gation. 340 EASTERN ORIGIN OF SECTION IV. Conjugation of a regular Verb in Erse. Present Tense, Indicative Mood. Verb, Cesaim or kesaim, I torment. Note. The root of the verb is said to be the first person of the present tense, the last syllable being cut off. Sing. 1. Cesaim. 2. cesair. 3. cesaidh. Plur. 1. Cesamaid or cesam | 2. Cesthai. Preterite. 3. cesaid. Sing. 1. Do chesas. 2. chesas. 3. ches. Plur. 1. Do cbesamar ) / chesadar or \ 2. chesabhar. 3. I or do chessam ) V chessad. Note. It may be perceived that the form of the present cesaim nearly corresponds with that which the Welsh gram- marians term a future tense terminating in av, and that the preterite in as agrees with the Welsh preterite in ais. The Erse language has adopted a peculiar form for a future tense, made by inserting a syllable fa between the root and the personal endings. This insertion, however, is not used in all verbs. Future Tense. Sing. 1. Cesfad. Plur. 1. Cesfamaid or cesfam. Sing. 1. Plur. 1. Cesam. 2. cesfair. 2. cesfaidhe. Imperative. 2. ces. 2. cesaidhe 3. cesfaidh. 3. cesfaid. 3. cesadh. 3. cesaid or cesadis. THE CELTIC NATIONS. 341 Potential Mood. Preterimperfect Tense. Sing. 1. Do chesfainn. 2. chesfa. 3. chesfadn. Plur. 1. Do chesfamair. 2. chesfaidhe. 3. chesfaidis. Infinitive Mood. Cesadh or do chesadh, to torment. Note. The different tenses have another form without the personal endings, in which case the personal pronouns are imme- diately subjoined. Passive Voice. Indicative Mood, Present Tense. Cestar me, thu, £, inn, ibh, iad. Note. As in Welsh, only one form in the passive for all the pronouns. Preterite. Do chesadh me, thu, etc. Future. Cesfaidher me, thu, etc., or cesfar me. Imperative. Cestar me, thu, etc. Potential, Preterimperfect. Do chesfaidhe me, thu, etc Infinitive. Do bheit cesta, to be tormented. Participle. Cesta, tormented. For the varieties and irregularities of verbs in the Erse, as well as of the Welsh, I must refer to the grammars of those languages. 342 EASTERN 01UGIN OF SECTION V. Concluding observations on the Celtic Verbs, with general remarks on tbo grammatical peculiarities of the Celtic languages. The observations made in the two last chapters allow ns to conclude that the inflection of verbs in the Celtic dialects, excluding for the present the consideration of suffixes, or the systems of personal endings, which were previously compared, is founded on principles similar to those which prevail in the Sanskrit and in several European languages. The Celtic verbs do not display any traces of the preterite by reduplication, which is so remarkable a feature in the eastern branches of the Indo-European stock of languages, and which is also found in the Latin and Teutonic ; but they change the middle vowels in a mode analogous to that which these four languages possess, under the form termed guna by Sanskrit grammarians, and they interpolate similar conso- nants or syllables for the purpose of distinguishing moods and tenses, the varying terminations, particu- larly in the passive voice, being closely analogous to those of the other old European idioms, and especi- ally to the Latin. When we connect the consideration of these analogies with the results formerly obtained on com- paring the systems of personal endings or suffixes, it will perhaps not be going too far io say, that the THE CELTIC NATIONS. 343 whole structure of inflections in the Celtic dialects is founded on principles similar to those which are the groundwork of verbal conjugations in the other languages compared with them. The principal affections which words undergo in the construction of sentences in the Celtic languages, may be referred to two heads ; first, interchanges between cognate letters on a principle which we have compared with that of sandhi ; and, secondly, the inflections of verbs. In these consists a great part likewise of the peculiarity of the Sanskrit language. 51 In both respects there is a remarkable congruity between the Celtic and the Sanskrit. There is a third series of variations in words common to the Sanskrit and several European idioms, in which the Celtic dialects are more defec- tive than some other ancient languages of Europe and of the East, I mean the declensions of nouns. Welsh nouns make their plural number nearly on the same principle as several of the European languages. They add terminations in i, au, ion, etc. and they vary the interior vowels of words. Welsh nouns have no cases properly so called, but the want of them is supplied by prepositions which have not coalesced with the words governed by them, as they appear in other languages to have done in such a manner as to give origin to cases. b a The different forms of samiisa and sandhi occupy a considerable space in the Sanski-it grammars of Vadaraja and Vopadcva. b Such at least, according to the opinion defended by Bopp, is the origin of Sanskrit cases, and therefore also of Greek and Latin, which so nearly resemble 344 EASTERN ORIGIN OF In the Erse dialect nouns have a very peculiar mode of declension. The following may serve as an example : An bard, a poet. Sing. Nom. an bard, Plur. Nom. na baird, Gen. an bhaird, Gen. na mbhard, Dat. o'n mbard, Dat. o na bardaibh, Ace. an bard, Ace. na barda, Voc. a bhaird. Yoc. a bharda. It is worth while to notice particularly the dative plural, which generally terminates in aibh, though this perhaps admits of a variety, for it is given by Lhuyd in uibh. The terminations in uibh or aibh are plainly related to the old Latin dative, in obus and abus, which was probably the genuine and original form of this case in Latin. The Sanskrit datives plural end in abhyas or abhyah, or at least in bhyas after a vowel, as ) gen s Hexapla Hos. n. 1. (a j > / youth.) J IH ' Jl^J — naserah, puella. nari (Sansk.) ganaz ydvos chetoneth yiT&v sepel (Jud. v. 25), (a cup) simpulum. yayin vinum. Here we find * standing for the digamma or vau. An insertion of the vau will con- vert many Hebrew into Indo- European words, as 2. yadang (know), in Pih.yid- ) vidan, el&eiv. dang. ) olSa, veda. 3. halak walk. 4. rong (evil) wrong. 5. chiva (an animal), chavah \ vivo, viva, (life). j jiva (Sanskrit.) G. ragang prpyvvfii, frango, i.e. frago. kum (arise, come) komm, come, laat (to hide, secret) lateo, Xrfte. 352 NOTE ON THE SEMITIC LANGUAGES. BKKITIO DIALECTS. arar, aru, ar (curse) ad lakak, also lakhak and likhak T)K ud thiggenu (Gen. iii. 5.) tardemah ex radam moth moth and ) meth ) olem (age) charats (cleave, wound slightly, Gesenius) ny^ laghah (to babble) jwh laghaz( speak barbarously) ty / laghag (laugh and speak unintelligibly) In all these we recognise one element. INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. apa, apdofxau ad, at. lih (Sansk.) Xel^co, lick. udas, ud (Sansk.) vScop, etc. 6iyydv€Te (Gen. iii. 5.) traum, dream. motus. Erse, to die. meath meatham olim (Lat.) ^apdacrco scratch. The same element in Xcuceeo, laugh, lacheln, loquor? atta, pron. (thou) ta, suffix. hi (she) hu (he) ami, suffix nu. PEOXOUNS. tu. ta, tha, suffix in Sanskrit. hi, si. evo. ni, nos, nau. No sufficient comparison of the Egyptian and other Northern African dialects with each other and with the Semitic languages has been made to allow of any general statement as to their relations. I may however observe, that those who have denied that any affinity can here be traced appear rather to have presumed the fact than to have proved it. The affinity of some striking words among the personal pronouns in the Egyptian and Hebrew languages is such as to excite a strong suspicion that more extensive resemblances exist, though it does not appear NOTE ON THE SEMITIC LANGUAGES. 353 probable that the idioms of Northern Africa are even so nearly related to the Semitic, as the latter are to the Indo- European languages. (21) NOTE. (21). The Semitic Languages. — The remarks upon the African Languages under section i., Introduction, apply to the statements of this note. Whatever else they may be, the Semitic languages are, in the first instance, African. 23 354 WORKS ON KELTIC ETHNOLOGY. SUPPLEMENTAKY CHAPTER SECTION I. SKETCH OF THE CHIEF WORKS ON KELTIC ETHNOLOGY, PUBLISHED SINCE A.D. 1831. — BOPP AND PICTET. Having now given the text of Dr. Prichard, along with such observations as his statements more especially demanded, I remind the reader that no less than twenty-five years have elapsed since the researches under notice first saw the light. This is a period sufficiently long to allow of considerable changes in any, more especially a philological, doctrine ; inasmuch as philology and ethnology, between them, have, within the last quarter of a century, engrossed a considerable amount of attention. Most of the divisions of philological and ethnological study have done this, the Keltic as much as the others — as much, and, perhaps, more. "With the Keltic languages, however, as with many more, the fruits have, by no means, been proportionate to the labour bestowed on their cultivation. To a certain extent the work before us was the commencement of a better era. To a certain extent it displaced a great amount of loose and unsatis- factory speculation. To a certain extent it prevented the eccen- tric comparisons and far-fetched etymologies which have enabled men, with more learning than criticism, to find Kelts everywhere. Without pretending to exhaust the subject, I shall, in the pre- sent addendum, give a brief notice of the chief works which illustrate the history of opinion in Keltic ethnology since 1831. These are neither few nor far between ; indeed, they constitute a little literature. Several arc English, some French, the ma- jority German. In order to find a place in the present notice they must be, like the work which gives occasion to bring them forward, ethnological as well as philological — I might say ethno- BOPP — PICTET. 355 logical rather than philological. If not, works of pure scholarship — works with which I feel myself wholly unfit to deal — would command attention. Omitting these, and limiting ourselves to the treatises which have a decided and manifest ethnological aspect, we first come to those that either confirm, or contradict, the doctrine of the pre- sent volume. The writers who most especially confirmed and developed the doctrine in support of which the work of Dr. Prichard was written, were Bopp 1 of Berlin, and Pictet 2 of Geneva. To the former of these investigators the subject had a special interest ; inasmuch as his great work, the Comparative Grammar ( Verglei- chende Grammatik) of the so-called Indo-European languages, was, in a certain sense, incomplete so long as the fact of the Keltic being in the same class with the Latin, Greek, German, Xorse, Slavonic, Lithuanic, and Sanskrit was pretermitted. At the same time, the Eastern Origin of the Keltic Nations was published before the Vergleichende Grammatik was completed. It could scarcely, however, have found its way into Germany before it was begun. Xot appearing in the greater work of the author's, the Keltic languages formed the subject of a new series of papers. As far as knowledge of the languages with which he dealt, and skill in the manipulation of letter-changes make a philo- logue, the author of the Yergleichende Grammatik had (and has) few rivals. On the other hand, few scholars have looked less carefully at the principles of philological classification. The question as to the extent to which the admission of the Keltic into the (so-called) Indo-European class raised the value of the class seems never to have been asked. And, as the same point was ignored in other investigations, the charge of having widened the Indo-European group to such a degree as to make it no class at all, lies, very decidedly, against the Prussian Professor. Besides endorsing and expanding the views of Prichard, he has, elsewhere, connected the Malay and the Georgian with the Indo- European tongues, as, indeed, they are in one sense ; but not in the sense either originally given to the term, or the sense in which it can conveniently be retained. Pictet, like Bopp, worked sedulously and skilfully at the 1 Die Ccltischc Sprachcn, etc. Berlin, 1839. - Dc 1' affinite des Lang-nes Celtiqaes avec 1c Sanskrit. Paris, 1837. 356 WORKS ON KELTIC ETHNOLOGY. letter-changes, and added a great number of details. The main fact of the Keltic being Indo-European was sufficiently made out by Prichard. The works, however, of both Pictet and Bopp were anything but superfluous. On the contrary, they were of great service to philology. In the first place they satisfied those who delighted in the kind of evidence (the letter-change testimony) they supplied. In the next, they stamped the doc- trine with a considerable amount of authority. It may also be added that, whereas Prichard had looked to the Welsh rather than the Irish, Bopp and Pictet looked to the Irish rather than the Welsh. The real condition, however, in which Prichard left the ques- tion was this ; viz. that if the value of the class called Indo-Euro- pean was to be raised by any fresh additions, the Keltic group of languages should form either the part or the whole of such addi- tions. More than this I cannot find in his paper. More than this I cannot find in either Bopp's or Pictet's. More than this I cannot find anywhere. By which I mean that I nowhere find evidence upon either of the two following questions : — 1st. That the Kelt (or, indeed, any other language) can be made Indo-European without raising the value of the term. 2nd. That any good is effected by so raising it. If the writers in question expressed themselves to the fact that the tongues in question were absolutely Indo-European, or (still more), if they derived them from the East, they left omissions in their argument which, to say the least, were ille- gitimate. And here I may remark that the question as to how far additions may be made to certain classes, is by no means confined to European and Asiatic philolog} r . In Africa the same question arises as to the value of Kaffre, or (as writers began to call it) the South African class. It has one (or more) very remarkable grammatical peculiarity. The same appears in the Timmani, a language near Sierra Leone, far away from the Cape, or even the northern frontier of the languages allied to the Kaffre. How are we to value this ? It is one thing to connect a given language with a certain fresh alliance, but it is another thing to separate it from an old one. What, for instance, if we make the Timmani Kaffre, is to be done with the languages of the group to which the Timmani previously belonged ? Are they all to become Kaffre also ? Why not ? All that can be said, BOPP PICTET. 357 even if they are removed and re-associated, is that a class pre- viously large has taken a further extension. There is no objec- tion to this, provided the fact be distinctly announced, and the magnitude, value, or compass of the class thus created be of moderate dimensions. The fact that the value of a class has been raised should not only be distinctly announced, but some rough measure of its value should be given. But where should we end if we extended the import of the term Indo-European as many writers would extend it ? 2sot till we reached the Pacific. Supposing, however, that we stopped then, what would follow ? Even this ; that, having got one large class, we should have to break it up into its minor divisions, and so have to end where we began. SECTIOX II. SKETCH OF THE CHIEF WORKS, ETC. EXPANSION OF PRICHARD's DOCTRINE PRELIMIX ARY REMARK NEWMAN. Were the Keltic tongues more especially like any one of the previously recognised Indo-European tongues than the rest ? Before we answer this question it is well to consider a prelimi- nary point. A language, in the eyes of the investigator, is always likest the one with which he most particularly compares it. Hence the apparent affinities of a given tongue depend, in a great measure, upon the previous knowledge of the men who cultivate it. "When the Sanskrit was taken as the representative of the Indo-European class, and the Welsh and Irish were com- pared with the Indo-European languages in general, but with the Sanskrit (as their representative) in particular, the very force of circumstances would exaggerate the Sanskrit affinities ; and there are not wanting casual observations, if not absolute statements, to the effect that the Keltic is pre-eminently Indian. Again, the relations of the British language to the English have determined a considerable amount of comparisons between the Keltic and German; Anglo-Saxon and English more particularly. If these make the Anglo-Saxon Keltic, they also make the Keltic Anglo-Saxon. 358 WORKS ON KELTIC ETHNOLOGY. There is, then, a certain amount of similarity which is more apparent than real ; or (rather) the preponderance of similarity is often determined by accidental circumstances which give us only one-sided views. Let us lay these out of the question ; and ask whether any real affinities of a special kind have been found between the Keltic and its congeners. Of course, if the Keltic tongues were Indo-European they would have certain affinities with the Latin. How far they were special or not was another question. The writer who has done most in investigating this is Professor Newman, whose writings have been already referred to. They showed, beyond doubt, that a great number of words which were common to the Latin and Keltic, were original to the latter rather than the former language ; so that the doctrine that cither the Gallic of Gaul, or the Welsh of Britain, had taken up a certain amount of Latin elements became untenable. But was there any taking up or borrowing at all ? Might not both have belonged to some common mother tongue, and (as such) have been Indo-European in general rather than either Latin or Keltic ? That this was the case, provided the Keltic had not borrowed from the Latin, was, I imagine, the common opinion. That the Latin had borrowed from the Keltic few maintained. But that the Latin has so done, is the palmary doctrine of F. Newman ; who holds (and on sound ground) that some Keltic tongue stood in the same relation to the Latin as the Anglo- Norman did to the English; i.e. that there was an intrusive element in the Latin tongue, and that that tongue was Kelt. There are several details besides this in his papers, but the chief fact is the one just given, and the notification of it gave a definite impulse to Keltic philology, and that in a right direction. The other main doctrine of the same investigator is to the effect that the Keltic that thus intruded was not (as might be expected, a priori) the Keltic of the British, but the Keltic of the Erse or Gaelic branch. Upon the validity of this doctrine I sus- pend my judgment, having indicated an exception to it. Its bearings are, however, of great importance. According to the ordinary view of the population of the British Isles, the British was introduced into Britain from Gaul. The Gaelic, however, of Ireland and Scotland may have originated in Britain, or (if not) it may have been drvcloped on the Continent, and trans- NEWMAN — LHUYD. 359 planted to the soil anterior to the spread of the British. And this is (there or thereabouts) what Lhuyd's view make3 it. Lhuyd's view makes the original population of all the British Isles — England as well as Scotland and Ireland — to have been Gaelic, Gaelic to the exclusion of any Britous whatever. It makes a considerable part of the continent Gaelic a3 well. In consequence of this, the Britons are a later and intrusive popu- lation, a population which effected a great and complete displace- ment of the earlier Gaels over the whole of South Britain, and the southern part of Scotland. Except that they were a branch of the same stock as the Gaels, their relation to the aborigines was that of the Anglo-Saxons to themselves at a later period. The Gaels first ; then the Britons ; lastly the Angles. Such is the sequence. The general distribution of these two branches of the Keltic stock leads to Lhuyd's hypothesis ; in other words, the presump- tions are in its favour. But this is not all. There are certainly some words — the names, of course, of geographical objects — to be found in both England and Gaul, which are better explained by the Gaelic than the British language. The most notable of these are the names of such rivers as the Exe, Axe, and, perhaps, Oose, which is better illustrated by the Irish term uisge (whiskey, water), than by any Welsh or Armorican one. Mr. Garnett and others, without adopting this view, have spoken of it with respect. Now Newman's doctrines concern- ing the Gaelic (rather than the British) affinities of the intrusive element of the Latin favour, rather than oppose, it. But is the doctrine itself unexceptionable ? It has already been stated that an exception has been taken to it. What is the evidence that the Gaelic numerals are older than the introduction of Chris- tianity into Ireland ? SECTION III. SKETCH OF CHIEF WORKS SPECIAL GERMAN AFFINITIES DAVIES HOLMBOE. Of course, if the Keltic tongues were Indo-European, they would have certain affinities with the German. How far were 360 WORKS ON KELTIC EIHNOLOGY. these special ? Something has been written upon this question, the aspects of which are, mutatis mutandis, those of the last sec- tion. 1. Given a certain number of elements common to the two classes — which lent, which borrowed ? 2. Given a certain number of elements common to both classes, are they lent or borrowed at all ? Are they not referrible to some common tongue ? Are they not Indo-European rather than either Keltic or German ? In respect to the extent to which words decidedly belonging to one tongue have been taken up in another, the peculiar rela- tion of the British to the English is important. There is giving and taking here, even where there is nothing of the kind else- where. Upon this point, two papers, by the Rev. T. Davies, in the Transactions of the Philological Society, are of importance. 1. On the races of Lancashire, as indicated by the local names, and the dialect of the country. (Read Dec. 7, 1855). 2. On the connection of the Keltic with the Teutonic lan- guages, and especially with the Anglo-Saxon. (Read Feb. 19, and March 5, 1857.) In these papers there is a waste of power on what may be called the controversial points entailed upon Keltic philologues by their predecessors. German affinities, as well as other matters, have been over-stoutly maintained, over-stoutly denied. Hence, on either side of the question, there is a certain amount of apparent, or real, advocacy. As a fact in the history of opinion, there is a great tendency to disconnect Kelts and Ger- mans. As a fact, in the way of geography and ethnology, no two classes are more reasonably presumed to be specially con- nected. It would save much paper if the real d priori presump- tions of the case itself, rather than the mere accidents of opinion, regulated the arguments on either side. As it is, however, the papers under notice give valuable details in favour of the intrinsically probable doctrine that the Keltic tongues have special German affinities, these being (as the geography and ethnology also suggest) with the Low rather than the High German division. The following extracts give some of the more important lists : — DA VIES — KELT AND GERMAN. 361 Related Words of a general or abstract kind. A.S. gu*8 (war, fight) ; gvFS-bil (war-bill, sword) ; giC$~bord (warlike board, shield) ; O.N. gudur (battle); gi£S (id.) A.S. cwide, cwede (speech, say- ing); cwe*8an (to speak, say); Goth, qvithan (to speak) ; 0. H.G. quedan, cheden; O.N. quedha ; Mid. Du. quedden (salutare). A.S. gabban (to scoff, to delude); Dan. gab (mouth of a river, gap, opening); Du. gabberen (to prate). A.S. free (bold, wicked, greedy) ; Germ, frech; O.H.G. frochon; Old Sax. frocno (audacter) ; O.N. frcelcn (strenuus); Goth. friks (avarus). Germ, gruss (salute, greeting), griissen; A.S. gretan, grcetan; Bav. gruessen. A.S. grim (fury, rage); gram (furious, fierce); Germ, grimm; Du. grimmig (angry, ill-na- tured); Dan. grim (stern, severe, sour). A.S. helm (covering, helmet, foliage); helan (to conceal, to cover); G. helm, hiillen. A.S. galwan (to shout, to re- joice); gcelan (to sing, to en- chant); Prov. Germ, gall (sound); Du. galm (sound, noise, voice). "W. gwth (push, thrust); gwthio (to push, thrust) ; cad (fight, battle); Gael, and Ir. cath. Gael, ceadal (story, narrative); ceadalach (malicious, as a story) ; guidh (to beseech) ; W. gwed (utterance, saying); gwedawl (relating to speech); gwedwr (speaker). Gael, gab, gob (bill, beak, mouth) ; gabair (tattler); W. gwepio (to grin, to mock) ; gubain (to howl); Bret. gaber (to banter); O.Fr. gab (raillery). W.ffroch (furious fierce, ardent); ffro (violent motion or im- pulse); Gael, friogh (sharp, keen); fear-gach (enraged, furious). "W. gresaw (a welcome) ; gresawu (to welcome, to show hospita- lity), from gres (what is warm or cheering); gresawl (ardent, cherishing). Gael, gruaim (frown, surly look); grim (war, battle) ; "W. grem (crashing of the teeth, snarl) ; "W. gremial (to gnash, to snarl). W. hid (cover, coverlet) ; hulio (to cover, to spread over) ; huliwr (coverer, slater), pron. as the Eng. "hillier"=tiler. "W". galiv (to call, to invoke) ; Ir. and Gael, glaodh (to cry, to shout.) 362 KELT AND GERMAN. A.S. rynan (to whisper, to tell secrets); run (letter, magical character, mystery); Germ. rune (runic letter). O.N. run (rune, confidential talk). W. rhin (a secret, a charm); rhino (to be mysterious, to use spells) ; Gael, run (secret, mystery). Names of Animals. A.S. mearh, mearg (horse) ; O.H.G. mar, march ; O.N. mar ; Bav. merchen ; E. mare. A.S. ncedre (snake, adder) ; Goth. nadrs; Germ, natter; O.Sax. nadere. A.S. hue (stag, buck); Germ. bock (buck, he-goat) ; Du. bok (he-goat). A.S. hana hahn. (cock) ; Germ. A.S. catt (cat); Germ, katze; 0. N. kdt-r. A.S. steda (horse, stallion) ; Eng. steed; Germ, stute (mare). A.S. earn, em (eagle); O.H.G. aro, am, erni; Du. dr; Goth. ara; O.N. aem, ari; Germ. adler. Miscellaneous. A.S. beost (bicstings, first milk Gael, beist, biast ; Ir. biast ; W. march (horse) ; marchau (to ride) ; marchawr (horseman, cavalier) ; Gael, and Ir. marc (horse); marcair (horseman); Bret, and Corn, march. W. nadr, neidr (snake) ; Gael and Ir. nathair ; Corn, nadder. "W. bwch (a buck) ; also the male of several animals, as bwch gafr (he-goat) ; bwch danas (buck or male of deer), Pughe ; Gael, and Ir. boc; Bret, buch; Corn, bouch. Gael, eun (bird, fowl) : [the letter h is not used as an initial in Gaelic] ; Ir. id. W. cath, cathes (female cat); Gael, and Ir. cat. Gael, steud (a race, a horse) ; steud-each (race-horse); steud (to ruu swiftly) \V. eryr ; Ir. iolar ; Gael, iolair. of a cow after calving) ; Dan. beest (beast); Du. beest. A.S. mal (toll); O.N. mali (pay); Germ, mahl (agree- ment). Corn, best; "W. bwyst (wild- ness, ferocity). "W. mal (a separate particle, grnding, contribution, tax) ; Ir. and Gael, mal, mail (rent, tribute, tax); Bret, ma?/ (gain). KELT AND GERMAN. 363 A.S. tol, toll, (tux, tribute) ; Germ. zoll. A.S. web (web) ; ivebban (to weuve) ; Germ, webe, iveben. A.S. balca (ridge, beam, balk); Germ, balhen ; O.N. b'dlhr (fence) ; Dan. bicelke. A.S. mand (basket) ; Germ, and Du. mand. A.S. mar (wall); Germ, mauer; Du. muur ; also A.S. weal (wall); Germ, ivall; Du. wal. A.S. flasc (flask) ; Germ. Jlasche; Du. fles. A.S. miln (mill) ; Du. molen ; Germ, miihle. A.S. parr uc (park); Germ, park (park, warren). A.S. rap, rap (rope); Du. reep; Sw. rep ; Dan. reeb. A.S. panne (pan) ; Du. pan ; Germ, pfanne. A.S. bat (boat, ship) ; Du. boot; Dan. baad ; Germ. bot. W. toli (to curtail, diminish, take from) ; toll (fraction, cus- tom, or toll); tolli (to take apart from, to exact toll) ; tollawr (a tax gatherer). W. gwe (web) ; gweu, gwau (to weave) ; gwead (weaving, knit- ing) ; gweadur (weaver) ; Gael. figh (to weave, to plait); fig- headair (weaver, twister). W. bale (balk, ridge) ; bal (pro- minence); Gael, bale (ridge, boundary): Ir. bale. W. maned (a hand-basket), from mun (a hand, Lat. manus); Gael, man (hand); Ir. mana. W. mur (a wall) ; murio (to fix, to establish, to build a wall); W. gwall (fence, rampart, wall); Gael. and Iv.fal (circle, fence, scythe, ~La.t.falx). W. fflasg (a vessel of straw or wicker work, a basket) ; Gael. flasg. W. melin, from melu (to grind) ; Gael, muilionn. W.parc (enclosure, field, park); parcio (to enclose, to hedge in); Gael, pairc enclosure, field) ; Ir. id. W. rhaff (a rope); Eng. reef; Ir. ropa; Gael. rdp. W. pan (pan, bowl, cup) ; Gael. panna (id ) ; pannag, bannag (pancake) "W. bad (boat) ; badwr (boatman, sculler); Ir. bad; Gael. bad. [Pughe derives the word from ba (immersion, and also badd (bath), A.S. baft, from the panic root.] 364 KELT AND GERMAN. A.S. clucge (bell ) ; Germ, klocke; W. clock (bell) ; clog (bell, clock); Du. and Fries, klok. Ir. clog. A.S. myse, mese (table, dish); Gael, mias (a plate, dish); Ir. O.H.G. mias, meas ; Goth. mias ; Corn, ww'ws (basket); ma. Bret, meuz; "W. m^"ys (basket, hamper). Germ. Mw (wages, hire); Dan. Gael. Ion (provision, food)? Ir. Ion. id. ; "W. lluniaeth (formation, arrangement, providence, food); Lewis. A.S uloh (wool); Germ, wolle. Gael, and Ir. olann; W.gwlan. Much of this and the like (for the extracts just given form but a small portion of the whole) is minute English philology rather than Kelto-German ethnography. The lists, however, are valuable contributions to the subject. Out of England, a paper of Professor Holmboe's, of Chris- tiania, has added to our knowledge of the special relations between the Kelt and German, although, like Newman, the author sees in many words evidence of the Keltic elements in the German being intrusive ; not, however, to the exclusion of many words common to the two tongues originally. Holmboe's work is entitled Norsk og Keltisk ; om Det Norske og de Keltiske Sprogs Inbyrdes Laan. (Christiania, 1854). The Keltic is Indo-European, and, as such, German. Besides this, there are words lent and borrowed. They are from the Low German rather than the High, and from the Norse or Scan- dinavian rather than the Anglo-Saxon or Frisian. This is the doctrine of the Norwegian professor — right in the main. Several of his words are the same as Davies'. Davies, however, draws chiefly from the Anglo-Saxon ; Holmboe from the Icelandic. The Norse affinities had been previously indicated by Garnett. " Some philologists have expressed an opinion that the Scoti or Milesians were of Germanic race ; or at all events had been sub- jected to Germanic admixture ; and the language, as we now find it, certainly gives some countenance to that hypothesis. For example, teanga is the. only word current for tongue, totally different from the Welsh tavod ; anr 1 leighis, to heal, leagh, physical, are evident counterparts of our Saxon term leech. The following words, constituting a very small proportion of KELT AND GERMAN. 365 what might be produced, may serve as further specimens of the class : — Beit, both. Coinne, woman, quean. Daor, dear. Dorcha, dark. Dream, company, people ; A.S. truma; O.E. trome. Drong, throng. Faigh, to get, obtain ; Ban. faae. Feacht, fight. Frag, woman, wife ; Germ. frau. Laire, thigh ; Ban. laar. Lagh, law. Lab, lip. Laoidh, poem, lay ; Germ. lied. Lasd, loading, ballast ; Germ. last. Leos, light ; Isl. lios. Lumhan, lamb. Sar, very, exceeding ; Germ. sehr. Seadha, saw. Seal, a while, space of time ; A.S. sael, sel. Seam, a peg or pin ; Ban. som, nail. Sgad, loss, misfortune ; Ban. skade. Sgaoil, separate, disperse ; Sw. skala. Sgeir, rock in the sea, skerry ; Isl. sker. Sgarbh, a cormorant ; Isl. skarfr. Snaig, creep, sneak. Sneachd, snow. Sliochd, family, race ; Germ, geschlecht. Slug, swallow; Germ, schlucken. Smachd, power, authority; Germ, macht. Smeoraich, smear. Snaidh, cut; Germ, schneiden. Spaisdrich, walk ; Germ, spazieren. Spar, a beam or joist. Sreang, a string. Sreamh, a current, stream. Steagaim, parch, fry; Sw. steka, to roast, fry, broil. Strith, strife ; Germ, streit. Trath, time, season; A.S. thrag ; O.E. throw. Some of the above terms may have been introduced in the ninth and following centuries by the Northmen ; but many of them occur in the oldest known monuments of the language ; they are also accompanied by many compounds and derivatives, which is commonly regarded as a proof of long naturalization ; 3GG KELT AND GERMAN'. and are moreover current in Connaught, where the Danes never had any permanent settlement. One of the most remarkable indications of a Teutonic affinity is the termination nas, or nis, exactly corresponding to our ness in greatness, goodness ; ex. gr. breitheamwtfs, judgment, fiadhm's, witness, etc. This affix is too completely incorporated in the language to be a borrowed term, and it moreover appears to be significant, in the sense of state, condition, in Irish, though not in German. As far as the writer knows, it is confined to the Gaelic and Teutonic dialects. The Irish sealbh, property, possession ; adj. sealbhach, proprius, would also furnish a plausible origin for the German seller, self, a word which has no known Teutonic etymology." SECTION IV. SKETCH, ETC ENLARGEMENT OF THE SO-CALLED INDO- EUROPEAN CLASS. If the Kelt be Indo-European, any additions made to the class so designated must enlarge the range of Keltic affinities. Such being the case, a great deal of work may be done illustra- tive of Kelt philology without being meant to be so ; its action being indirect. Again, a great deal of indirect work of the same kind may be done consciously ; the writer having a special view to the Kelt. In either case, additions are made to Kelt ethnography. Akin to investigations of this kind, but more direct in its action, is the comparison of the Keltic tongues with languages other than Indo-European — the Keltic being the starting point, the illustration of Indo-European philology being subordinate. Much has been done in this way — much wisely, much hastily. The old belief concerning the Eastern origin of the Kelts, as it stood before the word Indo-European was invented, and as it is given in pp. 72 — 78, has yet to die out. Consequently, even cautious investigators have not only given a list of Semitic elements in the Keltic; but have made the Keltic specially Semitic. KELT AND ARMENIAN. 367 Similar investigators, on the strength of similar lists, have made it Coptic. Some have made it, more or less, African. Albanian words have been pointed ont in it. So have Siberian ; especially words from the Tungusian dialects ; to say nothing of Lap, Ostiak, and the like. The following list is Armenian. It is Mr. Garnett's. As many make the Armenian Indo-European, its place, perhaps, is, more properly, elsewhere. Exceptions, however, to this view have already been taken. (Xote 8.) ARMENIAN. CELTIC. dsiern hand G. "W. dourn, dorn,^^. khuir sister "W. chwaer. djur water "W. dwr. ardj bear "W. arth. dzarr tree — derw, oak. mis .flesh — mes, dish, meal. datel to judge — dadlen, to litigate. bari good Bret, brao; G. breagk. pag-anel to salute W. G. pog, a hiss. tun house G. dun, afort; "W. din. pkait wood G. fiadh; W. gwydd. am year G. "W. am, time. oskr bone "W. asgwrn. gloukh head W. clog, in pen-glog; G. cloghan, skull. sir love "W. G. serck. air man G. fear; "W". gwr. amis .» month W. mis. lousin moon — lloer. khoz swine — kwck. arjat silver G. airgiod. amarn summer — samkradk. boun trunk, stock "W. bon; G. bun. i werak over, upon — g w °r> gor ; G. for. kin woman G. coinne. ter, lord; gen. tearan "W. teyrn. kkagzr sweet — ckwejr. ail but G. ail, other, (cf. Gr. dwd.) It may also be added that Mr. Garnett is one of the few who have made special comparisons between the Keltic and Slavonic : 3G8 KELT AND SLAVONIC. SLAVONIC. CELTIC. baba an old woman Ir. badhbh, sorceress. blag good — breagh ; Bret. brav. blesk brightness — blosg, light. blejat (Rus.) to bleat W. bloeddiaw, to cry out. blato mud — llaid. bodat (Rus.) { t0 P Z C ^J°J UU With ) - pwtiaw, to butt, poke. borju I fight Ir. borr, victory ; borras, soldier. bran battle — braiue, captain, chief briju I shave "W. byrrau, to crop. bi'z quick — pres; Ir. brise; E. brisk. briag bank, shore G. braighe; "W. bre, high ground ; Sc. brae. vitaz conqueror W. buddyg. vlaga moisture — gwlych; Ir. fliuch. vladuika ruler — gwledig ; Ir. flaith. vlas hair — gwallt; Ir. folt. vl'k wolf Ir. breach. vl'na wool W. gwlan ; Ir. ollan. vran raven, black Ir. bran, raven, black; W. bran, raven. vriema, ^;?....vriemene, time Bret, breman, now. varit, (Russ.) to boil W. berwi. voz upwards; vuisok, high Ir. uas, up; nasal, high, noble. v'rt garden — g°rt- viera .faith W. gwir; Ir. fior, true. glava head — pen-glog; Ir. clogan, skull. glas voice W. llais. gor'kui bitter Ir. geur, sour, sharp. grom thunder Bret, kurun (Kcpavv6s). debel thick W. tew. dlani .palm of the hand "W. G. dourn. dl'g debt Ir. dligbe; W. dyled. dol valley W. dol. drozd, drozg thrush — tresglen. dibri valley — dyffrvn. zima ivinter — gauav, anciently gaeni. kasb'li cough G. cas; "W. pas. kobuila mare — capull ; W. keffyl, horse. kolieno knee — glun ; W. glin. kovatz snritli "NV. gov. kradu I steal G. creachaim. kr'vi blood W. crau (Lat. cruor). krag (Polish) circle — crwn, round. liek medicine Ir. leigheachd. lag grove W. Hwyn (Rom. \oyy6s). mal little — mal, small, light. minu I pass — myned, to go. KELT AND SLAVONIC. 369 SLAVONIC. CELTIC. ml'zu I milk Ir. blighim. more sea "W. G. mor. mas .flesh "W. mes, a meal ; E. mess. rad willing — rhad, free, gratu itous. pani (Illyr) ...trunk of a tree — bon; Ir. bun. rouno .fleece "W. rhawn; Ir. ron, hair of animals. salo .fat Ir. saill. slob weak, infirm "W. clov. slava glory Ir. cliu (Gr. k\4os). slug servant — sgolog (Ger. schalk). slied .footstep — sliocht (E. slot). snieg snow — sneacht. soloma (Rus.) straw "W. calav. son (Rus.) ...sleep G. suain. such dry "W. sych. srzde heart G. cridhe. srieda middle "W. craidd. tuin hedge G. dun, fort. cberv vjorm — crumh. shirok broad — sir, long. sbui left, sinister "W. aswy." "What are we to say to all this ? That the resemblances are accidental ? ~No. That the lists are wrong ? There is, doubt- less, some error ; since no one who nses languages by the dozen or score avoids them. On the whole, however, the facts are right. They are not facts, however, in special Keltic ethnology. They are simply contributions to the proof of the great general theorem that languages all over the world are more alike than many sup- pose them to be. SECTION V. SKETCH, ETC, ARRANGEMENT, AXD DETAILS OF THE MEMBERS OF THE EILTIC CLASS ITSELF. Upon these much has been written, though not in systematic works. The greater part of the lucubrations in this direction has been subordinate to the illustration of some other subject. 24 370 ARRANGEMENT AND DETAILS Thus the historians of Gaul, England, and Italy, have all a great deal to say about some Kelt population or other. So have the historians of some portion of Germany. The geographer and ethnologist are in the same predicament with the historian ; not to mention the philologue, who, if he write about the English or French, must recognize a Keltic element. Is this large or small ? What does it represent ? Supposing it to be large, is the infusion of Keltic blood in the veins of the population proportionate ? or, is the language more (or less) Keltic than the blood ? or is the blood more (or less) Keltic than the language ? Are the Eng- lish pure Germans or only half-bloods r Are the French half- bloods or Romans ? How much also is German ? "Which are the most Keltic parts of the country ? "Which of England ? Supposing either or both of these populations to be ever so Keltic (or ever so Roman or German), what is the value of the fact? Is it a difference of race ? What is race ? Were the Kelts ever less Keltic than they are at present ? Was there ever anything transitional between them and the Germans ? Was nation a or nation b of antiquity, Kelt or German ? or was it neither the one nor the other ? These questions and the like have been discussed, and the writings on them have been various. " Sunt bona, sunt qurcdam mediocria." It is scarcely necessary, nor is it easy, to enumerate them. It is more convenient, and quite as useful, to indicate the chief subjects that have commanded attention — 1. The details of the Gallo- German frontier. — The consider- ation of these falls into two divisions — a. The position of certain populations of the Rhine, the Treviri and the like. b. The position of the Belgoo. 2. The position of the Picts. 3. The position of the old language of Gauls. — Was it British or Gaelic ? One of the first of Mr Garnett'e valuable papers on the Language of the British Isles (in the Philological Transac- tions) deals with this question. 4. The Language of Britain. — Was this British or Gaelic ? 5. I'hepresent Armor ican. — Did this come from Wales ? 6. The present Welsh. — Did this come from Armorica ? The doctrine of Mr. Wright on this point has been already noticed. OF THE KELTIC CLASS OF LANGUAGES. 371 The pro's and con's in all these problems are indicated in different sections of either the text or notes. Not one of them is settled to the satisfaction of all enquirers. In the mind of the present writer the Kelt origin of the Belgae is the most certain of the whole list. Yet many make them German. On the oppo- site side, no one has written better than Dr. Prichard himself, in his Natural History of Man, in the chapter on the ethnology of Gaul and Belgium. SECTION VI. SKETCH", ETC. WETTINGS OF GARNETT ZEUSS DIEFFEXBACH. The chief writings that, either by suggestions, special inves- tigations, or the exposition of known facts, have advanced Keltic ethnology, now come under notice; and first and foremost amongst them, the writings of the philologue so often quoted — Mr. Garnett. These have touched upon the grammatical struc- ture, the ethnological relations of the stock in general, and the details of its constituent elements. With the exception of the contribution to the Quarterly Eeview, noticed in p. 285, all Mr. Garnett' s dissertations are in the Transactions of the Philological Society. 1. The oblique character of the pronouns of the persons of verbs is his palmary contribution to philology — to philology, however, rather than to ethnology. 2. His other notices are — a. In favour of the language of ancient Britain being that of ancient Gaul, and of both being British rather than Gaelic. b. In favour of the Picts having been Britons rather than either Gaels or Germans. c. In illustration of the affinities of Keltic tongues with the German, Slavonic, and other undoubted members of the Indo- European stock, and with the Albanian, Armenian, and other branches beyond it. None of these comparisons are driven to the undue extent of making the Keltic specially Armenian, specially Albanian, specially anything. It is simply, in Mr. Garnett's hands, what Prichard left it — a language decidedly akin to the Latin, Greek, o 72 . GAltNETT — ZEUSS. German, Slavonic, and Sanskrit, and more or less allied to cer- tain languages beyond the pale of the class to which these belonged. And here I may be allowed to express the hope, not only that Mr. Garnctt's papers on the Keltic tongues, but that all his writings upon philological subjects, may be published. They are by far the best works in comparative grammar and ethnology of the century. The earliest contributions to Keltic philology, by Kaspar Zeuss, are to be found in the third chapter of his valuable work on the Germans and the Neighbouring Tribes (Die Deutsche und die Nachbarstamme), under the words Kelten, Belgce, Britanni, Jlihernische, etc. A s Garnett demands a publisher, Zeuss calls for a translator — for the work under notice at least. His more specific lucubra- tions are in Latin, and, so being, are more accessible. Indi- vidually, my obligations to his learning and industry are beyond compute. It is with a sense of actual pain that, whilst opposing his conclusions, I have here and elsewhere availed myself of his facts. In thinking of this, I feel myself one of the most ungrateful of writers. Like the present premier, when he takes the oath that excludes Hebrew tax-payers and millionaire loan-contractors from an English House of Commons, I "blush inwardly." In his last, and more decidedly Keltic work, the Grammatica Celtica, Zeuss relies chiefly on the data he has himself seen, and he seems to have looked about for them. Of the Irish he makes much ; for, with praiseworthy caution — with no more caution, however, than the intricate nature of the subject demands — he draws a clear and definite distinction between the matter and the form of the materials he has to deal with. He acts upon the safe rule, that the age of the language is to be measured by the age of the writing which conveys it to posterity. It cannot, of course, be younger than this. Even if younger than the MS. in which it is found, it is not, and cannot be, younger than the man who wrote, and the pen and ink wherewith it was written. I>ut may it not be older ? It may, and it may not. It may, if a poem, have been composed by a bard long since dead, and written on the particular MS. on which we find it, by some copyist of a later age. But, granting that this is Jie case, what security has the modern critic that the language may not be that of the copyist instead of the original composer? Experience tells us ZEUS8 — GRAMMATICA CEL11CA. 373 that accommodations of the kind here implied are common, both in the matter of time and place ; both in respect to the stage in which a language appears, and the dialect in which it is em- bodied. Hence we get the good rule, that, in all cases of obscure and fragmentary literature, the age of the M.S. is the maximum age of the language it preserves. Zeuss acts on this, and he acts wisely. To works like the Laws of Howel Dha, and the Mabinogion, he gives, as far as the matter and the date of their composition goes, a comparatively high antiquity. To the gram- matical forms, and to their orthography, he gives the antiquity of the parchment on which they are written, certainly nothing higher, possibly something lower. With this rule for the definition of antiquity, he gives a preference to the Irish over the Welsh. The facts connected with the former are certainly interesting. They show the extent to which the Irish monks were employed, actively, and appa- rently successfully, on the diffusion of the light of the Gospel in countries far beyond the seas that encompassed Ireland. They indicate the presence of disciples and successors of St. Columban, in Switzerland, on the Ehine, in Bavaria, in Belgium, and in France. One monk gets as far as Kief, and back again. They show that monastery after monastery contained Irish inmates — few or many — sometimes called Angles, or Saxons, but more generally Scots. I confess that, after no trifling amount of discursive and mis- cellaneous reading, amongst an eminently discursive and miscella- neous mass of books appertaining to ancient Ireland and its civili- zation, Christianity, and influence — reading, which had struck me as much more tending to the glorification of Hibernia, and things Hibernian, than to any useful criticism, the hard, though isolate and fragmentary facts, in the way of Irish learning, and Irish migratory zeal, that these notices conveyed, raised my opinion of the early missionaries of Christianity much more than the ac- counts of their vaunted learning and doubtful civilization with which the ordinary over-patriotic histories teem. The MSS. for the earliest Irish, quoted by Zeuss, are the following : — The glosses on Priscian. — These are in the library of St. Gallon. They are marginal and interlinear ; written in three hands. A few arc in the Ogham character; the majority in the 374 ZUUSS — GRAMMATICA CELTICA. ordinary Latin. The seventh century is the assigned date of these glosses on Priscian. The glosses of the Codex Paulinus. — This is a MS. in the library of the University, originally of the Cathedral of Wirtz- burg. They apply to the Epistles of St. Paul. The Pauline glosses are not older, though possibly as old as the Priscian. The Milan glosses. — These are a Commentary on the Psalms, rightly or wrongly ascribed to St. Jerome. They are, perhaps, as old as the preceding. The glosses on Beda, in the Carlsruhe Library. — Somewhat later than the Milan, Wirtzbtirg| and St. Gallen MSS. The Carlsruhe glosses on Priscian. — In some parts these are based upon the St. Gallen MS., or, at any rate, originate in a common source. In others they are independent. The St. Gallen Incantations, or formulae for effecting charms; more or less metrical, if not poetical, in character. The Codex Camaracensis. — This contains Canones Hiberni Concilii, a.d. 684. The MS., however, belongs to the ninth century. Of works of equal antiquity with these (the test being as above), in the British division of the Keltic tongues, Zeuss gives fewer for Wales than for Ireland. They are : — WELSH. 1. Codex Oxoniensis prior (Bodleian, originally NE. D. 2. 19, now E. 4. 4 — 32), containing glosses on Eutychius and Ovid's Ars Amandi, also the alphabet of coelbren y beirdd, along with De mensuris et ponderibus qucedam, Cambrica intermixta Uterus, pp. 22 A — 23". 2. Codex Oxoniensis posterior (Bodleian, originally NE. B. 5. 9, now MS. Bodl. 572), membranaceus, forma? minoris, res theologicas continens, in medio autem; and p. 41 6 , usque ad 47 A persa quaidam Latina ad prcebendam pueris verborum copiam (ut videtur) cum vocibus Cambricis, qua) scripts sunt aut supra vo- cabula latina aut post ea in linea cum signo i. glossatorum solito. 3. Codex Ecclesice Lichfeldensis (antea Landavensis). The Gospels, with certain entries of donations made to the Cathedral of Landaff — adnotatae sunt Latine, sed cum nominibus vel etiam sententiis Cambricis. Published by Pauley. 4. Folium Luxemhirgense. Published by Mono, in Die Gallische Sprachc. Karlsruhe, 1851. ZEUSS — GRAMMATICA CELTIC A. 375 5. Liber Landavensis. 6. Codex Legum Venedotianus. — The Laws of Howell Dda. Vetustior omnibus legum codicibus qui extant. 7. Codex Ruber Hergestensis (the Red Booh of JSergest). In the library of Jesus College. Intermediate between the Old and Middle British. CORNISH. 1. The Cotton MSS., British Museum, Yesp. A. 14. 2. Carmen de Passione Christt. ARIIORICAN. 1. Glosses in the Chartularies of the Monasteries of Rhedon and Landevin. 2. Yita S. Nonnae, or (Nonitae). A mystery of the twelfth century. Published as the JBuhez santez Nonn, with an Introduc- tion by the Abbe Sionnet, and with a literal translation by M. Legonidec. Paris, 1837. He concludes with a notice, which the next chapter will explain — quae apud Marcellum Burdigalensem, Yirgilium Gram- maticum, in glossa Malbergica leguntur peregrina, inaudita vel incognita, si quis quaesiverit in hoc opere, non inveniat : in his omnibus enim equidem nee inveni vocem Celticam nee invenio. Dieffenbach's Celtica, published in '39 and '40, at Stuttgard, is valuable in respect to the number of glosses it contains, and, also, for the amount of information upon other points of Kelt ethnology. SECTION VII. SKETCH, ETC. SPECULATIONS AND CONTROVERSY THE MALBERG GLOSSES LEO MEYER MONE HOLTZMANN. I am not aware of any writer of authority having attempted to reverse the statement of Prichard as to the fact of the Keltic languages belonging to the so-called Indo-European class, espe- cially since its confirmation and adoption by Bopp and Pictet. In the possibility, however, of its being, at the same time, Indo- 376 SPECULATIONS AND CONTROVERSY. European and something else, lies the germ of any amount of speculation. There is the germ, too, of any amount of specula- tion in the questions concerning the details of the Keltic name. What were the Belgae, etc. ? There is the germ too of any amount of speculation in respect to the route taken by the Welsh and Gaels in their journey from Asia to Europe, — for from Asia (by hypothesis) they came. If any one, besides myself, has steadily and consistently ignored their Eastern origin, and made them simple Europeans of the West of Europe, the fact is unknown to me. Where there is speculation, there is also controversy ; hence the heading of the present chapter. Into these speculations and controversies able men have entered ; and, when able men write, some result or other is the consequence. They may be wrong. Nevertheless, they ventilate the subject, and suggest ideas. The chief point, however, which the very equivocal works of the present chapter illustrate, is the state of the philological mind in Germany. In England, etymology (as we are told by the scholars of Germany, and as many of us tell ourselves) is less of a science than it is capable of being made. On the contrary, it is conjectural, empirical; sensible, perhaps, in its best form; but still empirical and conjectural. In the clever manipulation of letters, in the doctrine of Ablaut, and Anlaut, and Inlaut, and Lautverwechselung, and Lautverschiebung, and the like com- pounds of Laut, we are less au fait than our neighbours. The consequence is, that, in Great Britain, loose etymology, and looser ethnology, is nothing more than what we expect. In Germany, however, philology has its laws — is a science. As a consequence of this, the loose conjectures of any old and vicious school in philology are exploded, obliterated, dead and buried, never more to rise. Loose conjectures in any school arc exploded — the loose conjec- tures of the old Keltic school most especially. Such is the theory. The practice is widely different. If the so-called laws of the letter-changes are worth the paper on which they are written, they arc worth something as safeguards against illegitimate ingenuity and eccentric conjecture ; against all those unsatisfactory uncertainties which have brought dis- credit on the study of most languages, and on that of the Keltic most especially. So far, however, are they from having exhibited any conservative or cautionary qualities, that the men SPECULATIONS AND CONTKOTEESY. 377 whose results most nearly approach those of the Keltic scholars of the last century, are precisely those whose mastery over the alphabet, in the way of letter-change, is the greatest. The chief point, then, which the following works illustrate is the insufficiency of the so-called Laws of Letter-change as a safeguard against uncertainty and eccentricity. The work of Leo, upon the ]VTalberg glosses (Malbergische Glossen, Halle '42), is to the effect that certain glosses upon a copy of the Lex Salica are Belgian and Kelt. The meaning of the word Halberg is uncertain. There is no evidence of its being the name of a place ; none of its being that of a man. The syllable malb- and malberg- precedes several of the glosses. Hence the use of the term. Leo's doctrine, that these glosses were Keltic, was soon controverted — by Clement, at first, after- wards by Grimm, and others. The opinion of Zeuss is given in the extract of the preceding chapter. One of the most sugges- tive portions of Leo's work is the following list : — LATIN. GAELIC. LATIN. GAELIC. anima anam cella (tem- ceall aurum or plum) argentum airgoit cingulum ceangal amnis amhuin caccare cac- alius all circulus cearcall agere ac- cornu corn aer aer caput ceap alere al- quinque cuignear angor (subst.) anngur quid ? ciod agnus uaghn quaestio ceasd (quaerere, acer acar, achear ceasg) ager acar quantitas caindigheacht annulus ainne quando can armentum airmheadh quatuor ceatair arare ar- qualitas cailidheacht arduus ard caterva ceatarbh bonus bonn, buan certus (Justus, ceart bos bo fidelis) brachium braic cera ceir balbus balbh cista ciste betula beith coma ciamh caro (carnis) carna cluere clu-, cluis- coecus caoc clavus clo celare ceil- credere creid- coelum ceal copiac coib, coip 378 LEO. LATIN. GAKLIC. LATIN. GAELIC. causa ciiis heros earr caulis coilis fallere feall calo ciola, giola falsus falsa cortex coirt, cort, fanum fan cart fagus feagha corbis carb ferre beir- columba coluin femina femen columna columan frater brathair communis coimin fidelis feidil cumulare comhal ferrum iern, iarrun canere can- granum gran clinare (incli- claon- galea galia nare) gignere gin- canna gainne grex gragb, graidh, canis cu (in obi. cas. greigh cuin) garrire giorac corpus corp gladius cladhmh, canabis cnaib, canaib cloidhimh carrus carra, carr hyems geimhre cor (cordis) croidhe hora uair caballus cabal, capall hortus gort cura car ira ir cuniculus cuinin insula inis capere gabh lorica luireach caper gabhar lac lachd, laith clamor glaim lectum leacht (grab- cucullus cuach lager) catus cat legere leigh- crocus croch lana olann calx (kalk) cailc luna luan caseus caise licere leig calvus calbh laena lean carus cara linum lin candela cainneal luscus lusca capo cabun locus loc caula cobhail lacus loch corrumpere coirip latus lcathan corrigcre coirigh meretrix meirdreach centum ceat mos mos dare doigh- mel mil durus diur mons moin domus dom miles mileadh decern deich manus main, mana deus dia mater mathair bis (fur duis) dis mutus muite duo do memoria meamhoiri equus each mensis mios LEO. 379 LATIN. GAELIC. LATIN. GAELIC. mens mein scopulus scealp miscere measg- scutum sciath malitia mailis scrinium serin mola mol scrutari scrud- macula machuil scopa scuab mille mile stare sdad- modus modh sex se mare muir septem seacht nidus nid senis sean numerus niumhuir sequor seich- nebula neabhul saliva seile novem nao signum sigbin novus no sigillum sigle notus (clarus, cno siccare sioc- insignis) sensus siunsa nox nocht soror siur nux cnudh, cnu sugere sagh- opus obuir sonus son ovis aodh somnus suaimhneas ovum obh stannum stan orare or- salix sail (dimin. octo ocht saileog) oleum ola sol sul pes cos sedere suidh- plum a clumh secale seagal prudens cruite saltare saltr — sealtr purpura corcur taurus tarbh portus port tilia teile poena pian tyr annus tiarua plenus Ian timor time planum lana tres tri lex (rectum) reacht tribus treabh rigidus righin tellus tealla, teallur rex righ, ris terra tir remigare ramhaich unus aon rota roth unguis ionga, lang, rosa ros ung, unga saccus sac ungere ung-, ong sagitta saighiot unere ur (das feuer) sanus saine vinum fion suavis saimh vir fear (in obi. satietas saith casus : fir) sal salann verus nor con-solari solas- vicus fich similis samhail verbum fearb simul iomaillc vespcra feascor scapha scafa vilis feile 380 MEYER. LATIN. GAELIC. vita vallum vulpes bith, beatha fal uulp LATIN. GAELIC. vates vagina. faidh faigin. Dr. Meyer, in his paper on the Importance of the study of the Celtic Language, as exhibited in the Modern Celtic dialects still extant {Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1847), thinks {inter alia) that "The Celtic nation transported itself from Asia, and more particularly from Asiatic Scythia, to Europe, and to this country, by two principal routes, which it resumed at different epochs, and thus formed two great streams of migration, flowing, as it were, periodically. The one in a south-western direction, proceeding through Syria and Egypt, and thence along the northern coast of Africa, reached Europe at the Pillars of Hercules, and passing on through Spain to Gaul, here divided itself into three branches, the northern of which terminated in Great Britain and Ireland, the southern in Italy, and the eastern, running along the Alps and the Danube, terminated only near the Black Sea, not far from the point where the whole stream is likely to have originated. The other great stream, proceeding in a more direct line, reached Europe at its eastern limit, and passing through European Scythia, and from thence partly through Scandinavia, partly along the Baltic, through Prussia (the Polena of the Sagas, and Pwyl of the Triads), and through Northern Ger- many, reached this country, and hence the more western and northern islands across the German Ocean, or hazy sea. Of these two streams or lines of Celtic migration, which, with reference to this country, we may distinguish by the names of the western and eastern stream, the former, although the less direct, seems to be the more ancient in history, and to have reached this country several centuries before the other. The principal nations belonging to it are the KeXrat of Spain (to whom this name particularly refers) and the Galli, the latter being the parent stock of the three tribes which successively possessed this island, and successively bestowed upon it the three names by which it is mentioned in the records of classical and national literature. Each of these names corresponds with that of the tribe itself, both being taken from the chief god wor- shipped by each tribe, on whom they always bestowed a two- fold character, one general, as god of the sun, and one special, as MEYER — MONE — HOLTZMANN. 381 their own warlike leader and protector — their heros eponymus. These three tribes are the following : — " 1st. The Alwani (Alauni Alani), who took their name from their god Alw, and after him called this island Alw-ion (AXvvtoov, Albion) ; i.e. the island of Alw. " 2nd. The Aedui, who took their name from their god Aed (the Aedd Mawr of the triads), and after him called this island Aeddon or Eiddyn (Edin), a name preserved in that of the town of Edinburgh (Welsh. Caer, or Dinas Eiddyn ; Gaelic, Din Eidin). The name under which the Aedni of Great Britain and Ireland are most frequently quoted, and which, contrasted with the other, may be called their secular name, is that of the Brigantes (identical with the "Welsh family name Brychan, and the Irish Breoghan), and to be derived from the Welsh word brych, Gaelic breag, fuscus. " 3rd. The Britons (Brython), who took their name from their god Bryt or Pryd (the Prydyn ap Aedd Alawr of the Triads), and after him called this island Brytain (Ynys Prydain), Great Britain." 3Ione finds the Kelts all over Europe ; in Germany, in Sar- matia, in Greece, in Italy (See CeUische Forschungen zwr Ge8chichte Mitteleuropas, 1857). Holtzmann, on the other hand, makes the Kelts of Gaul to have been Germans, writing very loosely and very rudely ; in- deed, it is worth remarking that, in proportion as their criticism runs wild, the courtesy of the writers decreases. Keltomaniac and Teutonomaniac are common terms in the philological arena of Germany. Yet Mone, Holtzmann, and Meyer are, in all pro- bability, greater adepts in letter-changes and the like than any scholar in Great Britain either is or cares to be. SECTION VIII. PRESENT CONDITION AND PROSPECTS OF THE PHILOLOGICAL ETHNO- GRAPHY OF THE KELTS. The remarks of the preceeding sections, and, more especially the last, shew that the writer by no means thinks well of 382 CRITICISM. the present state of Kelt scholarship. In Germany, where the rules and cautions involved in the so-called laws of the letter- changes are the most carefully studied, the licence of specu- lation is the wildest. There is something worse than mere bad manners in writers calling one another Keltomaniacs, and Teu- tonomaniacs. There is the evidence of certain opinions having taken a very extreme form. There is, also, the still more decided evidence to one of these two extremes being wrong. One must, both may be so. "Whether the clever manipulation of letter-changes has, by en- abling men to go wrong according to system, done as much harm as it is destined to do, is doubtful. It is pretty certain that it has done, almost, all the good of which it is capable. For all useful purposes Prichard used it, the results being what we have seen. It is not, then, from this quarter that any advancement of Kelt ethnology is to be expected. An improved logic, and a greater sobriety of idea, combined with a great breadth of view, are the real desiderata, at least, for the settlement of the more general questions. An improved logic, combined with a greater sobriety of idea, is especially needed for the separation of the two questions in- volved in the title and contents of the present work. All that is legitimately deduced from any amount whatever of similarity between a language spoken on the Shannon, and a language spoken on the Ganges, is a connection between the two. The nature of this connection is a separate problem. If writers con- fuse the two, they only shew their own one-sidedness of view. Out of several alternatives they see but one. If Dr. Prichard had written on the "Western Origin of the Sanskrit Language," learned men in Bombay and Calcutta would have accused him, off-hand, of an undue amount of assumption. Might not the Keltic have originated in the East ? Might not both Keltic and Sanskrit have been propagated from some intermediate point ? Is not the Indus as far from the Severn, as the Severn from the Indus. All this might have been asked, and that legitimately. Mutatis mutandis, all this should be asked now. That certain things western, and certain things eastern are connected is true. That the origin of the connection is in Asia is an assumption. The first step towards an advancement, then, in Kelt ethnology is to separate the questions. The result may be what it now CRITICISM. 383 is (for this, though I have decided it for myself, I do not pretend to prejudge for others), or it may be something different ; only let the two questions be separated. An improved logic, combined with a greater sobriety of idea, is necessary for the investigation of the Kelt area of Europe. That nations may bear similar, and even identical names, without being allied, has been shewn. The inference is that some of the Keltse and Galatae of antiquity may have been as different from the Gauls of Gallia, as a modern Gallician of Spain is different from a modern Gallician of Austria. What occurs at the present moment in the way of identity of name and difference of ethno- logical character may have occured two thousand years ago. The full bearing of this should be admitted and acted on. An improved logic, combined with a greater breadth of view, should regulate all the conclusions that rest upon a certain amount of similarity between the Keltic, and languages like the Hebrew, Coptic, Albanian, etc. It is not a question as to whether there is, or is not, a certain amount of resemblance ; but a question as to what that resemblance implies. Does it denote any special affinity ? or, does it merely denote those general relations which all languages bear to each other ? In most (probably in all) cases, similarities of the kind in question are merely so much evidence to the unity of language in general. I have spoken of an improved logic ; I might have said some- thing about an improvement of the spirit and temper in which such a logic should be applied. The miserable spirit of partizan- ship, however, which delights in the contrast between the Kelt and Anglo-Saxon (each glorified at the expence of the other, according to the nationality of the writer), scarcely deserves notice in scientific works. The self-satisfied German, the suscep- tible Kelt of the journals and the platforms, may be left to the enjoyment of their own extreme forms of eccentric ethnology. " Non ragiamo di lor, mai guard' e passa." Let men write about England and Wales, without dragging in the somewhat equivocal history of the successes of the so-called Anglo-Saxon race in the old and new worlds. That these negative rules, if adhered to, will do more to pro- mote Kelt ethnology than all the letter-changes of the great con- tinental philologues I firmly believe. But something more than 38 1 CRITICISM. mere negations is w anted. The specific comparisons most likely to be productive of results may be indicated. The fact of the Keltic being the language of the extreme west is one of no little importance. It simplifies investigation by making certain affinities impossible. Beyond the Hebrides, and the coast of Galway, there is nothing but the mythic Atlantis in which either affinities, or an approach to affinities, can be found or dreamed of. Whatever else the Gaelic may be, it is not of western origin. On the east, north, and south, there are two languages with which its immediate geographical contact is undeniable — the Basque and the German. This it was, as the language of Gallia, as the language of its original site, and, not as the language of any migratory, intrusive, or conquering population. Simply as the Gallic of Gaul, it had a certain amount of Basque or Iberic on its southern, a certain amount of German on its eastern, northern, or north-eastern frontier. As few, however, have held that the German and Basque lan- guages were ever conterminous, other languages, besides these two, must have helped to form the original Keltic frontier, which lay within the present kingdom of Piedmont, Switzerland, the Tyrol, and the non-German districts of the Upper Rhine. What these were is a matter upon which much speculation may be expended, and much difference of opinion maintained. In- deed, one of the mere preliminaries is a question of vast range and many phases. This is the question — Whether the earlier ex- istence of some group of dialects, now extinct, is, or is not, to be assumed. Assume it, and there is no end to the com- plications and doubts which may arise. Assume it, and the natural obscurity of this, and similar questions, increases. But let it be argued that what is called the rule of Parsimony is opposed to the assumption. Let the doctrine, that causes are not to be multipled unnecessarily, have its full weight. In this case the problem lies within narrower bounds, and some stock already in existence is the fact with which we have to deal. The present writer adheres entirely, and without reserve, to this latter view ; as well on the strength of the facts with which he is supplied d posteriori, as on the i priori rule by which he regulates the argument. So doing, he sees only two other Ian- KELT FRONTIER. 385 guages, which, at the first view, claim notice — the Northern Latin in its oldest form, and the Western Slavonic. The first may have reached sufficiently far in the direction of Gaul to have touched some portion of the Keltic area, or, vice versa, some portion of the Keltic area, may have touched upon Italy. The Ligurian, probably, did this. The Slavonic is held by few to have been in immediate contact with anything Kelt. Nevertheless, an exceedingly strong case can be made out in favour of the forms of speech at present represented by the Czekh of Bohemia, and the Serb of Lusatia, having extended as far westward as the Rhine. If so, the western boundary of the Keltic of Gallia was German on the Upper, Slavonic on the Lower, Ehine. The direct affinities of the Kelt and Slavonic have been greatly overlooked. Few Slavonic scholars knew either Welsh or Irish ; few Kelts either Polish or Bohemian ; whereas, the numbers of both who know either English or German are high. Xo wonder, then, that the accidental circumstances noticed in a previous chapter have determined the opinion of learned men towards the belief that the Slavonic is one of the languages with which the Keltic is connected, indirectly rather than directly. Xow, none of these frontiers — Basque, German, Latin, or Sla- vonic — imply any very high antiquity, or any inordinate amount of movement and migration. Neither do they point to those very early times when the geographical relations of the different languages of Europe were notably different from what they are at present. On the contrary, they belong to the beginning of the historic period — say to the time of Julius Caesar, or (more roundly and conveniently still) to the beginning of the Christian era. They belong to the state of things as it stood 1800 years ago. What, however, if (say), 1000 years before, the German language lay more inland, the Keltic more to the north, the Fin of Livonia, Courland, and East Prussia, more to the west and south ? In such a case the northernmost specimens of the Keltic, and the south-western Fin, may have been in contact. I do not say that this is the case. I only say that, in case the Fin elements in the Keltic, or the Kelt elements in the Fin, be found to be numerous enough to justify the doctrine of a special affinity, the possibility of an ordinary geographical contact must be borne in mind. Xow Fin affinities being abundant in Keltic, the only 2o 380 KELT FRONTIER. question is as to their nature. Are they general or special ? They may very easily be special. 1 The reasons for their being this are foreshadowed in the re- marks upon the Kelt frontier. Common sense tells us that the closest affinities of a given language are likely to lie in the closest geographical contact. AVhen this is not the case, there have generally been intrusions and displacements of some kind. That such is often the case is well known. At the same time, as a general rule, the first comparisons should be made with the frontager languages. If this be done, our results, though common-place in their character, will, most probably, be true. If this be done, fewer discoveries will be made ; but those few will be real. If this be done, comparative philology will have fewer brilliant points ; — the brightness, however, such as it is, will be that of the true rather than the false diamond. Common sense, and a clear view of the d priori presumptions, are the nine parts of the law in ethnology. The frontager tongues, then, of the Keltic area first demand notice. Of this there is no doubt. "Whether they are exactly the tongues that are here enumerated, viz. the Latin, Slavonic, German, Basque, and Fin ( ? ), is an open question. It is only certain that it is not with these that the majority of the com- parisons have, hitherto, been made. That this is not the direction in which the common and current comparisons have been made, is clear from what has preceded. For one writer who has looked at the Serb or Bohemian, twenty have troubled themselves about the Hebrew 1 The following forms of the ordinal numerals are interesting ; the Ostiak being the Ugrian of the river Oby : OSTIAK. In-met Vyt-met net-met vet-met kydii-»ict tenet-met ni&armet Kp-jong-met jong-met. In Sirianian and Wotiak the forms are 6d and Uti. Thus fifth = wit-od (S), and \\t-dti (W). On the other hand, however, there is reason for believ- ing that an m has been lost, since the AVotiak for third is kiuu'-ma/i. ENGLISH. WELSH. Second AcM-ved Third tr\-ved Fourth pedwar-tW Fifth \>x\m-med Sixth gwech -ved Seventh seitk-ved Fight Ji wyth-ved Ninth nuw-ved Tenth deg-ved KELT FRONTIER. 387 and Phenician. The Fin affinities have been noticed incidentally. The Basque has been most especially neglected ; not so much, however, because it was unknown, but because it was supposed to stand in contrast, rather than in contact, with any ordinary form of speech. Even the German affinities have been introduced as something requiring more than ordinary evidence, so decided has been the tendency to oppose rather than reconcile the two leading populations of Western Europe. The Latin aspect only has been fairly studied; and here how little has been done in an eminently promising field ! There is no error without its explanation. The pretermis- sion of the Ein and Basque comparisons is easily accounted for. According to the ordinary views of the so-called Indo-European group, they belonged to a wholly different division ; in which case everything within the Indo-European pale was to be ex- hausted before either of the languages in question was resorted to. What, however, if the Keltic were an outlying member of its class, and the Basque and Ein were the tongues through which it came in contact with the languages of the rest of the world ? In such a case they would be in a relation better understood by the naturalist than the philologue, a relation which the diagrams of the zoologist and botanist may conveniently be made to illustrate — the relation of an osculant group. Such is, most probably, the case. If not — if the Ein and Basque be not the nearest approaches to the Keltic, after the lan- guages of the German, Sarmatian, and classical stocks, there has been displacement and intrusion, and one of the three lan- guages is not in situ. The original situs, however, being ascer- tained, either the philological affinities will be those suggested by the geographical relations, or a phenomenon of extreme rarity will be presented. This is what common sense tells us to expect. 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