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THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY 
 TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
THE SCIENTIFIC 
 
 STUDY & TEACHING 
 
 OF LANGUAGES 
 
 A REVIEW OF THE FACTORS AND PROBLEMS 
 CONNECTED WITH THE LEARNING AND 
 TEACHING OF MODERN LANGUAGES WITH 
 AN ANALYSIS OF THE VARIOUS METHODS 
 WHICH MAY BE ADOPTED IN ORDER TO 
 ATTAIN SATISFACTORY RESULTS 
 
 "By 
 
 HAROLD E. PALMER 
 
 ASSISTANT IN THE PHONETICS DEPARTMENT 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON 
 
 
 ^^^'^.^!^va^x, t-''^^^^ 
 
 LONDON 
 GEORGE G. HARRAP & COMPANY 
 
 2^3 PORTSMOUTH STREET KINGSWAY W.C 
 
 1917 
 
1640U7 
 
 THE RIVERSIDE PRESS LIMITED, BDINBUROH 
 ^ ORBAT BRITAIN 
 
DEDICATORY PREFACE 
 
 London : January, 1917 
 To Monsieur Ed guard Mathieu 
 
 My dear Mathieu, 
 
 There was once a time, in a past now wevy remote, when 
 you, Georges Bevemage, and I came together in conference. 
 All three attracted by the same subject and moved by the same 
 impulse, we passed our leisure in examining a particular aspect 
 of what we came to call ' the Linguistic Problem.' 
 
 During the course of our long walks in the Hertogenwald 
 Forest and of our wanderings on the Great Moor we would talk 
 of many things : of language and its nature, of the dialects 
 spoken aroimd us, of sounds and spellings, of teaching and 
 learning, of teachers and pupils, of methods good, bad, and 
 indifferent. 
 
 They were heart-searching talks, for we were terribly in 
 earnest ; we judged and tested many theories, and found them 
 good or found them wanting. 
 
 Our association in matters linguistic continued and developed. 
 At the Societe Polyglotte or at the Mutuelle we would preach 
 reforms and carry glad tidings of phonetics, of ergonics, or of 
 semantics. 
 
 We would read Sweet, Jespersen, and Breal, and comment on 
 what we read, we would discuss the latest articles in Le Maitre 
 Phonetique and Modern Language Teaching. So free from 
 prejudice were we, and so open were our minds, that we would 
 accept and reject the doctrine of the Direct Method at least 
 once a year. 
 
 You will remember our search for the one true standard and 
 universal method, the goal that ever seemed so near, and yet 
 which ever proved just beyond our grasp. You will also 
 remember the day when we formulated our conclusion : Ce 
 
 5 
 
« STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 ri'est pas la mSthode qui nous manque ; ce qui nous manque 
 c'esi la base meme de la milhode. Out of this arose the question. 
 Does the Science of Linguistic Pedagogy exist ? We regretfully 
 concluded that it did not. 
 
 You it was who exliorted me to go seriously to work with a 
 view to laying the foundations on which the science of language- 
 teaching might some day repose. You reminded me of the 
 exceptional facilities that I possessed for research work. You 
 pointed out that I had an unlimited number of all sorts and 
 conditions of pupils upon whom to practise and experiment, 
 that my position gave me full scope and liberty to innovate, 
 to amend, to modify, and to reform, and that I enjoyed a 
 special immunity from inspectors, directors, and objectors in 
 general. 
 
 Your advice was good ; I started on an organized series of 
 researches, submitting all sorts of methods to all sorts of tests 
 under experimental conditions. The normal ' preventive ' 
 course was differentiated from the special ' corrective ' course ; 
 the ergonic method gradually developed, although then without 
 a name ; the replacing of the traditional orthography by the 
 phonetic transcription produced the splendid results that we 
 had foreseen ; three distinct methods of ' conversation drill ' 
 resulted in fluency with accuracy ; the respective principles of 
 the ' Microcosm,' of ' Catenizing,' and of ' Substitution ' began 
 to stand out clearly, and various types of exercises were de- 
 signed, each one having its appropriate and distinct function to 
 perform. 
 
 Eight or nine years have passed since then : several times I 
 have been on the point of making known the results of these 
 experiments, but on each occasion I have realized that this 
 would have been a premature step. There were, as you know, 
 gaps in the chain of reasoning, there was a lack of co-ordination 
 between the various parts, there were ' previous questions ' still 
 unanswered, and my data were voluminous but not well pro- 
 portioned. 
 
 During all this time your new career deprived me to a large 
 extent of your help and collaboration, but you would still at 
 times listen with a patient ear while 1 outlined the latest 
 
DEDICATORY PREFACE 7 
 
 developments of these many systems of teaching and the results 
 of the latest phase of each. Your shrewd comments served to 
 crystallize into concrete form what had hitherto been nebulous, 
 and your suggestions would inspire me to new activities. 
 
 More recently I have been successful in isolating the several 
 factors of which the sum constitutes what we used to call le 
 disespoir du debutant. This has resulted in the respective 
 principles of ' Segregation,' ' Passive Work,' and ' Subconscious 
 Comprehension . ' 
 
 In the meantime, however, the tragic events of August 1914, 
 commencing by the sudden and unexpected irruption of the 
 invaders in the streets of our town, put an end to our associa- 
 tion, and, incidentally, deprived me of the documents that I 
 had so laboriously collected. Some months passed before I 
 was able to pick up the threads of the work so dramatically 
 interrupted. 
 
 When I did so, it was in another place and with another 
 environment. The conditions were not unfavourable, and I 
 was enabled to gain a first-hand knowledge of linguistic methods 
 as practised in England. What struck me most here was to find 
 such abundant signs of a new spirit in the language-teaching 
 world. The whole atmosphere seems charged with new and 
 healthy ideas ; these are spreading sporadically from I do not 
 know how many centres ; there is an unmistakable movement 
 toward what we have termed scientific and what others term 
 organized methods. For the first time in my experience I have 
 the satisfaction and relief to find myself in agreement with a 
 large and increasing number of my contemporaries. 
 
 A few months ago I had the pleasure of reviewing a book 
 entitled How to Learn a Language} In this the author states 
 and explains those principles to which we gave the names of 
 ' Catenizing,' ' Immediate Fluency,' and ' Substitution.' 
 
 In the current number of Modern Language Teaching ^ 
 appears the review of a recent publication. In this most inspir- 
 ing article (every word of which I enthusiastically endorse) the 
 writer sets forth some of my most cherished ideas. The book 
 
 ^ By Thomas F. Cummings, D.D., New York. 
 2 December, 1916. By S. A. Richards. 
 
8 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 which is the object of his review ^ enunciates principles in 
 favour of which I have long striven, and exposes some of the 
 identical fallacies which it has been my joy to pillory. 
 
 In short, I am confident that we are not far from the day when 
 our aspirations will be realized, and when we shall see, not the 
 one universal standard method of our earlier dreams, but one 
 universal set of principles from which will be derived a number 
 of methods, each perfectly adapted to the particular end which 
 it is designed to serve. 
 
 In a recent letter you ask me for the latest news conceming 
 the work in which you were so interested. You ask whether I 
 have succeeded in correlating the various aspects of the problem 
 in one homogeneous system of linguistic pedagogy. My answer 
 takes the form of the present book. I have been able to recon- 
 struct the body of it from memory, and to augment the original 
 documents by a large quantity of new material, and have finally 
 ventured to submit it as my contribution to the literature of 
 linguistic pedagogy. 
 
 I have not been entirely without assistance during this last 
 stage ; two friends of mine, Mr A. B. Winnifrith, M.A. (Principal 
 of Clapham Grammar School), and Mr Thomas Beach (Kilbum 
 Grammar School), to whom my most cordial thanks are due for 
 their timely help, have given me some valuable hints and have 
 helped me in many ways. Mr J. E. Mansion (Educational 
 Adviser to the publishers of this book) and others have very 
 kindly helped me considerably in what is to me the intolerable 
 burden of the revision and reading of proofs. 
 
 In conclusion, my dear Mathieu, I dedicate to you this 
 volume, in remembrance of the happy period of our first colla- 
 boration, as a token of our common interest in an engrossing 
 subject, and as a mark of that sympathy which has always 
 subsisted between us. 
 
 Harold E. Palmer 
 
 ^ The Teaching of Modern Foreign Languages by the Orgaftised Method^ 
 by Hardress O 'Grady. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PART PAGE 
 
 SYNOPSIS 11 
 
 I. INTRODUCTORY 19 
 
 II. THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE 29 
 
 III. PRELIMINARY FACTORS OF LINGUISTIC 
 
 PEDAGOGY 47 
 
 IV. THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDA- 
 
 GOGY 71 
 
 V. AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 138 
 
 VI. SPECIAL PROGRAMMES 225 
 
 VII. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 238 
 
 VIII. THE STUDENT 268 
 
 IX. CONCLUSION 281 
 
 APPENDIX I : CONDENSED AND AB- 
 RIDGED SCHEME FOR A FRENCH 
 
 ERGONIC CHART 282 
 
 APPENDIX II : GLOSSARY 309 
 
 APPENDIX III : LIST OF PHONETIC SYM- 
 BOLS 319 
 
 INDEX 323 
 
SYNOPSIS 
 
 In order to facilitate reference, the consecutive numbered 
 'paragraphs of this synopsis serve as headings to the consecutive 
 thirty-nine Sections of this book. 
 
 PART I : INTRODUCTORY 
 
 Section 1 . — Does the science of language-study exist ? 
 (P. 19.) 
 
 Section 2. — Evidence of various kinds shows that this subject 
 has not yet attained the scientific stage, but is so far in the 
 experimental or empirical stage. (P. 19.) 
 
 Section 3. — It is time that language-study should be placed 
 on a scientific foundation, and to that effect it would be 
 well to institute a general inquiry into the whole question. 
 (P. 21.) 
 
 Section 4. — The results of our inquiry must necessarily be 
 of interest to method- writers, to teachers, and to students. 
 
 (P. 24.) 
 
 PART II : THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE 
 
 Section 5. — Language is a series of natural phenomena. 
 (P. 29.) 
 
 Section 6. — Language is distinct from the art of literature. 
 (P. 30.) 
 
 Section 7. — Language consists essentially of lexicological 
 units popularly supposed to be words, but the term word is 
 vague and impossible of definition. (P. 32.) 
 
 Section 8. — What is called a word generally proves to be but 
 an accident of graphic continuity. (P. 37. ) 
 
 Section 9. — Let us rather speak of Lexicological Units, and 
 II 
 
12 STUDY AND TEACfflNG OF LANGUAGES 
 
 note that they may be Monologs, Polylogs, Miologs, or Alogisms. 
 (P. 39.) 
 
 Section 10. — ^Let us classify these units according to the 
 respective principles of Morphology (with its subdivisions), 
 Semantics, and Ergonics. {P. 42.) 
 
 PART III : PRELIMINARY FACTORS OF LINGUISTIC 
 
 PEDAGOGY 
 
 Section 11. — A complete and ideal language method has a 
 fourfold object, and this is to enable the student, in the shortest 
 possible time and with the least effort, so to assimilate the materials 
 of which the foreign language is composed that he is thereby enabled 
 to understand what he hears and reads, and also to express himself 
 correctly both by the oral and written mediums. (P. 47.) 
 
 Section 12. — In order to determine the best programme for 
 a given student, we must take into consideration four subjec- 
 tive factors : (a) The student ; {b) his previous study of the 
 language ; (c) his preliminary equipment ; {d) his incentive. 
 (P. 48.) 
 
 Section 13. — We must also take into consideration five objec- 
 tive factors : (a) The language to be studied ; {b) the orienta- 
 tion of the study ; (c) the extent of the study ; {d) the degree 
 of the study ; {e) the manner of the study. (P. 58.) 
 
 PART IV: THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC 
 
 PEDAGOGY 
 
 When we are in possession of full information concerning 
 the student and his aim we may prescribe for him an appro- 
 priate programme of study. This programme will be drawn 
 up more or less in accordance with a series of principles which 
 we may term the Principles of Linguistic Pedagogy. (P. 71.) 
 
 Section 14. — The Fourfold Aim of the Student. In all but 
 special cases the ultimate aim of the student is presumed to be 
 fourfold — namely, 
 
 (a) The understanding of the language as spoken by natives. 
 
SYNOPSIS 13 
 
 (b) The understanding of the language as written by 
 
 natives. 
 
 (c) The speaking of the language as spoken by natives. 
 
 (d) The writing of the language as written by natives. 
 
 (P. ri.) 
 
 Section 15. — Segregation. In order to exclude confusion and 
 misunderstanding, during the initial period of conscious study 
 the phonetic, orthographic, etymological, semantic, and ergonic 
 aspects of language must be segregated from each other and 
 taught independently. In the process of subconscious study, 
 and in the later periods of conscious study, such segregation is 
 neither possible nor desirable. (P. 72.) 
 
 Section 16. — Active v. Passive Work, Study may be active 
 or passive. The young child only comes to speak his native 
 language after an ' incubation period,' during which he has 
 passively received and stored up in his mind a considerable 
 quantity of linguistic material. The same process may profit- 
 ably be employed by the adult person in the study of foreign 
 languages. (P. 75.) 
 
 Section 17. — Semanticizing {i.e. the conveying of meanings). 
 There are four different manners or modes of conveying to 
 the pupil the meaning of a given unit. 
 
 (A) By material association — i.e. associating the unit 
 
 with that which is designated by it. 
 
 (B) By translation — i.e. associating the unit with the 
 
 equivalent native unit. 
 
 (C) By definition — i.e. associating the unit with its defini- 
 
 tion or paraphrase (i.e. its polylogical equivalent). 
 
 (D) By context — i.e. giving examples of its use. (P. 77.) 
 
 Section 18. — Learning by Heart {i.e. memorizing or caten- 
 izing). Learning by heart is the basis of all linguistic study, for 
 every sentence ever uttered or written by anybody has either 
 been leamt by heart in its entirety or else has been composed 
 (consciously or subconsciously) from smaller units, each of 
 which must at one time have been learnt by heart. We may 
 
14 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 term primary matter all units learnt by heart integrally, and 
 secondary matter all units built up or derived by the pupil from 
 primary matter. (P. 103.) 
 
 Section 19. — Gradation. In order that the pupil may pro- 
 ceed by the line of least resistance, he should pass from 
 the known to the unknown by easy stages, each of which 
 will serve as a preparation for the one immediately following. 
 (P. 119.) 
 
 Section 20. — The Microcosm. In order that the pupil may 
 reach the ' point of transition ' with the least delay, the 
 vocabulary must be selected with the greatest care and per- 
 spicacity ; it should include none but the commonest and most 
 characteristic units, representing the most important ergonic 
 classes. A vocabulary of this nature may be termed the 
 Quintessence or the Microcosm of the language. This Micro- 
 cosm should be formed and organized systematically in accord- 
 ance with and as a compromise between the principles of 
 Frequency, Ergonic Combination, Concreteness, Proportion, 
 and General Expediency. (P. 122.) 
 
 Section 21. — Subconscious Comprehension. The pupil's 
 powers of subconscious (or immediate) comprehension will be 
 developed concurrently with his conscious study of the micro- 
 cosm, and quite independently of the matter contained 
 therein. (P. 131.) 
 
 PART V : AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 
 
 Having reviewed the main principles of Linguistic Pedagogy, 
 we will now endeavour to draw up a working programme 
 embodying the conclusions suggested by our inquiry. We 
 will consider as a standard programme that which will prove 
 to be the most suitable for school-children. It will comprise 
 the study of the foreign language (which we will assume 
 to be French) in its oral and written aspects with a view 
 to active and passive use. The whole period of study will be 
 divided into three stages. (P. 138.) 
 
SYNOPSIS 15 
 
 Section 22. — The first or elementary stage, of the duration 
 of at least one term, will consist of : 
 
 (a) Easy exercises in subconscious comprehension. 
 (h) Imperative drill. 
 
 (c) Easy articulation exercises. 
 
 (d) Easy exercises in the use of phonetic symbols. 
 
 (e) Simple talks on the five lexicological theories. (P. 138.) 
 
 Section 23. — The second or intermediate stage, of the duration 
 of from one to three years (according to the radius of the 
 microcosm), will consist of : 
 
 (a) More advanced exercises in subconscious compre- 
 hension. 
 
 (h) Articulation and fluency exercises. 
 
 (c) The assimilation of primary matter by means of 
 various catenizing devices. 
 
 {d) The production of secondary matter by means of a 
 large number of varied exercises based on etymology, 
 semantics, and ergonics. 
 
 During this stage the traditional spelling will be introduced 
 and taught by means of various types of orthoepic exercises. 
 (P. 168.) 
 
 Section 24. — The third or advanced stage, of the dm-ation of 
 from one to three years, will complete the scholastic training 
 of the pupil. It will consist of : 
 
 (a) Subconscious work (rapid reading, mental and oral ; 
 
 listening to talks, stories, and lectures). 
 (h) Free composition (descriptions of objects, pictures, and 
 
 events). 
 
 (c) Free translation (French into English and English 
 
 into French). 
 
 (d) Conversation. 
 
 (e) Systematic study of texts. (P. 198.) 
 
 Section 25. — We may append here a comprehensive and 
 descriptive list of most of the types of exercises which will be 
 found of use during the three stages. While many of them 
 are suitable for work in the class-room, they will generally 
 
16 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 be utilized as material for homework and for private study. 
 (P. 207.) 
 
 PART VI : SPECIAL PROGRAMMES 
 
 Section 26. — ^In that part of this book devoted to the Pre- 
 liminary Factors of Linguistic Pedagogy, we have seen that no 
 one programme can possibly be ideally suitable for all classes of 
 students ; hence, in addition to the Standard Programme that 
 we have just described, we must be prepared to draw up Special 
 Programmes. Limited Programmes of various types are de- 
 signed to meet the special requirements of those whose aim is 
 less than the four aspects of a given language. (P. 225.) 
 
 Section 27. — A Documentary Programme is designed to meet 
 the special requirements of those whose aim is not the assimila- 
 tion of a language in any or all of its aspects, but a documentary 
 knowledge only. (P. 228.) 
 
 Section 28. — Corrective Programmes are designed to meet the 
 special requirements of those who have previously studied the 
 language in so disproportionate a manner that one or more of 
 the four aspects has, or have been, totally or partially neglected, 
 or of those who have previously studied the language in so 
 defective a manner that the unsound knowledge so acquired 
 will have to be converted into sound knowledge. (P. 230.) 
 
 PART Vn : THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 
 
 Section 29. — The first qualifications of the expert teacher are 
 a knowledge of the foreign language and of the student's native 
 tongue, and the ability to organize the programme, to choose 
 the appropriate material and the most appropriate means of 
 conveying and of inculcating it. (P. 238.) 
 
 Section 30. — Another function of the teacher is to furnish 
 explanations. (P. 243.) 
 
 Section 31. — The vehicular language for all explanatory 
 matter should be that which is best known by the student. 
 (P. 249.) 
 
 Section 32. — ^The teacher should foster and encourage the 
 
SYNOPSIS IT 
 
 pupils' capacities of visualization by adopting for explanatory 
 purposes the principle of visual correlation. (P. 251.) 
 
 Section 33. — Further functions of the teacher are : 
 
 (a) To cause or to stimulate the pupil to work. 
 
 (b) To give the pupil opportunities of hearing the language 
 
 spoken, and to act the part of second person in a 
 conversation. 
 
 (c) To act as examiner, to award marks, and to correct 
 
 errors. (P. 261.) 
 
 Section 34. — A very important function of the teacher is to 
 react against the six vicious tendencies to which all students are 
 more or less subject. (P. 263.) 
 
 Section 35. — In order to perform effective work, the teacher 
 (or student) should have at his disposal an adequate number of 
 the right sort of instruments in the form of a practical library 
 for reference and other purposes. (P. 265.) 
 
 PART VIII : THE STUDENT 
 
 Section 86. — There are two categories of students who are 
 necessarily the architects of their own programme or method : 
 
 (a) Those who are unable to command the services of any 
 
 teacher whatever. 
 
 (b) Those to whom the services of casual or non-expert 
 
 teachers are alone available. (P. 268.) 
 
 Section 37. — The relations between teacher and student in 
 point of authority can only be determined in accordance with 
 certain delicate factors, among which are the relative degree of 
 expertness possessed or claimed by either, the particular end 
 that the student has in view, and the inducement which the 
 pupil is prepared to offer in order to secure the unconditional 
 and unqualified services of a docile teacher. (P. 272.) 
 
 Section 38. — The least satisfactory type of student is the one 
 who has neither confidence in the programme suggested by the 
 teacher nor the capacity for working out one of his own. He is 
 
18 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 the source of constant trouble, and we should do well to advise 
 him to seek another teacher. (P. 274.) 
 
 PART IX : CONCLUSION 
 
 Section 39. — May all those who have followed us in our 
 inquiry so unite and co-ordinate their efforts that language- 
 teaching and language-study shall be placed once for all on a 
 stable and scientific basis. (P. 281.) 
 
THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY ^ 
 TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 PART I 
 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 Section 1.— Does the science of language-study exist ? 
 
 Does the science of language-study exist ? "Of course it 
 exists I " some readers may answer. " Was it not initiated, 
 created, discussed, fought for, and finally established by the 
 leaders of the Reform Movement years ago ? Is not the 
 principle of the Direct Method an accomplished fact ? Have 
 we not witnessed the introduction, growth, and triumph of the 
 Phonetic principle ? Do we not find the text-books of the 
 science of language- study in every teacher's library ? Has it not 
 been proved that grammar should be taught inductively, that 
 translation is a delusion, that the dictionary is a snare ? Has 
 not " the aunt of the Dutchman in the garden of the baker's 
 brother " been consigned to the limbo of forgotten things ? 
 Are we not living in the age of object-lessons, pictures, and the 
 total exclusion of the mother tongue ? Are we not . . . ? " 
 Just so, just so ; all these things have come to pass, and many 
 others also ; reforms have been effected, many bad things (and 
 some good things) have been swept away, many good things 
 (and some bad things) have apparently come to stay. 
 
 Section 2.— Evidence of various kinds shows that this subject has 
 not yet attained the scientific stage, but is so far in the experi- 
 mental or empirical stage. 
 
 If the science of language-study exists and is generally re- 
 cognized in the same way that other sciences are recognized, then 
 the majority of trained teachers will be found to be working 
 
 19 
 
20 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 on the same lines, differing only in minor details. But the 
 most superficial inquiry tends to show that the methods of 
 teaching adopted in any one country are almost as numerous 
 as the teachers themselves ; that each conscientious teacher 
 has his own particular views on the subject and is prepared to 
 maintain them against all comers ; that the divergences of views 
 are not on questions of detail, but are based on totally different 
 conceptions of the whole problem. 
 
 If the science of language-study exists, it must have 
 been founded in accordance with the scientific method, 
 which is : 
 
 (a) To collect isolated facts and factors in such numbers 
 
 as to cover the whole field of inquiry. 
 
 (b) To classify, examine, and correlate them. 
 
 (c) To draw from them certain conclusions upon which 
 
 the fundamental principles may be established and 
 stated in categoric terms. 
 
 (d) To confirm and justify these principles by putting them 
 
 to the test of actual and continual practice. 
 
 Has this been done ? 
 
 If the study of language is a science, countless isolated facts 
 covering the whole field of inquiry must have been collected, 
 sifted, and correlated ; valid conclusions must have been drawn 
 in such a manner that the principles of the science have stood 
 forth, each clear, unequivocal, and imassailable. 
 
 If the study of language is a science, a scientific terminology 
 must have been formed and must exist, consisting of an adequate 
 number of terms both old and new, all accurately defined by 
 the creators of such terms and perfectly understood by all who 
 use them. 
 
 If the study of language is a science, then definite and com- 
 plete answers must exist to a vast number of vexed questions 
 of which the following are specimens : 
 
 What is the function of the teacher ? — of the pupil ? — of the 
 book ? — of the exercise ? What do you understand by Transla- 
 tion ? — by Grammar ? — by Semantics ? — by Function ? — by 
 Words ? — by Direct Method ? How many types of exercise 
 
INTRODUCTORY 21 
 
 exist, and how may they be classified ? What are the main 
 differences between a ' preventive ' and a ' curative ' language 
 course ? WTiat are the various vicious tendencies toward 
 which all language-learners are more or less inclined, and which 
 are the most efficacious means of reacting against each ? 
 Under what conditions is the use of the mother tongue per- 
 missible ? — reprehensible ? On what principles should the 
 author of a language method choose the material to be presented 
 and taught ? To what extent should the reference-book and 
 language method be combined ? Problem- solving v. Memoriz- 
 ing the solutions to problems : when should the pupils do either, 
 and why ? Upon what axiom must we base all considerations 
 of language-study ? 
 
 If the study of language is a science, then where is the text- 
 book which will give us the answers, the true answers, the 
 logically reasoned answers to these and to hundreds of similar 
 questions of equal importance ? 
 
 If we follow out this train of reasoning and reflect seriously 
 on the varied aspects suggested by the above questions, we 
 must inevitably come to the conclusion that the study of 
 language learning has not yet emerged from the empirical stage, 
 that we are still groping our way in a labyrinth of factors the 
 extent and nature of which we are only just dimly beginning to 
 realize, that our progress is hindered at every step by undefined 
 and ambiguous terms, that our way is beset by side issues, 
 down which we wander and lose ourselves anew. 
 
 The science of language-study does not exist, but it is high 
 time that it should exist. 
 
 Section 3.— It is time that language-study should be placed on a 
 scientific foundation, and to that effect it would be well to in- 
 stitute a general inquiry into the whole question. 
 
 The main object of this book is to sketch out the lines upon 
 which research work might well be undertaken, to suggest a 
 suitable terminology, to set forth the data which the writer 
 has collected over a period of sixteen years' work, both as 
 teacher and as student, and to state the conclusions which he 
 has drawn from them. 
 
22 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 To lay the foundations of the science of language-study it 
 will not be necessary to make new discoveries ; it will be quite 
 sufficient to collect factors which are perfectly well known and 
 to co-ordinate them into one comprehensive system. Of data 
 we have a sufficiency ; philologists tell us what language is, 
 phoneticians can give us the most accurate information con- 
 cerning sounds and the methods of teaching them, most of the 
 essential facts of grammar can be explained clearly by gram- 
 marians, and the nature of words, including their etymological, 
 morphological, semantic, and ergonic aspects, is already known 
 to the lexicologist. Modern pedagogy has shown us the value 
 of concretization, and psychologists can supply us with all the 
 data we require concerning the laws of memory. Our new 
 science will consist of a compilation of facts culled from these 
 several domains, but placed in such order and with such 
 observance of proportion that the inevitable conclusions will 
 suggest themselves. If our facts are right, and if no essential 
 fact is missing, our conclusions must be valid. Most of our 
 facts will so bear the imprint of obviousness that their citation 
 will border on the trivial, and yet it is only by insisting on the 
 perfectly obvious that we can arrive not merely at dogmatisms, 
 but at valid conclusions. 
 
 Our survey of the problems must be on a most comprehensive 
 basis ; we must not be content with stating formulae for the 
 teaching of French to English children; our outlook must 
 embrace the study of any aspect of any foreign language by 
 students of all ages and nationalities. We shall certainly not 
 discover any one royal road to success, but we may in all prob- 
 ability determine a number of paths, each being the shortest 
 and easiest route to the particular end toward which it is 
 intended to lead us. 
 
 In comparing various processes of study or tricks of pedagogy 
 we must be careful not always to apply them to problems that 
 we have already overcome, but to test them by problems in 
 languages which are strange to us. A difficulty once overcome 
 appears in its new perspective of so simple a nature that we 
 wonder however it could have seemed so formidable. Those 
 who use French verbs or German adjectives with that complete 
 
INTRODUCTORY 28 
 
 unconsciousness that can only result from a perfect mastery 
 fail to realize the months of patient effort devoted to their 
 study. Most of us have the illusion that these and other things 
 came to us naturally and automatically. That is why the 
 language that we are learning always seems far more difficult 
 than any of those which we have already learnt. It has often 
 been stated quite seriously that some of the more modem forms 
 of artificial language (in reality the quintessence of logic and 
 simplicity) are more difficult of acquisition than German or 
 Russian. The fancied facility of difficulties overcome by us 
 can only be compared with the fancied difficulties of problems 
 in store for us. 
 
 A teacher is impatient because a pupil cannot memorize a 
 French sentence in five minutes ; let that same teacher en- 
 deavour in five minutes to memorize a sentence of correspond- 
 ing length in Arabic or Chinese, and he will discover that his 
 impatience was ill warranted. 
 
 The familiar must necessarily give an impression of facility, 
 just as the unfamiliar conveys an impression of extreme 
 difficulty. 
 
 For this reason the reader should not consider as superfluous 
 the various devices and exercises suggested as methods of over- 
 coming certain difficulties in French or any other language 
 perfectly known to him ; before pronouncing them efforts to 
 enfoncer des portes ouvertes, let him apply them to the mastery 
 of problems pertaining to Finnish or Swahili. 
 
 Our inquiry might take the form of a comprehensive account 
 of all the language methods in use in all countries and in all 
 ages ; it might include detailed reports gathered from an 
 analytic examination of the various linguistic programmes 
 followed in schools both in England and abroad. But in view 
 of the extremely divergent character of all methods of language- 
 study, and of the seeming absence of any really fundamental 
 principles, it will probably be more to the point if we first 
 endeavour to ascertain the basic principles upon which an ideal 
 method should be founded . 
 
24 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Section 4.— The results of our inquiry must necessarily be of interest 
 to method-writers, to teachers, and to students. 
 
 The science of language-study must necessarily be of the 
 highest interest to all engaged in the teaching or the learning of 
 foreign languages. 
 
 These fall under three headings : (1) Writers of methods ; 
 (2) teachers ; (3) students. 
 
 In most methods or text-books destined to convey the 
 material of a language to the student we find a preface in which 
 the author implies that his particular work is superior to all 
 others. 
 
 If we submit to a critical analysis the various arguments 
 employed and the various reasons adduced, we must come to the 
 conclusion that every one of these works is well meant and that 
 the intentions of each author are admirable. 
 
 Each claims to follow the line of least resistance, and each 
 asserts or more modestly hints that his way is the one true 
 way. 
 
 One will show that his method is based on Grammar and 
 must therefore be sound. 
 
 Another will call attention to his system of imitated pro- 
 nunciation, or ' phonetics,' as he miscalls it. 
 
 Others will confess that no written characters can possibly 
 convey any notion of the true pronunciation of a language and 
 therefore abandon all idea of making them do so. 
 
 In another case the author is proud to announce that as 
 translation is an untrustworthy process, the meanings of the 
 words are given by definition and the use of the mother tongue 
 entirely avoided. 
 
 In the contrary case stress is laid on the fact that every 
 word is accompanied by its translation. 
 
 Some of these books are based on literary and etymological 
 considerations. 
 
 Others give such a full treatment to the phonetic aspect that 
 all the other aspects seem to have been forgotten. 
 
 Others claim to teach the most difficult language within a 
 stated period ; six months it may be, or six weeks. These 
 seem to be based on the assumption that the pupil will be 
 
INTRODUCTORY 25 
 
 prepared to work twelve hours a day and is incapable of for- 
 getting a single fact once read. 
 
 We find guides and manuals, companions and helps, all 
 implicitly claiming to be based on common-sense principles. 
 
 This provokes the obvious question : What are common- 
 sense principles ? Is it sufficient for an author to compile a list 
 of some few thousand words and their ' translations,' supply 
 a few dozens of fragmentary ' rules,' and garnish with a hundred 
 or so ' exercises ' ? 
 
 Has the method-maker done his duty by taking some text 
 more or less literary, adorning it with comments and ' notes,' 
 and appending a vocabulary ? Is it sufficient to furnish the 
 rules of grammar and syntax and to call these the ' directions 
 for use ' of the language in question ? 
 
 A favourite proceeding seems to be to work out a number 
 of formulae (unknown to the native users of the language 
 themselves) and to invite the students to convert these 
 into living speech. A few examples are thrown in as a make- 
 weight ; not many, for fear of dulling the intellectual faculties 
 of the pupil and tempting him to memorize instead of to 
 think! 
 
 Is it a common-sense principle to treat the student as though 
 he were a child about to embark on the study of his mother 
 tongue ? 
 
 Many of these methods are not at all badly composed ; some 
 of them are excellent. As far as they go, some of them succeed 
 in their aims. Some people do succeed in learning foreign 
 languages by their aid. 
 
 But a careful analysis will bring to our minds one evident 
 conclusion : that there exist no generally accepted principles 
 at all. There appears to be no distinct notion in the minds of 
 the authors as to what the function of a language method is, 
 no conception of the real work it is destined to perform and at 
 what point the student is presumed to fly with his own wings. 
 We gain an impression of praiseworthy efforts clashing one 
 with another and of a general haziness and lack of co-ordinated 
 system. 
 
 It is not astonishing, after all, that this should be so. The 
 
26 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 qualifications of a method-writer are often no more than a 
 knowledge of two languages and the desire to make a book. 
 
 A missionary goes to some distant land and spends some years 
 there in the exercise of his calling. Incidentally he learns the 
 native language, an unwritten idiom, little known, one of those 
 dialects which, in the absence of any dictionary or other written 
 documentation, has to be ' picked up.' Linguistic work is not 
 his profession ; he is no phonetician and his knowledge of 
 linguistics is based on recollections of his Latin and Greek 
 grammars. With laudable endeavour and patience he will 
 write a book for the benefit of those who come after him. 
 
 What can be expected of such a book ? In other professions 
 many years of intensive training are required, training in theory 
 and practice based on accepted and incontrovertible facts ; 
 in the profession of method-writing no training at all would 
 appear necessary. 
 
 When the author is not a phonetician, and is ignorant of the 
 simplest laws of lexicology, when he has no clear idea of the 
 functions of a method, when he is no psychologist and ignores 
 the laws of memory, when he is even ignorant of the true nature 
 of language, is it surprising that the result of his labours should 
 savour more of rule of thumb than of science, and should bear 
 on every page the mark of the amateur ? 
 
 And yet it certainly must be possible to write a language 
 method on scientific principles ; it must be possible to discover 
 beyond any doubt what really is the line of least resistance ; 
 it should surely be feasible to codify the hundreds of complex 
 factors in the problem and to arrive at certain conclusions 
 concerning them. 
 
 The reformation and standardization of language-study must 
 be effected primarily through the writer of methods, for a 
 rational book, properly conceived and efficiently worked out, 
 will show the teacher what to do, and when and how to do it, 
 and the teacher in his turn will convey the results to the pupils. 
 
 For those reasons, for the sake of progress in a little- 
 understood subject, for the sake of * unified knowledge,' it is 
 important that method-makers should come to an understand- 
 ing ; that the ' ploughing of lonely furrows ' should be replaced 
 
INTRODUCTORY 27 
 
 by co-ordinated efforts to discover the best means and to adapt 
 these means to the right end. 
 
 The teacher is often himself a method-writer ; if he is not, 
 he is generally a method-criticizer, for it is comparatively rare 
 to find a teacher in complete agreement with the views of the 
 author of the book he uses. The function of a teacher, how- 
 ever, differs from that of a method- writer. The difference bears 
 an analogy to that existing between the tactician and the 
 strategist. 
 
 The method-maker may work at his writing-desk or in his 
 arm-chair ; the teacher works in front of his class. It is the 
 latter who is the personal link between the chooser of material 
 and those who are destined to assimilate it. 
 
 Many factors in language teaching concern the teacher alone ; 
 the question of speed, the problems of cohesion, of stimulus, and 
 of articulation are more particularly his. It is he also who 
 has to carry out in actual practice the principles of concretiza- 
 tion, of memorizing, of catenizing, and a host of other essential 
 pedagogic processes. And he, like the method-writer, seems 
 to work according to no fixed principles. He chooses the text- 
 book, works out a programme, presents matter, provides 
 exercises and tests, corrects mistakes, blames, congratulates or 
 encourages, often without any clear notion of any determined 
 starting-point or of any precise idea as to the particular end 
 toward which he is supposed to be working. He cannot well 
 do otherwise : if he works unsystematically it is because there 
 exist few or no principles in system. If he suffers from a lack 
 of training, it is because there exists no school or institution 
 for the training of teachers. 
 
 Much has been written on the need of training ; indeed it is 
 obvious that a teacher without training in practical linguistics 
 is in the same position as a doctor without clinical experience or 
 a solicitor unversed in legal procedure. 
 
 Many congresses have been held, many reports have been 
 written, the subject can boast a literature, and yet apart from 
 that branch connected with phonetics we may search in vain 
 for any text-book treating the subject comprehensively from 
 starting-point to finish. 
 
28 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 To the adult student of language the conclusions to be drawn 
 from our inquiry must also be of the highest importance. If it 
 is shown that fully three-quarters of the efforts that he devotes 
 to study are not only ineffectual but are positively mischievous 
 in their effects, if it can be proved that with less work a better 
 result may be obtained, and if we can show how best he may 
 utilize his effort by directing it into right channels, it will 
 obviously be to his interest to become acquainted with the 
 data we shall have collected, and the conclusions to which 
 they point. 
 
PART II 
 THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE 
 
 Section 5.— Language is a series of natural phenomena. 
 
 Language is the medium by which thoughts are conveyed 
 from one person to another, consequently all words or combina- 
 tions of words used orally or by writing must be considered as 
 coming within the scope of language. It matters little to the 
 student of linguistics whether any particular word or expression 
 is sanctioned by classical authority ; slang and pedantism, 
 vulgarism and flower of speech, elegant expression and coarse 
 metaphor, all these from the moment that they serve as effective 
 mediums of thought are elements of language. 
 
 Language is the mirror of thought (if only the distorting 
 mirror), and both reflector and reflected are conventional. In 
 spite of the efforts of Pascal and Descartes, neither language 
 nor thought is philosophical. Were it so, the units of thought 
 would be fixed quantities, Roget's Thesaurus would be the 
 universal text-book, and each operation of the mind would be 
 a valid syllogism. 
 
 And there would be no more wrangling. 
 
 Thought is irregular, its concepts or units are irregular, there 
 are redundancies and lacunae, in all terms but the mathematical 
 there is ambiguity, the declarative and the emotional are 
 hopelessly involved, and misunderstanding is the rule and not 
 the exception. 
 
 We are probably not yet civilized enough to have learnt to 
 think. 
 
 Language is the dim reflection of thought, and, paradoxically 
 enough, it is at the same time the instrument of thought. 
 
 To fit the word to the thought in our own native language is 
 at times a thankless task, but when we compare our English 
 concepts with those manufactured abroad, doing so perforce 
 29 
 
30 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 with the medium of those impossible national units called words, 
 it is a marvel that the machinery of thought does not break 
 down under the strain. 
 
 Each language possesses a set of terms called words ; these 
 may be combined and recombined into propositions and thereby 
 thought becomes manifest to all who have learnt to play with 
 the same set of counters. But when we go to the foreign 
 country, or when the foreigner comes to ours, we find that we 
 are playing with counters that have no currency. Hence the 
 language problem. 
 
 Universal language would replace the diverse national 
 counters or coinages by one international system of general 
 currency. International language would produce a convenient 
 auxiliary coinage easily convertible into the various national 
 systems. 
 
 At present, however, language stands in the domain of natural 
 phenomena, its development and evolution generally depend, 
 not on the artifice of man but upon the dictates of fashion. We 
 speak, not according to abstract laws of logic ; we simply speak 
 as others speak. It is the exception rather than the rule for 
 man to make the words he uses ; he is content to use the words 
 that have already obtained currency in that particular part of 
 the globe in which he finds himself. 
 
 The only aspect of language in which the conscious will of 
 man can manifest itself is that concerned with its graphic 
 representation. The alphabetic aspect alone is artificial ; the 
 literary aspect is artistic, the rest is natural science. 
 
 Section 6.— Language is distinct from the art of hterature. 
 
 There must necessarily be a fundamental difference between 
 language and literature. In spite of this difference the two 
 terms have become almost inextricably mixed in the minds of 
 the uninitiated ; when we discuss questions connected with 
 language, most people immediately turn the subject into the 
 channel of literature. 
 
 How many people really study pure philology, language ? 
 How many really know anything about it ? And yet every- 
 body who has been to college imagines himself qualified to 
 
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE 81 
 
 pronounce the most definite opinion on the subject. What 
 people generally learn is the literary aspect of language, either 
 their own or foreign. 
 
 Literature is an application of the linguistic science, but it is 
 not the science itself. Literature is the history and practice 
 of the written form of a language which has become classical. 
 It is even maintained by many that a language which has no 
 written form is not a language ! It has often been stated that 
 language does not exist apart from the written characters of 
 orthographic tradition ! 
 
 The linguistic science known as philology is a comparatively 
 recent one ; it is as yet barely a century old. It began when it 
 was discovered that languages are subject to evolution in sound, 
 in form, and in meaning, it began when it was discovered that 
 each language possessed a parent language from which it had 
 come by slow evolutionary change. For, one day, the truth 
 began to dawn on the minds of the thinkers that not only had 
 French been gradually evolved from the popular Latin of Gaul, 
 and that Italian and other Romance languages were modem 
 offshoots of Latin, but that every language possessed at least 
 one parent, that Latin itself, instead of being a god-given speech, 
 was simply the daughter of some unknown mother, that Greek 
 was not fatherless, that there are children languages and 
 ancestral languages, that there are sister languages, and that 
 languages possess uncles and cousins ! 
 
 And so the pure science of language was founded (founded on 
 phonetics, by the way, although phonetics was in a rudimentary 
 state at the time). Literature was found to be, not language 
 itself, but an aspect of language, intimately connected with it 
 but still merely an application, the decorative side of language. 
 
 Let us remember, however, that literature has always been 
 par excellence a pedagogic study, that this subject has centuries 
 of tradition behind it, whereas philology is modem, only studied 
 by the few, and is not yet a current or obligatory subject. At 
 school or at college we only study the literary aspect of language. 
 We study the classical authors, we justify our forms and phrases 
 by the literary models. We learn grammar, but the grammar 
 we study is only the collection of classical models of the written 
 
32 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 language. The French Academy reigns over the French 
 language considered as literature ; it is a literary and not a 
 philological authority. We might even say literature is the 
 artificial aspect of language ; those who make use of literary 
 forms when speaking are said to ' speak like a book ' ; we feel 
 these forms to be unreal ? Beautiful ? Yes, beautiful, but not 
 the normal colloquial speech of everyday life. 
 
 Now, as we would not consult a sculptor on a question of 
 geology and as we would not quote an artist as an authority on 
 colour chemistry nor maintain that the best singer is at the same 
 time the best throat specialist, we must not quote the opinions 
 of littirateurSi of professors of literature, nor even of gram- 
 marians, and produce these opinions as proofs of philological 
 truths or untruths. We must not claim or proclaim Acade- 
 micians as philological experts, because they are not, and 
 they do not pretend to be. They know (or they ought to 
 know, if they have received an elementary scientific education) 
 that literature is not language, nor language literature. 
 
 The learning of foreign languages must proceed on a philo- 
 logical basis and not on a literary one, because before we can 
 learn the foreign literature we must be acquainted with the 
 language itself, just as when we started learning the literary 
 form of our own tongue we were already acquainted with the 
 language itself. 
 
 Section 7.— Language consists essentially of lexicological units 
 popularly supposed to be * words,' but the term ' word ' is vague 
 and impossible of definition. 
 
 Considered from the point of view of the student, the study 
 of language is synonymous with the study of the elements or 
 units of which it is composed. These units are popularly 
 assumed to be words. 
 
 A general and vague idea exists that the study of a given 
 language should proceed on a double basis : lexicology, or the 
 study of words, and grammar, or the study of their mutations 
 and combinations. A little reflection, however, will convince 
 us that this is far from being a true and logical conception of 
 the problem. It will be found that the two subjects are bound 
 
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE 33 
 
 up with each other and interdependent, and that they can only 
 be differentiated by doing violence to each. The words them- 
 selves and their attendant phenomena cannot be separated 
 except by invoking the arbitrary. 
 
 And after all, what is a word ? WTiat possible definition can 
 we frame which will be adequate to describe what we under- 
 stand by this term ? In what cases must we assert that two 
 given words are independent entities, and under what con- 
 ditions are we entitled to consider as one word any two or more 
 units intimately connected either in form, function, or meaning ? 
 
 This is a fundamental question of identity and must be 
 understood clearly before we can proceed to any form of 
 classification. 
 
 Is the word go identical with the word goes ? The answer 
 is either affirmative or negative. Let it be affirmative. Let 
 us say that goes is merely the inflected form of go, just as trees 
 is the inflected form of tree. 
 
 Then if inflected forms are identical with the root word or 
 etymon, go and went are one word. No ; went is the inflected 
 form of wend, now obsolete. But went is not obsolete, there- 
 fore one and the same word may be alive and dead at the same 
 moment ! But went is used as the preterite of go and for all 
 purposes except etymological ones may be considered as the 
 preterite of go. 
 
 If we concede this identity we are thrusting the thin edge of 
 the wedge dangerously far. 
 
 There is a tendency to avoid the plural noun corpses and to 
 substitute for it the term dead bodies ; this term might con- 
 ceivably become the effective plural of corpse. Shall we then 
 be justified in saying that dead bodies is the inflected form of, 
 and therefore identical with, corpse ? 
 
 The word ought is, or was, the preterite of the verb owe. Are 
 we to adopt the principle of " once a preterite always a pre- 
 terite " ? Let us concede the point and claim identity for otve 
 and ought. But owe having lost its preterite formed a new one, 
 and the preterite owed exists and is presumably identical with 
 its etymon owe. 
 
 Puzzle ; Find the relation between ought and owed, and 
 
34 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 consider the absurdity of the situation when some time in the 
 distant future ought has succeeded in forming a new infinitive 
 of its own (He didn't ought to !). 
 
 Having got into an inextricable muddle, let us modify our 
 first answ^er and declare that the inflected form of a given word 
 has a separate existence, that go and goes are separate words. 
 We can justify our new answer on perfectly rational grounds. 
 From the foreign student's point of view buy and bought, hold 
 and held, tell and told are almost as much separate words as 
 bell and bold in that he may have learnt one and still be in 
 ignorance of the other. 
 
 We are moreover justified when we consider that, after all, 
 hardly is the inflected form of hard and they are obviously two 
 different words, and that sing, singer, and song are obviously 
 etymological cognates and equally obviously possess separate 
 identities. Were this not so drinker and drunkard would be 
 the same word ! 
 
 But if this theory is true, it means that every French verb is 
 a group of forty-seven words, that each Latin adjective is a 
 group of thirty-six. And we shrink from the contemplation of 
 such multiplicative statistics ! 
 
 A middle course would appear to suggest that regular in- 
 flected forms must be considered as identical with their primi- 
 tives, but irregular inflected forms as separate words. Hence 
 go and goes are identical, as are also tree and trees, long and 
 longer, but give and gave, child and children, good and better 
 are separate words. 
 
 Even if it w^ere possible to draw a shaip line of demarca- 
 tion between regular and irregular inflexions, our compromise 
 would be like all other compromises, unsatisfactory to all 
 interests ; but few of us would be bold enough to attempt the 
 tracing of such a line. Moreover, which is to be the test of 
 irregularity, the orthographic or the phonetic aspect of the word ? 
 for an inflexion may be regular in one but not in the other. 
 
 This is, however, not all. We have yet to consider the 
 problems of semantic cognates — that is to say, significative 
 varieties of one and the same word. 
 
 Bear (animal) and bear (support) are two distinct words with 
 
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE 85 
 
 an entirely separate history ; so also are can (be able) and can 
 (metal box), box (case) and box (to fight with fists), see (per- 
 ceive) and see (bishopric). 
 
 It does not need etymology to tell us that ; our semantic 
 instincts suffice to apprise us of such facts. 
 
 But like (similar to) and like (be fond of) are not chance 
 resemblances, but true cognates ; etymology tells us that these 
 are not two different words, but two semantically differentiated 
 varieties of one and the same word. 
 
 Have^ in / have it done, is the same individual as have in I 
 have done it. Can we then say that in Je le donne a mon ami 
 and Je le prends a mon ami the preposition a remains the same 
 individual although of directly opposite semantic value in the 
 respective cases ? 
 
 Two words then may be identical or entirely different 
 individuals when considered respectively from the standpoint 
 of etymology or of semantics. To the language-learner the 
 significative distinction is everything and the historical identity 
 nothing. 
 
 What does it matter to the English student that devoir (to 
 have to), devoir (to owe) and devoir (duty) are historically 
 identical ? What does it matter to the foreign student that 
 like (be fond of) and like (similar to) are cognates ? The 
 student of language (as opposed to the student of linguistic 
 history) is concerned with the present-day semantic values, 
 identities, and differences. 
 
 The only sane method of learning the English verb get 
 would appear to be to separate it into its nine or ten semantic 
 varieties and to teach each as a separate word. 
 
 Verbs such as mind (I don't mind minding the children, but 
 they'll have to mind what I tell them, mind !) or wear (a cloth 
 that will wear well = a cloth that will not wear. This hat is 
 very much worn !) must be taught as if there were no historical 
 identity between their significative varieties. 
 
 All these factors and considerations make our problem very 
 complex, and well may we hesitate when asked to specify the 
 number of words it is necessary to learn in order to make 
 oneself understood in the foreign language. 
 
36 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 In Chinese there is one hard and fast rule : every syllable 
 is a unit and to each syllable is assigned a definite ideogram 
 which serves to identify it. 
 
 Viewed in the light of European perspective, most of 
 these units appear to have no semantic value until juxtaposed 
 with others. 
 
 In many agglutinative languages, sentences and strings of 
 significative syllables and ' words ' are loosely grouped bunches 
 of syllables as susceptible of cleavage and of combination as 
 the figures in an arithmetical statement or the bits of glass in 
 a kaleidoscope. 
 
 To sum up, we find ourselves in the presence of three separate 
 factors, each of which precludes us from assigning any precise 
 connotation to the term word and from determining even 
 arbitrarily a convenient unit of speech without involving 
 ourselves in a maze of contradictions, inconsistencies, and 
 absurdities. 
 
 The first of these factors, which we may term the factor of 
 graphic continuity, is manifested by our inability to demarcate 
 on rational grounds affixes (as -ness, -able, -less, -ful, -ly), 
 simple indecomposable vocables (as dog, take, good), compounds 
 (as sunlight, understand, lovely), and intimate word-groups (as 
 of course, at last, leave off, last week). 
 
 The second factor is that of Inflexional Identity. We 
 cannot decide whether tree and trees constitute one word or 
 two, nor whether go — went — gone is (or are) an entity or a 
 trinity. 
 
 The third factor, w^hich may aptly be termed the Biffei'entia- 
 lion of Semantic Cognates, tends to prove that one and the same 
 vocable constitutes as many separate words as there are 
 meanings contained in it, that like (similar to) and like (be fond 
 of) are separate words, and that there is no more reason for 
 unifying keep (retain) and keep (persist) than the two vocables 
 retain and persist. 
 
 The object of the foregoing remarks is neither explanatory 
 nor creative, but purely destructive. It may serve to bring 
 about a certain desirable confusion of mind without which 
 the necessity of a new terminology, or even of a new science, is 
 
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE 87 
 
 not always apparent. It is only when we are convinced of the 
 inadequacy of our present instruments that we aspire toward 
 more perfect ones. 
 
 Section 8.— What is called a word generally proves to be but an 
 accident of graphic continuity. 
 
 The factor which confuses the issue at the outset is that of 
 Graphic Continuity. In theory this factor has little or no 
 importance ; it is a side issue, a mere orthographic accident, 
 but as all our linguistic habits happen to be based on this 
 convention it will require some little effort on our part to view 
 it in its true light and proportion, to assign to it no more than 
 the importance it deserves. 
 
 Is the entity or oneness of a word to be determined by the 
 fact that it is or is not written without a break ? If so, then 
 matchbox is one word and gas fire is not ; then cannot is one 
 word and may not is two ; then French quoique is one word and 
 hien que is two ; then German gehen aus is two words and the 
 infinitive aus gehen is one, as is also auszugehen. 
 
 In almost every written language (except perhaps Chinese) 
 we find abundant proof that there is no consistent rule as to 
 what shall and what shall not constitute a word. We know 
 that all syllables were once independent words, that lovely 
 used to be love like, that understand is a compound of which the 
 units are under and stand. We know also that many, if not 
 most monosyllabic English words were once compounds, that 
 affixes have dropped off that were themselves words long 
 before ; we know that the Early English, Latin, and Greek 
 forms of many of our dead syllables were living words, and that 
 they in their turn were the clipped remnants of prehistoric 
 words the form and meaning of which can be guessed but not 
 guaranteed. 
 
 We know that the word of one century may have been a 
 loose compound of the century before, and that before that it 
 was two or more words, that in some future century it may 
 become compounded anew and at a more distant future period 
 may become a dead syllable and finally disappear. 
 
 We find that two or more words frequently juxtaposed have 
 
88 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 a tendency to become joined graphically, and imagination, 
 stimulated by our visual sense, considers them as one word. 
 There is often a hyphened transition. Before motor car came 
 to be written motorcar it appeared as motor-car. Wlien we 
 reflect upon the number of h^-^^hened words in English we may 
 form an idea of the number of compounds that will go down 
 to our descendants. 
 
 A board upon which cups were placed was called a cup hoards 
 this passed through the hyphenated stage into cupboard ; 
 phonetic and semantic changes set in, and to-day the foreigner 
 learns it phonetically as [kAbad] and semantically as " a piece 
 of furniture or a recess with shelves and door suitable for 
 containing or storing whatever can be put into it." 
 
 All this is fairly comprehensible and clear, and one might 
 assume an orthographic law which enacts that '' when a pair 
 of juxtaposed words have another pronunciation than when 
 not so juxtaposed, they shall be written not as two words but 
 as one." Or we might assume alternatively or simultaneously 
 that '' when a pair of juxtaposed words acquire by such juxta- 
 position a special meaning not to be found in either word used 
 separately, such words shall be written as one." 
 
 But no such laws would appear to exist. It is true that 
 many isolated examples may be found which seem to justify 
 our supposition {cupboard, waistcoat, forehead, gentleman, Sunday, 
 halfpenny, cardboard, sixpence, altogether, understand, workbox, 
 etc., etc.), but still more numerous examples will show us that 
 if such laws exist the executive is apparently very lax in enforc- 
 ing them. Witness long way, leave off, blow up, pick up, hardly 
 ever, scarcely any, of course, etc., etc., all of which ought to 
 be compounded as words. Witness also the unjustified 
 compounding of bedroom, gaslight, sunlight, teacup, teaspoon, 
 etc., etc. 
 
 Can this inconsistency be explained ? Why matchbox but 
 not letterbox ? Why teaspoon but not soupspoon ? Why tea- 
 pot but not coffeepot ? Why gaslight but not gasfire ? Why 
 cannot but not mustnot ? Why highways but not higJiseas ? 
 
 Is there any reason why yesterday should be one word, last 
 week two words, and to-day or to-morrow doubtful compounds? 
 
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE 89 
 
 Why, in French, should quoique have the right of wordship 
 but not Men que; aujourd'hui (d+le-\-jour-\-de+hui) is a five- 
 barrelled word, puisque is one word, parce que is two ! 
 
 The Germans make one word of zweihundertfiinfundzwanzig 
 and may therefore claim that their vocabulary is as unlimited 
 as mathematical conception. 
 
 The English word hopeless is represented in French by sans 
 espoir ; typewriter by machine a ecrire ; cherry tree by cerisier. 
 In English we write as three words to go out, in German we find 
 auszugehen ; High Street corresponds to Hochstrasse ; on my 
 account is represented by meinerhalb. The Spaniard considers 
 and writes as one word c&jalo where in English we insist on 
 two words : take it. 
 
 Although these facts are, or should be, fully recognized by 
 everybody, so jDatent and numerous are their manifestations, 
 we often find students marvelling that good evening should 
 figure in French as honsoir and generally adopting an attitude 
 either of passive resistance or of aggressive criticism when 
 confronted with such phenomena. 
 
 Section 9.- Let us rather speak of Lexicological Units, and note that 
 they may be Monologs, Polylogs, Miologs, or Alogisms. 
 
 The only way to avoid misunderstanding and self-contra- 
 diction is to make up our minds to replace the elusive term word 
 by the three fixed terms monolog, polylog, and miolog whenever 
 we wish to differentiate. If we observe this principle it will 
 matter little what are the mutual relations and affinities between 
 the three. We may leave it to hairsplitters (or hair-splitters, 
 or hair splitters) to wrangle and to argue round and round the 
 question of when a word is and is not a word. 
 
 It is sufficient for us that all miologs were once monologs and 
 that monologs were once polylogs, that the polylog of to-day 
 may become the monolog of to-morrow and the miolog of the 
 day after and finish by disappearing altogether leaving nothing 
 behind it but an alogism. 
 
 Monologs are words considered merely as conventional 
 orthographic units of vocabulary in virtue of their being — 
 
40 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 (a) Written all in one piece without any interrupting break 
 
 or space ; 
 {b) Separated by a break or space from the words with 
 
 which they may happen to be juxtaposed. 
 
 Examples : dog, mankind, good, beautiful, go, understand, 
 of, slow, slowly, up, upstairs, instead, daresay, cannot. 
 Poly logs are units composed of two or more monologs in juxta- 
 position but functionally and semantically equal to a monolog. 
 Examples : garden city, in case, of course, in spite of, 
 leave off, on Sunday, during the winter, every year, 
 for a long time, in view of the fact that, as a matter 
 of fact, hardly ever. 
 
 Polylogs are often called phrases, group-words, or word-groups. 
 
 The distinction between polylogs and monologs is purely 
 arbitrary. A poly log may have a monolog as a translation 
 (bilingual equivalence) or as a synonym (unilingual equivalence). 
 Thus the polylog leave OjQ^ equals in signification the English and 
 French monologs cease and cesser. 
 
 Miologs are significative or functional units such as affixes 
 and the more concrete inflexions. They are generally con- 
 sidered (but for no consistent reason) to be less than words, 
 or as fractions of words. 
 
 Examples : -ly, -ment, -less, -ful, -ed, -ing, -graph, 
 -gram, -phone, -log (or -logue), -ism, -logy, -graphy, 
 -ist, -er, -est. Mono-, bi-, multi-, poly-, uni-, con-, 
 ortho-, in-, ex-, de-, re-, a-, '5, o\ 
 
 The miolog is to the monolog what the monolog is to the 
 polylog, or conversely the monolog is to the miolog what the 
 polylog is to the monolog. There is the same problem as to 
 what should and what should not be written monologically or 
 miologically. 
 
 We may say that the French monological parlera equals the 
 English polylogical will speak, or conversely that the English 
 monological will equals the French miological -era. Or we 
 may say that did ivant is the polylogical fomi of the monological 
 zvanted, or conversely that the miological -ed equals the mono- 
 logical did. 
 
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE 41 
 
 All of which considerations lead us to the conclusion that 
 the accidental and transitory conditions of monologicism, 
 polylogicism, and miologicism have no logical importance 
 whatever in practical linguistics. The three forms of graphic 
 continuity are interchangeable and interconvertible ; monolog 
 may be translated by polylog and by miolog. 
 
 The non-recognition of this principle constitutes what we 
 may term the linguistic fallacy of the monolog, which consists in 
 assuming that monologs alone have the right to be considered 
 as words, that they alone have the privilege of a place in the 
 dictionary, that they alone possess the quality of translatability 
 and even of identity. 
 
 A most typical example of this fallacy is to declare that the 
 word longer does not exist in French, that we have to say more 
 long. All that this amoimts to is that a certain idea is expressed 
 in English monologically and in French polylogically, or con- 
 versely that French monologic flus becomes in certain cases 
 English miologic -er. 
 
 Alogisms is the term we may use in order to designate those 
 cases in which a given concept is expressed without the use of 
 any concrete lexicological unit. Alogisms fall into three chief 
 categories: (1) Position; (2) Stress and intonation; (3) Soiis- 
 entendus. 
 
 Instead of saying tree which bears fruit we may sslj fruit tree, 
 placing stress accompanied by a certain intonation on the word 
 fruit ; in the former case we express the idea which hears by 
 two monologs, in the latter case the idea is expressed alogistically. 
 
 In some languages, including English, this particular alogistic 
 form of expression is common ; in other languages it is not 
 available. In English we say coffee-cup, letter-bocc, post-office; 
 in French we must say tasse a cafi, boite aux lettres, bureau de 
 poste ; the English alogisms are replaced by monologs. 
 
 / am going to my friend's contains an alogistic concept 
 equivalent to the monolog house (curiously enough, in the 
 French equivalent expression, Je vais chez mon ami, the con- 
 cept corresponding to the monolog to is alogistic). / gave the 
 money to the man may be expressed with an alogism as / gave 
 the man the money. In English and other languages the 
 
42 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 interrogative idea is generally expressed, not by means of an 
 appropriate monolog (such as the Polish ci or the Japanese ka), 
 nor by means of a polylog (such as the French est-ce que), but 
 alogically by inversion. 
 
 Dubitative questions are expressed in English by means 
 of a rising intonation on the last syllable or syllables of the 
 sentence : 
 
 Did you go ? Shall you see him ? 
 
 The rising intonation is equivalent to the polylog or not and 
 effectively replaces it. Interesting examples of this type of 
 alogism are given and explained in an article in Miscellanea 
 Phonetica (1914) by Mr H. O. Coleman, entitled "Intonation 
 and Emphasis." A perusal of this article will show to 
 what extent concrete lexicological units may be replaced by 
 alogisms. 
 
 The lexicological units, then, may be considered in point of 
 graphic continuity as monologs, polylogs, and miologs, and may 
 also be manifested as disincarnate alogisms ; of these four 
 elements the matter of the written language is made up. 
 
 Section 10.— Let us classify these units according to the respective 
 principles of Morphology (with its subdivisions). Semantics, and 
 Ergonics. 
 
 The essential principle of classification consists of forming 
 groups of individual units all possessing some common attri- 
 butes. By using these groups we are enabled to teach and to 
 learn facts on a wholesale scale ; without such groups our 
 acquisition of knowledge must necessarily proceed on ' retail ' 
 lines and such knowledge is of the ' ununified ' order. It is 
 only when we realize the nature of the agreements and differences 
 shown by the scheme of classification that we may be said to 
 understand the subject of our study. One of the first duties 
 to be performed in our efforts to lay the foundations of the 
 
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE 48 
 
 scientific study of language is therefore to proceed to a scientific 
 classification of the units of which language is composed. 
 
 The lexicological units of a language, like all other entities 
 conceivable by the human mind, may be classified in many 
 different ways ; each scheme of division constitutes what is 
 known as a basis of classification. 
 
 The chief of these fall under the headings oiFoi'm, of Meanings 
 and of Function. 
 
 Morphology or Form (including Phonetics, Phonology, 
 Orthography, and Etymology) 
 
 From the point of view of phonetics the unit of language is 
 the sound. The phonetician is concerned chiefly with the 
 classification of sounds according to the manner in which each 
 is articulated. 
 
 From the point of view of phonology the unit of language is 
 the phoneme. Each language possesses a set of phonemes ; 
 most of these generally coincide with the phonetic unit (i.e. the 
 sound) ; others are or may be intimate sound- combinations, such 
 as English [ei] (as in the word day) or German [ts] (as in the 
 word zehn). 
 
 One of the differences between the phoneme and the sound 
 lies in the fact that the sound is absolute, a thing-in-itself, a 
 fixed quantity of a physiological and acoustic nature, whereas 
 the phoneme is relative, not a fixed entity, but the result of a 
 long historical development varying and variable in its nature. 
 Thus the vowel element in the English unit bone may be con- 
 sidered phonetically as consisting (in the South of England) of 
 the vowel-sounds [o] and [u], each of which is produced in a 
 particular way by a particular position of the organs of speech. 
 This same element considered phonologically is a phoneme 
 of which one of the ancestral forms (Early English) was probably 
 pronounced [a:], and of which the present-day pronunciation 
 varies between two extremes [su] and [o:]. 
 
 From the point of view of orthography the ultimate unit of 
 language is the letter ; one or more of these may form a syllable, 
 and one or more syllables may form that which is the general 
 conception of a word. 
 
44 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 From the point of view of etymology, the unit of language 
 is the etymon. We may perhaps venture to define an etymon 
 as " any group of significative speech-units cognate with each 
 other and with their common ancestral form or forms." Thus 
 English dish and German Tisch are etymologically cognate 
 with each other and with a common ancestral (Latin) form 
 discus. Similarly English dry is etymologically cognate with 
 drier, driest, dries, dried, drying, dryness, dryish, and also with 
 foreign and ancestral cognates, the whole group and succession 
 constituting one etymon. 
 
 Most phenomena of inflexion in general (including conjuga- 
 tion proper and declension proper), and of derivation, come into 
 the province of etymology, using the term in its more ancient 
 and broader sense. 
 
 Semantics or Meaning 
 
 From the point of view of semantics the unit of language is 
 what we may term the semanticon, or unit of signification. 
 These units of meaning (or of thought) sometimes coincide with 
 monologs, but may often be equally well expressed by means 
 of polylogs or miologs ; the monolog again, the polylog a second 
 time and the miolog re- all serve to ex]3ress the same idea. 
 
 Any group of linguistic units expressing the same or nearly 
 the same idea may be called a semantic group, each member of 
 which will be a synonym of the others. The three words hardly, 
 scarcely, and barely are identical in meaning ; they form a 
 semantic group and are synonyms. It does not need an 
 etymologist to tell us that the three words are of entirely 
 different origin and history ; they are distinct etymons. Except 
 for the suffix -ly they differ from each other both phonetically 
 and orthographically ; their sole affinity lies in the fact that 
 they all express precisely the same meaning. 
 
 A synonym however need not express precisely the same 
 meaning as one of its fellow- members of the same group. In 
 some cases we do indeed find pairs or groups of units so closely 
 related in meaning that any one member may be used for 
 another in any conceivable context. From these, however, 
 we may pass almost imperceptibly to other pairs and groups 
 
THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE 45 
 
 less similar in meaning, until we finally reach examples in which 
 only by a considerable stretch of imagination can the members 
 be called synonyms. 
 
 A definition is nothing other than a polylogical synonym 
 of what is generally a shorter unit (a monolog, for instance). 
 
 The admission into a semantic group of members from two or 
 more different languages constitutes the basis of all translation, 
 for a translation is simply a foreign synonym of a native unit 
 or vice versa. 
 
 Ergonics or Function 
 
 Considered from the point of view of grammatical function 
 or analysis, the unit of language can only be what we shall 
 term the ergon (i.e. the unit of work). The ergon, like the 
 semanticon, may be a monolog, a polylog, a miolog, or even an 
 alogism. 
 
 Ergons may be classified according to their degree of com- 
 pleteness, ranging from those complete units called sentences 
 down to ultimate units which we may term insecables. 
 
 Sentences are complete units of thought ; they are decom- 
 posable into component parts (each of which may be still 
 further decomposed) and may (as clauses) constitute parts of 
 other sentences. 
 
 Insecables constitute fractions of greater ergons, but cannot 
 themselves be decomposed into lesser ergons. Between these 
 two extremes there are ergons of an indefinite number of 
 degrees of integrity. 
 
 Were the number of sentences in a given language limited 
 to a few hundreds, or even a few thousands, a student might 
 reasonably be expected to leam them off by heart, and by so 
 doing to become master of the language. The number of 
 sentences, however, being infinite, recourse must be had to the 
 study of their mechanism in order that from the relatively 
 limited number of lesser ergons an infinite number of sentences 
 may be composed at will. 
 
 It must not be thought, however, that the key to language- 
 study is to be found by taking the insecable as a starting- 
 point. Were the insecables of a given language of the same 
 
46 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 character as the ultimate units of mathematics, the building-up 
 of sentences would be a mathematical operation. This, how- 
 ever, is not the case ; insecables, like all other ergons, are 
 purely arbitrary, they are not scientific units but conventional 
 units, the insecable of one language may equal ergonically the 
 compound of another. 
 
 Ergons may also be classified according to the precise function 
 they perform in the sentence. Auxiliaries, finites, infinites, 
 prepositions, modifiers, adjuncts in all their varieties, and the 
 modifiers and adjuncts of these, all have their functional values 
 and definite relations one toward another. 
 
 Strange to say, the science the object of which is to determine 
 the relations between such groups, and to specify the manner 
 in which greater may be built up from lesser ergons, is so far 
 without a name. The terms generally used to designate this 
 branch of linguistic science are syntax, syntactic analysis^ 
 logical analysis, sentence analysis, or metaphysical analysis. 
 None of these terms, however, appears to meet the case. 
 Analysis denotes but half the scope of this science, which is both 
 analytic and synthetic. Syntax is more suitable, but unfortun- 
 ately this term (as generally accepted) only considers classes of 
 ergons such as subject, ^predicate, and complements, leaving to 
 etymology the examination of their respective components. 
 
 To cover all the phenomena and operations connected with 
 analysis and synthesis, from the sentence down to the insecable, 
 and vice versa, we suggest and shall henceforth use the com- 
 prehensive term Ergonics. 
 
 Let us, then, sum up our conclusions by stating that language 
 is made up of units considered variously as — 
 
 Sounds (the units of phonetics) 
 Phonemes (the units of phonology) 
 Letters (the units of orthography) 
 Etymons (the units of etymology) 
 Semanticons (the units of semantics) 
 Ergons (the units of ergonics) 
 
PART III 
 
 PRELIMINARY FACTORS OF LINGUISTIC 
 
 PEDAGOGY 
 
 Section 11.— A complete and ideal language method has a fom'fold 
 object, and this is to enable the student, in the shortest 
 possible time and with the least effort, so to assimilate the 
 materials of which the foreign language is composed that he is 
 thereby enabled to understand what he hears and reads, and 
 also to express himself correctly both by the oral and written 
 mediums. 
 
 If somebody asked us point-blank, " What shall I do to be- 
 come rich ? " we should consider it a strange question and be 
 tempted to give a flippant reply. If our questioner persisted 
 in all seriousness in his inquiry, we should be obliged to reply 
 in vague terms by advising him to adapt the right means to the 
 desired end. 
 
 Were he then to inquire what are the right means, we should 
 have to ask him to specify quite a number of points. We 
 should want to know something about the seeker after riches, 
 who and what he was, his age, what capital he already possessed, 
 what was his trade or calling, to what extent nature and art had 
 endowed his brain with money -making faculties, whether he 
 had so far been a successful financier or a successful bankrupt. 
 
 W^hen in possession of this information, we should have to ask 
 the most pertinent question : "What do you understand by 
 the term rich ? For what is riches to one is poverty to another. 
 Are you thinking of £500, £5000, or £50,000 a year ? " 
 
 Only when we had received a full reply to our questions 
 could we attempt to answer his, and even then we should 
 find ourselves reduced to generalities and negative advice in the 
 shape of a few dozen don^ts. 
 
 We find ourselves in a similar position when confronted with 
 the question : "What is the best method of learning a foreign 
 
 47 
 
48 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 language ? " We can only answer by the general formula quoted 
 above as a heading to this section. 
 
 When pressed for details as to how this counsel of perfection 
 is to be put into actual practice, we in our turn must submit 
 our interrogator to a series of questions. Until we receive 
 complete answers to these, it is impossible for us to suggest 
 any precise lines on which to apply the general formula. 
 
 It is manifestly absurd to attempt to solve a problem the 
 factors of which are unknown. These initial factors may be 
 grouped under two headings, subjective and objective. The 
 subjective factors concern the student himself ; they constitute 
 the personal equation. The objective factors relate to the end 
 in view, the object to be attained ; they constitute the linguistic 
 aspect of the problem. 
 
 Section 12.— In order to determine the best programme for a given 
 student we must take into consideration four subjective factors : 
 (a) The student ; (6) his previous study of the language ; 
 (c) his preliminary equipment ; (d) his incentive. 
 
 (a) The Student 
 
 Our first three questions deal with the personality of the 
 student, his age, temperament, and nationality. 
 
 Obviously the whole question of study is profoundly affected 
 by the age of the student. The treatment which would suit a 
 child ten years old will be most unsuitable for an adult student, 
 and vice versa. The reasoning faculties of the adult will help 
 him to overcome with ease many problems of an intellectual 
 nature, and at the same time, according to the dictum that 
 a little learning is a dangerous thing, will create for him all 
 sorts of artificial difficulties and false analogies. 
 
 The adult will perceive dangerous analogies which will lead 
 him astray. The child, whose reasoning faculties are com- 
 paratively undeveloped, will not fall into these traps. Two 
 French pupils, one aged ten and the other twenty, make the 
 acquaintance of the English verb let in the sentence let me 
 come. The adult will associate let with his native laisser, and 
 ere long will create artificial and un-English sentences such as 
 
FACTORS OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 49 
 
 1 wish to let my parcel here. The child with his restricted 
 capacities of analogy has not associated let and laisser, and 
 consequently will not misuse the verb in question. 
 
 As a matter of fact, the young child may be perfectly bilingual 
 and yet unable to establish any bilingual equations. When 
 the writer's daughter was six years old she could speak English 
 and French with almost equal facility, but was never able to 
 give the English equivalents of the simplest French words, or 
 vice versa. If asked to point to the window, she would point to 
 it ; or if asked, " Montre-moi la fenetre " she would do so. But 
 when asked, '' How do you say window when you are speaking 
 in French ? " there would be no other answer than a bewildered 
 look. Then " Comment dis-tu fenetre quand tu paries en 
 anglais ? " The same puzzled expression was the only answer. 
 The child had formed no associations whatever between pairs 
 of words which we are accustomed to consider as almost perfect 
 translations. Things which were equal to the same thing were 
 not yet equal to one another. 
 
 Thanks to the non- development of what we shall call bilingual 
 consciousness there is little danger of the child's importing into 
 one language the characteristics of another. 
 
 An adult Englishman hears the French word yeu. He 
 associates it immediately with the English sound in yurr, and 
 until corrected by an energetic application of practical phonetics 
 will persist in pronouncing the two words identically. There 
 is no danger that a young child will do this. In short, the 
 younger the student the less will be his proneness to the six 
 ' vicious tendencies ' (each of which is described in Section 34). 
 
 The teacher must utilize and take full advantage of the 
 precious factor of ignorance or the undeveloped powers of 
 analogy, false or otherwise. 
 
 It is true that in the vast majority of cases the student will 
 already have arrived at the age of reason and of false analogy. 
 The factor of natural ignorance not being there to help us, it will 
 be necessary to introduce tactics the object of which will be to 
 induce an artificial ignorance so that the adult may not be un- 
 duly handicapped by his faculties of reasoning. With this we 
 shall deal when we come to consider the functions of the teacher. 
 
 D 
 
50 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 The temperament of the student is a factor which must be 
 taken into consideration. The tactics that will suit the 
 plodding, patient, and unimaginative will not be efficacious 
 when applied to the nervous, energetic, and imaginative type. 
 Those who work by fits and starts with strenuous activity 
 are capable of efforts unknown to the dull but patient plodder. 
 An impatient genius will tire of a programme worked out for 
 the use of a steady worker ; the tricks and devices invented to 
 circumvent the vagaries of the bad learner will be a source of 
 useless irritation to the student who has no need of them. The 
 expert assimilator, clamouring for new words to conquer, is in 
 a different position from the sluggish learner, to whom a dozen 
 new words will give a severe attack of linguistic indigestion. 
 
 In class- work, of course, this factor and many others besides 
 will have to be partially or totally neglected. No two members 
 of a class possess the same temperament, but the exigencies of 
 such teaching will necessitate a general treatment calculated 
 to suit the average case. 
 
 The nationality of the student is sometimes of importance. 
 Certain races seem to possess the faculties of language-study in 
 a greater degree than others. The Latin races, it would appear, 
 are generally less adaptable than the Germanic. Scandinavians, 
 Flemings, Hungarians, and others whose mother -tongues are 
 not in universal currency w^ould seem to be better favoured 
 with the innate gift of linguistic study. These, however, are 
 problems of comparatively little importance in our present 
 quest. 
 
 (b) The Previous Study of the Pupil 
 
 There is a world of difference between the raw beginner and 
 the pupil who already has a nodding acquaintance with the 
 language. The former may to a certain extent be compared 
 with the child ; his perceptive faculties have a fair start, he is 
 less likely to fall into the traps of defective analogy. Ask an 
 Englishman to pronounce the French word bon. If he has no 
 knowledge whatever of the language it is more than likely 
 that his reproduction will be tolerably exact. If, on the other 
 hand, he is already familiar with the word (more especially in 
 
FACTORS OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 51 
 
 its orthographic form), his performance will probably be un- 
 satisfactory. It is very interesting to note what takes place 
 when a class of beginners includes a member who has already 
 acquired a few superficial notions of the language. Unspoiled 
 by defective cross-association, the beginners will tend to attach 
 the right pronunciation to the words they learn and to give 
 them their true semantic value, whereas the more ' advanced ' 
 member will rely on his old associations and amuse his fellow- 
 students by his blunders. 
 
 If such previous study has been extensive, our student will 
 fall either into the category of the advanced worker (in which 
 case he must be transferred to an advanced class), or into that 
 of the spoiled learner (in which case he must be transferred to a 
 special class and be given special corrective treatment). 
 
 Which of the two alternatives will best suit his case must be 
 determined by a series of tests — in other terms, an examination. 
 If his former teacher worked according to sound principles, his 
 efforts seconded by a rationally composed book, it will be possible 
 to place the student in the first category. But if his former 
 training has been defective such a course will probably not be 
 expedient. He may have studied under a teacher who himself 
 had an inadequate knowledge of the language, in which case he 
 will have inherited his teacher's defects. His book may have 
 been one of those monstrosities which pass off a caricature of 
 the language as the real article. In this case he will have the 
 exceedingly difficult task of unlearning everything and effacing 
 from his mind all the false associations that he has acquired. 
 His degree of knowledge must be expressed by a minus instead 
 of by a plus, and to be strictly logical we should give him a 
 course of memory -obliteration (if such a process were possible) 
 until he has attained the state of ignorance already enjoyed by 
 his fellow-students. 
 
 (c) The Preliminary Equipment of the Student 
 
 Calligraphy. — If our student is illiterate he "will be unduly 
 handicapped in his efforts to learn the language. If he has 
 never learnt to use a pen or a pencil it will be impossible for 
 
52 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 him to take notes or to write exercises ; if he has never learnt 
 to read he will be unable to make use of a book. Although 
 conceivable, it is hardly possible that we shall ever be con- 
 fronted in this country by students lacking this essential pre- 
 liminary. In remote lands, however, this may be the rule 
 rather than the exception. The missionary giving a course of 
 English to adult Polynesians must come face to face with this 
 factor. A somewhat similar situation is necessarily present 
 when the student has no notion of the script forms of the 
 language he is setting out to learn. The study of literary 
 Chinese may necessitate a preliminary course in which we learn 
 to hold and to use the native writing-brush and to rub our 
 ' Indian ink.' The converse is certainly the case. The 
 European may be permitted to trace his Chinese characters 
 with a European pen, but the Chinaman will not find it con- 
 venient to write English and French with a native brush I 
 
 The English boy or girl of ten years of age may be so badly 
 endowed with the art of using a pen, that the writing of legible 
 matter is an impossibility. Nor are adults always perfect 
 penmen. It is difficult to correct the exercises of a student 
 whose writing is so bad that he himself is unable to decipher it ! 
 
 The art of using a pen or a Chinese brush forms no part of 
 language-study proper, but is certainly an essential preliminary 
 to it. 
 
 This is such a patent fact that it would hardly seem necessary 
 to call attention to it ; indeed, we only do so in order to specify 
 clearly what wc are to understand by an essentially preliminary 
 study. 
 
 Oral Imitation. — ^This is another essential preliminary to the 
 study proper of language. For general purposes it is more 
 important to possess the faculty of imitating speech than to 
 be an expert penman, for while we recognize the arbitrary or 
 artificial nature of writing, the imitation of a speaker is a 
 natural gift which although possessed by every one in his 
 infancy has become wholly or partially atrophied in the case 
 of adults. The very young child learns a most extensive 
 vocabulary in the form of useful sentences purely by the method 
 of imitation. Listen to the babblings of a child of eighteen 
 
FACTORS OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 58 
 
 months ; note how he listens and with what fidelity he repro- 
 duces, in spite of his rudimentary articulation, all he hears; 
 vowels, stress, and intonation, all are reproduced with accuracy ; 
 consonants and diphthongs are yet a little above his articulatory 
 powers, but these will come a little later. To the English child 
 of eighteen months it matters little whether the sentence to be 
 reproduced is a native or foreign one. Uninfluenced by any 
 written forms, with no cross-associations to confuse the issue, 
 the child goes on day by day imitating the speech of his elders, 
 until he becomes a speaking machine of which the parts have 
 each learnt their respective functions. 
 
 When his innate powers of oral imitation have played their 
 part, as soon as he becomes a fully articulate creature with a 
 vocabulary sufficient for everyday use, these powers of repro- 
 duction by ear seem to weaken, and at an age varying between 
 five and ten they have become dormant. If at the age of ten 
 the child begins to learn a second language it is no longer with 
 the precious aid of his imitative faculties. What he does is to 
 liken the foreign sounds to his own, to hear his English ay 
 (in yay) where he should hear the French e, to reproduce French 
 eau (in Veau) in the guise of his English ow (in low). 
 
 This is not true for all cases. A minority, a very small 
 minority, of children retain this power of imitation ; others who 
 have lost it may regain it with some facility ; hence among 
 language students we find a certain number who are able to 
 imitate foreign speech, just as they imitated in their infancy 
 those who spoke what has become their native language. 
 
 In addition to the two extreme types, those who can imitate 
 anything and those who can imitate nothing, there would 
 appear to be a rather curious intermediate type. The writer 
 has known many cases in which Belgians with a marked Walloon 
 pronunciation go to Paris and after a stay varying between 
 a few months and a few years return to their own country 
 perfectly able to speak Parisian. But although these people 
 were able merely by exercising their latent faculties of imita- 
 tion to acquire the pronunciation of a cognate dialect, they were 
 unable to utilize them in order to acquire a passable pronuncia- 
 tion of English. The writer would note here the curious case 
 
54 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 of an Englishman who was able to produce perfect imitations 
 of any English dialect and could reproduce to the exact tone 
 the various street cries of the French town in which he lived, 
 but who, during the course of his French lessons, was unable 
 to produce any but the most Britannic sounds. 
 
 It is more than probable that the inability to use these latent 
 powers of imitation is due more to shyness and to unconscious 
 restraint than to any physical obstacle. If it were possible to 
 react against this sense of restraint, if it were possible to 
 produce a state of natural abandon with a supreme disregard of 
 self-ridicule, each of us might become an imitator with the 
 same success as in our infancy. 
 
 If the student with whom we are dealing is one who can 
 imitate, the muscles of whose vocal organs are ' tuned ' to his 
 auditive perceptions, then he will already have overcome the 
 greatest obstacle to the acquisition of a foreign language. An 
 ideal imitator is an ideal language-learner, for correct auditive 
 perception and correct oral production are the natural bases 
 of all true language-study. 
 
 Those who have lost their early faculties of oral reproduction 
 must be prepared to reacquire them, else will their progress be 
 as that of the snail, or at best as that of a crab or a waltzing 
 mouse. 
 
 The faculty of correct reproduction is not only of phonetic 
 importance, but it has a most direct bearing upon the whole 
 process of study, which, as we shall see later, reposes on a 
 groundwork of perfectly memorized sentences. Without these 
 there is no real progress whatever, and without the faculty of 
 correct reproduction, memorizing is a slow and almost impossible 
 process. 
 
 A Knowledge of the Theory of Language. — A valuable asset 
 in studying the structure of a foreign language is a rough but 
 working knowledge of the nature of language itself. Its value, 
 it is true, is more of a negative than of a positive nature, for if 
 this knowledge does not go very far in the direction of further- 
 ing the student's progress, it will at least show him many of the 
 pitfalls which beset his way and will expose most of the linguistic 
 fallacies. The more the student is the victim of the six ' vicious 
 
FACTORS OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 55 
 
 tendencies ' the more necessary it is for him to possess the know- 
 ledge which proves them to be vicious. Those who imagine 
 words to be homogeneous units, each with a fixed semantic 
 value determined by its etyjnology ; those who consider the 
 phonetic aspect as a mere offshoot of the written ; those who 
 mistake literature for language, whose knowledge of semantics 
 and ergonics is confined to a pocket dictionary and classical 
 grammar, such students are in sore need of a course of language 
 theory, including precise (even if concise) notions as to the 
 nature of words, sounds, functions, and meanings. 
 
 A Knowledge of the Theory of Study is closely allied to the 
 point treated above and is complementary to it. In the same 
 way that a knowledge of linguistics disposes of the fallacies of 
 language, so may a knowledge of the processes of study dispel 
 the illusions connected with the pedagogic side of the problem. 
 Those who learn isolated lists of words will cease wasting their 
 time in so doing when they realize the futility of such proceed- 
 ings ; those who learn grammatical rules by heart and imagine 
 this to be the royal road to success will stop this practice when 
 they clearly see this road to be a cut de sac. Few adult pupils 
 will give themselves the trouble of memorizing sentences until 
 they are convinced that this is the most direct road to the end 
 they wish to attain, and of this they will certainly not be con- 
 vinced unless they devote a few hours to the understanding 
 of such pedagogic principles as do exist in the linguistic world. 
 
 A Knowledge of the Theory of Memory. — ^The last of the five 
 subjects suggested as useful or even indispensable preliminaries 
 is that connected with the laws of memory. Many students 
 realize intuitively and with a perfect consciousness what it is 
 necessary to do in order to remember the isolated facts the 
 aggregate of which make up the sum of the required knowledge. 
 For such persons no special memory course is needful, but for 
 those who, despite their best efforts, are unable to assimilate 
 knowledge it is a very useful thing to have a first-hand 
 acquaintance with those laws which fall under the headings 
 of localization, visualization, association, separation, analogy, 
 concentration, catenizing, semanticizing, and assimilation. 
 
 Most people confess to a bad memory. Doubtless there do 
 
56 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 exist cases in which the faculty of remembering is neither 
 apparent nor latent, but in the great majority of persons there 
 are wonderful, if latent, powers of memory. A short and 
 simple course of training in most cases produces results which 
 the uninitiated would be tempted to call miraculous. 
 
 The five factors Calligraphy, Oral Imitation, Theory of 
 Language, Theory of Study, Theory of Memory make up the sum 
 of what we may call the Preliminaries to Language-study. 
 As we have already noted, none of these forms an essential part 
 of the study of any particular language. A text-book of French 
 for the use of English students will not include any one of 
 them. Our inquiry, however, will plainly show that if these 
 preliminaries form no part of language-study, they are very 
 valuable outside auxiliaries and capable of rendering the greatest 
 possible help to the student. 
 
 That is why, on examining in advance the mental faculties 
 of our student, we wish particularly to know whether and in 
 what degree he is conversant with these pertinent factors. 
 
 In that section of our inquiry which will treat exclusively of 
 the Programme of Study we shall conclude that it will be a real 
 economy of time and of effort for the student to acquire at 
 least the outline of the leading features of these five subjects. 
 It may be noted here that such acquisition is in the nature of 
 a permanent investment, good for a lifetime, and a sound 
 preparation for any number of languages. It is work which 
 may be accomplished once for all, and it will prove to be of 
 constant utility. 
 
 (d) Incentive 
 
 Before passing to the objective factors it would be well to 
 know what is the incentive of our student. Is he going to 
 learn in order to please himself, or for some exterior reason ? 
 The incentive is the mainspring of his mechanism of study ; 
 if he realizes that the successful attaining of the end in view 
 is essential to his well-being, this alone will quicken his mental 
 faculties and encourage him to supreme efforts. 
 
 In a very small number of cases the language itself constitutes 
 the interest and the end in view ; in the vast majority of cases 
 
FACTORS OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 57 
 
 the study of the language is looked upon as a necessary evil, 
 only endurable on account of the reward which will attend its 
 successful termination. 
 
 A decides to learn French because a knowledge of that 
 language will further his interests by making him a more 
 efficient clerk or salesman. 
 
 B comes to the same decision because it will give him greater 
 comfort in his journeys abroad. 
 
 C will learn because the exigencies of competitive examination 
 compel him to do so. 
 
 D has no choice ; he goes to school and he must obey his 
 teacher. 
 
 E determines to become a French scholar because it will 
 enable him to read certain scientific works of which no English 
 translation exists. 
 
 F is anxious to know French in order that he may enjoy the 
 masterpieces of French fiction. 
 
 G intends to learn French because he is interested in philology 
 and the structure of language. 
 
 So many men, so many motives. 
 
 Some of these will prove to be powerful mainsprings ; others 
 will be such poor incentives that artificial stimulants will have 
 to be applied continuously by the teacher in order to make the 
 machine go at all. To maintain that the sum of all these diverse 
 incentives represents the total number of different treatments 
 required to fit each individual case would be a manifest exaggera- 
 tion. Since, however, we have set out to inquire into the nature 
 of all the factors connected with language- study in order that 
 the essential may be distinguished from the unessential, we 
 must recognize, if only in abstract theory, the possibility of a 
 vast number of courses open to us in accordance with the purely 
 subjective factors in the problem. We must acknowledge that 
 the student of even temperament, an expert penman, an artist 
 in mimicry, an expert in the linguistic, pedagogic, and mnemonic 
 sciences, unspoiled by previous defective study and possessing 
 a powerful incentive, is more likely to study a foreign language 
 with success than one who is his antithesis in every particular. 
 We may even go so far as to say that such an ideal subject 
 
58 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 requires no teaching at all ; place him in France and within 
 three months he will speak like a native. We may venture to 
 predict that his contrary counterpart will do nothing but waste 
 his time and that of his teacher if he tries to learn a foreign 
 language, and that his best course would be to relinquish 
 whatever linguistic ambition he possesses. 
 
 On broad lines we may say that some pupils will need very 
 careful handling and require us to take all possible precau- 
 tions, whereas others may be left largely to their own devices 
 without much fear of their contracting bad linguistic habits. 
 
 Section 13.— We must also take into consideration five objective 
 factors : (a) The language to be studied ; (b) the orientation of 
 the study ; (c) the extent of the study ; (d) the degree of the 
 study ; (e) the manner of the study. 
 
 The following group of five factors concerns the object of 
 study ; we will therefore speak of them as the objective 
 factors, as distinct from the four factors just examined, which 
 concern the student himself and his capacities. 
 
 (a) The Language 
 
 The problem to be faced by a Frenchman about to learn Italian 
 has a very different character from that encountered by an 
 Englishman setting out to learn Hungarian. French and Italian 
 are cognate or sister languages ; English and Hungarian are not 
 even distant relatives: the two tongues have nothing at all 
 in common. The resemblances between two cognate languages 
 constitute both a facility and a source of danger. French and 
 Italian are very similar in structure, and by far the greater 
 part of their vocabularies may be arranged in homo-etymonic 
 pairs. That is to say, most French words have their etymological 
 equivalent in Italian, which may generally be recognized at 
 sight. When a Frenchman can take a long passage in Italian 
 and decipher its meaning by converting each word into its French 
 morphological equivalent, he may be excused for assuming that 
 etymological and semantic identity are one and the same thing. 
 To a certain extent also he may be justified in concluding that 
 it is possible to speak and understand Italian while thinking 
 
FACTORS OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 59 
 
 in French. It will be difficult, perhaps impossible, for him 
 to resist putting his theory into practice, and by so doing to 
 become the victim of all the fallacies which militate against 
 success in language- study ; he will become a ' bad learner.' 
 
 An Englishman studying Hungarian will have no such 
 temptation. On the face of it there is no possible etymological 
 or morphological identity between Hungarian words and 
 English ones. The superficial difficulty of the language will 
 tend to force him to adopt a right line of study, just as the 
 superficial facility of Italian will tempt the Frenchman into the 
 wrong path. A paradox-loving Belgian pupil of the writer's 
 once declared English to be far more difficult of acquisition 
 than German. Written English, he said, looked so absurdly 
 easy that it was impossible not to believe that it was a word- 
 for-word transcription of French ; its apparent facility dis- 
 couraged serious study. German, on the contrary, was so 
 different from French in every respect that all efforts at a 
 similar method of translation were doomed to failure. 
 
 This shrewd observation concretizes the essential difference 
 between a pair of cognate languages and a pair which are 
 non- cognate. The former constitute a direct temptation to a 
 vicious system of mechanical conversion ; in the latter case 
 the absence of morphological resemblance tends to a sounder 
 system of study. 
 
 A pupil will be more docile and require fewer disciplinary 
 measures when learning a language of a totally strange nature. 
 
 (b) Orientation 
 
 It is not enough for a student to state that he wishes to learn 
 a certain language. Unless the teacher knows in what aspect 
 he wishes to learn it, he and the pupil will soon be at cross- 
 purposes. Each language may be said to embrace three 
 groups of dialects. In addition to this, each language may be 
 viewed from the point of view of its graphic or oral manifesta- 
 tion. Furthermore, an acquaintance with the language may 
 be of a passive or an active nature. These three considerations, 
 dialect, manifestation, and state, may be grouped under the 
 common heading of Orientation. 
 
60 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Dialect — Three sorts of dialects may be distinguished : 
 regional, temporal, and social. 
 
 It must be clearly recognized that no language possesses an 
 intrinsically standard form. That each language possesses an 
 ideal ' correct ' form from which all divergencies constitute 
 ' impurities ' or ' mistakes ' is not only a popular superstition, 
 but also one which is shared by the majority of academicians 
 and literary experts. Nearly all Frenchmen are imbued with 
 the doctrine that French is great, there is but one French and 
 Littre is his prophet ! As a matter of fact, French, like all 
 other languages, is a mass of regional, temporal, and social dia- 
 lects. Of these, one variety has become classic and artificialized 
 under the auspices of the French Academy. 
 
 There are many English dialects. In point of space we have 
 Southern English, North Country, Scottish, Irish, American, 
 and Australian dialects, each of which contains numerous sub- 
 divisions. 
 
 Let it be understood that we use the term ' dialect ' in the 
 sense of a variety of a given language, the sum of which varieties 
 constitutes the language itself. 
 
 Dialectal varieties include not only divergencies of pro- 
 nunciation, but also differences in general lexicological 
 aspects ; we find in one dialect sounds, etymons, semanticons, 
 and ergons unknown in the sister dialects. In short, the 
 dialects of a given language bear the same relation to each 
 other as do the sister languages of a given cognate group. As 
 the Walloon dialect of French is to the Provencal dialect of 
 French, so is Portuguese to Italian. There is but a difference 
 in degree. 
 
 When we speak of the Spanish language we generally mean 
 that one of the Iberian dialects known as Castilian. By 
 German we mean that variety of Modem High German which 
 its literature has caused to become classical. When we speak 
 of the Chinese, Flemish, or Norwegian languages, we have no 
 precise notion at all of what we mean. 
 
 Although no one dialect of a language is in itself intrinsically 
 more ' correct ' or ' purer ' than its sister dialects, it is generally 
 convenient to specify a so-called standard dialect and to 
 
FACTORS OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 61 
 
 consider it as the one most worthy of our attention. This 
 standard dialect is generally defined as being the one which 
 is spoken by educated persons in and within a certain radius 
 of the capital or the centre of intellectual activity. 
 
 When the scene is placed in London the majority of the 
 characters in a play by Shaw, Jones, or Pinero speak educated 
 Cockney, and the books in which such plays are presented to the 
 public in printed form are written in educated Cockney. Let 
 us add that this will be the colloquial variety as distinguished 
 from the literary variety of a leading article in The Times. 
 
 As modern literary English is based on the London or 
 educated- Cockney dialect, w^e may consider this to be a 
 convenient standard type suitable to be the object of study 
 for a foreigner. 
 
 Similarly it is expedient to study Northern or Parisian French ; 
 the more discriminating will claim that even this dialect should 
 be differentiated according to its subdivisions. As to those 
 who claim a special ' purity ' for the French of Tours, Blois, 
 Lyons, or Liege, let us dismiss their talk as mere literary 
 babblings having no weight in a serious linguistic inquiry. 
 
 No sounder precept can be given to the student than to 
 assimilate the vocabulary (and all that term implies) of educated 
 people speaking what is generally considered to be the standard 
 dialect of the language. 
 
 Apart from regiojial, we are faced with temporal varieties of 
 a given language. A Frenchman wishes to leani English. We 
 may give him a number of lessons in modern educated Cockney 
 and then discover that he wanted to follow the shortest path 
 to Shakespeare ! His requirements were concerned, not with 
 the twentieth -century, but with the sixteenth- century dialect. 
 He should have specified his requirements instead of assuming 
 that in England to-day we speak the language of Shakespeare. 
 To read the comedies of Moliere or the fables of La Fontaine 
 with a view to acquiring a knowledge of modern French is an 
 example of misdirected energy arising from ignorance of the 
 nature of the language. A case is known of a conscientious 
 but short-sighted student who set out to learn modem French 
 via Latin and the Chanson de Roland, 
 
62 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 We may perhaps distinguish varieties of a given language 
 neither of a purely regional nor of a purely temporal character. 
 The difference between an article in The English Review and 
 the speech of a Hyde Park politician is great. While the 
 former tends toward elegant archaisms, the latter is garnished 
 by homely allusions and vigorous metaphor of a most un- 
 classical nature. " The old bloke didn't ought to say nuffink," 
 compared with *' The elderly gentleman ought not to say 
 anything," " You ain't got no call to [bad word] off," com- 
 pared with " There is no need for you to go," represent two 
 varieties of speech of which the differences, being neither regional 
 nor temporal, must be designated by a third term ; we might 
 call them social differences. 
 
 The Literary Style. — That style which is used in written 
 composition and in public speaking. 
 
 It may be divided into ' strata ' (to use the term of the late 
 Henry Sweet), the highest of which is represented by the archaic 
 language of poetry, the lowest approximating to everyday speech. 
 
 The study of the literary style is essential for students of 
 literature and of written language. 
 
 Colloquial Style. — That style which is used in everyday 
 conversation, in familiar letters, and in the reproduction of 
 conversations. 
 
 The colloquial style may also be subdivided into various 
 strata, the highest being the speech of educated persons when 
 speaking to strangers, and the lowest being represented by the 
 most vulgar forms of speech. 
 
 These social dialects may be classified according to the follow- 
 ing scale : poetical and (practically identical with archaic) 
 high literary prose ; normal literary prose (the style of leading 
 articles) ; high colloquial (as when speaking to strangers) ; 
 normal colloquial (as when speaking to intimate friends) ; 
 vulgar colloquial (as used by vulgar persons). 
 
 There is, of course, a gradual transition from one stage to 
 another ; they are not separated by hard and fast lines. 
 Normal colloquial may become more and more slangy and less 
 and less attention may be paid to its conformity with literary 
 usage until it becomes vulgar. All five degrees may be both 
 
FACTORS OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 63 
 
 written and spoken : we may recite poetry, and in novels we 
 may write vulgar talk. 
 
 The social dialects of most interest to the average student 
 are those we have designated as normal literary prose and 
 normal colloquial. 
 
 It must be perfectly understood by all students that no one 
 of these styles is ever used by natives to serve both for literary 
 and colloquial purposes. The French in general (and their 
 professeurs in particular) maintain with sad insistence that good 
 colloquial French and good literary French are synonymous 
 terms. If this were true we should be forced to the inevitable 
 conclusion that every Frenchman (including the members of 
 their Academy) invariably speaks bad French except when in 
 the pulpit and on the platform. 
 
 Similar superstitions exist in England. It is often stated 
 that expressions such as "Have you got it?" "I don't 
 know," "Who did you give it to ? " are bad English, because 
 they are not used in the literary dialect. We must conclude 
 again that all Englishmen use bad English. 
 
 It matters little after all whether bad French and colloquial 
 French are synonymous terms. What is important is clearly 
 to realize that the general form of language used in everyday 
 speech is a variety distinct from the literary, differing from it 
 in all the aspects of lexicology from phonetics to semantics. 
 
 When the European sets out to learn Japanese he is told 
 frankly at the outset that he must fix his choice either on the 
 classical literary language or on the colloquial language, and is 
 shown that the two differ as much as any two cognate languages. 
 
 If all students were informed that similar differences (although 
 not in so marked a degree) exist between literary and colloquial 
 French, English, Spanish, etc., there would be less time wasted 
 in misdirected effort and we should no longer see pupils 
 labouring at the acquisition of the passe defini and the imparfait 
 du subjonctif as stepping stones to everyday spoken French. 
 
 In addition to the three groups of dialects to which we have 
 given the respective names of regional, temporal, and social, 
 we may perhaps also mention artificial dialects. 
 
 These are the varieties of a language as used by the majority 
 
64 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 of foreigners, various forms of ' pidgin ' less known but just 
 as real as the ' pidgin ' English of the Chinese coasts. We 
 mean by pidgin dialects such perversions as Franco-English 
 (example : ai mek mi veri ouelle eunderstand hwenne ai gau 
 inne ennegleundc " ; or Anglo-French : " Zher swee commonsong 
 der parlay Frongsay tray biang nayce par ? "). 
 
 Readers of that delightful book of Du Maurier's Peter Ihheison 
 will recall the quaint artificial dialects of English and French 
 invented and spoken by ' Gogo ' and ' Tarapatapoum.' 
 
 Strange as it may seem, the highest aspiration of many 
 students on both sides of the Channel is toward monstrous 
 dialects of this sort. How often have we heard apologies for 
 these commencing " Voyons, c'est deja quelque chose de pouvoir 
 se faire un petit peu comprendre en anglais ; on fait ce qu'on 
 peut et, ma foi, on ne pent pas s'attendre a la perfection, quoi ? ; 
 ce que j'estime, c'est ..." and so on ! 
 
 Obviously our inquiry and conclusions include no serious 
 consideration of such views, nor countenance any such practices. 
 Such students must be left to the mercies of the quack, and he 
 alone will profit by their doctrine. 
 
 Manifestations. — Our thoughts may be made manifest through 
 the spoken or through the written word. It is not necessary 
 for us to compare the relative importance of each nor to 
 insist upon their mutual independence (no, not interdepend- 
 ence !). What does concern us is the fact that for most 
 students a knowledge of both manifestations is ultimately 
 required, and that in special cases it may be expedient to 
 learn one and not the other. 
 
 A correspondence clerk who receives orders from his employer 
 to make himself acquainted with the contents of letters in the 
 French department finds it imperative to make a special study 
 of written French as used in modern business correspondence. 
 If these orders are to be carried out in the shortest possible 
 time, if his promotion and prospects depend upon such acquisi- 
 tion with the least delay, it is difficult to see why he should 
 trouble himself with the phonetic aspect of colloquial French. 
 
 If, on the other hand, it becomes necessary for him to travel 
 in France, to make himself understood at stations, hotels, and 
 
FACTORS OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 65 
 
 in offices, then it is equally difficult to see why he should confuse 
 his understanding, spoil his pronunciation, and misuse his energy 
 in learning the French orthographic tradition as applied to the 
 classical or literary aspect of the language. 
 
 For those to whom both manifestations are to have their 
 importance we shall probably discover on pedagogical grounds 
 that it will be more expedient first to master the oral and later 
 on to study the graphic aspects, and only in the advanced stages 
 to progress simultaneously in both. 
 
 Active and Passive Use of Language. — ^Apart from all question 
 of dialect, apart also from the question of manifestation, we 
 have to consider two aspects of language which from their very 
 nature require absolutely different treatment. 
 
 The use of a language^ in the fullest acceptation of the term, 
 implies the faculty of transforming thoughts into speech (both 
 oral and graphic), and also that of transforming oral and graphic 
 speech into thoughts. The former of these two operations con- 
 stitutes the active and the latter the passive states of language. 
 When we speak and write we use language actively ; when we 
 listen and read we are making a passive use of it. 
 
 Many persons are able to use language in one state and not 
 in the other ; their respective capacities depend entirely on the 
 manner of their study and training. One who has read exten- 
 sively and written little may have a passive command of the 
 written language little inferior to that of his mother tongue ; 
 one who has listened much, who has frequented lecture-halls 
 and theatres in the foreign country, will have so sharpened his 
 auditive faculties that nothing of importance escapes his com- 
 prehension. But neither of these may be able to express his 
 thoughts in the foreign tongue with any degree of facility or 
 accuracy. If the language is a near relative of our own, we may 
 at first sight make out the gist of an article written in it, but 
 fail to reproduce a single word of it. 
 
 Conversely, a contrary line of study or experience may enable 
 us to express our most m'gent needs, and yet leave us unable to 
 comprehend what is said or written to us in reply. It is possible 
 to memorize a hundred or so of the most useful sentences and 
 to use them successfully, but we have no guarantee that the 
 
 £ 
 
66 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 natives will confine themselves to this limited repertory when 
 answering us. 
 
 Although special cases may arise in which either of these 
 aspects may be of far greater importance or utility than the 
 other, we shall generally find that both are essential and are 
 inseparably bound up one with the other. The correspondence 
 clerk of whom we spoke may have received instructions to learn 
 to understand the foreign lettps received, and to answer them in 
 English. But on the whole, let us repeat, the use of the lan- 
 guage normally comprises the active and the passive aspects. 
 
 For certain pedagogic reasons we shall conclude at a later stage 
 in our inquiry that passive work should precede active work ; 
 this was the case in our infantile study of the mother tongue. 
 
 (c) Extent of Study 
 
 The student who contemplates the acquisition of a small 
 working vocabulary in order not to be entirely helpless when 
 abroad is in a different position from the one whose aim it is to 
 be able to use the foreign language like a native. Under the 
 headings of Incentive and Orientation we have examined cases 
 in which a partial knowledge of one aspect of a given language 
 alone is aimed at. Many other examples can be framed, in which 
 a very limited programme will cover all the requirements of a 
 given student. 
 
 On the other hand, a large number of people set out to acquire 
 the language in its entirety. The French wife of an Englishman 
 comes to settle with her husband in England ; she must almost 
 necessarily become anglicized, and this process includes a con- 
 tinual progressive study of the language, so that in the end her 
 knowledge of it will hardly be inferior to that of her own tongue. 
 For those whose desires or interests induce them to become 
 naturalized subjects of another country, the almost perfect 
 acquisition of the foreign tongue is a necessity. 
 
 For such people time is not a pressing factor ; they have years 
 before them in which to pursue their aim. Although it is 
 natural that they should wish to attain the desired end with as 
 little delay as possible, a few weeks or a few months will not 
 
FACTORS OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 67 
 
 have the same importance as it has in cases where speed is 
 the one essential. 
 
 When, on the other hand, some tangible results are required 
 within a given period, when the successful issue of a business 
 enterprise depends on the practical acquisition of a limited 
 programme, every hour is of value ; it is simply impossible to 
 devote the same number of days, hours, weeks, or months to 
 the formation of those soimd linguistic habits which alone 
 will afford ultimate perfection. 
 
 " Quelques notions d'anglais suffisantes pour permettre a 
 quelqu'un de se tirer d'embarras " is a very different proposi- 
 tion from " Une connaissance approfondie de la langue anglaise 
 sous tous ses rapports." To submit to one and the same 
 programme two students the difference between whose respective 
 aims is expressed above is to misunderstand or to ignore the 
 golden principle of adapting the right means to the required 
 end. 
 
 (d) Degree of Study 
 
 Apart from considerations of extent, we are faced with the 
 problem of degree. While the former term is an expression of 
 quantity, the latter expresses the species or quality of the desired 
 knowledge. 
 
 Some students wish merely to learn about a language, others 
 wish to assimilate the material of it. We may call these re- 
 spectively the documentary and assimilative aspects of study. 
 A philologist often finds it necessary to become acquainted with 
 the peculiarities of the structure of a given language ; he wishes 
 to know which are the sounds it possesses, to understand its 
 ergonic or semantic machinery. This information is necessary 
 in order to support a theory, or to furnish examples of some 
 linguistic principle. Just as one's native language can only be 
 properly appreciated after one has viewed it from the foreigner's 
 standpoint, so also the nature of inflected languages can only be 
 understood by the aid of some acquaintance with non-inflexional 
 languages. 
 
 The student of comparative phonetics, ergonics, or semantics 
 will find it of inestimable value to have a rough theoretical 
 
68 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 knowledge of a large number of languages, as will also the 
 teacher whose aim it is to give lessons to foreigners. For these 
 and other reasons it often becomes necessary to obtain a first- 
 hand docimientation of certain languages without troubling to 
 assimilate the matter contained in their vocabularies. 
 
 Here again we must be prepared to differentiate between 
 two classes of students, and to provide programmes drawn up 
 on entirely different bases in order to suit their divergent 
 requirements. 
 
 A book setting forth the characteristics and peculiarities of 
 the language in logical and grammatical order, treating ex- 
 haustively each point in its proper place, is an ideal reference 
 work for all who are seeking a documentary knowledge. But 
 such a book gives little or no help to those whose primary 
 object is to assimilate the material of the language itself. 
 For them the matter must be sorted and selected in order of 
 frequency and utility, with due regard to the principles of 
 proportion, ergonic combination, etc. 
 
 (e) Manner of Study 
 
 The last of the factors serving as the basis of our inquiry is 
 that which concerns the means of tuition. The vast majority 
 of language-learners work with a teacher ; indeed, the teacher 
 is generally considered so essential an instrument that it occurs 
 to few that his presence is not absolutely indispensable. But 
 in language-study, as in the case of other studies, self-instruction 
 is not only possible, but in certain cases imperative. How, 
 except by self-instruction, is the student whose home is a small 
 English town or village to become acquainted with Arabic, 
 Urdu, or Chinese ? 
 
 There is, however, no hard and fast limit separating those 
 who study with from those who study without a teacher. There 
 are many degrees of self-instruction, varying fix)ni the case in 
 which the student is wrestling with the mysteries of, let us say, 
 Finnish, from a German-Finnish dictionary which he has picked 
 up at a second-hand bookshop, to that in which he has sub- 
 scribed to a correspondence course in French and receives his 
 
FACTORS OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 69 
 
 lessons and phonograph record weekly by post. The only 
 difference between the subscriber to the correspondence course 
 and the pupil who visits his teacher twice a week lies in the fact 
 that in one case his instructions are conveyed orally and in 
 the other by the written medium. 
 
 We may sum up our conclusions in the form of the two 
 following axioms : 
 
 1. Let the student determine in advance what is his aim. 
 
 2. Let the work of the student he directed in accordance with 
 
 his aim. 
 
 1. Let us determine in advance what is our aim. 
 
 When we take our ticket at the railway booking office we 
 cannot always determine whether our journey will be long or 
 short, easy or difficult, nor is it necessarily essential for us to 
 know by what line or series of branch lines we shall arrive at 
 our destination. 
 
 Our fortune on the road is more or less in the hands of the 
 railway company. But one point we are absolutely forced to 
 fix in advance, and that is the destination itself. 
 
 Before embarking on any enterprise, before undertaking any 
 work, whatever difficulties may occur and whatever the nature 
 of the obstacles that lie before us, the end we have in view, the 
 purpose of our work, is perfectly clear to us. 
 
 So should it be when we embark on the study of the foreign 
 language. It is not sufficient for us to say that we wish to learn 
 French or Chinese or English ; we must determine what variety 
 we wish to acquire, of what branch we mean to become the 
 master. 
 
 Why do we want to learn the language ? As a manner of 
 passing the time ? For reasons of curiosity ? Because we are 
 impelled to do so for business reasons ? Because the literature 
 of that language interests us ? In order to have direct access 
 to scientific or technical books written in that language ? 
 Because we wish to travel in the country where it is spoken ? 
 
 Do we wish to qualify for the post of interpreter ? Do we 
 wish to be able to understand business letters ? Do we wish 
 to write business letters ? Do we wish to make a speciality of 
 
70 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 the phonetics of the language ? or of its grammar ? or of its 
 history ? 
 
 Do we wish to become teachers of that language ? Is it to 
 enable us to pass an examination ? Or do we wish to acquire a 
 general knowledge of the language in its four aspects, speaking, 
 understanding, writing, and reading ? 
 
 Is our object the rapid acquisition of the most important 
 elements, or have we the time for a leisurely survey of the whole 
 of the language ? We must determine our aim, for much 
 depends on it. 
 
 2. Our work must be directed in accordance with our aim. 
 
 If we wish to make a study of the literary language, let us 
 study the literary form and avoid the purely colloquial. If the 
 ancient literature is our aim, let us study the ancient literary 
 language. If the commercial language interests us, let us work 
 in such a way that we shall be able to write and to understand 
 business letters in the shortest possible time. 
 
 If the speaking and the understanding of the spoken language 
 is not our aim, let us not waste time on this aspect. If, on the 
 contrary, it is our sole aim, then let us not waste our efforts on 
 the acquisition of the written form. 
 
 If we wish both to speak and to read, then let us study the 
 two branches proportionately. 
 
 When the essential preliminaries have been mastered, let us 
 aim directly at what we wish to accomplish. Let us master the 
 elementary preliminaries, and then proceed directly toward the 
 accomplishment of our object. 
 
PART IV 
 
 THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC 
 PEDAGOGY 
 
 When we are in possession of full information concerning the 
 student and his aim we may prescribe for him an appropriate 
 programme of study. This programme will be drawn up more 
 or less in accordance with a series of principles which we may 
 term the Principles of Linguistic Pedagogy, 
 
 Section 14.— The Fourfold Aim of the Student. In all but special 
 cases the ultimate aim of the student is presumed to be fourfold— 
 namely, 
 
 (a) The understanding of the language as spoken by natives. 
 
 (6) The understanding of the language as written by natives. 
 
 (c) The speaking of the language as spoken by natives. 
 
 (d) The writing of the language as written by natives. 
 
 To many this principle will appear so obvious as to border on 
 the trivial ; to others it may appear a novel and revolutionary 
 thesis. At first sight we might conclude that the partisans of the 
 Direct Method will agree and that those of the Translation 
 Method will disagree with this principle, but on further reflec- 
 tion we shall find that this is not necessarily the case. 
 
 In the opening pages of this book we suggested that most 
 of the friction between the adherents of the various types of 
 method is due to the fact that the first principles of linguistic 
 pedagogy are so far undefined. Were it possible to determine 
 sharply two opposing camps occupied respectively by the 
 partisans of the Direct (or Reform) Method and those of the 
 Translation (or Old) Method, we should probably find that 
 the former tend to favour the principle as we have set it forth, 
 and that the latter consider it either as a pernicious doctrine 
 or as a Utopian counsel of perfection. 
 
 The old-fashioned (and now generally discredited) school of 
 
 71 
 
72 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 linguistic pedagogy proceeded more or less in accordance with 
 the following formula : 
 
 (a) Learn to decipher isolated sentences or texts by 
 identifying each etymon with its supposed equivalent 
 in the mother tongue. 
 
 (6) Reverse the process and convert isolated native 
 sentences into foreign sentences on the same etymo- 
 logical basis. 
 
 Proficiency in this bilingual consciousness was considered to 
 be the essential basis of all language-study, and was tacitly 
 assumed to result ultimately in the power of reading, writing, 
 speaking, and understanding the foreign language. 
 
 The modern school has done much to expose the fallacy of 
 this conception ; it proceeds on diametrically opposite lines, 
 and assumes that foreign languages are to be acquired in much 
 the same way as we have acquired our mother tongue. The 
 various means suggested and adopted in furtherance of this 
 plan are generally spoken of collectively as the Direct Method. 
 
 Although this modem school of linguistic pedagogy commands 
 the respect of the bulk of modem language teachers, there is a 
 growing feeling that the means generally adopted do not conduce 
 to the ends which its founders had in view. 
 
 In many cases, indeed, the Direct Method, as used by the 
 average teacher, resolves itself into the negative precept : There 
 must he no translation. We may perhaps be justified in suggest- 
 ing that the greatest reform is yet to come, and that the basis 
 of this reform will be the formula that stands at the head of 
 this section, including the all-important qualifying clauses " as 
 spoken by natives " and " as written by natives." 
 
 Section 15. — Segregation. In order to exclude confusion and mis- 
 understanding, during the initial period of conscious study the 
 phonetic, orthographic, etymological, semantic, and ergonic 
 aspects of language must be segregated from each other and 
 taught independently. In the process of subconscious study, 
 and in the later periods of conscious study, such segregation is 
 neither possible nor desirable. 
 The principle of Segregation is the logical consequence of the 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 73 
 
 fact that the student of language is pursuing simultaneously 
 four entirely different ends, each of which may conceivably be 
 subdivided. The types of work which are best calculated to 
 ensure proficiency in the imderstanding of rapid speech are 
 inoperative when used as a means of constructing correct 
 written sentences ; exercises devised to give the student com- 
 mand over his organs of speech will not further his power of 
 understanding what he reads ; ergonics cannot be taught on 
 etymological lines, nor has orthoepy anything in common with 
 phonetics ; the art of making oneself understood is to be 
 attained by processes appropriate for this end, but manifestly 
 inappropriate for any other end. ' 
 
 Whenever we devote a determined period (be it one minute, 
 half an hour, or six months) to the exclusive study of a given 
 aspect of a language we are observing the principle of segrega- 
 tion. Whenever we teach two or more aspects simultaneously 
 by means of one and the same form of exercise we are replacing 
 segregative by aggregative study. 
 
 The phonetician requires his pupils to devote their entire 
 attention to the recognition and to the production of sounds, 
 excluding all considerations of their representation in the con- 
 ventional spelling. By so doing he is insisting on the principle 
 of segregation as applied to phonetics. 
 
 When we are demonstrating the precise meaning of a given 
 unit we do not allow irrelevant inquiries as to its pronimciation 
 or its ergonic powers. By so doing we are acting in accordance 
 with the principle of semantic segregation. 
 
 Generally speaking, subconscious study is aggregative, and 
 conscious study segregative. The former implies diffusion 
 and the latter concentration of thought. The young child 
 engaged at an early age in the development of his faculties of 
 speech is doing so with perfect unconsciousness and without 
 any regard to the principle of segregation. The adult student, 
 grappling with problems of the etymological order, concen- 
 trates the whole of his attention to that which is the immediate 
 object of his study, and by so doing observes this principle of 
 segregation. 
 
 What is generally called difficulty often turns out to be 
 
74 STUDY AND TEACfflNG OF LANGUAGES 
 
 perpleadty, bewilderment, or confusion of thought, a state of mind 
 which precludes any possibility of effective progress. The 
 remedy for this is to segregate the factors of confusion, and to 
 direct successively the attention of the pupil to each of them in 
 turn. 
 
 Just as subconscious study from its very nature requires the 
 diffusion of the pupil's attention, so in conscious study should 
 the pupil focus his entire attention on any phenomenon or 
 group of phenomena to the exclusion of all extraneous 
 factors. 
 
 In order to carry out the principle of segregation in an ideal 
 programme the seven following precepts will be observed : 
 
 (1) The phonetic aspect will be taught by means of a series 
 
 of appropriate exercises, the first of which will deal 
 with isolated sounds, followed successively by those 
 dealing with syllables, groups of syllables, and fluent 
 sentences. 
 
 (2) T?ie orthographic aspect will be taught by means of 
 
 graduated exercises in reading, transcription, and 
 dictation. 
 (8) The etymological aspect will be taught by means of 
 graduated tables and exercises designed in such a 
 manner as to demonstrate the mechanism of in- 
 flexions and derivatives. 
 
 (4) The semantic aspect will be taught by means of system- 
 
 atic exercises of various types based on material 
 association, translation, definition, and context. 
 
 (5) The ergonic aspect will be taught by means of 
 
 graduated and systematic exercises based on the 
 ergonic chart. 
 
 (6) Immediate expression will be taught by means of 
 
 systematic catenizing and substitution exercises. 
 
 (7) Immediate comprehension will be taught by develop- 
 
 ing the pupil's powers of subconscious assimila- 
 tion in a regular and graduated series of passive 
 exercises. 
 
The art of articulating 
 the right s 
 the right n 
 
 THE 
 
 STODY 
 
 OF 
 
 LANGUAGES 
 
 The art of associating 
 ri<[l,t m 
 til a given unit 
 
 tliuiil 
 
 CATENIZING 
 
 The art of reproduei 
 vith fluency and w 
 conscious calculation 
 the longer units of 
 speech (e.g. phrases 
 and sentences) 
 
 SUBCONSCIOUS 
 COMPREHENSION 
 
 The art of under 
 ing conncctetl speech 
 (spoken or w 
 
 .ithc 
 
 -ilculal 
 
 DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE PRINCIPLE OF 
 ' SEGREGATION ' (see pp. 72, 73, 74) 
 
 The inner circles represent the seven chief brandies of language-study, 
 each of which may be treated systematically and intensively by means 
 of the exercises shown m tJie outer circles. 
 
*-•» 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 75 
 
 Section 16.— Active v. Passive Work. Study may be active or passive. 
 The young child only comes to speak his native language after 
 an 'incubation period,' during which he has passively received 
 and stored up in his mind a considerable quantity of linguistic 
 material. The same process may profitably be employed by the 
 more adult person in the study of foreign languages. 
 
 During the course of the last twenty or thirty years many 
 systems of language-teaching have been designed, the object of 
 which is to cause the language to be assimilated by processes 
 similar to those by which each of us has learnt his mother tongue. 
 In setting forth the manifest advantages of this over the purely 
 artificial type of method, it has been rightly observed that the 
 degree of success attained by adults in their efforts to acquire 
 a foreign language is always in direct ratio to the degree in 
 which they observe the natural laws of language-study. It has 
 been pointed out repeatedly that most persons taking up their 
 residence abroad acquire with remarkable rapidity and fidelity 
 the speech of those by whom they are surrounded, provided 
 that they observe certain conditions. These conditions are gener- 
 ally assumed to consist of the exercising of their powers of 
 observation and imitation, unaided by such artificial processes 
 as translation, etymological analysis and synthesis, or the mental 
 conversion of written into spoken forms. 
 
 In support of this theory it has been pointed out that the 
 illiterate often seem to succeed where the educated fail ; that, 
 other things being equal, the scholar will be handicapped by 
 his developed intellect and the peasant will profit by his 
 ignorance and unformed mental capacities. 
 
 A family of French people takes up its residence in England. 
 A year later the younger children may be speaking to each other 
 in idiomatic and fluent English ; the older children also speak, 
 but less in conformity with English habits of thought and 
 articulation ; the parents, if they speak at all, produce the usual 
 French variety of broken English. 
 
 In view of the vast amount of cumulative evidence tending 
 to prove this thesis, the compilers of methods appear to be 
 justified in their efforts to organize programmes of study in 
 accordance with it. One factor, however, seems to have been 
 
76 STUDY AND TEACfflNG OF LANGUAGES 
 
 overlooked, a factor which in the opinion of the writer is the 
 most essential of all, and the neglect of which constitutes an 
 omission of the most serious kind. It is the undoubted fact 
 that the active use of speech under natural conditions is invari- 
 ably preceded by a period during which a certain proficiency is 
 attained in its passive aspect. The faculty of recognizing and of 
 understanding the units of speech is probably always developed 
 by the child long before he ever reproduces them in order to 
 make himself understood. 
 
 From a most illuminating work by M. Jules Ronjat, entitled 
 Le Developpement du Langage observe chez un Enfant hilingue^ 
 we may note the following passage : 
 
 "II se produit chez les enfants, tant qu'ils ne peuvent pas 
 articuler, un emmagasinement et une sorte d'incubation. lis 
 s'assimilent le vocabulaire et la prononciation. Si bien que 
 lorsqu'ils peuvent parler, ils ont d^s le premier jour un vocabu- 
 laire de vingt, trente, ou quarante mots. Une petite fille 
 fran9aise ayant eu une nourrice italienne qui parlait fran9ais 
 avec un fort accent italien, s'etant mise a parler un mois apres 
 le depart de cette nourrice, a parle francais avec un vocabulaire 
 du presque enti^rement a ses parents et une phon6tique due a 
 sa nourrice, la personne qu'elle avait le plus entendu parler 
 dans la premiere annee de sa vie. . . . Une petite fille allemande 
 passe les dix-huit premiers mois de son existence en Sil6sie ; 
 elle n'y acquiert qu'un vocabulaire d'une extreme indigence. 
 Elle est alors amende a Berlin, oh. elle acquiert vers I'age de trois 
 ans un vocabulaire normal. La, a I'age de cinq ans, elle produit 
 tout k coup des tournures sil^siennes qu'elle n'avait plus eu 
 I'occasion d'entendre depuis trois ans et demi ; il est impossible 
 d'expliquer leur presence autrement que par la persistance des 
 impressions latentes emmagasinies pendant une period e tr^s 
 recul6e et ou, chose remarquable, I'enfant ne savait pour ainsi 
 dire pas parler." 
 
 During this incubation period it would seem that a vast 
 
 number of units are ' cognized ' in all their aspects : sounds, 
 
 combinations, and successions of somids, metamorphism, and 
 
 the semantic values represented by all of these. We suggest 
 
 * Published by Champion, Paris (191 3). 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 77 
 
 that success in the production on a wholesale scale of linguistic 
 matter (either in its spoken or in its written form) can only be 
 attained as the result of the previous inculcation of such matter 
 by way of passive impressions received repeatedly over a period 
 the length of which has been adequate to ensure its gradual and 
 effective assimilation. 
 
 Passive work is not necessarily subconscious work, any more 
 than active work is necessarily conscious. Passive work means 
 listening and reading ; active work is speaking and writing. We 
 may listen and read consciously and subconsciously ; we may 
 speak and write consciously and subconsciously. In the case 
 of our mother tongue the probability is that there is a vast 
 preponderance of subconscious work, both active and passive ; 
 when the average person studies a foreign language the contrary 
 is usually the case. 
 
 We would suggest that one of the essential principles of all 
 methods designed on the ' natural ' basis should be never to 
 encourage nor expect the active production of any linguistic 
 material until the pupil has had many opportunities of cognizing 
 it passively. If this principle is valid, then most of the 
 teaching of the present day violates a natural law I 
 
 Section 17, — Semanticizing {i.e. the conveying of meanings). There 
 are four different manners or modes of conveying to the pupil 
 the meaning of a given unit. 
 
 (A) By material association— ^.e. associating the unit with that 
 
 which is designated by it. 
 
 (B) By translation— ^.e. associating the unit with the equivalent 
 
 native unit. 
 
 (C) By definition— ^.e. associating the unit with its definition or 
 
 paraphrase (i.e. its polylogical equivalent). 
 
 (D) By context— I.e. giving examples of its use. 
 
 In view of the endless controversies which have raged and are 
 still raging around the subject, it will be well for us to examine 
 in detail the several confusing factors of that vexed question, 
 Under what circumstances and in what conditions is translation 
 salutary or pernidoits ? 
 
 To many the difference between the older methods and those 
 
78 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 which are known collectively as the Direct or Reform Method 
 is equivalent to the acceptance or rejection of translation as 
 a means of teaching the signification of the units which are the 
 object of study. 
 
 In order not to miss the point at issue, we must note that in 
 this respect alone translation may perform two functions. The 
 first of these is to inform the pupil what a given unit means, and 
 the second is to cause the pupil (by means of repeated exercises) 
 to form a perfect association between the unit and its meaning. 
 
 While some exponents of the Direct Method are fully pre- 
 pared to admit or even to counsel the use of translation for the 
 first of these purposes, others are not disposed to tolerate the 
 presence of translation in any circumstances whatever. It has 
 often been stated that the inclusion in any text-book of, let us 
 say, a French-English vocabulary debars us from applying to 
 such a text-book the term ' Direct Method.' 
 
 Let us proceed to examine the data upon which we must base 
 our conclusions. 
 
 (A) Semantic Demonstration by Material Association 
 
 When the word or word-group designates concrete objects, 
 qualities, or actions, the most direct manner of demonstrating 
 its meaning is to pronounce the word while pointing to, touching, 
 or handling the object, pointing to or otherwise suggesting the 
 quality, and performing the action to which it corresponds. 
 
 We wish to teach the meaning of the words la boiie, la clef, 
 le crayon, la fenetre, le tableau noir. The most concrete and 
 direct way of doing so is to point to, touch, or handle the objects 
 in question : " Voila la boite ; voici la clef ; je prends le crayon ; 
 j'ouvre la fenetre ; je touche le tableau noir." To teach the 
 colours, we may point to coloured objects, saying : " Ceci est 
 noir ; Cela aussi est noir ; Cela n'est pas noir — c'est blanc. 
 Voila quelque chose de rouge ; Voila du bleu ; 9a c'est vert. 
 Regardez le livre ; il est vert. Regardez la boite ; elle est 
 verte." To teach words designating dimensions we may hold 
 up a long and a short pencil : " Ce crayon-ci est long, celui-1^ 
 est court " ; we may compare the size of two books and of two 
 boxes : " Ce livre-ci est grand, I'autre est petit. Voici une 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 79 
 
 grande boite et en voici une petite," etc., etc. To teach verbs 
 designating concrete actions we have only to perform the actions 
 with a running commentary, such as : " Je prends le livre, 
 je I'ouvre, je le ferme, je le mets sur la table ; je marche, je 
 m'arrete, je me leve, je m'assieds ; je laisse tomber la craie, 
 je la ramasse, je la mets dans ma poche," etc., etc. 
 
 " What does s'appuyer mean ? " asks a pupil. We answer 
 by leaning against the wall and saying : " Je m'appuie contre 
 le mur." " What is the difference between livre and cahier ? " 
 asks another. We take the two objects represented respectively 
 by these two words and say : " Voici un livre et voici un 
 cahier ; voila encore un livre ; cela aussi est un livre ; cet 
 ^object-ci n'est pas un livre, c'est un cahier; voila encore un 
 cahier " ; or we may say : " This is un livre and that is un 
 cahier. Look at the two objects. Is this un cahier or un livre ? 
 Do you write your exercises in un cahier or in un livre ? " 
 
 This is demonstration of the most direct nature possible, and 
 the most effective in practice, ensuring as it does the most 
 concrete and most permanent impressions. 
 
 This mode may be expressed in graphic form : 
 
 A 
 
 The thing, 
 
 quality, or action 
 
 designated by the 
 
 foreign unit 
 
 (B) Demonstration by Translation 
 
 This consists of associating the foreign word or sentence with 
 the word or sentence of the mother tongue to which it most 
 nearly corresponds. 
 
 Je ne comyrends pas means the same thing as / donH under- 
 stand. If ever you want to tell a Frenchman that you don't 
 understand what he says, you may say to him : " Je ne com- 
 prends pas." 
 
 Venez id means the same thing as Come here. 
 
 Lundi is the French name of the day we call in English 
 
80 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Monday. It may also mean the same as the EngHsh adverbial 
 polylog on Monday. 
 
 Je ne vfCen suis pas rendu compte means the same as / didnH 
 realize it, or / havenH realized it. 
 
 Vous n'auriez pas du le faire is equivalent to the English You 
 ought not to have done it. 
 
 " What does chapeau mean ? " asks a pupil. We answer : 
 " It means hai.^^ 
 
 " Does hrillant mean brilliant ?"...'' No, not quite ; it 
 is just about equivalent to the English word shiny. " 
 
 " What is the meaning of vouloir ?"..." The word has 
 many meanings, some of which cannot be expressed very easily 
 in English. Give me the sentence in which the word occurs." . . . 
 " Je I'ai fait sans le vouloir." ..." That is equivalent to / 
 did it without meaning to, or 7 did not mean to do it.^^ 
 
 " Does brique mean the same thing as the English word 
 brick ?"..." Yes, generally." 
 
 " What does Pierre mean ? " . . . *' It may mean the same 
 thing as the English words stone or rock, or it may be a proper 
 noim etymologically identical with the English name Peter. ^^ 
 
 " Does actuellement mean actually ?"..." No, it does not ; 
 actuellement may be taken to mean the same thing as at present. ^^ 
 
 These are a few specimens of a rational procedure of semantic 
 demonstration by means of translation into the mother tongue. 
 
 For the sake of contrast, we- append a few specimens of 
 thoroughly bad semantic demonstration as practised by the 
 old-fashioned classical school : 
 
 " Prendre is the French for to take.^^ 
 
 '' Quinze jours is, fifteen days.^^ 
 
 ' ' De means of or from . " 
 
 " Encore means again, yet, or stilU^ 
 
 " Prairie is the French for meadow.^^ 
 
 " Se demander means to ask oneself. ^^ 
 
 " Beaucoup stands for much or many.''^ 
 
 ""^ Je me leve is the French for / raise me, which is their way 
 of expressing / me." 
 
 " Temps is the French for time:" 
 
 And yet, in face of the obvious benefits to be derived from 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 81 
 
 a rational use of translation as a means of explaining the mean- 
 ings of new units, a generation of reformers has been and is 
 fighting against any form of translation. A generation of 
 teachers has been trained to consider any form of translation as 
 an evil. A generation of school-children has been warned never 
 to open a dictionary. 
 
 This mode of demonstration may be expressed in the follow- 
 ing graphic form : 
 
 B 
 
 Word or 
 
 sentence in native 
 
 language 
 
 A 
 
 That which is 
 
 designated by 
 
 foreign unit 
 
 (C) Demonstration by Definition 
 
 Another mode consists of demonstrating the meaning of a 
 foreign unit by means of its foreign definition, synonym, or 
 paraphrase. 
 
 " Pleuvoir exprime la chute de I'eau contenue dans les nuages." 
 
 " Vert est la couleur qui resulte du melange du bleu et du 
 jaune." 
 
 '' Scie = outii consistant essentiellement en une lame avee 
 un bord tranchant dispose en zigzag qui sert a couper des 
 substances resistantes." 
 
 " Lever = hsiUsseT.'" 
 
 "Tt/^r^oterla viea." 
 
 " Se souvenir de = ne pas oublier." 
 
 " S avoir — ne pas ignorer." 
 
 " What is the meaning of the French word pont ? " — " Un 
 pont c'est une construction en bois, en pierre, ou en acier disposee 
 de mani^re a permettre aux personnes, aux betes ou aux voitures 
 
82 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 de traverser facilement un cours d'eau, une route, un chemin 
 de fer, etc." 
 
 This mode may be represented graphically thus : 
 
 c 
 
 X 
 
 The foreign 
 unit 
 
 ■"1 
 
 A 
 
 That which is 
 
 designated by 
 
 X, B, and C 
 
 v^ 
 
 J 
 
 Foreign 
 
 definition, synonym, 
 
 or paraphrase 
 
 B 
 
 The word or 
 
 sentence in 
 
 native language 
 
 (D) Demonstration by Context 
 
 The fourth and last mode consists of using the foreign unit in 
 a series of sentences in such a way that its meaning may be 
 inferred by implication (as distinct from direct definition or 
 description). 
 
 Alternative terms may be demonstrating by illustration or 
 hy use. 
 
 The meaning of the unknown word parapluie may be taught 
 by the following examples of its use, none of which are equivalent 
 to a definition : 
 
 " Voyant qu'il pleuvait j'ai ouvert mon parapluie. II est 
 prudent de ne pas sortir sans parapluie quand on croit qu'il 
 va pleuvoir. N'oubliez pas votre parapluie, car je pense que 
 nous aurons de la pluie." 
 
 (To teach the word parapluie by definition we should say : 
 " Un parapluie est un objet qui nous protege de la pluie. 
 Quand il pleut nous I'ouvrons, quand il cesse de pleuvoir nous 
 le fermons.") 
 
 We may cause the meaning of the verb recevoir to be under- 
 stood by saying : " Si je vous donne quel que chose, vous le 
 recevez. Si je vous envoie une Icttre ce soir vous la recevrez 
 demain matin." 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 88 
 
 The meaning of encre may be demonstrated by the use of 
 such sentences as, "Quand j'ecris une lettre il me faut non 
 seulement du papier, une enveloppe, un timbre, et une plume, 
 mais il me faut encore de I'encre." This is not a true definition ; 
 the nature of ink is not described ; we merely imply its nature 
 by associating it with the other indispensable adjuncts con- 
 nected with letter- writing. 
 
 It frequently happens that a series of sentences containing 
 a given word constitutes the equivalent to its definition. For 
 instance, if we said, " Quand on sort, on met presque toujours 
 un chapeau sur la tete. Le chapeau protege la tete des in- 
 temperies. Un chapeau est fait generalement en feutre ou en 
 paille," this would be tantamount to the definition, " Un chapeau 
 est un vetement, fait generalement en feutre ou en paille, qui 
 se place sur la tete quand on sort, pour la proteger contre les 
 intemperies." 
 
 This mode may be represented graphically thus : 
 
 y 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 Examples of 
 
 use pf the 
 
 foreign unit 
 
 
 The foreign 
 unit 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 A ^ 
 
 _^^^i'>'^^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^B/ 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 That which is 
 
 designated by 
 
 X, B, and C 
 
 
 The correspond- 
 ing word or 
 sentence in native 
 language 
 
 
 Foreign defini- 
 tion, synonyms, 
 or paraphrase 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 The non-differentiation of modes A, C, and D constitutes the 
 ' Fallacy of the Direct Method.'' 
 
 Many adherents of what has come to be called the Direct 
 Method would have us believe that of the four modes of semantic 
 demonstration, mode B (translation) is indirect and therefore 
 to be avoided, and that the three other modes are direct and 
 therefore to be encouraged. 
 
 This statement is not always set forth in categoric terms ; it 
 
84 STUDY AND TEACfflNG OF LANGUAGES 
 
 is generally implied rather than asserted. It is precisely 
 this tacit assumption of unproved premises that constitutes 
 what we shall venture to term the Fallacy of the Direct 
 Method. 
 
 The origin of this fallacy is very simple and very obvious. 
 Mode B (translation) is generally inferior to mode A (material 
 association) in point of directness ; hence A is termed direct 
 and B is termed indirect. A minor premise is then assumed : 
 What is not Bis A, and is inevitably followed by the conclusion, 
 What is not B is direct. 
 
 But the minor premise is false. What is not B may be A, 
 C, or D ; hence the conclusion " What is not B is direct " is 
 false also. 
 
 Now an examination of the four modes will show us that as 
 A is superior to B in point of directness, so is i5 to C or Z>. 
 
 We may then say that the ' Direct Method ' is founded 
 to a large extent on the confusion between the modes A, C, 
 and D. 
 
 The following passage written by an advocate of the Direct 
 Method is interesting : 
 
 " The teacher will endeavour to connect the words of the 
 foreign language directly with the ideas they express, or with 
 other words of the same language, not with those of the mother 
 tongue. Translation will therefore be replaced, as far as 
 possible, by object-lessons, picture-lessons, and explanations in 
 the foreign language." 
 
 At first sight this principle would seem convincing, but on 
 analysis it is seen to contain the invalid syllogism : 
 
 Words should be connected directly with the ideas they 
 
 express ; 
 Translation is indirect ; therefore 
 Words should be taught by . . . explanations in the 
 
 foreign language. 
 
 Reduced to symbols it stands : 
 X should be explained by A ; 
 B is not A ; therefore 
 X should be expressed by A,C,ot D. 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 85 
 
 A severe critic might even object to the minor premise 
 " Translation is indirect " on the ground that translation is not 
 indirect in an absolute sense, but only in relation to the more 
 direct A. 
 
 Not only must we avoid using demonstration by translation^ 
 and direct demonstration as correlative terms, but it will be found 
 expedient even to avoid the use of the ambiguous terms direct 
 and indirect. 
 
 Material Association 
 
 The great value of material association consists in its 
 compliance with a law of mnemonic psychology known as 
 Spatialization. This law may be expressed as follows : If 
 two or more new terms are learnt in the same place, they 
 will tend to become associated and confused ; if they are 
 learnt in two different places they will tend to become 
 dissociated and distinct. 
 
 If we make the acquaintance of Mr A and Mr B at the same 
 place, at the same time, and under the same circumstances, we 
 shall tend to confuse these two persons with each other ; if 
 Mr A is introduced to us in London on Monday by our mutual 
 friend X, and if we are introduced to Mr B at Manchester on 
 Tuesday by our mutual friend Z, there will be no confusion 
 whatever between their identities. The difference of time and 
 of mutual friend is responsible to a certain extent for the 
 differentiation, but the most important factor is the difference 
 of place. 
 
 In order to appreciate the mnemonic aid rendered by place- 
 association, let us make an experiment. Write on a sheet of 
 paper six unfamiliar foreign words and their native translation. 
 Learn them by continual reference to the paper, and note the 
 time and effort required to associate each with its native 
 equivalent and to dissociate each from the five others. 
 
 Then write six other equally unfamiliar words and their native 
 equivalents on six separate slips of paper. Attach one to the 
 door of the room in which you happen to be, another to the 
 window-curtain, another over the mantelpiece, and the three 
 others in three other parts of the room. 
 
86 STUDY AND TEACfflNG OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Leam the six words by reference to the slips and note how 
 much less time and effort is required than in the former case. 
 You will discover that the fact of their being dispersed in space 
 or ' spatialized ' will effectively prevent one being confused 
 with the other, and consequently will remove that element of 
 confusion which is after all the main obstacle in all memory 
 work. 
 
 Many other interesting experiments may be made to demon- 
 strate the immense value of this process of dissociation, but as 
 these hardly come within the scope of our present inquiry we 
 must refer the reader to treatises of rational mnemonics and the 
 psychology of memory. It is sufficient at present to state that 
 the operation of material association fulfils to a large extent the 
 law of spatialization. The teacher points to the door and says 
 " La porte." The eyes of the pupil follow him and associate 
 la porie with the door to which he is pointing. He goes to the 
 window and says " La fenetre." It is as if the term la feneire 
 is impressed on a new surface of the brain, and la fenetre will not 
 be confused with la porte, which might conceivably be the case 
 were the two objects not so spatialized. 
 
 One of the reasons for the popularity of many ' direct 
 methods ' is explained by the fact that the first lesson is often 
 devoted to the learning of the names of the parts of the room 
 and of the objects dispersed around it. The great ease with 
 which these names are learnt and associated by spatialization 
 leads to the reasonable conclusion that all subsequent progress 
 will be as rapid and as easily achieved. 
 
 The advantage of material association over translation may 
 easily be exaggerated or over-estimated owing to the fact that 
 the former mode is more often than not accompanied by 
 spatialization ; the eyes of the student are directed successively 
 to different objects in different places. 
 
 Experiments will prove that when spatialization is applied 
 to the translation method, its results are eminently satisfactory, 
 and in many cases comparable with those obtained by material 
 association. 
 
 When it is convenient to use material association there 
 is no reason whatever why this mode should not be given 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 87 
 
 the preference, but when neither the objects nor pictures 
 representing them are available, translation is by no means 
 to be despised, and will very often be found more ' direct ' 
 than the two other modes which we are now about to examine 
 and analyse. 
 
 The value of spatialization lies in the fact that it serves to 
 separate, and consequently to identify, concepts liable to become 
 confused with each other. Buying and selling, pushing and 
 fulling, going and coming, hot and cold, pleased and sorry, 
 although respectively contrary, complementar\', or correlative 
 terms, are so associated in our minds that there is a real danger 
 of our confusing the pairs of foreign words which are used to 
 express them. The writer confesses to having confused for 
 quite a long time kaufen and verkaufen ; schieben and ziehen. 
 A pupil of his once confused the English words bought and sold 
 to such an extent that he was only able to distinguish the two 
 by spelling out in French the last three letters of bought : 
 ^^ g,h,t, = fai achete " 1 
 
 When the two terms liable to confusion are of a more abstract 
 nature and represent subjective phenomena not clearly distin- 
 guished even in the terms of one's own language, some dis- 
 sociative process is still more necessary. The writer has 
 frequently had occasion to teach successively the three polylogs 
 hope to, expect to, and mean to. \Mien told that they correspond 
 respectively to esperer, compter', and avoir Vintention de the 
 French pupil has often maintained that he was unable to dis- 
 tinguish the three terms one from another. The terms in 
 question being of an abstract and subjective nature, the demon- 
 stration of their meaning by material association is out of the 
 question. There remain modes B, C, and D. As we have 
 seen, mode B (translation) is inadequate, for the pupil cannot 
 immediately distinguish his native terms. Recourse must 
 then be had to definition or to context, either in English in 
 order to fix the meanings of the English terms, or in French 
 in order to demonstrate more concretely the meaning of the 
 French terms. 
 
 In cases, however, where the two concepts are perfectly 
 distinct or where a concept has a particularly striking character 
 
88 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 there is very little difference between A and B in point of 
 directness. In practical teaching the equation London = 
 Londres (mode B) may be more direct than London = [the place 
 to which I am pointing on this map] (modification of mode A), 
 and (if the pupil has any elementary notions of geography) is 
 distinctly more direct than London is the capital of England 
 (mode C). For the same reason, mode B is more direct 
 than The immense agglomeration called London, the seat of the 
 British government, situated near the mouth of the Thames . . . 
 (mode B). 
 
 Translation is a more direct mode of conveying the meaning 
 of a unit than Deflnitiony and, a fortiori, more direct 
 than context 
 
 We may state once for all that translation is generally (but 
 not always) inferior in point of directness to material associa- 
 tion ; hence in discussing the merits and demerits of translation 
 as a mode of semantic demonstration, it would be well to confine 
 ourselves to cases where material association must be excluded. 
 As we have already observed, the use of this mode is confined 
 to material things such as concrete objects, objective qualities 
 and actions. When, therefore, the foreign units do not stand 
 for such concrete concepts our choice must fall on modes B, C, 
 orD. 
 
 In weighing the respective advantages of translation and 
 definition our judgment must depend to a large extent on the 
 following consideration. We must not unduly presume that 
 the words of our native language must necessarily be fully or 
 perfectly understood ; were that the case there would never 
 be any need to consult our native dictionary except in order to 
 ascertain the spelling or pronunciation of a given word. If every 
 word in our own language were perfectly associated with its 
 meaning or meanings we should already have attained the ideal 
 state imagined by logicians and should not require that ideal 
 instrument of thought imagined by Pascal, Descartes, and 
 others and termed by them the Philosophical Language. We 
 must recognize that most of the words we use possess but the 
 loosest of connotations, and that these are in a state of perpetual 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 89 
 
 flux and evolution. How many quarrels, law-suits, polemics, 
 controversies, and even wars are directly or indirectly caused 
 by imperfect semanticizing ! Misunderstandings due to differ- 
 ent interpretations of the same term are responsible for most 
 of our earthly troubles. 
 
 Study itself, in all its various branches and ramifications, is 
 little more than the learning of the meanings of words. The 
 whole educative process is one long learning of definitions. 
 
 There are words in our own language which have cost us 
 many months or even years to semanticize adequately. We 
 did not acquire the meanings of such words as subjective^ 
 parabola, integrate, hypothecate, debenture, carbonate, mesozoic, 
 syllogism, etc., etc., without much reading and technical study. 
 Thousands of our monologs and tens of thousands of our poly- 
 logs stand for most complex concepts and conceptual relations. 
 Even apart from scientific and technical terms, we shall find 
 numberless examples of everyday words and expressions the 
 proper use of which has only become possible after long stages 
 of perception and association. That we learnt so many 
 thousands of these at a very early age and that most of them 
 have been acquired by the subconscious rather than the con- 
 scious process does not affect the fact that in each case the 
 association of term and concept had to be gradually developed 
 over a long period of study (using the term study in its widest 
 sense). Let the reader examine the last three sentences and 
 seriously ask himself how he has come to understand the 
 various abstract terms of which they are composed. Let 
 him then consider more general and more popular terms 
 such as realize, afford, fancy, assume, agree, suggest ; let him 
 imagine a case of complete aphasia or loss of memory and 
 then let him realize the period of time and the amount of 
 reading and study that would be required in order to re-form 
 his associations. 
 
 Is it an exaggeration to suggest that each word of our vocabu- 
 lary required on an average an hour's semanticizing spread 
 over a long period before we were able so to associate it with 
 its meaning that we could use it ? 
 
 Now is it seriously maintained even by extreme exponents of 
 
90 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 the Direct Method that we should go through all this work for 
 each foreign language we study ? We have learnt, let us say, 
 mathematics, chemistry, or geology in our own language ; we 
 wish to read up or refer to works on these subjects written in 
 some foreign non-cognate language. Are we, then, to study 
 these sciences anew ab ovo in order to avoid the pernicious act 
 of consulting the bilingual dictionary ? 
 
 Poser la question, c'est la resoudre. Let there be no illusion 
 on this point ; the most fervent partisan of the Direct Method 
 translates, whatever his impressions to the contrary may be. 
 He learns German by reading German books without a diction- 
 ary. He is reading a technical book dealing with chemistry ; 
 the word Wasserstojf occurs repeatedly. Our reader does not 
 refer to a bilingual dictionary, it is true, but in the end he says 
 to himself : " Ach so, das Wort Wasserstoff bedeutet sicher 
 hydrogen ! " That he has guessed the translation rather 
 than sought it does not affect the fact that he has more 
 or less associated Wasserstojf with hydrogen, and by so 
 doing has attached to the former the semantic value of the 
 latter. 
 
 Now the perfectly bilingual person, he who has learnt two 
 languages under natural and ideal conditions, does not hesitate 
 to use a bilingual dictionary in all cases where his erudition is 
 not equally distributed over the two languages. He has had 
 occasion to associate with a certain concept the English word 
 heaver ; he has not had occasion to associate it with the French 
 word cantor ; he consults his bilingual dictionary, which tells 
 him that he may attach to the word castor the group of semantic 
 associations hitherto confined to the word heaver (in its zoo- 
 logical sense). He does the same thing in the converse case ; 
 if he has had occasion to form an association between a concept 
 and a French word and not an English one, he will remedy this 
 omission by reference to a bilingual and not a unilingual 
 dictionary. 
 
 As an argumentum ad ahsurdum let us take the frequent 
 case of an Englishman who by some accident of circumstances 
 has come to associate the word Mire with the thing designated 
 by it. He finds one day that he is ignorant of the equivalent 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 91 
 
 word in English. What is he to do ? Go to a forest with an 
 Enghsh companion better versed than he in wood -lore and search 
 for the tree associated with the term hetre and then ask his 
 companion to name it in English ? Once again, 'poser la question 
 c^est la resoudre ; he will reach down his French-English diction- 
 ary and ascertain that hetre = beech. 
 
 Now if the most direct manner of learning the meaning of a 
 native word is to associate it with its foreign equivalent, the 
 same argument may surely apply to the semanticizing of a 
 foreign word of the same nature. 
 
 We say advisedly " of the same nature," for there is another 
 side to the question. The known word may possess no exact 
 equivalent in the other language, its connotation may be wider 
 or narrower than that of the word or polylog which most nearly 
 resembles it in meaning, the native word may be ambiguous and 
 the nearest foreign equivalent may be precise. In such cases 
 translation is inferior to mode C, or even mode D. 
 
 Upon this point depends our judgment when weighing the 
 respective advantages and disadvantages of translation and 
 definition. We venture to suggest the following principle: 
 When the foreign word to he demonstrated is known to he for all 
 'practical purposes the equivalent of a native word, translation is 
 a better mode than definition ; when the word to be demonstrated 
 is known to he a doubtful equivalent or when the value of the 
 equivalence is unknown, it is more prudent to confirm the transla- 
 tion by definition or by context ; when the word to be demonstrated 
 is known to have no equivalent whatever in the native language^ 
 then we must have recourse to definition or to context. 
 
 In speaking of demonstration by definition we have so far 
 assumed that such definition must necessarily be in the foreign 
 language. We can conceive a mode intermediate between mode 
 B (translation) and mode C (foreign definition, synonym, or 
 paraphrase). This may be designated by the symbol E, and 
 would consist of demonstrating the foreign unit by a native 
 definition, synonym, or paraphrase of the native equivalent 
 word. 
 
 Instead oi chaise = chair (mode B) or chaise = meuble constant 
 en un siige, quatre'^^pieds, et un dossier, sur lequel on s^assied 
 
92 
 
 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 (mode C), we may use chaise = piece of furniture consisting of a 
 seat, four legs, and a back, used for sitting purposes (mode E) : 
 
 X 
 
 chaise 
 
 A 
 
 The object to 
 
 which I am 
 
 pointing 
 
 EngHsh 
 definition 
 
 chair (but 
 not armchair) 
 
 French 
 definition 
 
 Examples of 
 
 use of the 
 
 foreign unit 
 
 We are told by Direct Method extremists that B is less 
 ' direct ' than ^ or C ; hence C is superior to B. But if the 
 foreign definition is direct, then the native definition must 
 necessarily be far more so ; therefore E is more direct than B ! 
 This is indeed an argument ad absurdum, and in using it we 
 are but pushing to its logical conclusion the Fallacy of the 
 Direct Method, which assumes that C is more direct than B 
 because A is (generally) more direct than B ! 
 
 But it may be claimed that mode C constitutes an interesting 
 and valuable exercise in the faculty of intuitive comprehension, 
 that it inculcates the very necessary habit of successful guessing. 
 This is perfectly true, but let us remember that systematic 
 exercises for the development of the faculties of subconscious 
 comprehension is one operation, and the documentation of a 
 student in the course of his conscious work is another. 
 
 There is a time for everything and a function for each opera- 
 tion. It might be argued that geography, history, mathe- 
 matics, etc., might be taught to English children through 
 the medium of the French language, and with salutary and 
 economical results. To a certain extent this is true during the 
 later stages of study, but on the other hand there is a limit to the 
 number of birds that one may conveniently kill with one stone. 
 To impair one operation in order to make it serve two very 
 different purposes is ingenious ; so also is the using of a hair- 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 93 
 
 brush to hammer in a nail ; but neither of these acts is either 
 economical or efficacious. 
 
 The course of study should and must include systematic and 
 progressive exercises in inamediate comprehension, as it must 
 also include systematic pronunciation exercises and systematic 
 substitution exercises and systematic ergonic exercises, but the 
 worst time to choose for any of these is precisely the moment 
 when we are teaching the meanings of the units contained in the 
 elementary vocabulary of the student. Semantic demonstra- 
 tion is a means to an end and not an end in itself. 
 
 The exclusion of translation as a regular means of conveying the 
 meaning of units is an uneconomical and unnatural principle. 
 
 The principle that translation should be excluded as a mode 
 of demonstrating may conceivably be justified on two counts — 
 the dictates of necessity, and pedagogic grounds. On pedagogic 
 grounds also such exclusion is to be condemned. 
 
 Let us first examine the two arguments in favour of its 
 exclusion. 
 
 It frequently happens that the teacher is ignorant of the 
 native language of his pupil, or that the pupil's knowledge of 
 the teacher's language is superior to the teacher's knowledge of 
 the pupil's language. In such cases it may be urged that as it 
 is materially impossible for the teacher to convey the meanings 
 of words by the mode of translation this mode must of necessity 
 be excluded. 
 
 It may be argued that one of the essential qualifications of 
 the teacher should be an adequate familiarity with the language 
 of his pupil. This particular argiunent will, however, scarcely 
 hold good. It is true that the teacher whose business it is to 
 give lessons in elementary English to French or German students 
 ought to possess a working knowledge of French or German, 
 but it cannot be seriously urged that he should also have learnt 
 Spanish, Italian, Russian, Arabic, Urdu, Japanese, Chinese, 
 etc., etc., before accepting an appointment or setting up in 
 business as a language-teacher. Now in class teaching it fre- 
 quently happens that while the majority of the members of the 
 class are, let us say, French, one or two members may hail from 
 
94 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 parts of the world very far removed from France. An Icelander 
 can hardly have grounds for complaint if he fails to find in 
 an English provincial town an English teacher with a sound 
 knowledge of Icelandic. If the Icelander insists as a sine qua 
 non that his teacher of English should be perfectly acquainted 
 with the Icelandic language, he must have recourse, not to a 
 teacher of English nationality, but to an Icelandic teacher of 
 English. 
 
 Is a teacher, then, to refuse to give lessons to any person with 
 whose language he is unacquainted or imperfectly acquainted ? 
 That, of course, is primarily a matter for the student to decide. 
 If I apply to a Russian for lessons, knowing full well that he has 
 no knowledge of English, I do so at my own risk, and withhold 
 from myself the advantages of translation in all its aspects. 
 
 Which, then, is better : to learn Russian from a Russian who 
 is ignorant of English, or to learn it from an Englishman who 
 has previously studied Russian ? The answer to this question 
 depends, of course, on the extent of the Englishman's know- 
 ledge of Russian ; if he speaks broken Russian with an English 
 pronunciation he must be rejected as a teacher. 
 
 But much of this is not to the point. We are discussing as if 
 dictionaries had never been invented or printing were an un- 
 discovered art. It is not necessarily the function of a teacher 
 to semanticize all our words ; this can be accomplished by any 
 dictionary or manual composed expressly for that purpose. 
 
 You, a teacher of English, are giving lessons to a Norwegian. 
 Your pupil asks you the meaning or the meanings of the English 
 verb to realize. Do not waste twenty precious minutes in forging 
 definitions which will be imperfectly understood ; refer your 
 pupil to a good English-Norwegian dictionary, of which there 
 is no lack. 
 
 The only case in which we must exclude translation for 
 reasons of force majeure is when the pupil's language is one for 
 which no bilingual dictionary has either been composed or is 
 accessible. 
 
 But the exclusion of translation as a mode of semantic demon- 
 stration (also as the vehicle for explanations) is often demanded 
 on pedagogic grounds. It is frequently maintained by exponents 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 95 
 
 of the Direct Method that translation in all its forms and 
 functions is a vicious and harmful proceeding. We will not 
 contest this point anew, but simply refer the reader to what we 
 have already said on this particular subject. 
 
 We would, however, add that many teachers justify on peda- 
 gogic grounds a procedure dictated by necessity. We do not 
 maintain that they do so knowingly or with any insincerity. 
 An English teacher accepts an appointment at Moscow. He 
 has hitherto taught English to French students, and, knowing 
 French perfectly, has never hesitated to utilize translation as 
 a mode of teaching. He arrives at Moscow ; he knows no 
 Russian ; he can no longer use the mode of demonstrating 
 to which he is accustomed, nor can he any longer use the native 
 language for conveying explanatory matter. What happens ? 
 Is it by coincidence or is it as a natural consequence of his 
 position that he suddenly discovers the pedagogic merits of the 
 Direct Method ? And when in after years he acquires a sound 
 knowledge of Russian will he still remain faithful to its 
 leading principle ? 
 
 What is, now, the great disadvantage of excluding translation 
 as a means of semantic demonstration ? We all recognize the 
 bad habits that may be engendered by associating the foreign 
 with the native word ; we fully realize that the exclusion of 
 translation often tends toward a sounder knowledge of the 
 foreign language. On what grounds, therefore, do we maintain 
 with such insistence throughout these pages that mode B should 
 not be rejected ? 
 
 In the foregoing pages we have examined an argument in 
 favour of translation, or, expressed conversely, an argument 
 against its exclusion. 
 
 But there is another reason, entirely unconnected with the 
 first, which compels us to reflect very seriously before relinquish- 
 ing this valuable mode of demonstration. 
 
 As we have already mentioned, the term direct is an ambigu- 
 ous and dangerous one. It may be applied to two quite 
 different things — viz. to Semanticizing or to Programme. 
 Direct semanticizing means the demonstration and teaching of 
 meanings mthout the use of translation. 
 
96 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 By Direct Programme we mean the course of study which 
 conducts the student by the shortest and easiest route to a 
 practical mastery of the most useful matter of the language. 
 
 A Direct Programme can only be drawn up by an observance 
 of the principles of frequency and ergonic combination. The 
 former tells us to assimilate the more useful before the less useful 
 units of the language. The latter tells us that we should give 
 priority to those units which are readily combinable with their 
 fellows in order to form sentences. 
 
 In another place we shall show that these two principles are 
 in themselves somewhat contradictory ; that one can only be 
 fully observed at the expense of the other ; that the ideal 
 programme is nothing other than a judicious series of compro- 
 mises between their rival claims. 
 
 Now if, when drawing up our programme, we had not only 
 to adjudicate between the exigencies of frequency and ergonic 
 combination, but also to make both of these subservient to the 
 non-translation principle, our task would become an impossible 
 one ; we simply cannot conform simultaneously to the three 
 principles. 
 
 Let us express this point in more concrete terms. When the 
 teacher (or method- writer) is about to draw up a programme for 
 a beginners' course, he has the following alternative choice of 
 material : 
 
 (a) Units possessing the two qualities utility and cmn- 
 
 hinahility (such as faut-il, hier, com'prendre, savoir, 
 youvoir, preU temps, gcire, etc.). 
 
 (b) Units of which the meaning may be demonstrated and 
 
 taught by Material Association (such as tableau, livre, 
 ceil, prendre, toucher, rouge, coin, plafond, etc.). 
 If he chooses his units from class (a) the Programme will be 
 Direct, and the Semanticizing Indirect ^ ; in the contrary case 
 the Programme will be Indirect, and the Semanticizing Direct, 
 for only a relatively small number of imits are common to both 
 classes. Which are we more justified in sacrificing : Direct 
 Programme or Direct Semanticizing ? 
 
 ^ For the purposes of our argument we will concede to partisans of the 
 Direct Method the equation translation = indirect semantidzino. 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 97 
 
 When we have submitted to a critical analysis the principles 
 of frequency and ergonic combination, we shall certainly con- 
 clude that these must at all costs be observed, and that the 
 claims of the Direct Programme must be given priority over 
 any claims whatever. 
 
 An additional argument in favour of mode B is one which 
 would appear to have escaped the attention of many writers 
 on this subject. The tendency of the average student, more 
 especially in the early stages, is to associate the foreign word 
 with its native equivalent. We may, if wx so choose, assure 
 him that this is a vicious tendency ; we may go to great trouble 
 to replace it by the three other modes ; we may refuse to give 
 the native equivalent and forbid the use of the bilingual diction- 
 ary. But we do not and cannot prevent the student from 
 forming bilingual associations if he wishes to do so. We may 
 say, " Voila la fenetre, regardez la fenetre, j'ouvre la fenetre," 
 etc. The pupil will think to himself, " Fenetre means window.'''' 
 One day when wishing to express in French shoy window, he 
 will say fenetre du magasin, and in so doing prove our ' direct ' 
 tactics to have been ineffective. 
 
 We say, " Je prends le livre ; je le prends ; prenez le livre ; 
 je prends un livre quand je veux lire ; je prends le train quand 
 je veux voyager," etc., etc. The pupil will think to himself, 
 " Prendre means take,'''' and will one day say, " Prenez cette 
 lettre a la poste," or " Mon pere m'a pris a Londres." Again 
 our efforts to prevent such misuse of prendre have been in vain. 
 
 Let us make an experiment in order to see whether our sup- 
 position is true. W"e will teach our pupil a number of French 
 words without translation ; among them may be the word 
 user. At a given moment we will spring upon him the question, 
 " How would you say user in English ? " He will probably 
 answer immediately, " To use,^^ thus proving that in spite of 
 our efforts he has associated user with its cognate use, instead 
 of its semantic equivalent wear. 
 
 As a matter of fact, the instant that our pupil heard the word 
 user he thought to himself, " That must mean use,'^ and from 
 that moment he paid no great attention to the examples that we 
 adduced in order to demonstrate the meaning of the word. 
 
98 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Cases occur in which the absence of an authentic and officially 
 given translation gives rise to the most absurd misconceptions. 
 
 Many years ago, when my notions of French were more rudi- 
 mentary than exact, a Belgian office-boy would come to me in 
 order to obtain permission to go to dinner. " Est-ce que je 
 peux retourner, monsieur ? " he asked. I considered this a 
 somewhat curious question, and answered : " Non seulement 
 vous pouvez retourner, mais vous devez retourner." The boy 
 looked puzzled, but went off. The next day the same question : 
 " Puis-je retourner, monsieur ? " It began to occur to me that 
 the Belgian office-boy was a different sort of creature from 
 his English confrere. " Mais oui, certainement vous pouvez 
 retourner ; il faut tou jours retourner apres le diner." With 
 a look of despair the boy went off to the chief and asked 
 permission to retourner. " Oui, oui, retournez maintenant ; 
 11 est deja passe I'heure ! " 
 
 It then began to dawn on me that the equation retourner = 
 return was a false one, and that it should stand, retourner = go 
 home, or go hack. 
 
 Another experiment, this time with a French pupil. We 
 wish to teach the English polylog go to sleep ( = s^endormir), in 
 accordance with the precepts of the Direct Method. We with- 
 hold its translation in order that the pupil may semanticize it 
 correctly and effectively without confusing cross-associations. 
 We say to him : " When we are sleepy we go to sleep. In order 
 to go to sleep we shut our eyes. Some people find it difficult 
 to go to sleep, others can go to sleep at any time. Don't go to 
 sleep now ; you must not go to sleep during the lesson." 
 
 Now these examples should surely suffice to show that go 
 to sleep equals s^endormir. Our pupil, however, at the first 
 example jumps inmiediately to the conclusion that go to sleep 
 equals aller dormir. His analytic faculties tell him that if go = 
 alter and to sleep = dormir (both of which equations are justified) 
 then go -f to sleep = aller dormir. With his preconception he 
 pays little attention to the precise bearing of our examples. 
 
 Wc ask him : " Comment diriez-vous go to sleep en fran9ais ? " 
 He answers : ''Aller dormir " ; s'etidormir has not even occurred 
 to him. 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 99 
 
 Demonstrate by the Direct Method the English word 
 ascertain, and the result will probably be the false equation 
 ascertain = s^ assurer (instead of a^ certain = s'' informer). Teach 
 a German the sentence "I let him come " without translation, 
 and the result will probably be " Ich lasse ihn kommen " 
 ( = " I make him come "). 
 
 These are not exceptional examples ; hundreds of others 
 may be quoted to illustrate the point. Books exist the sole 
 object of which is to correct misunderstandings of this kind. 
 
 It is an incontrovertible fact that in cases of this sort 
 translation is the direct mode of demonstration and modes 
 C and D (in some cases even A !) are indirect. 
 
 Let us recognize frankly that the withholding of an * official ' 
 or authentic translation does not prevent the student from 
 forming faulty associations, but that, on the contrary, such 
 withholding may often engender them. 
 
 By a rational application of the principle of translation we 
 not only furnish the true equivalent, but we also warn the 
 student against false equivalents. When we tell the pupil that 
 fenetre means window, we are careful to add that this only 
 applies to an ordinary window, and not to a shop window or 
 an attic window. 
 
 When telling him that prendre is generally the equivalent of 
 take, we must warn him that this does not include take in the 
 sense of carry, convey, or conduct. 
 
 We warn the pupil that in spite of appearances user is never 
 or hardly ever the equivalent of use, that retourner is not return, 
 that go to sleep is not alter dormir, that in spite of appearances 
 ascertain has nothing to do with make certain and that lassen 
 is not always let. 
 
 Unless we put him on his guard a German will consider to 
 mean as the equivalent of meinen. A Frenchman unhelped by 
 an authentic translation will consider the English perfect tense 
 as the semantic equivalent of his passe indefini and will say : 
 " I have seen him last year." 
 
 When we tell the pupil what is the equivalent word in his 
 native language we are using this operation in its positive sense ; 
 when we warn him against error by telling him what it does not 
 
100 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 mean, we are demonstrating negatively. It will be found for 
 purposes of negative demonstration that translation is a surer 
 and more ' direct ' mode than any of the others. 
 
 For these reasons, therefore, we may maintain in the face 
 of all that is urged to the contrary that the exclusion of trans- 
 lation as a mode of semantic demonstration is unsound both 
 pedagogically and for reasons of expediency. 
 
 No hard and fast rule can be adopted as to the mode of giving the 
 meanings of units ; each in its turn may be superior to the 
 others. 
 
 How then shall we teach meanings ? What principles are 
 we to adopt as a general guide ? Which is the right system ? 
 
 The answer is obvious : adopt none exclusively, reject none 
 absolutely. Each variety has its uses, each has its place in 
 the general scheme, and each in its turn may be the most 
 rational one. 
 
 The choice of the mode depends almost entirely on that group 
 of factors which is the subject of the third chapter of our inquiry. 
 The most important of these is that concerning the degree of 
 knowledge already possessed by the student. 
 
 We may be giving lessons to an absolute beginner, to one 
 whose knowledge of the language is represented by zero. 
 
 In his case modes C and D are of little utility (during 
 the first lesson of no utility at all) ; we are confined to modes 
 A and B. If the words figuring in the first lessons represent 
 concrete concepts we may well semanticize them by material 
 association. 
 
 If we are asked the meaning of the French word chaise and 
 there happens to be a chair in the room, wc will point to it and 
 say : " Voila une chaise " (or, " That's a chair "). If no chair 
 is at hand we will say : " Chaise to all intents and purposes is 
 equivalent to the word chair, exclusive of armchairs, deck-chairs, 
 and other non-normal varieties." 
 
 If we do not speak the language of our inquirer or if we are 
 unable to think of the equivalent word in his language we may 
 draw a picture of a chair, or, better still, refer him to his 
 dictionary. K, on the other hand, the pupil can already under- 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 101 
 
 stand and speak the language we may teach him the word 
 chaise by definition. But, needless to say, if the student has 
 already reached such an advanced stage that he understands our 
 definition he will certainly long since have learnt the word chaise. 
 
 The general principle, then, may stand : During the early 
 stages use modes A and B, and avoid C and D ; during the later 
 stages use whichever of the four modes happens to be most 
 convenient. 
 
 It must be perfectly understood, of course, that in order that 
 the translation may be efficacious we must associate the foreign 
 word with the true native equivalent word or definition, and 
 not with an imaginary or merely traditional one. Way for 
 chemin or will for vouloir will never do. If, as is generally the 
 case, the native word has other meanings than that correspond- 
 ing to the foreign word we must qualify our information accord- 
 ingly. If we are asked the meaning of the French verb savoir 
 it is not sufficient to say that it corresponds in meaning with the 
 English verb to know ; we must add : ''in the sense of to have 
 knowledge or to he aware of, and not in the sense of to he acquainted 
 with.'' 
 
 The more integral such translations the more successful will 
 be the result. The string of words to which we wish to attach 
 the meaning must be compared, not with the native equivalents 
 of each of the units taken separately, but with the native 
 equivalent of the whole. " Je suis ici depuis quinze jours " 
 must not be demonstrated by connecting each word with its 
 assumed English equivalent. We must not say : '' Je = I, 
 suis = am, ici - here, depuis = since, quinze = fifteen, jours = days.'' 
 This is an analytical operation which has nothing in coromon 
 with semanticizing. We must say : " Je suis ici depuis quinze 
 jours = ' I have been here a fortnight.' " 
 
 We have already alluded to the fact that vast numbers of 
 our native words the pronunciation and spelling of which we 
 are perfectly familiar with are either unsemanticized or only 
 partially semanticized ; they either convey but a vague meaning 
 or convey no meaning at all to us. We may hear, read, or even 
 use such words as heech, bowline, flail, without having any pre- 
 cise notion of what these things look like or what are their 
 
102 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 particular attributes. Many words are vaguely suggestive of 
 meanings rather than expressive of them. 
 
 In such cases it is a moot point whether our duly is to give 
 the native equivalent or to employ one of the other modes. 
 By adopting the latter course the foreign word becomes better 
 known than the native equivalent. Let us suppose that we 
 are teaching the French word pignon. We tell our pupil that 
 it means gable, and discover that he has no precise notion of 
 what a gable is. The word gable, therefore, is inadequate 
 to demonstrate the meaning of the word pignon. We teach 
 pignon then by definition or by illustration. While we are 
 doing so we are fulfilling the function not merely of a language- 
 teacher but also that of a teacher of architecture. When we 
 teach the meaning of mongoose to a Frenchman who has never 
 learnt the French word mangouste, we are giving a lesson in 
 zoology. It is an open question to what extent the language- 
 teacher should overstep the limits which separate the dictionary 
 from the encyclopaedia. 
 
 In conclusion let us take a concrete example in order to show 
 and to compare the four modes of demonstration. We will 
 presume our pupil to be an English student of French. 
 
 Regarder 
 Mode A (Material Association) 
 
 Je regarde la fenetre. Je regarde mon livre. Regardez 
 le plafond. Regardez le plancher. Je vous regarde. 
 Regardez-moi. 
 
 Mode B (Translation) 
 Regarder means look or look at as in the sentences " Look 
 at me," " Look at your book," " Look out of the 
 window," "What are you looking at? " It does not 
 mean look in the sense of seem, appear, or look like ; it 
 does not mean look in the sense in which the word is 
 used in " Look for your book " or "It looks good." 
 
 Mode C (Definition) 
 
 Regarder veut dire se servir consciemment des yeux. 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 103 
 
 Mode D (Context) 
 
 Si je regarde par la fenetre je vols des maisons. Si je 
 veux savoir I'heure je regarde a ma montre. Quand on 
 veut savoir la couleur ou la grandeur d'un objet on doit 
 le regarder. 
 
 In this case mode A is probably the best of the four. 
 
 Section 18.— Learning by Heart, or * Catenizing.* Learning by heart 
 is the basis of all linguistic study, for every sentence ever uttered 
 or written by anybody has either been learnt by heart in its 
 entirety or else has been composed (consciously or subconsciously) 
 from smaller units, each of which must at one time have been 
 learnt by heart. We may term primary matter all units learnt 
 by heart integrally, and secondary matter all units built up or 
 derived by the pupil from primary matter. 
 
 In considering the functions and advantages of memorizing 
 (or ' catenizing ') as opposed to reasoning, the important fact is 
 often overlooked that all study directed toward the acquisition 
 of the power of using the language is necessarily based on the 
 faculty of memorizing. 
 
 As w^e have already noted, the progress of the student can 
 only be measured by his capacity for understanding and pro- 
 ducing fluent sentences. The amateur linguist, it is true, may 
 maintain that his progress should be measured by his capacity 
 for understanding and of producing words. He is inclined to 
 say : " Let us memorize words and let us reason out sentences ^ 
 
 It is quite certain, however, that in both cases the study of 
 language is ultimately based on memorizing, for the difference 
 between memorizing ' words ' (whatever the term word may 
 mean) and memorizing sentences is one not of hind, but of degree. 
 
 Modern psychologists incline toward the ' integral ' theory, 
 and can produce data showing that a given ' chain ' is more 
 quickly memorized in its entirety than when we memorize its 
 * links ' one by one. 
 
 One of the more important duties of the method-writer or of 
 the language-teacher is to determine of what the pupil's primary 
 matter shall or shall not consist. 
 
104 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 The 121 identities contained in the first 11 multiplication 
 tables (commencing at 2 x 2 = 4 and concluding by 12 x 12 = 1 44) 
 constitute our arithmetical primary matter as far as the opera- 
 tion of multiplication is concerned ; all other multiplicative 
 identities must necessarily be treated as secondary matter. • 
 
 In the classical method of teaching shorthand, the primary 
 matter consists of the consonant and vowel signs plus the 
 arbitrary grammalogues ; all the other outlines are treated as 
 secondary matter. 
 
 The actor's lines must all be treated as primary matter ; were 
 ' gagging ' legitimate this would constitute secondary matter. 
 
 The essential difference between the (more or less) phonetic 
 system of v^Titing most languages and the ideographic system 
 of writing Chinese lies in the fact that in the former case a very 
 small quantity of primary matter results in the almost unlimited 
 production of secondary matter, whereas in the latter case 
 every individual unit has to be learnt by heart as it stands ; that 
 is to say, every Chinese character is a unit of primary matter. 
 
 The solving of all problems set by the teacher must be 
 performed by the faculty of reasoning ; the solutions to such 
 problems therefore constitute secondary matter. Should the 
 pupil treat the solutions as primary matter by memorizing them 
 he will be cheating, and as a measure of precaution the teacher 
 rightly withholds the key. 
 
 Conversely, if instructed to learn a given unit by heart, the 
 pupil will be cheating if he replaces the process by calculating. 
 When the teacher instructs the schoolboy to memorize the five 
 times table he has a sound reason for doing so ; the schoolboy 
 avoids the memorizing operation and when examined produces 
 the table in question by a series of eleven operations in mental 
 addition. However praiseworthy his faculty of rapid mental 
 addition, and however correct the result, the schoolboy is 
 cheating. 
 
 The use of either process, then, constitutes an illegitimate 
 act when the pupil has received precise instructions to work 
 by the other. 
 
 We cannot state as a general principle that either process is 
 superior to the other ; each of them has its particular functions, 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 105 
 
 advantages, and disadvantages. What these are cannot be 
 determined with precision on a 'priori grounds. 
 
 We now have to examine the respective functions of the 
 two processes as apphed to the study of a foreign language, 
 and to come to some conclusion as to what units are to be 
 treated respectively as primary or as secondary matter. 
 
 Let us repeat the fundamental and obvious fact that the total 
 number of units that we are able to use in a given language have 
 either been acquired as primary matter or derived from this as 
 secondary matter ; no third term can possibly exist. 
 
 At first sight one is tempted to assume that, applied to 
 language-study, 'primary matter means words and that secondary 
 mattei^ means sentences, for it is generally assumed that words 
 are learnt purely by the faculty of memory and that by the 
 faculties of reasoning we build up sentences from these. 
 
 It is assumed, for instance, that we learn by heart words such 
 as il, est, and ici, then from these we derive by synthesis the 
 sentence il est ici. 
 
 We now have to ascertain whether this assumption is borne 
 out by facts or whether it is still another of those popular 
 illusions which render the whole question of language-learning 
 so obscure and the subject of so much contradictory discussion. 
 
 If we discover this assumption to be true it will enormously 
 simplify the issue. It will constitute a principle upon which the 
 whole science of language-learning must be based. It will also 
 prove that the natural method by which the child learns its 
 mother tongue is the wrong method and that our mastery of our 
 own language has been obtained in defiance of this fundamental 
 law. 
 
 If we discover this assimiption to be false we must expose its 
 falseness and make up our minds not to allow reasoning to be 
 influenced by it. 
 
 If we discover it to be partially true and partially false we 
 must decide what are the respective functions of memory and 
 reasoning, and must determine what matter it is expedient to 
 treat respectively as primary and secondary. 
 
 How did you learn the French words lune, avec, savoir, jaune, 
 vour, souvent, and mais ? By piecing together smaller units 
 
106 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 already acquired ? By decomposing them out of compound 
 units already acquired ? By adapting them from other units 
 already acquired ? Most probably not. It is almost certain 
 that you did not derive them from other units ; you learnt 
 them as they stand by the process of memorizing ; they form a 
 part of your primary matter. 
 
 How did you learn longer polylogical or sentence units such 
 as venez avec moi, je ne le lui ai pas encore expliquS^ c'est im- 
 possible, saveZ'Vous pourquoi, or parlez plus lentement, sHl vous 
 plait ? 
 
 It is probable (but not absolutely certain) that you have never 
 learnt these as integral units, but that, having acquired the 
 power of piecing together smaller ready-learnt units with the 
 help of English, you built up such polylogs as you required them. 
 If this is so, these sentences form part of your secondary matter. 
 
 How did you learn aujourd'hui ? As secondary matter by 
 piecing together the five words a le jour de hui ? Most probably 
 not ; it is possible that you have never even thought of hui as 
 being a distinct word. 
 
 The imit aujourd'hui is almost invariably learnt integrally 
 long before learning the component unit hui. 
 
 Did you learn maintenant as an integral unit or by piecing 
 together its component elements main ( = hand) and tenant 
 ( = holding) ? There is a strong presumption that you learnt it 
 by the former process. Did you learn to form your native word 
 understand by building it up from the component units under 
 and stand, or did you acquire it integrally ? We may, I think, 
 presimie the latter process. 
 
 Examine the following list of units and consider in each case 
 by which of the two processes you are enabled to use them 
 (either actively or passively) : pardessus, rez-de-chaussie, d 
 moins que, parapluie, seulement, avant-hier, d propos, lentement, 
 je ne sais pas, sHl vous plait, sHl vous voit, malheureuoc, comprenez- 
 vous ?, tant mieux, il n'y a pas de quoi, il n'y a pas d' argent, 
 qu'est-ce que c'est que ga?, comme ilfaut, ga m'est 6gal, peut-itre, 
 blanchir, ici, machine a ^crire, quatre-vingts, soixante-quinze, 
 prononcerai, voudrais, un peu, il y a, sera-t-il, en haut, bicyclette, 
 bonheur, douzaine, pomme de terre, venir, celui, Veau, Leniaire, 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 107 
 
 le maire, jjlume, Leinaitre, le maitre, Lacroix, la croix, gendarme, 
 char-d-hanc, boite aux lettres, porte-manteau, mipris, dhn6nager, 
 revenir, refaire, remarquer, mais, repartir, rentrer, abonnement, 
 encaisser, s^agir, se lever, se demander, s^amuser, affaire, avenir, 
 comment allez-voiis ?, d hon port, tout le monde, le mien, mon, 
 beaucoup, chapeau, chou-fleur, lundi, quand mime, pas du tout, 
 parce que je le lui ai donni, vous auriez du venir, tout de suite, 
 tout a Vheure, toujours, je viens de, au-dessus, quelque chose, 
 quelquhin, quelque part, autre part, quart dlieure, d cette ipoque-ci, 
 ce matin, au contraire, la semaine prochaine, au fur et d mesure, 
 nom de plume, de trop, au large, coup de main, coup d^ceil, mal de 
 mer, vaurien, suis alU, quinze jours, d moins que, quoi que, quoique, 
 bien que, aussitot que, aussi tot que, avant que, des que, jusqu'd ce 
 que, sauter aux yeux, chef-d^ceume, maitre chanteur, en face, 
 d^ habitude, en outre, pieds nus, peu d peu, tant soit peu, de peur 
 que, avoir peur, en premier lieu, d coup sur, s^en voidair, vouloir 
 bien, vouloir dire, lorsque, lors de, journaux, hiboux, familiere, 
 fondamentaux, comprenne, ga se fait, depuis. 
 
 The examination of this list opens up a wide field of facts and 
 conjecture. It will be found that many of the monologs have 
 been learnt integrally and that many of the polylogs have 
 not so been learnt. So far this would bear out the popular 
 assumption. 
 
 But in contradiction to this you will have discovered that 
 some of the monologs have been built up s)aithetically, and so 
 constitute secondary matter ; a still more striking fact is that 
 a larger number, probably the majority of the polylogs, have 
 been learnt integrally, and so constitute primary matter. 
 
 Is it better to have learnt il y a integrally, or would it have 
 been better to have learnt the three component parts il, y, and 
 a, and to put them together as il y a when required ? The 
 answer is obvious ; had you never learnt il y a as an integral 
 unit, no process of reasoning would ever have enabled you to 
 construct this unit s}Tithetically. 
 
 It appears that you have learnt two words bien que as an 
 integral conjunction polylog in the sense of although. Was this 
 latter procedure necessary ? Would it not have been sufficient 
 to learn the adverb bien ( = ivell) and the conjunction que ( = that) 
 
108 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 as primary matter, and to have derived from these as a synthetic 
 product the compound conjunction bien que ? Obviously this 
 would not have been the right course ; your knowledge of 
 the individual words would not have enabled you to guess 
 that the two words combined correspond to an entirely new 
 concept equivalent to although. 
 
 Did you learn vous auriez du venir as primary or as secondary 
 matter ? Probably as primary matter. Had you wished to 
 produce the French equivalent of you ought to have come by the 
 synthetic method the result would probably have been not vous 
 auriez du venir, but vous devriez etre venu. 
 
 It is difficult to see how you could have treated coup de 
 main or coup d'ceil otherwise than by memorizing them 
 integrally. 
 
 Are you ever tempted to say le semaine prochain ? If so it 
 proves that you have learnt to produce the French equivalent 
 of next week by synthesis, for had you learnt it as an integral 
 unit it would be impossible for you to make the mistake in 
 question. 
 
 If you ever hear an English student say a la contraire or sur 
 le contraire you may safely conclude that he has just formed 
 the polylog by synthetic construction. If you ever hear any 
 one say tant le mieux you may conclude that this person has 
 considered it expedient not to treat the French equivalent of 
 so much the better as primary matter. 
 
 II n'y a pas d argent might be formed synthetically from il y a, 
 ne pas de, and argent, but it is difficult to see how il n'y a pas de 
 quoi can become part of our linguistic baggage except by treating 
 it as primary matter and so learning it integrally. 
 
 Most French children seem to be unconscious that quatre- 
 vingts is composed of the two units quatre and vingt ; they have 
 learnt it as an integral polylog. Probably the average French 
 child is no more conscious of the parts of tout le monde than is 
 the English child of everybody. It is with a certain shock of 
 surprise that the French child discovers that sHl vous plait is 
 nothing other than si la chose vous plait. 
 
 When we use the adverb next door we are not thinking of 
 the door which is nearest to our own house ; the polylog 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 109 
 
 has been assimilated as primary matter. So also the French- 
 man has no cognizance of the ultimate units beau and coup 
 in beaucoup. 
 
 Neither the Frenchman nor the Englishman connects the 
 Franco-English word char-d-banc with its individual parts when 
 using it. 
 
 Ask the Frenchman the meaning of the French words fur 
 and rez ; for a moment he will be as puzzled as the Englishman 
 when asked the meaning of the English word fro. The average 
 Englishman may use the polylog to and fro all his life without 
 cognizing the existence of the element fro. 
 
 The Frenchman is no more conscious of the decomposition of 
 parce que than is the Englishman of because. 
 
 The young child learning his mother tongue certainly does 
 not confine the memorizing process to monologs. As a matter 
 of fact, the young child does not distinguish monologs from 
 polylogs. He learnt la croix by the same process as that by 
 which he learns the proper noun Lacroix ; he learns pomrne de 
 terre not as a word group signifying pomme qui vient de la terrc, 
 but as an integral word in itself like haricot or orange. Indeed, 
 when the child first begins to write, it is exceedingly difficult for 
 him to know which are the conventional orthographic units that 
 we call monologs. 
 
 If we pass from French and English to languages of which the 
 graphic unit is the syllable we shall find new data to convince 
 or bewilder us. And what of unwritten languages in which 
 obviously no graphic units exist at all ? 
 
 The monolog of one language corresponds in meaning and 
 function to the polylog or the miolog of another. The French 
 tariine is equivalent to the English piece of bread and butter ; 
 French diffidlement is equal to English zvith difficulty ; English 
 while generally expresses the same thing as pendant que. 
 Furthermore, the polylog of one century becomes the mono- 
 log of the next, and the miolog of the future. The monolog 
 cupboard used to be the polylog cup board. At the present 
 day a Frenchman treats this unit, not as a synthetic product 
 of cup and board, but as an integral primary unit. 
 
 Turning to the converse side of the question, we may discover 
 
110 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 vast numbers of monologs which we produce synthetically by 
 composition or by derivation. 
 
 A foreigner having learnt harmless integrally will not hesitate 
 to recognize or to produce harmlessly ; knowing the monolog 
 bright and the miolog ness, he will produce by synthesis bright- 
 ness ; knowing polir, we may forge repolir, or knowing repolir 
 we may hazard polir with a fair chance of success. The 
 cumbrous but none the less convenient German compound 
 monologs are cognized and learnt in exactly the same manner 
 as their poly logical English equivalents. 
 
 All these considerations tend to show among the other things 
 that the accident of graphic continuity has little to do 
 with the point we are examining, that primary matter is not 
 restricted to monologs and that secondary matter may 
 include them. Were every German monolog to be treated 
 as primary matter our study would be as infinite as the 
 number of German monologs. Were every French poly log 
 to be treated as secondary matter our French compositions 
 would be as lucid to a Frenchman as pidgin English is to a 
 Cockney, and all French reading matter would be as hard 
 to decipher as Assyrian cuneiform. 
 
 To what conclusions must we come and what principles may 
 we enunciate as a result of examining the foregoing examples ? 
 
 Let it be stated as axiomatic that, ceteris paribus, the integral 
 assimilation of the matter of a given language is just as difficult 
 or just as easy as the integral assimilation of the matter of any 
 other language. 
 
 Some languages are said to be more difficult or more easy 
 than others. As a concrete instance, Russian is said to be 
 extremely difficult and Danish relatively easy for an English 
 student. This statement is rightly based on the fact that 
 Russian is a highly inflected language, whereas Danish is not. 
 
 And yet a Russian child and a Danish child will learn their 
 respective native languages in their colloquial form with the 
 same or approximately the same ease. 
 
 The deriving of a regular plural noun from the singular is 
 a remarkably simple operation in English and a remarkably 
 difficult one in German, and yet the German child learns his 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 111 
 
 native plui'al nouns with approximately the same ease as the 
 EngHsh child learns those of English. 
 
 The order of words in a French sentence is irregular in a very 
 high degree ; in English the word-order is far simpler, and yet 
 the French child learns to form his sentences with approximately 
 the same ease as the English child. 
 
 Stated in general terms, the fact is that the native user of a 
 language subject to complex laws will, all other things being 
 equal, make almost as few mistakes as the native speaker of a 
 language subject to very simple laws. It may indeed, be re- 
 garded as an axiom that all languages in their colloquial form 
 are equally or almost equally easy when considered from the 
 point of view of their respective native users. 
 
 This most significant phenomenon can only admit of one 
 explanation, and can point to but one conclusion. Let us 
 ask ourselves under what conditions the respective solutions 
 of a complex and of a simple problem are equally easy. 
 The answer is clear — ^viz. when we learn the respective solutions 
 by heart I 
 
 The obvious conclusion is that when we learn our native 
 language, whatever it may be, in learning how to solve its 
 problems we learn by heart the solutions of the problems. 
 Reducing this statement to more precise terms, we may state 
 as an incontrovertible fact that we treat the fundamental matter 
 of our native language not as secondary, but as primary matter. 
 
 The essential difference between a difficult language and an 
 easy one lies in the respective difficulty with which secondary 
 matter is derived from the integrally assimilated units. 
 
 If German is a difficult language, it is because, having learnt 
 singular nouns, we are unable without much calculation to 
 derive from them their plural form ; because having learnt as 
 primary matter der, die, das, Buch, Tinte, and Bleistift, we are 
 forced to calculate in order to derive as secondary matter der 
 Bleistift, die Tinte, and das Buch. 
 
 The comparative ease and difficulty of languages, apart from 
 phonetic and orthographic considerations, can only be estimated 
 by reference to the formation of secondary or unseen matter. 
 However complicated the mechanism of a given language, the 
 
112 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 natives themselves learn it with precision at an early age because 
 they use the two processes in their natural and right proportions. 
 Students of foreign languages generally produce results which 
 are far inferior because they depend too little on primary matter 
 and too much on secondary matter. 
 
 There would then appear to be three distinct advantages in 
 assimilating integral units rather than in deriving secondary 
 matter by inference : 
 
 1. Exclusion of any possibility of error. 
 
 2. Relief from the burden of abstract calculation. 
 
 3. Immediate utility of matter so learnt. 
 
 Let us illustrate the three points by concrete examples. 
 
 1. Exclusion of Error 
 
 No one who has treated integrally the polylogs la dent and 
 le tonnerre can possibly say or write le dent or la tonnerre. No 
 Frenchman who has learnt as primary matter / always go to 
 England will ever produce / go always in England. No English- 
 man who has learnt Ich bin mit meinem Freund gekommen will 
 ever be tempted to say Ich habe gekommen mit mein Freund. 
 Were the Frenchman to learn ought to, hardly ever, I want him 
 to go, integrally he would never say / ought go, I go nearly never, 
 and / will that he go. 
 
 2. Relief from Calculation 
 
 In the second place, the integral process relieves us from an 
 intolerable burden of abstract calculation. 
 
 The following sentence formed by an English student by 
 synthetic construction will necessitate twenty-five separate 
 efforts of the mind : 
 
 Ich habe mit grosstem Vergniigen seinen freundlichen Vorschlag 
 angenommen. 
 
 1 to 9. Choice and recollection of the nine words in their 
 employed uninflected form (presuming Vergniigen, freundlich, 
 Vorschlag, and annehmen to have been previously acquired as 
 primary matter). 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 113 
 
 10 to 18. Respective position of each. 
 
 19. Derivation of superlative from gross. 
 
 20. Recollection of the neuter dative singular case-inflection 
 of an adjective when not preceded by article, etc. 
 
 21. Determination of gender of Vergnugen. 
 
 22. Recollection of the masculine accusative singular case- 
 inflexion of the possessive adjective sein. 
 
 23. Ditto for the adjective freundlich. 
 
 24. Determination of the gender of Vorschlag. 
 
 25. Derivation of the past participle angenommen from the 
 infinitive annehmen. 
 
 By learning the whole sentence as an integral unit, these 
 twenty -five efforts would be reduced to one — viz. the production 
 of the complete sentence in response to some stimulus. 
 
 3. Immediate Utility 
 
 An Englishman ignorant of French finds it necessary to pay 
 a short visit to a remote French village where no interpreter is 
 likely to be found. A few days before his departure he asks our 
 advice on the linguistic question. We shall not advise him to 
 study the French conjugation, nor the rules for the formation 
 of the plural of nouns and adjectives ; the short time at his 
 disposal will preclude all possibility of doing any synthetic work. 
 We may perhaps advise him to purchase some sort of tourist's 
 pocket phrase-book and to make use of it by showing any 
 appropriate sentence to the natives. 
 
 But this is not language-learning at all ; it is merely a con- 
 venient substitute. The only advice we can give him from the 
 point of view of language-study is to learn by heart such integral 
 units as oui, non, je ne comprends pas, je suis Anglais, y a-t-il 
 qicelqu'un id qui parle anglais, donnez-moi ga, ou?, comhien?, 
 comme ga, faifaim, etc., etc. 
 
 This is primary matter. He need not know whether he 
 is using monologs or poly logs. He will be unable to vary 
 or to adapt any of these units ; he must use them just as 
 they are, and do the rest by gesture and by reference to his 
 book. 
 
 H 
 
114 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Twelve categories of units may profitably be treated as primary 
 matter. 
 
 We may now perhaps venture to draw conclusions from the 
 various facts which we have examined and to lay down a few 
 general rules concerning the respective functions of the two 
 processes of study in order to determine what units should be 
 treated respectively as primary or secondary matter. 
 
 There would appear to be twelve cases in which integral 
 assimilation has an advantage over the complementary process. 
 
 1. When a monolog constitutes an entity undecomposable 
 into significative parts and underivable from its etymological 
 members it must necessarily be treated as primary matter. No 
 possibility exists of deriving by synthesis such fundamental 
 units as bon, ici, ou^ comme, le, faire, commencer, souvenir^ cam- 
 pagne, suis, viens, verrez, vu, pris, meilleur, lui ; go, come, be, 
 book, good, with, went, came, children, men, women, better, worse, 
 am, is, ought. 
 
 2. When a monolog can be decomposed into its ultimate 
 units only by the aid of historical etymology, it would be well 
 to treat it as primary matter. Maintenant, toujours, bonheur, 
 gendarme, aujourd'hui, affaire, avenir, beaucoup, lundi, remarquer, 
 depuis, abonnement, rendez-vous, celui should be learnt integrally^ 
 as should such English words as perhaps, Wednesday, thirteen, 
 because, afternoon, somewhere, forget, funny, alone, understand, 
 hardly, yesterday, fortnight, never, neither. 
 
 3. When a frequently used monolog, although decomposable 
 without any special knowledge of etymology, is not generally 
 regarded by the natives themselves as a compomid, more especi- 
 ally when the meaning of the word does not represent the sum 
 of the meanings of its component parts, it will be well to treat 
 it as primary matter. The following are examples : chou-fleur, 
 quelque chose, quelqu'un, lorsque, pardessus, parapluie, paravent, 
 blanchdtre, encaisser, dSmenager, bicyclette, malheureux, seulement ; 
 cupboard, waistcoat, forehead, something, upstairs, downstairs, 
 seve7iteen, presently. 
 
 4. When a monolog is a derived or compoimd word of which 
 the elements can only be ascertained by reference to the 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 115 
 
 ancestral or some other foreign language it should be treated 
 as an integral unit. Examples : imprimer, exprimer, entrer, 
 hihliotMque, Ulephone, itinSraire, vicinal, traduire, candidate 
 fauteuili reclamer, impossible, satisfaire, geographic, and all 
 words artificially composed in imitation of Latin, including 
 nouns ending in tion, sion, ence, ance, age, ure, etc., adjectives 
 ending in able, ible, eux, etc. 
 
 5. When a polylog constitutes a unit of which the semantic 
 value is not the sum of its component monological parts or of 
 which the component parts are not present to the minds of the 
 native, it must be treated as a primary unit. Bien que no more 
 represents the sum of bien and que than understand represents 
 the sum of under and stand. Examples : quand mime, tout de 
 suite, tout a Vheure, venir de, tenir a, il y a, tout le monde, quinze 
 jours, s^agir, s^en aller, un peu, pomme de terre, comme il faut, 
 qu^est-ce que c'est, qui est-ce que, peut-etre, a moins que ; next 
 door, of course, all right, how much, last night, good-bye, had better, 
 would rather, u^ed to, on account of, in spite of. 
 
 6. When a polylog constitutes a imit of which the individual 
 parts are likely to be misplaced or confused with others, it should 
 be taught as an integral unit. To ensure that such polylogs 
 may be treated as primary and not secondary matter, it often 
 becomes necessary to write these as one word ; this is a very 
 convenient device when using the phonetic script. Examples : 
 lafenetre, la porte, le mur, la dent, le tonnerre, du pain, de V argent, 
 de la crime, commencer a, finir de, a la fin, au milieu, la semaine 
 prochaine, assez de, pres de, me le, le lui, suis venu ; ought to, 
 had better, would rather, at the end, in the middle, tell him to, on 
 Sunday^ half a dozen, hardly ever, more than, as much as. 
 
 In this category we may place a vast number of polylogs 
 composed of what Sweet calls adjunct-words and head-words, 
 such as article and noun, preposition and noun, etc. 
 
 7. When a polylog is composed of elements rarely used in 
 any other context it is advisable to treat it as primary matter. 
 Examples : je suis, suis-je, sera-t-il, il faut, rez-de-chaussie, 
 induire en erreur, aufur et a mesure, to and fro. 
 
 8. When the polylog is the natural equivalent of a native 
 monolog it will be found expedient to treat it as a primary unit. 
 
116 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Examples : en haut^ en has, laisser tomber, le mien , jusqu^d ce que, 
 ce que, vouloir dire, coup (Toeil ; go in, go out, come hack, get up, 
 sit down, shall go, how much, ought to, on Monday. 
 
 9. When a sentence is of idiomatic or irregular construction — 
 that is to say, not to be composed by any laws of reasoning nor 
 analogy — it should be learnt as if it were a simple monolog as 
 primary matter : Examples : Je n'y puis rien ; SHI y a lieu ; 
 II n'y a pas de quoi ; SHI vous plait ; Je veux hien ; Qu'est-ce que 
 c'est que ga ? ; Cest pour rire ; fa m'est egal ; Qa ne me fait rien ; 
 // iw vaut pas la peine ; / canH help it ; // doesn't matter ; 
 It isn't worth while ; How do you do? ; I wish you a happy 
 New Year ; Turn to the left ; It looks like rain ; What's the 
 matter ? 
 
 Into this category we place such stereotyped expressions as 
 proverbs and well-known quotations. 
 
 10. A certain number of regular sentences serving as char- 
 acteristic illustrations of important lexicological laws should be 
 learnt by integral assimilation. In order to ensure their treat- 
 ment as primary and not as secondary matter, these sentences 
 should be thoroughly inculcated and assimilated at a very 
 early stage. Examples : Je ne le lui ai pas donne ; Personne 
 n'est venu ; Je le lui ai dit hier soir ; Que lui avez-vou^ dit ? ; 
 Je ne peux pas venir id demain matin ; Je Vai vu la semaine 
 derniere ; Ilfaut que je lefasse ; Ou voulez-vou^ quHl aille ? 
 
 11. A certain number of regular sentences may be thoroughly 
 assimilated at a fairly early stage in order to enable the student 
 to make immediate use of his knowledge. This is more especi- 
 ally necessary in the case of adults who are contemplating a 
 visit to the foreign country or are expecting foreign visitors. 
 Examples : Je ne vous comprends pas ; Je suis anglais ; Parlez 
 plus lentement, sHl vou^ plait ; Qu'est-ce que cela veut dire ? ; 
 Donnez-moi cela ; Je desire une cJiamhre ; Eveillez-moi a huit 
 heures ; J'ai un peu faim ; Je suis fatigue ; Que puis-je avoir 
 a manger ? 
 
 12. A certain number of regular sentences should be 
 thoroughly assimilated in the early stages as primary matter 
 in order to serve as model sentences to be developed by the 
 student in the form of substitution tables. 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 117 
 
 The integral memorizing of a number of models is the best means 
 of obviating the 'pernicious habits to be described in a later 
 section under the heading " The Six Vicious Tendencies. ^"^ 
 
 There is evidently no reason why categories 10, 11, and 12 
 should not coincide. The sentence Je ne vous comprends pas 
 serves as an illustration of the general rule for the formation of 
 negative sentences. It may serve as a model for the deriving of 
 secondary matter by substitution, and it is probably the most 
 useful sentence which anybody can learn when about to pay 
 a first visit to France. 
 
 We may sum up these twelve lists or categories by stating 
 that primary matter should consist of 
 
 (a) All simple and underived monologs and a vast number 
 of compound and derived monologs. 
 
 (b) A vast number of polylogs (practically all those which 
 are semantically equivalent to monologs). 
 
 (c) An indefinite number of sentences, both regular and 
 irregular. 
 
 What then remains to be treated as secondary matter ? 
 When shall the student begin to use his reasoning faculties ? 
 
 The answer is clear, and may be put in as concise a form as 
 the question : the student is to use his reasoning faculties in 
 order to learn the residue. 
 
 Of what does this residue consist ? 
 
 It consists in the first place of all monologs derived or com- 
 posed by the normal and regular laws of derivation and com- 
 position ; it consists also of all the polylogs which do not come 
 under headings 5 to 8 ; and, lastly, it consists of all the countless 
 millions of sentences not included under headings 9 to 12. 
 
 In view of the great advantages offered by the assimilation 
 of primary matter over the production of secondary matter, why 
 shall we confine the process to the twelve categories enumerated 
 above ? 
 
 The obvious answer is that the number of units which can be 
 assimilated integrally during a whole lifetime represents but a 
 tiny fraction of the infinite number of combinations possible in 
 any given language. 
 
118 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Sooner or later our integrally assimilated units must be 
 supplemented by a vastly greater nmnber to be produced by 
 the student himself by the inferential process. 
 
 Is this, however, not in contradiction to what has been stated 
 earlier ? Have we not concluded that we learnt our native 
 language as primary matter ? Not so. We have never 
 ventured to make such a sweeping and absurd assertion. We 
 have concluded that we treat as primary matter not the whole 
 but the fundamental matter of our native language. 
 
 Even in this case we must not assume that the matter of 
 a language can be dichotomized into fundamental and non- 
 fundamental imits. The two terms are purely relative, for no 
 imit can be considered as fundamental in itself. 
 
 Nor do we wish to suggest that the child assimilates funda- 
 mental units up to a certain moment and from that moment 
 onward abandons the process in favour of inferential production. 
 The two processes are used concurrently during the whole of 
 our lives. What we do maintain is that in the very early stages 
 the assimilation of primary matter is used in a larger degree, and 
 that its use decreases in proportion to our general linguistic 
 progress. Conversely the comparatively small amount of 
 productive work of the early stages increases little by little 
 in direct ratio to this progress. 
 
 We may now inquire whether existing methods, both ancient 
 and modern, treat as a fundamental factor the distinction 
 between the two classes of matter, and consider with any 
 measure of consistency the two processes of study. 
 
 The critical analysis of a large number of methods over a 
 period of many years conveys the impression that this factor, 
 in common with other vital factors, has been completely over- 
 looked. 
 
 Indeed, in many modern methods the only sentences appa- 
 rently considered fit matter for integral memorizing take the 
 form of archaic proverbs and infantile nursery rhymes ! 
 
 We noted earlier in the present section the extreme import- 
 ance of a thorough understanding of these two processes ; we 
 hinted that the conclusions which result from their perfect 
 differentiation and a knowledge of their functions would have 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 119 
 
 a most vital bearing on the whole question of language- 
 study. 
 
 We will now venture to assert that in all but the most ex- 
 ceptional cases no method can possibly be sound which does 
 not treat as primary matter most or all of the twelve categories 
 of units that we have enumerated and described. All methods 
 which assume monologs alone to constitute essentially the 
 primary matter to be assimilated integrally, and which leave 
 categories 5 to 12 to be treated as secondary matter to be 
 derived by the student himself, must be rejected as unsound 
 and unpractical. 
 
 We may repeat the reason upon which our judgment is 
 founded : Unless a vastly greater number of units are treated by 
 the pure faculty of memory than is generally the case, the student 
 will acquire, not the capacity of forming correct sentences, but the 
 capacity of making unlimited mistakes, and by so doing will form 
 habits which it will require perhaps years to eradicate ! 
 
 Section 19.— Gradation. In order that the pupil may proceed by the 
 line of least resistance, he should pass from the known to the 
 unknown by easy stages, each of which will serve as a preparation 
 for the one immediately following. 
 It is considered by many that gradation implies passing from 
 the incorrect to the correct, from broken speech to that used 
 by natives, from hesitation to fluency. It has often been stated 
 that perfection can only come from the gradual elimination of 
 the factor of error. We would urge that the factor of error 
 should never be allowed to obtain any footing at all. All errors 
 other than those made by native speakers are abnormalities, 
 and the results of a faulty method. We cannot and must not 
 tolerate any system of teaching which will lead a student to 
 pass off infinitives as past tenses, to use singulars instead of 
 plurals, or to consider the nominative to be the universal case. 
 It is chiefly in this respect that a general standard programme 
 differs from a special corrective course. The latter is designed 
 expressly to eliminate the factor of error from the speech of the 
 victims of faulty methods ; the former is a system of teaching 
 designed to result in correct speech and nothing but correct 
 
120 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 speech ; hence the inclusion in our basic principle of the clauses 
 " as spoken by natives " and " as written by natives." 
 
 What is error ? Of what does it consist ? Surely error is 
 nothing other than the using of forms which are unknown to 
 the native speaker or writer. An English student of French 
 says [i:t ns: fou pa:] ; the Frenchman says [infopci] ; conse- 
 quently the former constitutes an error or a series of errors. 
 An English student may say or write la tonnerre ; no Frenchman 
 says or writes la tonnerre^ consequently this is an error. No 
 Frenchman would ever say " J'ai ete ici pour deux jours " in 
 the sense of " I've been here for two days " ; consequently the 
 sentence is erroneous. 
 
 Error, however, is not confined to the using of non-native 
 sounds, non-native combinations, and non-native meanings. 
 The unit of language as used normally hy natives is the fluent 
 sentence ; consequently the normal use of non-fluent sentences 
 constitutes error. The 'progress of students can only he measured 
 hy their capacity for understanding and for producing fluent 
 sentences. 
 
 The following passages extracted from How to Learn a 
 Language ^ emphasize the value of this dictum as considered 
 from the point of view of the student of missionary linguistics : 
 
 " Unless speaking, like piano-playing, is automatically correct, 
 the result is not enjoyable. The only way to ensure this auto- 
 matic accuracy in pronunciation, vocabulary, and construction 
 is to learn all sorts of sentences, by frequent repetition, until an 
 inaccurate sentence becomes an impossibility. When one has 
 thus memorized his sentences they become matrices for thoughts. 
 They are well-formed moulds into which all statements of that 
 character readily fall. No pains spent on absolutely fixing these 
 in the memory can be too great." 
 
 " Every art and science has its fundamentals. He who 
 would be a master of any art must gain an automatic command 
 of its basic principles. And just as the master of computation 
 must have the sum, difference, and product of the nine digits 
 at his tongue's end, so must the master of every language have 
 
 * A clear and concise expos^ of a remarkably sound system of language- 
 study, published in New York in 191 6 by Thomas F. Cummings. 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 121 
 
 as ready a command of its pronunciation, construction, and 
 vocabulary. To get one's phrases correctly at the second or 
 third trial is about as satisfactory as a like readiness would be 
 in making change for railroad tickets. If, however, one knows 
 his language expressions as well as he knows his multiplication 
 tables, he may rest satisfied. Anything else is annoyance and 
 vexation." 
 
 " Our standard of attainment is five syllables per second. He 
 who can deliver his language material at this rate of speed 
 may rank as a skilled workman. Less than this is not 
 efficiency." 
 
 " The only way to learn accuracy is by being fluent, for fluency 
 is an integral part of accuracy. He who does not sing to time 
 is inaccurate. He who does not speak to speed is also in- 
 accurate." 
 
 '' Recognition of failure is the first step toward success, but 
 some foreign residents are so far from such recognition as to 
 say : ' These people do not understand their own language.' 
 True enough ! Not as spoken by a raw foreigner." 
 
 If the work of a serious student is characterized by a certain 
 proportion of error, it is a fairly trustworthy sign that he is 
 doing work which is too difficult for him : there has been faulty 
 gradation. All work performed by pupils in accordance with a 
 properly graduated method under ideal conditions should be 
 marked by extreme facility and extreme accuracy. 
 
 Gradation does not imply the learning of the easier aspects of 
 language as a preparation for the more difficult. To consider 
 the written form as a stepping-stone to the spoken form is one 
 of the most popular fallacies of the amateur student of language, 
 and the one which leads him the most surely to broken or pidgin 
 speech. 
 
 What we can do, however, to ensure gradation on sound and 
 salutary lines is to regulate the quantity of units in accordance 
 with the capacities of the average student, to work from the 
 easier toward the more difficult forms of exercise, to select the 
 more used in preference to the less used ergons, and to avoid 
 abrupt transitions. 
 
 In order to draw up an ideal programme in accordance with 
 
122 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 the principle of gradation and all that this term implies, we may 
 conveniently divide the whole of the scholastic period into three 
 stages, to be termed respectively Elementary, Intermediate, and 
 Advanced. 
 
 When the student is able to understand about three-quarters 
 of what he hears and reads, and is able to express correctly 
 about half of whatever he wishes to say or write, the remainder 
 of his study may (if this is considered expedient on other 
 grounds) proceed almost entirely on the basis of the sub- 
 conscious process. The moment considered favourable for 
 the entry of the pupil into this new phase may be termed 
 the Point of Transition. 
 
 Section 20, — The Microcosm. In order that the pupil may reach the 
 * point of transition ' with the least delay, the vocabulary must be 
 selected with the greatest care and perspicacity ; it should include 
 none but the commonest and most characteristic units, represent- 
 ing the most important ergonic classes. A vocabulary of this 
 nature may be termed the Quintessence or the Microcosm of 
 the language. This Microcosm should be formed and organized 
 systematically in accordance with and as a compromise between 
 the principles of Frequency, Ergonic Combination, Concreteness, 
 Proportion, and General Expediency. 
 In view of the fact that a large number of units will have to 
 be the object of conscious study, and in every way thoroughly 
 assimilated, and also that most of these are destined to be 
 combined with each other in order to produce an almost un- 
 limited stock of secondary matter, the utmost care must be 
 exercised in the selection of these units by the method-maker. 
 The best method of selecting the matter is first to draw up 
 on fairly broad lines a rough microcosm of the language, and 
 then to make a definite choice of units more or less in accordance 
 with the five somewhat conflicting principles of Frequency, 
 Ergonic Combination, Concreteness, Proportion, and General 
 Expediency. The result will be a nucleus of the language, 
 a quintessence of its most useful and most characteristic 
 parts — in short, a practical if not perfect microcosm of the 
 language. 
 
 We will examine each of these principles in detail. 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 128 
 
 Frequency 
 
 The lexicological units of all degrees of graphic continuity 
 and of ergonic completeness may be classified according to their 
 degree of frequency or rareness — i.e. according to their degree 
 of utility. It is evident that it is more useful for a foreigner 
 to be able to use words like go, is, here, and / than words hke 
 fidelity, quarry, or transit. It may also be asserted that the more 
 frequently used words will be the more easily learnt, from the 
 mere fact that they are frequent, for since the frequent words 
 are to be found in every text either spoken or written, the 
 foreigner will be more likely to assimilate them than those only 
 figuring at rare intervals. 
 
 Since the memorizing or catenizing of words is at best a tedious 
 process, it is obviously the duty of an instructor, when choosing 
 the matter to be memorized by the student, to select the more 
 frequent and to reject the rarer units of vocabulary. If the 
 memorizing of five hundred of such units is deemed to be a 
 necessary stage in the study of a particular language there are 
 at least two reasons why each of these should be chosen from 
 among the frequently used and not the rare ones, the first repos- 
 ing on utilitarian and the second on pedagogic considerations. 
 
 We will imagine that we have before us two books, each 
 written with the intention of teaching us some foreign language. 
 In the first few pages of the first we find a vocabulary roughly 
 equivalent to the following : 
 
 Cherry, diligent, idle, roof, mouse, 'plough, jump, swim, 
 nightingale, fmmerly, Dutchman, buckwheat, beautiful, 
 Mary, Charles, lest, uncle, acorn, grasshopper, door-nail, 
 huntsman, rejoice, unsubstantial, wearisome, praise, enemy, 
 feign, honeysuckle, turbot, beseech, weep, daily-growing, 
 shudder, prating, misbecome, peevish, wild boar. 
 
 The other book, in its first pages, contains a vocabulary 
 roughly equivalent to the following : 
 
 /, you, he, somebody, something, nobody, nothing, am, is, 
 are, have, has, come, go, know, understand, do, see, hear. 
 
124 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 take, it, this, that, not, never, good, had, ready, tired, very, 
 too, quite, here, there, mine, yours, what, who, where, when, 
 can, must, will. 
 
 Is it not evident that our choice would fall on the second 
 book without a second's hesitation ? What is there about this 
 vocabulary which attracts us, and what is it that repels us in 
 the first ? Is it not merely the respective degrees of frequency 
 and rareness ? 
 
 We feel that even if we only succeed in mastering the first 
 few pages of the second book we shall know something worth 
 knowing, and that in the first case if we even succeed in learning 
 the heterogeneous group of words we shall certainly have for- 
 gotten them long before ever having the occasion to use them. 
 
 May we then consider it possible to divide all the words of a 
 language into two categories, the useful and the useless ? At 
 first sight it would appear possible to do so, but a moment of 
 reflection will show us that between the two extremes there 
 must be an imperceptible transition, that instead of two distinct 
 categories respectively of frequent and rare words there is an 
 infinite number of degrees of frequency. A few experunents in 
 the practice of drawing up lists of the 100, 250, 500, and 1000 
 most used English etymons or ergons would be the best demon- 
 stration of the difficulties of such classifications and prove the 
 necessity of working in accordance with precise principles, and, 
 when the possibilities of reason are exhausted, even of invoking 
 the arbitrary. 
 
 It should be noted that all frequency statistics in order to be 
 valid must be based on considerations of relative speciality and 
 generality. The more a word is special, the more difficult it 
 is to assign to it its true frequency value. The word French 
 is a most important word for a Frenchman, and of compara- 
 tively little importance to a Chinaman, for instance. The 
 word Folkestone is a most frequent one in the speech of 
 Folkestonians. Hammer, in the speech of a carpenter, is of 
 far greater frequency than in that of a tailor. 
 
 If we wish to compose a hst of the 500 most frequent English 
 monologs, is the word like to figure once or twice ? If we are 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 125 
 
 contenting ourselves with a list of mere morphons, it will appear 
 once only ; if our list is based on etymological considerations, it 
 will also appear once only, for the verb like and the preposition 
 like are both identical in origin. If our list is to be based on 
 ergonic grounds it must appear at least four times, as infinitive, 
 as present tense, as adjective, and as preposition. If we include 
 semantic considerations the word must figure as many times as 
 it has meanings. There is a vast difference between a list of 
 morphons, etymons, ergons, and semanticons, and we must 
 decide in advance according to which of these aspects we are 
 working. Some would include as separate units the eight 
 words be, being, been, am, is, are, was, were ; others wdll include 
 only the word be and refer to the seven others as mere ptosonic 
 varieties. A list of words to be used for systematic pronuncia- 
 tion exercises will contain as a single unit the word mine and 
 ignore the ergonic and semantic differences between the two 
 varieties as in This is mine and This is a mine. But such a 
 list will treat foot and feet as two units, as would the ergonic 
 list ; the semantic list would include foot at least tw^ce, once 
 with the meaning of pedal extremity and the other with that of 
 twelve inches. 
 
 Ergonic Combination 
 
 Given the words it, this, that, is, was, not, good, bad, large, 
 small, new, ready, here, there, in, out, away, back, it is possible to 
 combine them into 288 perfectly rational and eminently useful 
 sentences. 
 
 Given the words, he, am, take, go, come, no, of, the, my, very, 
 quite, now, it is impossible to form (apart from a few laconisms) 
 one single sentence, although these words represent an even 
 higher degree of frequency than the first list. 
 
 The most carefully calculated frequency statistics based on 
 etymons or morphons represent but lists of minor ergons, and 
 as our pupil can never be encouraged or expected to learn 
 isolated minor ergons on any considerable scale they will be of 
 Uttle or no practical value in a book of instruction. 
 
 If we decide that the first pages of such a book should contain 
 the word am, we must also include the word /, without which 
 
126 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 am is a perfectly useless word. If we decide on presenting the 
 present tense of the verb be, we must choose at the same time a 
 group of adjectives or of adverbs of place, together with a few 
 words to serve as subjects, in order that be may be studied in 
 the form of sentences. 
 
 If, on the other hand, we decide on take, see, know, understand, 
 tell, etc., as our first vocabulary, we must provide a few subjec- 
 tive and objective ergons with which the verbs may be combined. 
 
 In observing the principle of ergonic combination we must 
 not neglect the principle of frequency, although the latter must 
 be subordinated to a certain extent to the former. Were we to 
 c^rry out the principle of frequency to its logical conclusion the 
 pupil would hear nothing of nouns nor see a single example 
 imtil fully 200 other words had been learnt, and yet without 
 nouns certain words of the highest frequency degree, such as a, 
 the, my, and your, remain but meaningless particles. We must 
 be prepared to make mutual concessions of frequency and of 
 ergonic combination so long as such concessions are not too one- 
 sided. We cannot, for instance, exclude from our first lessons 
 half a dozen nouns on the pretext that their presence will in- 
 validate our frequency statistics, nor may we introduce a large 
 number of rarer words in order to utilize fully the principle of 
 ergonic combination. 
 
 This principle may be stated as follows : Certain groups or 
 categories of ergons possess the power of almost unlimited 
 combination ; other groups of equal frequency have not this 
 power of combination. The most interesting exercises are 
 those which consist of combining words and ringing changes on 
 a small number of words on the basis of previously memorized 
 models. 
 
 In every programme there is generally a place where a word 
 may be introduced to the best advantage. The right moment 
 to introduce very, rather, too, and quite is when the pupil has 
 just learnt his first group of adjectives ; the right moment to 
 introduce here is when the pupil has just leamt come. The best 
 time to teach some is when the pupil is learning the polylogs 
 there is and there are. Plural nouns and numerals combine 
 well ; yesterday, last week, etc., should be leamt with the first 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 127 
 
 preterites ; not yet combined with the anterior tenses form most 
 useful and natural sentences. 
 
 The best way to gain a first-hand knowledge of the nature of 
 this principle is to draw up a set of substitution tables ; this 
 interesting work will result in many curious surprises and shed 
 much light on the powers of ergonic combination possessed by 
 the most frequently used words. 
 
 CONCRETENESS 
 
 Let us examine the following two lists of words and inquire 
 into the essential difference between them. 
 
 1. /, you, here^ there, this, that, door, window, ceiling, wall, 
 
 floor, arm, hand, pocket, take, put, go, come, move, 
 shake, push, pull, open, shut, on, under, over, against, 
 one, two, three, large, small. 
 
 2. People, language, man, something, everything, somebody, 
 
 water, shop, train, bird, know, understand, do, think, 
 expect, mean, like, wonder, ask, answer, for, with, 
 without, of, to-day, yesterday, Monday, tozvn, country, 
 very, too, good, bad, ready, busy, beautiful, ugly. 
 
 There does not seem to be any great difference in their relative 
 degrees of utility. On the whole, the second group appears to 
 be somewhat favoured in this respect. The first group seems 
 to possess better possibilities of ergonic combination. Beyond 
 these two facts there does not seem to be any marked differ- 
 ence between them. 
 
 But let us suppose that it falls to us to teach these words to 
 a foreigner who so far knows no word of English and whose 
 language is unknown to us. A very striking difference between 
 the two groups then becomes manifest. If we are in a room 
 (and lessons are not generally given in the street) a few element- 
 ary gestures and actions will make clear to our pupil the meaning 
 of the words contained in the first group, whereas the most 
 violent gesticulations would be necessary in order to give even 
 the faintest notions of the meanings of those in the second 
 group. A beatific expression of admiration may convey the 
 idea that the object of our contemplation is beautiful, but even 
 
128 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 then our conception of beauty may not agree with that of our 
 pupil. An expression of disgust and loathing may suggest 
 that we are trying to convey the idea that something to our 
 mind is ugly ; or we may convey the expression that we have 
 been poisoned or that we are awaiting a visit from a dentist. 
 Our onomatopoetic rendering of the idea train will result in 
 puffings and snortings which may suggest a grampus or a futurist 
 orchestra. Even a professional gesture specialist might exhaust 
 his powers of mimicry without conveying anything but the 
 vaguest impressions of the second group of words. 
 
 It would appear to be a psychological fact that we learn with 
 comparative ease the names of concrete things, qualities, and 
 actions, and with comparative difficulty the names of things 
 which are not present, qualities which are not visible, and actions 
 which we do not see performed. It will therefore be necessary 
 at certain moments, more especially in the earlier stages, to 
 sacrifice both the frequency principle and that of ergonic com- 
 bination in order to introduce words of which the only merit 
 is their facility of immediate comprehension. 
 
 The teacher will find it convenient to introduce the names 
 of all the objects in the schoolroom, to give undue importance 
 to words such as ink, chalk, blackboard, handle, ceiling, and desk, 
 not because of their intrinsic utility, not because of their value 
 in substitution tables, but because of their concreteness. Better 
 than all pictures, better than all definitions, and suggestions by 
 context, are the things themselves. It is quite impossible to 
 reconcile the principle of frequency with that of concreteness, 
 for, generally speaking, the most frequently used words are 
 precisely those which it is the most difficult to concretize, and 
 vice versa. The only escape from the dilemma is to work on 
 parallel lines, alternating concretizing exercises with others of 
 which the object is to present material in accordance with the 
 laws of frequency and of ergonic combination. 
 
 Proportion 
 
 A teacher who spends nine-tenths of his time and energy in 
 the teaching of verbs, who has made a speciality of their mani- 
 fold classifications, modifications, and aspects, doubtless does 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 129 
 
 good work. But by crowding all the other categories of ergons 
 as mere appanages to the verb, he is not an ideal teacher ; his 
 interest being centred upon his speciality, the verb, he offends 
 against the principle of proportion. A language method should 
 treat each ergonic division according to its importance, and not 
 develop any particular one at the expense of others. 
 
 The various parts of speech and their subdivisions should be 
 introduced proportionately, the development of each should 
 proceed on parallel lines. A given lesson may introduce, let 
 us say, a group of adjectives, a few adverbs of degree with which 
 to modify them, a few nouns as objects of modification, and a 
 sprinkling of the members of the verb to be to show the predica- 
 tive relation. The next lesson should change the subject and 
 deal, let us say, with a new group of verbs, or a new tense of 
 verbs already studied. The next lesson should concern, let us 
 say, prepositions and a new set of nouns, to be follow^ed by 
 another, relating, let us say, to conjunctions and subordinate 
 sentences. A series of complements of time might well follow, 
 succeeded by the study of a new group of pronouns. Having 
 run roimd the ergonic circle, we may again revert to adjectives 
 and increase the nucleus formed some half dozen lessons before. 
 
 In this way each part of speech receives due and proper atten- 
 tion, so that each may play its part in the development of the 
 pupil's knowledge of the language. 
 
 The principle of proportion should be applied not only to the 
 ergonic categories, but also to other aspects of language and its 
 study. Phonetics is a very interesting study and one of the 
 foimdations of sure progress, but an overdose of phonetics may 
 be detrimental instead of beneficial. A doctor is not satisfied 
 with the impatient patient who swallows a whole pint of tonic 
 instead of the prescribed three tablespoonfuls a day. 
 
 General Expediency 
 
 In addition to the more or less precise claims of Frequency, 
 Ergonic Combination, Concreteness and Proportion, there are 
 certain minor requirements which we may treat under the head- 
 ing of General Expediency. 
 
 When drawing up a list of words or a substitution table it 
 
130 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 often happens that the inclusion of a comparatively rare word 
 will complete and round off a category. If by considerations 
 of the frequency principle we omit it, not only will this cause a 
 more or less perceptible gap in the category, but later on it will 
 be difficult to find a place for it. 
 
 The word hundred is of far less importance than one, two, or 
 three ; the word thousand is less useful still, and million is a 
 comparatively rare word. The ideal principle of frequency will 
 not allow us to present at the same moment words of such widely 
 separated degrees of utility, and yet to omit the words thousand 
 and million in a lesson devoted to the teaching of numerals 
 would constitute a lacuna hardly to be justified by any considera- 
 tions of frequency. 
 
 For a second example let us suppose that we are devoting an 
 early paragraph to the words always, generally, usually, often, 
 sometimes, and never. Frequency statistics tell us that these 
 words are, roughly speaking, of the same importance, but con- 
 sign ever, hardly ever, scarcely ever, rarely, and frequently to an 
 outer radius, and seldom, ordinarily, and occasionally to a still 
 more remote radius. And yet all these fourteen words belong 
 to the same ergonic family (adverbs of frequency generally in 
 the pre-verbal position) and are mutually interchangeable in a 
 substitution table. Whether the comparative rareness of the 
 latter words induces us to relegate the whole group to a later 
 lesson, or whether the comparative frequency of the former 
 words leads us to introduce it in an early lesson, we transgress 
 in either case the laws of frequency. But if such transgression 
 results in our cutting up the group into three we may be offend- 
 ing against the laws of common-sense by spoiling an otherwise 
 perfect substitution table in which there is exactly room for all 
 the fourteen. 
 
 In such cases in order to round off our subject instead of 
 leaving it with ragged edges, we may certainly subordinate 
 frequency to expediency. As a matter of fact it is difficult 
 enough to compose a substitution table in such a way that aU 
 the combinations will make rational sentences without further 
 handicapping ourselves in our efforts toward an impossible 
 perfection. 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 131 
 
 Other cases will readily occur to teachers, in each of which 
 the inclusion in our microcosm of some unit is justified by 
 reasons which do not fall directly under any of the principles 
 we have named and examined. 
 
 Section 21.— Subconscious Comprehension. The pupil s powers of 
 subconscious (or immediate) comprehension will be developed 
 concurrently with his conscious study of the microcosm, and 
 quite independently of the matter contained therein. 
 
 The student may become proficient in the use of the foreign 
 language either consciously or subconsciously. In the former 
 case he converts unknown into known matter by dint of con- 
 scious efforts directed more or less systematically by the teacher 
 in a series of specific and appropriate exercises ; in the latter 
 case the language is assimilated spontaneously and automatic- 
 ally without any conscious efforts on the part of the pupil. 
 
 By intuition and not by intelligence the young child comes to 
 understand his mother tongue ; by intuition and not by in- 
 telligence he may come to understand a foreign tongue. The 
 adult, relying not on intuition, but on intelligence, makes much 
 slower progress and attains inferior results. 
 
 Of the vocabulary possessed by any person proficient in the 
 use of a foreign language, a very small proportion has been 
 acquired by conscious study, probably less than five per cent ; 
 the bulk of his vocabulary has been acquired by subconscious 
 assimilation. A rational programme should therefore be de- 
 signed with a view to enabling the student to utilize with the 
 least delay and to the fullest extent his subconscious faculties. 
 
 During the whole period of study, one of the most profitable 
 and interesting forms of work will be that which has for its 
 main object the development of the pupils' capacities of under- 
 standing fluent speech. It will matter little whether the units 
 of which it is composed have been the object of previous study 
 or not. If the teacher realizes the exact functions of this form 
 of work, recognizes the limitations of his audience, and pursues 
 the system regularly and consistently, the pupils will in a 
 remarkably short space of time come to follow intelligently and 
 with ease the fluent speech of the teacher. 
 
182 STUDY AND TEACfflNG OF LANGUAGES 
 
 It must be clearly understood from the outset that the object 
 of this type of work is not to provide material for conscious 
 assimilation, not to furnish a vocabulaiy which the pupils will 
 be expected to retain either as a whole or in its individual units, 
 but to give the pupils an ideal series of opportunities for exer- 
 cising and developing those powers of direct and subconscious 
 understanding without mental analysis or calculation. It is 
 designed to appeal to intuition and not to intelligence ; the 
 result produced may be considered as an end in itself, or may 
 be considered as an auxiliary to the conscious and intelligent 
 study which will be pursued concurrently. 
 
 The attitude of the pupils will be that of a passive receptivity ; 
 they will listen and watch, and by dint of listening and watching 
 will gradually come to follow the trend of what is being said to 
 them, and understand the gist of what they hear. In the first 
 instance their comprehension will be vague and of the nebulous 
 order, but as time goes on the diffuse nature of their compre- 
 hension will become more precise, and after some fifty short 
 periods of this type of work they will be able to follow the 
 thoughts of the speaker with ease. 
 
 Although the main object of this form of exercise is to foster 
 habits of direct comprehension without the mediation of analysis 
 or reasoning, we may also assume that a secondary group of 
 results will be attained by these same means. 
 
 These talks, repeated day by day, will serve as a series of 
 subconscious ear-training exercises ; unfamiliar sounds and 
 unfamiliar combinations of sounds will gradually come to be 
 familiar ; these continual immersions in the sea of sounds will 
 in many cases result in the absorption of the sounds ; they will 
 linger in the ears, and the organs of speech will tend to conform 
 themselves to the auditive impressions. Let us remember that 
 it is almost exclusively by this process that each of us at an 
 early age learnt to articulate and to produce the sounds of our 
 mother tongue. 
 
 Although primarily designed as a purely semantic exercise, 
 this will probably (if not certainly) entail the assimilation or the 
 partial assimilation of many ergonic and etymological facts. 
 The continual audition of [lafnextr] or [moliivr] will tend to 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 188 
 
 ensure future correctness in distinguishing masculine or feminine. 
 It is intelligence and consciousness (not intuition and sub- 
 consciousness) that have ever produced le fenetre or ma livre. 
 
 Similarly, at a later period, when the pupil is taught that 
 objective personal pronouns do not follow the verb, but pre- 
 cede it, the previous ear-training provided by these talks will 
 serve as a conclusive and effective corroboration. The teacher 
 will say : " You have never heard me say Je prends le, have 
 you ? It would sound funny if I were to say Je donne lui le, 
 wouldn't it ? " and this appeal to the ear will be found more 
 effective than all the ingenious rules of etymology or ergonics 
 ever written. 
 
 The procedure of the teacher will be somewhat as follows : — 
 He will first compose a rough-and-ready series of talks, either 
 in outline or in the more developed form. In the earlier lessons 
 these will be based on the conditions actually present : the 
 schoolroom, its occupants, the furniture, and all or any of the 
 concrete objects to be found therein. Each of these talks will 
 suggest others, either extensions of the first or entirely new ones. 
 The resourceful teacher will probably accumulate an extensive 
 stock of these exercises to suit the particular needs of his various 
 classes, and adapted to any special or local conditions. 
 
 In the earlier lessons much care must be exercised to fulfil 
 the four essential conditions of subconscious (or intuitive) as 
 opposed to conscious (or intelligent) work. These four con- 
 ditions we will proceed to examine. 
 
 1. Gesture 
 
 Were the teacher at the first lesson to sit at his desk and 
 reel off, with impassive features, without gesture, movement, 
 or pause, a description of a country ramble or a railway journey, 
 it is quite certain that no result whatever would be obtained. 
 If, on the contrary, the teacher talks about the objects of the 
 schoolroom, and illustrates his talk by an abundance of appro- 
 priate gestures and facial expressions, there is every chance that 
 he will make himself perfectly understood from beginning to end. 
 
 This, then, is the first condition to be observed. When 
 
184 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 speaking about the window the teacher will invariably point to 
 or look toward the window ; when alluding to a book he will 
 point to, take up, or touch a book ; he will point to himself at 
 each occurrence of the words je, me, moi, mon, etc. ; id, Id, 
 Id-has, etc., will each have their appropriate gesture ; negative 
 sentences will be accompanied by a shake of the head, and 
 questions by a raising of the eyebrows. 
 
 But there are, alas ! teachers who plead an inability to use 
 gesture or facial expression, or who confess to a rooted dislike 
 of such histrionic artifices. We hear them say : " We are 
 teachers, not cinema actors ; w^e teach, we do not perform." 
 We must answer that such people must be classed among those 
 who have no aptitude either for using or for teaching colloquial 
 French ; they are to be numbered among those who have mis- 
 taken their vocation. 
 
 2. Interest 
 
 In order to maintain interest, all semblance of monotony must 
 be avoided. Variety is one means of ensuring interest, and 
 movement is another. A lifeless enumeration of the names of 
 objects, of their qualities and attributes, will not result in a 
 successful lesson. This does not mean that the teacher is to 
 perform acrobatic feats and excite the pupils' sense of the 
 ridiculous. He need not jump over chairs to illustrate the verb 
 sauter, nor crawl along the floor to demonstrate the meaning 
 of Tamper. Between such exaggerations, however, and the 
 tedious repetition of some himdreds of nouns there is a wide 
 difference, and few teachers, if so minded, will experience any 
 difficulty in steering a middle course. 
 
 8. Semantic Order 
 
 The words, sentences, and other units used by the teacher in 
 the course of these talks should not be enunciated in any 
 mechanical order. It is no part of this type of work to demon- 
 strate facts of ergonics or etymology ; our immediate purpose 
 is to develop the pupils' powers of subconscious comprehension, 
 not of the theory of speech, but of speech itself. At another 
 moment and by other tactics we shall teach the pupil to calculate 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 135 
 
 and to reason, but we cannot profitably combine in one and 
 the same exercise appeals to the consciousness and to the 
 subconsciousness . 
 
 At first sight it would appear an admirable idea to proceed 
 by series of pairs, such as : 
 
 Void le crayon, voild la plume. 
 
 Void le papier, voild la boite. 
 
 Void un crayon, voild une plume. 
 
 Void tin livre, voild une botte. 
 
 This, however, w^ould be but a form of etymological or ergonic 
 drill smuggled into and spoiling an exercise designed for other 
 ends. Nor might it be successful even as drill, for the pupils 
 might gain the impression that le must be used after void and 
 la after voild. 
 
 Void le crayon, void les crayons. 
 
 Je prends la plume, je prends les plumes, etc., 
 
 may be a good form of drill when exercised at the right moment, 
 as may also be 
 
 Ced est le crayon, ceci n'est pas le crayon. 
 Ceci est la plume, ceci n'est pas la plume, etc. 
 
 These and all similar forms of mechanical demonstrations are 
 excellent in their place and considered as appropriate means 
 to a predetermined end, but the fostering of the ability to under- 
 stand rapid and fluent speech is quite independent of any forms 
 of grammar drill. 
 
 4. Uninterrupted Passivity 
 
 Many teachers will feel an almost irresistible desire to include 
 in this form of exercise an occasional question, to be answered 
 by the class or by an individual pupil. Encouraged by the 
 evident success of his efforts to be understood by the pupils, 
 the teacher will be sorely tempted to test his success by giving 
 his pupils a chance to respond by means of speech. 
 
 This would be a fatal error of tactics. It would immediately 
 change the whole character of the exercise. It w^ould inteiTupt 
 the current of thought ; it would convert subconscious into 
 
136 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 conscious effort. The pupils, anticipating future interrogations, 
 would immediately abandon that passive attitude so favourable 
 for the subconscious reception of impressions ; they would 
 henceforth make efforts to grasp and to memorize the individual 
 words, and these efforts would tend to destroy the collective 
 impression conveyed by the talk as a whole. lis ne verraient 
 plus la for it a cause des arhres. 
 
 Instead of the nebulous recognition of the sentence '' Je 
 ferme la porte,^^ there will be a conscious retention of two isolated 
 units [fesm] and [poit], with mental translation and mental 
 mispronunciation. As an ultimate result of the pure sub- 
 conscious comprehension of la porte the sight of the door will 
 evoke the reaction [laport], whereas the conscious compre- 
 hension will probably produce as an immediate reaction either 
 [pDit] or [b: pDit]. 
 
 In addition to these considerations, we must also bear in mind 
 that any interruption whatever in the current of passive thought 
 will militate against the success of the whole exercise. There 
 must be fluency and continuity. We cannot stop to experiment 
 nor afford breaks of twenty seconds in order to correct faulty 
 answers. Unless there is a constant and uninterrupted flow of 
 sentences the purpose of this type of work will be frustrated. 
 
 The subconscious and conscious processes of study have each 
 their advantages and disadvantages ; consequently the ideal 
 programme must include both and reject neither. In order 
 to ascertain to what extent and in what degree each of these 
 is to be employed in a language course, we may draw up and 
 frequently consult the following list : 
 
 Subconscious Study 
 
 Advantages Disadvantages 
 
 Cumulative rapidity. Comparative slowness during 
 
 Little intelligence requisite the first stages. 
 
 on the part of the pupils. Of little educational value as 
 
 Naturalness of resultant pro- mental gymnastics. 
 
 ducts. Inaptitude for purposes of a 
 
 Immediate comprehension corrective course. 
 
 of normal rapid speech. 
 
THE PRINCIPLES OF LINGUISTIC PEDAGOGY 187 
 
 Conscious Study 
 
 Advantages Disadvantages 
 
 Comparative rapidity dur- Comparative slowness dur- 
 ing the early stages. ing the later stages. 
 
 Concrete progress. Beyond the capacity of dull 
 
 Of educational value as pupils, 
 
 mental gymnastics. Unnaturalness of resultant 
 
 Utility in reacting against products, 
 
 vicious tendencies. Inaptitude for fostering 
 
 Value for pmposes of a habits of immediate compre- 
 
 corrective course. hension of normal rapid speech. 
 
PART V 
 
 AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 
 
 Having reviewed the main principles of Linguistic Pedagogy, we 
 will now endeavour to draw up a working programme embody- 
 ing the conclusions suggested by our inquiry. We will consider 
 as a standard programme that which will prove to be the most 
 suitable for school-children. It will comprise the study of the 
 foreign language (which we will assume to be French) in its oral 
 and written aspects with a view to active and passive use. 
 The whole period of study will be divided into three stages. 
 
 Section 22.— The first or elementary stage, of the duration of at least 
 one term, will consist of : 
 (a) Easy exercises in subconscious comprehension. 
 (6) Imperative drill. 
 (c) Easy articulation exercises. 
 {d) Easy exercises in the use of phonetic symbols. 
 (e) Simple talks on the five lexicological theories. 
 
 The inexperienced but enthusiastic amateur worker, impatient 
 of results and fired with the energy and ambition of all enthusi- 
 asts, is no sooner in possession of his apparatus than he flies 
 to work in order to achieve concrete results the same day, the 
 same morning, within the hour if possible. 
 
 The expert worker, less enthusiastic, but more practical, is 
 desirous of achieving more rapid effective results, and so spends 
 the first hour or the first day in cleaning the apparatus, over- 
 hauling the instruments, sharpening the tools, arranging the 
 workroom, labelling the bottles, and providing himself with the 
 hundred and one little things that will ensure economical and 
 uninterrupted work. 
 
 At the end of the second day the expert is contemplating with 
 pride the result of his finished labours ; at the end of the second 
 
 138 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 189 
 
 day the amateur finds it necessary to scrap his work and start 
 afresh. 
 
 The inexperienced but enthusiastic language teacher, im- 
 patient of results, and fired with the energy and ambition of all 
 enthusiasts, is no sooner in the presence of his pupil than he 
 flies to work in order to get him to speak, read and write, and 
 understand the language within three months, within one 
 month, within the space of one lesson if possible. 
 
 The expert teacher, less enthusiastic, but more practical, is 
 desirous of achieving more rapid effective results, and so spends 
 the first lesson, the first month, or the first three months, in 
 teaching the sounds of the language, in cultivating the pupil's 
 faculties of auditive perception and imitation, in grounding him 
 in the first principles of practical phonetics, semantics, and 
 ergonics, in initiating him in the first principles of language and 
 of language-study, in doing the himdred and one Httle things 
 that will ensure economical and iminterrupted work. 
 
 At the end of the first year the expert teacher and his docile 
 pupil are congratulating each other on the result of their joint 
 and successful labours ; at the end of the first year the ama- 
 teur is wondering why his pupil can neither speak, read, write, 
 nor understand the language, and the pupil, if intelligent, is 
 probably looking out for another teacher. 
 
 The apparatus used in language-learning consists primarily 
 of the pupil's organs of speech and hearing. An auxiliary set 
 of apparatus consists of the pupil's faculties of discrimination 
 and analogy. To these may be added the necessary comple- 
 ment of documentary matter enumerated and described in a 
 later chapter of this book. 
 
 If the student wishes to do effective work and make effective 
 progress, the initial stage of his study must be devoted to 
 getting into working order the apparatus upon which his success 
 depends. If his aims comprise the using of the spoken language, 
 a sound preliminary knowledge of its sounds is indispensable ; 
 no progress is possible until each one has become perfectly 
 familiar. The sounds stand to the spoken language in the same 
 relation as the letters to the written language ; in the same 
 way that the capacity of tracing letters is an indispensable 
 
140 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 preliminary to the study of writing, so also is the capacity of 
 articulating sounds an indispensable preliminary to the study of 
 speaking. As our first efforts in the case of the native language 
 were directed to the mastery of our native sounds, so also must 
 the first efforts of the student be devoted to the sounds of the 
 foreign language. 
 
 The first lessons will be devoted almost exclusively to 
 ^systematic pronunciation exercises, first by learning to recognize 
 and to reproduce the individual sounds, then by learning to 
 combine them in monosyllabic words, and subsequently in poly- 
 syllabic words and short polylogs, and finally to acquire the 
 art of correctly reproducing the longer polylogs and complete 
 sentences. 
 
 No sharp line of demarcation can be drawn between pronuncia- 
 tion exercises proper as understood by the phonetician and 
 catenizing exercises as understood by the language teacher. The 
 faculty of catenizing, or learning sentences by heart, is merely a 
 development of the faculty of remembering isolated sounds and 
 short words ; there is no difference of kind but of degree. 
 
 While learning the foreign sounds, the student must also 
 learn to associate them with the graphic forms by which they 
 are represented. This does not necessarily mean that he must 
 at once commence the study of the conventional system of ortho- 
 graphy. The student of the Chinese language may postpone 
 for a while the study of the ideographs invented by the Chinese, 
 as these are merely a graphic auxiliary to the language proper. 
 
 Nor would we suggest that the student engaged in the study 
 of the French spoken language should disperse his efforts at 
 this early stage in devoting any attention to that cumbrous and 
 curious system known as French orthography. 
 
 The graphic forms that we recommend are the symbols corre- 
 sponding to the sounds themselves and known as phonetic 
 symbols. The most suitable system will most probably be 
 found to be that of the International Phonetic Association, not 
 only on account of its intrinsic merits and adaptability, but also 
 in view of its widespread diffusion in all countries.^ 
 
 For the sake of economy it is desirable that the words and 
 
 ^ See Appendix for list of phonetic symbols. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 141 
 
 sentences used during the pronunciation exercises should be 
 selected from those forming part of the ergonic tables of the 
 second stage ; in all but exceptional cases there appears to be 
 no objection to providing the integral translations of the units 
 serving as phonetic examples, nor is there any grave objection 
 to be urged against learning such bilingual equivalences as 
 (what is termed commercially) a side line. 
 
 Some time must necessarily elapse before the student is 
 perfectly familiar with all the sounds of the foreign language, 
 but the more his attention is focused on the immediate object 
 of his study the sooner will the desired result be obtained. 
 
 Since it would be dangerous to embark on a more ambitious 
 type of exercise until the mastery of the sounds is complete, we 
 may utilize the preliminary period to teach the broad funda- 
 mental principles of the lexicological sciences. We may intro- 
 duce the theory of phonetics and show how sounds are classified ; 
 we may compare foreign sounds with their nearest native equiva- 
 lents, laying particular stress on the differences between them. 
 We may give him simple and interesting exercises dealing with 
 the phonetics of his own language in order that he may better 
 understand the phonetic system of the foreign language. We 
 may document the student on the nature of semantics, and pro- 
 vide him with a simple series of exercises designed to show 
 him the relations between words and thoughts, and the differ- 
 ence between meanings and functions. He will gradually become 
 expert in the art of finding synonyms, and of paraphrasing 
 in his own language. He must be made to understand, for 
 instance, that the difference between because and on account of 
 is an ergonic or functional difference, that the difference between 
 / would like him to go and / wish he'd go is one of emotional 
 degree ; we may demonstrate that the true negative of / must 
 is / need not (and not I must not), that the true negative of 
 it must he here is it can't he here, etc., etc. By interesting 
 exercises of this sort we shall anticipate and circumvent many 
 misunderstandings and difficulties. 
 
 We may also introduce the leading principles of inflexions, 
 derivations, and ergonics, taking our examples from, and basing 
 our exercises on, the student's own language. In doing so we 
 
142 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 shall demonstrate that each language has its own characteristics, 
 and that we must not expect any close analogy between 
 languages which are not cognate. 
 
 In certain cases we shall find it profitable to instruct the 
 pupil in the theory of language-learning. If our examples and 
 exercises are judiciously chosen we may enlarge the horizon and 
 quicken the ideas of our student ; we may even cause him to 
 share our enthusiasm and create an interest in the range of 
 subjects treated in the present work. By so doing we shall give 
 the soundest of all incentives to successful work ; an intrinsic 
 interest in language and language -learning in the abstract. 
 
 These indications, suggestions, and exercises may be given 
 either systematically or at odd moments with the intention of 
 breaking the monotony of the phonetic drill. The first stage 
 is the right moment to choose for such talks, for it is now or 
 never that we are to succeed in giving the right orientation and 
 by means of preventive measures to react against the vicious 
 tendencies to which allusion has already been made, and which 
 will be more fully described in Part VII. 
 
 The opening move in the ideal standard programme which 
 it is now our intention to outline may well consist of a first 
 lesson in subconscious comprehension. We suggest that this 
 should last from fifteen to thirty minutes. 
 
 If considered necessary, the teacher may tell the pupils to 
 listen and to watch, that they are not to translate what they 
 hear, and that under no circumstances whatever will any answer 
 be given to such questions as " Please, what does that mean ? " 
 or " Please, what's that in English ? " 
 
 It is understood that each of the sentences given in the 
 following specimen lesson will be accompanied by the necessary 
 gestures and movements. 
 
 Specimen of a First Lesson 
 
 " Regardez I Voila la fenetre. On appelle 9a une fenetre. 
 Regardez tous ! C'est la fenetre. 
 
 '' Regardez ! Voila la porte. C'est une porte. Ce n'est 
 pas la fenetre. C'est une porte. Je touche la porte. J'ouvre 
 la porte. Je ferme la porte. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 148 
 
 " Je vais a la fenetre. Je regarde la fenetre. Regardez 
 la fenetre. Je la touche. C'est une fenetre. 
 
 " Regardez la porte ! Regardez la fenetre ! Regardez le 
 plafond ! fa e'est le plafond. 
 
 " Ceci n'est pas le plafond. C'est le plancher. Je regarde 
 le plancher. Je regarde le plafond. Je regarde la fenetre. Je 
 regarde la porte. 
 
 " Est-ce la porte, 9a ? Oui, c'est la porte. Je vais a la 
 porte. Je Touvre et je la ferme. 
 
 " Voici une chaise. Ce n'est pas une fenetre. C'est une 
 chaise. Regardez la chaise ! 
 
 " Voici la table. La table. La chaise. Je vais a la table 
 et je la touche. Je prends la chaise et je la mets pres de la table. 
 
 " Le livre. Voici le livre. On appelle 9a un livre. Je mets 
 le livre sur la table. 
 
 " Voici ce qu'on appelle un crayon. Je prends le crayon et 
 je le mets sur la chaise. Regardez le crayon qui est sur la 
 chaise I Regardez le livre qui est sur la table ! 
 
 " Je prends une feuille de papier. Regardez la feuille de 
 papier I Je vais mettre le papier sur la table. Non — je ne le 
 mettrai pas sur la table. Je le mettrai par terre, sur le plancher. 
 
 *' La plume. Voila la plume. Je prends la plume et le 
 crayon. Regardez la plume et le crayon I Je les mets sur la 
 chaise. Voila ! 
 
 '' La porte. La fenetre. La chaise. Le crayon. Le livre. 
 La plume. La feuille de papier. 
 
 " Je prends maintenant un morceau de craie. Regardez la 
 craie I Avec la craie j'ecris au tableau noir. Voila le tableau 
 noir. Regardez tous le tableau noir ! 
 
 " Je mets la craie sur la table. Je ramasse le papier et je le 
 mets sur la table a cote de la craie. 
 
 " Voila le mur. Je vais au mur et je le touche. Ce n'est 
 pas le plafond. Voila le plafond et voila le plancher. Ceci, 
 c'est le mur. 
 
 " II y a quatre murs ici. Un, deux, trois, quatre. Je vais 
 du mur a la fenetre. Je suis maintenant a la fenetre et je la 
 touche. 
 
 " Je prends le livre. Je I'ouvre. Je le ferme. C'est men 
 
144 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 livre. Je mets le livre dans ma poche. Je mets aussi le crayon 
 dans ma poche. 
 
 " Voici un tiroir. J'ouvre le tiroir. Je mets la feuille de 
 papier dans le tiroir et je le ferme. 
 
 '' Un cahier. On appelle 9a un cahier. Ce n'est pas un 
 livre. C'est un cahier. Je prends le cahier et je le mets sur 
 la chaise. 
 
 " Une clef. Voici une clef. C'est ma clef. Regardez la 
 clef 1 Je vais mettre la clef sur la table. 
 
 " La fenetre. La porte. Le plafond. Le plancher. Le 
 mur. La chaise. La table. Le tiroir. Le crayon. La 
 plume. Le papier. La craie. La clef. Le tableau noir. 
 
 " Voici une lettre. J'ai tire cette lettre de ma poche. 
 Regardez la lettre ! Voici I'enveloppe. Voici le timbre. Je 
 mets la lettre sur la table. 
 
 " On appelle ceci un encrier. Un encrier. Voici I'encrier. 
 II est sur la table. Je mets la plume dans I'encrier. 
 
 " Regardez cette boite-ci ! Je I'ouvre. C'est une boite. 
 Qu'est-ce qu'il y a dans la boite ? Regardez ! II y a de la 
 craie. H y a beaucoup de morceaux de craie dans la boite. 
 Je la mets sur la table. 
 
 " Voici encore une boite. Je Tai tire de ma poche. C'est 
 une petite boite. Qu'est-ce qu'il y a dans cette boite-ci? De 
 la craie ? Non. Des livres ? Non. Des plumes ? Non. 
 
 " Regardez ! J'ouvre la boite et je regarde ce qu'il y a 
 dedans. Ce sont des allumettes. Regardez les allumettes ! 
 Je prends des allumettes dans la boite et je les mets sur la table. 
 J' en prends une, deux, trois, quatre, cinq, six. Six allmnettes. 
 
 " Je vais compter. Une fenetre. Deux fenetres. Une 
 boite. Deux boites. Un mur, deux murs, trois murs, quatre 
 murs. Un livre, deux livres, trois livres, quatre livres. Une 
 feuille de papier, deux feuilles de papier, trois feuilles de papier, 
 etc., etc. 
 
 ' ' Regardez maintenant ce que je vais faire. Je vais arranger 
 tous les objets qui sont sur la table. 
 
 " D'abord je prends le livre et je le mets ici. Le crayon ; 
 je le mets ici. La plume ; je la mets a cote du crayon. La 
 clef ; je la mets ici. La lettre ; ici. La boite — avec la craie 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 145 
 
 dedans ; ici. L'autre boite, la boite a allumettes ; je la mets 
 ici, etc., etc. 
 
 " La feuille de papier. Ou est-elle, la feuille de papier ? 
 Ou est la feuille de papier ? Ah, la voici 1 La voici dans le 
 tiroir. Voici la feuille de papier. 
 
 " Voila ! Regardez sur la table ! Regardez tous les objets I 
 Le livre, la craie, la plume, la clef, etc., etc. 
 
 '' Maintenant je prends la lettre et je la mets dans ma poche. 
 Le livre ; je le mets dans le tiroir. L'encrier ; je le laisse 1^, 
 sur la table. La clef; je la mets dans ma poche, le crayon 
 aussi. Le cahier ; dans le tiroir. 
 
 " La boite ; je la mets dans Tarmoire. Oui, I'armoire. On 
 appelle 9a une armoire. Ce n'est pas le tiroir. Voila le tiroir. 
 Voici I'armoire. 
 
 " Regardons maintenant tous les objets dont j'ai parle : la 
 fenetre, la porte, le mur," etc., etc. 
 
 This exercise in subconscious comprehension will probably 
 not occupy the whole of the period generally allotted to the 
 French lesson ; indeed, it would be unwise to dwell more than 
 from fifteen to twenty minutes on any one type of work. The 
 remainder of the first lesson may be devoted to other exercises 
 suggested in these pages. We would advise as a useful sequel 
 to the above talk a first lesson in conscious ear-training. This 
 may be given in the following way : 
 
 " While I was talking in French to you just now, you must 
 have heard that I was using a number of sounds that we never 
 use when we are speaking English. I am going to pronounce 
 some of these sounds to you now, and I want you to notice them 
 particularly. You are not to pronounce them after me at 
 present, but just to listen carefully. This will sharpen your 
 ears and make it easier for you to imitate me when we start 
 learning French pronunciation : 
 
 "[i:], [ii], [e:], [e:], [e:], [ei], [a:], [ai], etc., etc. 
 
 " All the sounds I have just made are used when we 
 speak French, and we can't speak French without making 
 them. 
 
 " I expect you will have noticed that some of them are just 
 
 K 
 
146 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 like some English sounds. Listen again, and you will tell me 
 which ones you think sound like English ones : 
 
 " [i: i:]. Yes, that sounds very English, doesn't it ? 
 That is the English vowel-sound that we make when we say see 
 or he. 
 
 " [e: e:]. No, that doesn't sound at all English — at any 
 rate not like the English that we speak in this part of the country. 
 If you went to Scotland you would probably hear people there 
 using the sound [ei] when they speak English. 
 
 " [e: e:]. Yes, something like the vowel in the word p^n, 
 isn't it ? It's really more like a sound you hear when I say 
 fair or Mary, Listen again : 
 
 " [a: a:]. Have you ever heard that in English ? As in 
 the word up ? Yes, very much like the vowel in up or cuty 
 especially as we pronounce such words here in the south of 
 England." 
 
 If the lesson is given in the north of England the French 
 sounds will be compared with those of the local pronunciation, 
 [e:] will be compared with the a of take (in some parts of York- 
 shire), [a] with the vowel of cat (north of England), etc. 
 
 The Second Lesson 
 
 This, as before, may start by a period devoted to an exercise 
 in subconscious comprehension. It may be the repetition of 
 the one given the day before, or may be a modified form of it, 
 with the addition of a few new words and forms. 
 
 The second part of the lesson may be the continuation of the 
 exercise in ear-practice. We may now say : 
 
 '' I am now going to read to you some lists of French words. 
 In a few days' time you will have to repeat these words after 
 me and pronounce them just as I do, so I want you to listen 
 very carefully : 
 
 " Lit, qui, si, oui, pris, mis, fils, guide, livre, cerise, etc. 
 
 " Clef, chez, nez, ble, secouer, jouer, lier, etc. 
 
 '' Belle, sec, sept, elle, laine, aide, meme, pret, mais, fouet, etc. 
 
 " Bal, mal, place, chaque, salle, drap, moi, voix, cage, etc. 
 
 " Classe, phrase, age, tasse, pas, mois, etc. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 147 
 
 Bonne, donne, note, mode, noble, etc. 
 
 Chaud, veau, faute, cause, rose, chose, autre," etc. 
 
 And so on for other French sounds. 
 
 The Third Lesson 
 
 This will continue the series of exercises in subconscious 
 comprehension. We suggest the following outline : 
 
 " Regardez la craie. Elle est blanche. Le papier est blanc. 
 Le plafond est blanc. Est-ce que la craie est blanche ? Oui, elle 
 est blanche. Est-ce que le plafond est blanc ? Oui, il est blanc. 
 
 " Le tableau est noir. L'encre est noire. Voila encore quel- 
 que chose qui est noir. Le tableau n'est pas blanc. II est noir. 
 
 " Le livre est grand. C'est un grand livre. L'armoire est 
 grande. Ce livre-ci n'est pas grand. II est petit. Etc., etc. 
 
 " Est-ce que ce crayon-ci est long ou court ? II est long. La 
 craie n'est pas longue. Ce morceau de craie est court. Voici 
 deux crayons. L'un est court. L'autre est long. Je mets le 
 crayon long sur la table et le crayon court sur la chaise. Etc. 
 
 '' Le plafond est haut. La chaise n'est pas haute. Elle est 
 basse. . . . 
 
 '' Je prends 1/b livre. Je le tiens. Je le regarde. Jel'ouvre. 
 Je le ferme. Je le mets dans le tiroir. 
 
 '' Je prends une feuille de papier. Je la regarde. Je la 
 tiens. Je la touche. Je la dechire. ; 
 
 " Je prends mon canif. Je I'ouvre. Je prends une allumette 
 et je la coupe avec mon canif. Avec mon canif je coupe 
 I'allumette. Je coupe le papier. Je coupe la craie. . . . 
 
 " Je mets le papier sur la table. Je mets un livre sur le 
 papier. Je mets une boite sur le livre. Je mets le crayon sur 
 la boite. 
 
 " Je mets la chaise pr^s de la fenetre. Je mets l'autre chaise 
 pres de la porte. 
 
 " Je vais a la porte. Je vais a la fenetre. Je vais au pupitre. 
 Je vais au mur. Je reviens k ma place. 
 
 " Je m'assieds. Je me l^ve. Je marche. Je m'arr^te. Je 
 retoume a ma place. Je m'assieds. 
 
148 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 " Je regarde la fenetre. Je regarde le plafond. (Le plafond 
 est blanc.) Je regarde le tableau. (Le tableau est noir.) 
 
 " Je prends le livre. (Le livre est grand.) Je le mets sur la 
 chaise. (La chaise est basse.) 
 
 " Oh est le livre ? II est sur la table. Et le crayon ? II est 
 sur la chaise. Et le papier, oh est-il ? II est par terre. 
 
 " Oh est la fenetre ? Voila la fenetre. Ou est la porte ? 
 Voila la porte. La porte est la. Ou est le plafond ? Voila le 
 plafond. 
 
 " Oh est le livre ? Voici le livre. Et le crayon ? Le voila. 
 Et la plume ? La voila. 
 
 " Comment est la craie ? Elle est blanche. Comment est 
 le plafond ? II est blanc. 
 
 " Combien de livres y a-t-il ici ? II y en a deux ; le livre 
 bleu et le livre rouge. 
 
 '' Combien y a-t-il de chaises ? II y en a trois. II y en a 
 une pres de la porte. II y en a une autre pres de la fenetre, 
 et I'autre est ici, pres de moi." Etc., etc. 
 
 Ear-practice may be continued on the same lines as before, 
 and we may now introduce easy articulation exercises. 
 
 Specimen First Lesson in Articulation 
 
 " All pronounce after me the sound [a:]. 
 
 [The pupils do so.] 
 
 "Yes, very good; but I want to hear it pronounced more 
 steadily and with more force. Try again, and make the sound 
 last until I raise my hand. 
 
 [The pupils produce a long [a:], lasting from two to four 
 seconds.] 
 
 " Now [addressing individual pupils] see whether you can 
 produce a nice [a:]. 
 
 [Various pupils do so.] 
 
 " Yes, that's very good. When I want you to pronounce that 
 sound I shall write this letter on the blackboard : [a]. If I 
 put two dots beside it, [a:], that will mean that you must make 
 it long." 
 
 [The symbol will remain on the blackboard.] 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 149 
 
 Sounds such as [i:], [u:], [aex], [si], [v], [z], [3], [J], etc., 
 will be treated in the same way. 
 
 The pupils must now come to realize that the English [ai], 
 [ei], etc., are not pure vowels, and that [tj] and [d3] are not 
 simple consonants. 
 " Now pronounce [ai]. 
 [The pupils do so.] 
 
 *' Make the sound last as long as I hold up my hand." 
 Result, three seconds of [a] and three seconds of [i]. We 
 call the attention of the pupils to that fact, and make repeated 
 trials in order to demonstrate the point clearly. 
 
 A ' narrow ' transcription of the English sounds is to be 
 recommended. This may seem a strange procedure, but it 
 is nevertheless a sound one, resulting in clearer and quicker 
 comprehension. 
 
 English 00 in good must be indicated by [u] ; the vowel in bit 
 should be written [i] ; similarly the vowel in pen should be 
 [e] and the English r should be [j]. 
 
 If we adopted the conventional simplifications generally used 
 in teaching English to foreigners ([u] for [u], [i] for [i], etc.), 
 we should deprive ourselves of a valuable means of demon- 
 strating some of the essential differences between English and 
 French vowels. 
 
 All phoneticians will probably agree that a broad transcrip- 
 tion is sufficient when examining the sounds of any one language, 
 but that a narrow transcription becomes desirable when com- 
 paring the sounds of two or more languages. 
 
 At a subsequent moment, when a pupil pronounces the 
 English vowel in bit instead of the French vowel in si, we may 
 write the two vowels [i] and [i] on the blackboard and point 
 out that the former was pronounced instead of the latter. If, 
 on the other hand, the pupil unduly lengthens the French vowel 
 in si, we shall write the two forms [i:] and [i], and call the 
 pupil's attention to the fact that the latter is required and not 
 the former. 
 
 Without a narrow transcription there will always be a certain 
 confusion between [i], [i], and [ii] ; between [u], [u], and [u:] ; 
 between [j], [r], and [r], etc. 
 
160 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 The Fourth Lesson 
 
 Exercises in Subconscious Comprehension 
 
 These will continue on the lines suggested in the preceding 
 pages, the vocabulary gradually becoming more extensive. 
 The teacher will perform such actions as dropping, picking up, 
 breaking, raising, pushing, pulling, rubbing, scratching, writing, 
 rubbing out, etc., etc. He will speak of the relative positions 
 of various objects (" Le crayon est sur la boite, sous la boite, 
 devant la boite. La chaise est entre la porte et la fenetre," 
 etc.), and will introduce possessives and similar modifying units. 
 
 Ear-training Exercises 
 
 These may now include the passive audition of polysyllabic 
 words grouped according to their phonetic structure : 
 
 AlleZy prenez, lisez, Scrivez, donnez. 
 
 Honneur, couleur, odeur, valeur, vapeur^ moteiir. 
 
 Final, royal, journal, moral, spicial, 
 
 Humain, africain, marin, musicien. 
 
 Heureux, joyeux, prScieux, vicieux. 
 
 Actif, passif, tardif, n^gatif. Etc., etc. 
 
 Articulation Exercises 
 As before. 
 
 Imperative Brill 
 
 This new type of exercise may now be introduced. Although 
 it is similar to the exercise in subconscious comprehension, the 
 object in view is not the same, nor will the pupils maintain their 
 attitude of purely passive receptivity. The teacher will issue 
 commands in French to be carried out by the class as a whole, 
 or by individual pupils. Needless to say, each one of the orders 
 will be accompanied in the first instance by appropriate gestures. 
 
 " Regardez le plafond ! Regardez la fenetre ! Regardez la 
 porte ! Regardez moi ! etc. 
 
 '' Prenez votre livre ! Ouvrez votre livre I Lisez votre 
 livre ! Fermez votre livre ! Levez votre livre ! Mettez votre 
 livre sur le pupitre ! etc. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 151 
 
 *' Prenez votre crayon ! Levez votre crayon ! Regardez 
 votre crayon ! Laissez tomber votre crayon ! Ramassez 
 votre crayon ! Mettez votre crayon dans votre poche ! etc. 
 
 " Levez la main gauche I Levez la main droite I Baissez 
 la main gauche ! Baissez la main droite ! Baissez les yeux ! 
 Levez les yeux ! Fermez les yeux I Ouvrez les yeux 1 Ouvrez 
 la bouche 1 Fermez la bouche I etc. 
 
 " Retournez-vous I Regardez -moi 1 etc. 
 
 " Touchez votre banc ! Touchez votre pupitre. Touchez 
 le plancher I Touchez votre livre I Touchez votre tete ! etc. 
 
 '' Frottez-vous les mains I Battez des mains ! Prenez votre 
 crayon ! Tournez votre crayon I Frottez votre crayon I 
 Poussez votre pupitre 1 Tirez votre pupitre ! Penchez-vous 
 du c6t^ gauche ! Penchez-vous du c6t6 droit ! etc. 
 
 " Levez- vous I Sortez de votre banc 1 Allez k la porte ! 
 Allez k la fenetre I Allez k la table 1 Allez au mur ! Allez 
 a Tarmoire ! Retournez k votre place 1 Asseyez-vous 1 " etc. 
 
 Fifth and Sixth Lessons 
 
 These may be devoted to a general recapitulation of all the 
 exercises previously described. 
 
 Seventh and Eighth Lessons 
 
 Exercises in Subconscious Comprehension 
 
 The teacher will continue these daily talks on the same lines 
 as before. He may speak of the parts of the body, articles 
 of clothing, and the substances of which various objects are 
 composed. 
 
 Ear-training Exercises 
 
 Longer words may be introduced, such as : 
 
 Instructif, interrogatif, determinatif. 
 
 Civilization^ conversation, explication, proposition, traduc- 
 tion. 
 Comparaison, combinaison, conjugaison, diclinaison. 
 Imaginable, inevitable, dSplorable, incapable, irrvprobable. 
 Impossibility, difficult^, sensibilitL 
 
152 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Articulation Exercises 
 
 As before. 
 
 When the pupils have learnt to isolate and to produce with 
 ease the sounds they know, and can read and write the isolated 
 symbols representing them, the foreign sounds are introduced 
 one by one. 
 
 "Pronounce [i:]. 
 
 [The pupils do so.] 
 
 " Are your lips rounded and bunched up, or are the comers 
 wide apart ? 
 
 [The pupils note that they are wide.] 
 
 " Pronounce [i:] with the lips rounded and bunched together, 
 like this. 
 
 [The pupils do so more or less successfully.] 
 
 " We must try that again. Be sure that it is really [i:] that 
 you are pronouncing, and be sure that your lips are rounded 
 just as if you were going to whistle. 
 
 [A more successful [y:] is the result.] 
 
 " Now, does that appear to be an English sound ? Do you 
 use [y] when you are speaking English ? No, of course you 
 don't ; it isn't an English sound ; it's a sound that French boys 
 and girls use when they speak their own language. Let us do 
 it again. Now then, all together : [y:]. 
 
 " When I want you to pronounce this sound, I shall write on 
 the blackboard the letter [y]. We shall not call it y (pronounced 
 [wai]), but the letter [y]. 
 
 Now I am going to pronounce a strange sound to you. It 
 doesn't exist in English, or at any rate in this part of England ; 
 it is a sound that you have probably never heard before. 
 Listen : [e:]. Do you think that you can make that sound ? 
 [e:]. Look at the shape of my lips when I pronounce it : 
 [e:]. See whether you can make a noise like that. 
 
 [The pupils are more or less unsuccessful.] 
 
 " No, no, that won't do at all ; you are pronouncing quite a 
 different sound. Listen again : [e:], [e:], [e:]. Don't you hear 
 what a shrill, squeaking sort of sound it is ? Try again ; make 
 it shriller and more squeaky. 
 
 [The result is better.] 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 153 
 
 " Yes, that is better, but it is not squeaky enough. Some 
 of you are not screwing back the corners of your lips enough. 
 Draw back your chins and squeeze the sound, [e:], [e:]. 
 
 " Look at my hand [which is hanging limply] ; it is in what 
 we call a limp or lax position. Look at it again and notice the 
 difference ; all the muscles are taut and strained, and the skin 
 is stretched tight over the back of it ; my hand is in a strained 
 or tense position. Now when I pronounce an English [e] (as 
 in pen), the muscles of my mouth, chin, and tongue are as limp 
 as my hand is now. But when I pronounce the sound [e:] 
 they are all strained and tense, just as my hand is now. Try 
 again : tighten the muscles of your tongue and chin ; feel as if 
 you were just going to put out your tongue ; now then : [e:]." 
 
 In this manner each of the foreign sounds will be inculcated. 
 The representation of the vowels on the triangle will serve to 
 give an identity to each of them. 
 
 Imperative Drill 
 As before, but with fewer gestures. 
 
 Phonetic Reading 
 
 The teacher will write a series of phonetic characters on the 
 blackboard, and require the pupils (collectively or individually) 
 to read them aloud. In the first instance these should represent 
 native sounds. 
 
 Ninth to Twentieth Lessons 
 
 Subconscious Comprehension 
 
 The teacher will use the various simpler forms of exercise 
 that he has prepared in advance. He must judge from the 
 general attitude of the pupils whether the matter given is too 
 difficult or the contrary. 
 
 Ear-training Exercises , 
 As before. 
 
 Articulation Exercises 
 
 The next exercises will be to produce combinations of 
 a given vowel with consonants : [i:p], [i:b], pit], [i:d], 
 
154 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 [i:k], [i:g], etc. ; [pii], [bi:], etc. ; [pi:p], [pi:b], etc., and so on 
 with each of the French vowels. 
 
 Dictation Exercises 
 
 The pupils should now be initiated into the art of writing 
 phonetically to dictation. The first exercises will consist of 
 monosyllabic words ; these will be succeeded by others con- 
 taining words (actual or artificial) of two and three syllables. 
 
 When a certain proficiency has been attained, these phonetic 
 exercises will gradually merge into exercises calculated to 
 quicken the pupils' faculties of auditive perception and repro- 
 duction. Whole sentences may be repeated several times by 
 the teacher, and will be reproduced by the pupils in chorus and 
 individually. The sentences chosen will be the models forming 
 part of the microcosm. 
 
 Imperative Drill 
 As before, but with still fewer gestures. 
 
 Phonetic Reading and Dictation 
 
 The first exercises in phonetic reading can now be attempted ; 
 the pupils will articulate isolated sounds written by the teacher 
 on the blackboard. 
 
 Comparisons should constantly be made between the English 
 and the French sounds generally liable to be confused. 
 
 *' Pronounce the sound I have just written on the black- 
 board : [e]. Now the one I have written beside it : [e]. 
 Now the English [ei], [e], [s] ; [e, e, ei], [e, ei], [ei, e]. 
 
 "Pronounce the r in red [jjjj]. Now the French r [rrrr]. 
 Again. Again. Now [airrr], [iirrr], [e:rrr] ; [rrra:], [rrri:], 
 [rrre:]. Now [jjjq]," etc., etc. 
 
 This exercise is varied by phonetic dictation. It will con- 
 sist of pronouncing various sounds, each of which is to be 
 written by the pupils in phonetic characters. 
 
 Obviously the teacher alone can decide at what rate the 
 programme is to be developed. With bright and responsive 
 pupils a new stage will soon be reached ; in the contrary case it 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 155 
 
 will be necessary more than once to recapitulate everything 
 from the very start. 
 
 We will therefore content ourselves with indicating briefly 
 in what directions the various exercises that we have suggested 
 may be expanded, and what new ones may be introduced during 
 what we have designated as the first or elementary period. 
 
 Exercises in Subconscious Comprehension 
 
 At about the twentieth lesson the transition from concrete 
 to the abstract may begin. It may be initiated somewhat in 
 the following way : 
 
 " Je touche la table. Je touche le plancher. Je touche le 
 mur. Je touche le plafond — Non ! Je ne touche pas le 
 plafond. Je ne peux pas toucher le plafond. C'est im- 
 possible. II m'est impossible de toucher le plafond. Le 
 plancher ; oui, je peux toucher le plancher ; ce n'est pas diffi- 
 cile. Vous pouvez toucher le plancher, n'est-ce pas ? Ce n'est 
 pas difficile de toucher le plancher ou le mur. Mais vous ne 
 pouvez pas toucher le plafond. 
 
 " Si je reste ici, k ma place, je ne peux pas toucher la porte ni 
 la fenetre. II m'est impossible de toucher la porte si je reste 
 ici. Vous ne pouvez pas toucher la porte si vous restez 1^ oti 
 vous ^tes. 
 
 '' Je soul^ve la chaise. Je soul^ve I'armoire — Non ! je ne 
 peux pas soulever I'armoire, la chose est impossible. 
 
 " Je regarde le plafond. Je regarde la fenetre. Si je mets 
 la main devant les yeux, ou si je ferme les yeux, je ne peux pas 
 regarder le plafond ; je ne peux pas regarder la fenetre. 
 
 " Donnez-moi votre crayon ! Donnez-moi votre plume ! [The 
 teacher takes them away from the pupil.] Maintenant ^crivez ! 
 Vous ne pouvez pas ^crire. II vous est impossible d'^crire. 
 
 '' Je n'ai pas de craie. Je ne peux pas ^crire au tableau. 
 Puis-je ^crire avec le doigt ? Non, n'est-ce pas ? Puis-je 
 ^crire avec le livre ? Non, n'est-ce pas ? 
 
 " Je n'ai pas de livre ; je ne peux pas lire. Je ferme les 
 oreilles ; je ne peux pas entendre. Je ferme les yeux ; je ne 
 peux pas voir. 
 
156 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 " Je ne peux pas toucher le plafond. Pourquoi ? Parce 
 qu'il est trop haut. Je ne peux pas toucher la porte. Pour* 
 quoi ? Parce qu'elle est trop loin. Je ne peux pas soul ever 
 Tarmoire. Pourquoi ? Parce qu'elle est trop lourde. Je ne 
 peux pas dcrire au tableau. Pourquoi ? Parce que je n'ai 
 pas de craie. 
 
 " Pourquoi ne pouvez-vous pas ecrire ? Parce que vous 
 n'avez pas de crayon. Pourquoi est-ce que je ne peux pas voir ? 
 Parce que j'ai les yeux fermes. Pourquoi est-ce que je ne peux 
 pas entendre ? Parce que j'ai les oreilles fermees. 
 
 " Si je n'ai pas de craie, je ne peux pas ecrire au tableau. Si 
 je n'ai pas de livre, je nepeux pas lire. Si je n'ai pas de clef, je 
 ne peux pas fermer la porte. Si vous n'avez pas de crayon, 
 vous ne pouvez pas Ecrire. Etc., etc. 
 
 " Sans livre il est impossible de lire. Sans crayon ou plume 
 il est impossible d'ecrire. Sans clef il est impossible d'ouvrir la 
 porte. Etc., etc. 
 
 " Si je veux ecrire, il faut que je prenne une plume. Si je 
 veux lire, il faut que je prenne un livre ou un journal. Etc., etc. 
 
 " Je ne peux pas toucher la porte sans y aller. Je ne peux 
 pas ecrire sans prendre un crayon ou une plume." Etc., etc. 
 
 At about the same period the following talk will probably be 
 fairly well understood : 
 
 " Nous sommes ici dans la classe, vous et moi. Nous 
 sommes dans I'^cole. La classe est dans I'ecole. Nous 
 sommes ici pour parler fran9ais. Je parle fran9ais. Je vous 
 parle en fran9ais et vous 6coutez ce que je vous dis. Nous 
 sommes ici dans la classe ; la classe est dans I'ecole. L'ecole 
 est a Londres. Nous sommes a Londres. Londres est une 
 ville. Manchester aussi est une ville ; Birmingham est une ville ; 
 Liverpool est une ville. Nous ne sommes pas a Manchester ; 
 nous ne sommes pas a Birmingham ; nous sommes a Londres. 
 Est-ce que Londres est une ville ? Oui, Londres est une ville. 
 Est-ce que Londres est une ecole ? Non, Londres n'est pas ime 
 6co\e ; Londres est une ville, une grande ville, une tr^s grande 
 ville. La classe est-elle grande ? Oui, elle est grande, n'est-ce 
 pas ? La ville de Londres est-elle grande ? Oui, n'est-ce pas ? 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 157 
 
 " Londres est la capitale de TAngleterre. Ce n'est pas 
 la capitale de la France. Londres est une ville anglaise. 
 La capitale de la France est Paris. Paris est une ville 
 fran9aise. Paris aussi est une grande ville. Nous ne sommes 
 pas a Paris ; nous sommes a Londres. Londres est en 
 Angleterre. Nous sommes en Angleterre. Vous etes en 
 Angleterre ; moi, je suis en Angleterre ; nous sommes tous 
 en Angleterre. 
 
 " Vous etes anglais ; vous n'etes pas fran9ais. Vous parlez 
 anglais, c'est votre langue. Les Fran9ais ne parlent pas 
 anglais ; ils parlent frangais. Les Anglais ne parlent pas fran- 
 9ais ; ils parlent anglais. Les Italiens parlent italien. Etes- 
 vous italiens ? Non, n'est-ce pas ? Vous etes anglais. Etes- 
 vous fran9ais ? Non, n'est-ce pas ? Vous etes anglais. Vous 
 parlez anglais, vous ne parlez pas fran9ais. 
 
 " Londres est une ville ; Paris est une ville. L' Angleterre 
 est un pays. La France aussi est un pays. L'ltalie encore, 
 e'est un pays. La Belgique est un pays. Le Portugal est un 
 pays. L'Angleterre est-elle un pays ou une ville ? Un pays, 
 n'est-ce pas ? Londres est-il un pays ou une ville ? Une 
 ville, n'est-ce pas ? Nous sommes ici a Londres ; nous 
 sommes en Angleterre ; nous sommes dans la capitale de 
 I'Angleterre." Etc., etc. 
 
 Imperative Drill 
 
 The direct imperative may now be replaced or alternated 
 with various indirect forms such as : 
 
 " Voulez-vous venir ici ? Je vous demande de venir ici. 
 II faut venir ici. Vous devez venir ici. Faites-moi le plaisir 
 de venir ici. Je vous dis de venir ici. fa ne vous ferait-il 
 rien de venir ici ? " 
 
 The commands may now embrace actions of a more precise 
 nature and more difficult of illustration by gesture : 
 
 " Donnez votre livre a X ! 
 
 " Apportez-moi cinq morceaux de papier ! 
 
 " Allez a la fenetre sans faire de bruit ! 
 
 " Voulez-vous venir ici, prendre mon livre et mon crayon, et 
 les donner a Thieve qui est derri^re vous ? 
 
158 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 " II faut venir ici, prendre la craie et puis ^crire un mot 
 anglais au tableau noir." 
 
 Articulation and Ear-training Exercises 
 
 These may now be combined with phonetic reading and dicta- 
 tion, the whole set to be considered as General Phonetic Exercises, 
 
 There will be a daily drill embracing one or more forms of 
 these types of work, passing from isolated sounds to syllables, 
 and from these to longer units. 
 
 Two forms of ear-training exercises may be recommended ; 
 both of these, devised by Mr Daniel Jones, Reader in Phonetics 
 at University College, London, have been used in his classes 
 with conspicuous success. 
 
 The first of these consists of writing on the blackboard a 
 series of numbered phonetic symbols : 
 
 123456789 10 11 12 etc. 
 ieeaciDouy^ oe 9 
 
 The teacher enunciates these sounds in a mixed order, and as 
 he does so the pupil or pupils respond by quoting the number 
 of the symbol representing the sound which they hear, or imagine 
 they hear. For instance : 
 
 Teacher, [eeee]. 
 
 Pwpil, No. 3 ? 
 
 Teacher, Right. Now : [oooo]. 
 
 Pwpil, No. 7 ? 
 
 Teacher, Quite right. Now : [^00]. 
 
 Pupil, No. 9 ? 
 
 Teacher, Listen again : [000], 
 
 Pupil, No. 10 ! 
 
 Teacher. Yes, No. 10. Listen to the difference between 
 No. 9 and No. 10 : [y, 0, y, ^, y, 0], Etc., etc. 
 
 The second exercise, named Nonsense Dictation^ consists of 
 dictating artificial and meaningless words composed in advance 
 by the teacher, such as : [ytvelje, s^vezod, ikme3ru5]. 
 
 These words must be written phonetically by the pupils. 
 When they make mistakes, the teacher should repeat the word 
 with the right and the wrong sound alternately so that the 
 difference may be clearly audible. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 159 
 
 Fluency Practice 
 
 This is the natural development of articulation exercises 
 when carried into a later stage. When the pupils have become 
 fairly proficient in the production of isolated sounds and 
 syllables, they may go one step farther and practise groups of 
 connected syllables. These may be nonsense sentences or real 
 sentences ; but as no particular end is to be gained by the 
 former, we may prepare a number of real sentences and proceed 
 to work on these. 
 
 Although nominally a type of phonetic exercise, a secondary 
 purpose will be well served by this fluency drill : the daily 
 repetition of a number of sentences will result in their being 
 memorized. If the sentences are well chosen the pupils will 
 acquire, during their phonetic lessons, a considerable stock of 
 useful vocabulary in the form of complete ergons. 
 
 We need hardly point out the direct and indirect advantages 
 of learning by heart a number of characteristic sentences. Not 
 only will such sentences form the nucleus of their stock of 
 primary matter, but each of them will serve at a later stage as 
 the models from which they will derive an almost unlimited 
 quantity of secondary matter. 
 
 Teacher, Listen to what I am going to say : [53np)z^pavni: 
 risidme]. 
 
 The pupils repeat, but with indifferent success. We may 
 help them by isolating portions of the sentence : [niirisi], 
 [niirisi], [ni:risid], [niirisid], [isidme], [isidme], [ssnp^pa], 
 [33np0pa]. 
 
 Then with better success the pupils produce : [59np0pavni: 
 risidme]. 
 
 The unit is then dictated, written on the blackboard, and 
 read, and the next sentence is taken. 
 
 Let us bear in mind that, with the exception of the articula- 
 tion and fluency exercises, the first or elementary stage is 
 not concerned with the active aspect of language-study. We 
 are acting in accordance with the principle that no active 
 work is profitable until the pupil has mastered the sounds 
 
160 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 of the language, and can produce them with fluency and 
 accuracy. 
 
 Now even under the most favourable circumstances we 
 cannot expect an average class of average pupils to acquire 
 anything like accuracy or fluency in sound-production under at 
 least a term. To allow or to force pupils to answer questions 
 (or indeed to make any active oral use of French) before they 
 are proficient in the production of the very basis of spoken 
 language is to expose them to all the dangers which inevitably 
 result from premature efforts. We cannot and must not allow 
 our pupils to speak broken or ' pidgin ' French ; our ideal 
 standard programme is based on the principle of fluent accuracy 
 or nothing. 
 
 From the outset, then, we must be prepared to let at least 
 three months pass before we can risk any other active oral work, 
 on the part of our pupils, than articulation exercises. The 
 object of these pages is to show what varied forms of useful 
 exercises we may employ while awaiting the moment at which 
 the pupils may be considered ripe for their entry on the second 
 or intermediate stage. 
 
 For obvious reasons we have suggested no form of written 
 work beyond the tracing of phonetic characters ; however long 
 we may have to wait ere we can risk active oral work, this active 
 oral work must precede any written work. 
 
 The teacher will probably find that the various types of 
 exercises that we have suggested will more than occupy the 
 incubatory three months. Should this, however, not be the 
 case, we would suggest a series of simple lessons (or periods of 
 fifteen minutes) to be devoted to the teaching of the more 
 important principles of language-theory. There is no reason 
 why we should not take advantage of our three months' wait 
 by giving simple lectures to our pupils on the theories of 
 phonetics, ergonics, etymology, and semantics. These lectures, 
 needless to say, will be given in and based on the pupils' native 
 language and adapted to their standard of intelligence. 
 
 In the following pages we will see what sort of lectures it is 
 possible to give to pupils of the age of eleven or twelve by 
 giving a few typical specimens. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 161 
 
 Phonetic Theory 
 Specimen Lesson 
 
 " Pronounce [mmm] and then tell me what happens to your 
 lips. . . , 
 
 " Well, what happened ? You closed them ? Yes, you 
 certainly closed them. Try and find out what other sounds 
 are made by closing or by nearly closing your lips. 
 
 [The pupils discover [p], [b], and [w]]. 
 
 " Very well, let us write these four sounds on the blackboard, 
 and call them the lip-lip sounds ; that means that one lip 
 touches the other. 
 
 Lip-lip Sounds 
 
 p b 
 
 m 
 w 
 
 " Do your two lips come together when you pronounce [vvv] ? 
 No ? What does happen then ? . . . Yes, that's right, the 
 bottom lip is pressed against the upper teeth. This we shall call 
 a lip-teeth sound. Can you find any more lip-teeth sounds ? " 
 
 [[f] is duly discovered.] 
 
 " Very well, let us put [f] and [v] together and call them the 
 lip-teeth sounds. 
 
 Lip-lip Sounds 
 P b 
 
 m 
 w 
 
 Lip-teeth Sounds 
 
 f V 
 
 " Now try and find out what parts of the mouth have to 
 touch in order to make other sounds. 
 
 [Various sounds are discovered and are duly displayed under 
 their appropriate headings : teeth-edge and tongue-tip sounds 
 [6y 3], ridge and tongue-tip sounds [s, z, J, 3, j, 1], etc., etc.] 
 
 " Do you make a sort of explosion when you pronounce 
 [s s s] ? No ? Can you find out some sounds which do make 
 an explosion ? [b] ? Yes, [b] is an explosive sound. Any 
 
162 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 more ? g [dsii] ? What do you mean by [d3i:] ? Do you mean 
 [ds] or [g] ? Ah, [g] ; I thought you meant that. In future 
 you must say [g], not [d3i:], when you mean [g], or I shall not 
 know whether you mean [g] or [ds]." 
 
 The plosives or explosion sounds are written in a row on the 
 blackboard : 
 
 Plosives or ^ . ^ ^ 
 
 7 • J P b t d k q 
 
 explosion sounds ^ ^ 
 
 The nasals, fricatives, and laterals are discovered and treated 
 in the same manner. Subsequently, the vowels and diphthongs 
 receive similar treatment. 
 
 A large diagram may be constructed progressively and hung 
 up for reference. 
 
 A few minutes of phonetic reading and dictation will be 
 very useful at this period. Of particular interest will be the 
 names of the pupils written in phonetic script. Each pupil 
 may subsequently be asked to write his address in phonetic 
 characters. 
 
 Short talks on phonetics will be welcomed by the average 
 pupil. 
 
 " Some people do not know the difference between a letter 
 and a sound. And yet there is a great difference between the 
 two things, isn't there ? A sound is something we make with 
 our mouth, a letter is something that we write. 
 
 " In English, French, and other languages the ordinary 
 spelling of words with the letters of the alphabet doesn't agree 
 at all with the pronunciation of the words. The word one is 
 made up of the letters called [ou,] [en], and [i:], but we do not 
 pronounce it [ouenii], we pronounce it [wah]. How many 
 sounds are there in one ? Which is the first ? The second ? 
 And the third? 
 
 " How many sounds are there in [foxt] ? Yes, three sounds ; 
 let us write them in phonetic symbols on the blackboard. . . . 
 Now each of you write the word in ordinary spelling with the 
 letters of the alphabet. . . . Why, how is this ? Some of you 
 have written /or^ and others ybwg/i^. What is the reason ? . . . 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 163 
 
 Yes, just so, sometimes two different words are pronounced in 
 exactly the same way, but are written in different ways. That 
 never happens in phonetic writing. The phonetic symbols 
 never shift about like letters ; each one always represents a 
 fixed sound, and always the same sound." And so on, ad lib. 
 It will be noted that this is not a French lesson at all, but 
 an English lesson. It is intended that this should be so ; 
 we are engaged in sharpening our tools, labelling the bottles, 
 tidying up the workshop, and all the other preliminary work 
 which alone will make our future work rapid and effective. 
 
 Etymological Theory 
 Specimen Lesson 
 
 " / give, you give, he give, we give, you give, they give. Is there 
 anything wrong in what I said ? Did it sound right ? What 
 was wrong with it ? . . . Oh, I should have said he gives, in- 
 stead of he give. That evidently means that a word like give 
 sometimes has to change its form. See if you can tell me any 
 other ways to change the word give. 
 
 " Gave ? Yes, gave. Giving ? Yes, giving. Given ? Yes, 
 given. Any more ? Giveth ? Yes, there is giveth, and givest 
 too, but as this is not the English we use every day we will take 
 no notice of these old-fashioned forms. Let us write on the 
 blackboard the five words in this order ; 
 
 1. give 
 
 2. gives 
 
 3. gave 
 
 4. giving 
 
 5. given 
 
 " Let us see whether the word stay changes in the same 
 manner. . . . There appear to be only four different forms this 
 time ; numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4. Where has number 5 got 
 to ? . . . Yes, that is right ; number 5 is stayed, just like 
 number 3. 
 
 [Other examples to be treated in the same way.] 
 *' These five forms are called injiexions. Let us see whether 
 we can find any inflexions for the word under, . . . 
 
164 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 " No, we have not been able to find any. Under is a word 
 which cannot be inflected. Let us try the word mouse. . . . 
 Mice ? Yes, mice. Any more ? Mouse's ? Yes, I think we 
 can put down mouse's, although some people say that the 
 apostrophe and the s are really a separate word and not part of 
 the word mouse. We see, then, that the word mouse has three 
 inflexions : mov^e, mice, and mouse's. 
 
 " In French, Latin, Russian, and other languages there are 
 far more inflexions to be found than in English. A little later 
 on we shall make collections of French inflexions and arrange 
 them just as we arrange collections of foreign stamps in our 
 albums." 
 
 And so on. 
 
 Semantic Theory 
 Specimen Lesson 
 
 *■' When I say / am going to get my hat, what does the word get 
 mean ? . » . Yes, it means fetch. We see, then, that some- 
 times there are two ways of putting a thought into words. 
 What word can we use instead of nearly ? . . . Yes, we can use 
 almost. What word can we use instead of intend in the sentence 
 / intend to got . . . No, we cannot use expect, because that 
 changes the meaning of the sentence ; intend and expect stand 
 for two very different thoughts. . . . Mean ? Yes, mean will 
 do very well to replace intend ; in fact, we far more often say 
 / mean to go than / intend to go. 
 
 '' Two words which mean the same thing, or very nearly the 
 same thing, are called synonyms. Can you give me a synonym 
 for scarcely ? . . . For sure ? . . . For glad ? 
 
 " What can we put in the place of the word /ar in the sentence 
 Is it far from here ? Yes, that's right : a long way. So you see 
 we can sometimes replace a single word by two or three words. 
 Far is what we call a monolog or sifigle word ; a long way is what 
 we call a polylog or group-word. Can you give me a polylog as 
 a s)nionym of the monolog enter ? Yes, go in. Yes, come in. 
 Yes, walk in. You will find quite a lot of polylog synonyms of 
 enter. 
 
 [Further examples to be given.] 
 
AN roEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 165 
 
 " Now, we not only find monologs which are the synonyms 
 of other monologs, and polylogs as synonyms of monologs, but 
 we also find polylogs as synonyms of other polylogs. What can 
 we say instead of Will you go't . . . Yes, we can say Would 
 you mind going ? What can we say instead of all right ? . . . 
 Yes, we can say very well. 
 
 [Further examples to be given.] 
 
 '' Now, we saw that in / am going to get my hat the word get 
 may be replaced by fetch without changing the meaning of the 
 sentence. Can we always replace get by fetch ? Can we say. 
 It is fetching dark instead of It is getting dark ? . . . No, of 
 course we can't. Only one sort of get can be replaced by fetch. 
 W^hat does get mean in the sentence, It is getting dark ? Yes, it 
 means growing or becoming ; this sort of get is a synonym of 
 grow and of become. 
 
 '' We see, then, that get number 1 and get number 2 are just 
 as much different words as fetch and become. 
 
 " Have you ever thought how many gets there are ? We 
 have just examined two. 
 
 1. Get in the sense of fetch. 
 
 2. Get in the sense of grow or become, 
 
 " What others can we find ? Yes, there is : 
 
 3. Get forming part of the poly log get to in the sense of 
 
 arrive at or reach. 
 
 4. Get in the sense of persuade (Get him to come). 
 
 5. Get in the sense of cause to be (Get it mended). 
 
 6. Get in the sense of make (Get it ready). 
 
 7. Get in the sense of receive (I got a letter this morning). 
 
 " These seven words are called the semantic varieties of get. 
 
 [The semantic varieties of other words, such as keep, care, 
 mind, mean, etc., etc., to be examined in the same way.] 
 
 " In French and in all other languages we find exactly the 
 same thing ; we find synonyms (two or more words having the 
 same meaning) and semantic varieties of words. We shall have 
 to pay great attention to these and be very careful not to mix 
 them up. 
 
 "We have seen that some thoughts can be expressed in 
 
166 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 English by two or more different words. We must not expect 
 to find that exactly those same thoughts can be expressed in 
 French by two different words. In English we can say nearly 
 or almost, but in French there is only one word instead of two. 
 Then we shall sometimes find two different French words to 
 express one thought where in English we only have one word 
 for it. 
 
 "We have seen that get and other English words have a 
 number of semantic varieties, but we must not expect to find 
 exactly the same words in French having exactly the same 
 number and the same sort of semantic varieties. 
 
 " We shall sometimes translate from French into English, and 
 from English into French, but we shall discover that one French 
 word may be expressed in a number of different ways in English, 
 according to its meaning. We shall also see that the meaning 
 of one English word may be expressed in a number of different 
 ways in French, and that we shall have to choose the one which 
 has the same meaning as the English one. We shall sometimes 
 have to turn English polylogs into French monologs, or do the 
 contrary, and turn English monologs into French polylogs. 
 
 " Some children (and even grown-up people) think that for 
 each English word there is a French word, with just the same 
 meanings and just the same number of meanings. Those 
 people, not knowing any better, sometimes ask very funny 
 questions. They say, for instance, ' What's the French for 
 get ? ' Of course we can't answer questions like these. We 
 first have to ask which sort of get they mean ; whether it is get 
 number 1, or get number 2, or get number 3, and so on. Then 
 we shall tell them how the French express that particular 
 thought that is expressed in English by that particular sort of 
 
 get:' 
 
 Ergonic Theory 
 
 Specimen Lesson 
 
 " If somebody asked us the question ' When did you last 
 write a letter to your uncle ? ' what' different answers should 
 we all give ? Let us see what some of the answers would be. 
 Each of you write down an answer to the question. Perhaps 
 
AN roEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 167 
 
 some of you haven't any uncles, and if you have, perhaps you 
 never write to them, so those pupils need only write what they 
 think some of the others are writing. . . . 
 
 " Yes, just as I thought ; there are hardly any two pupils 
 who have written the same thing. You have all started by 
 
 saying, ' I wrote to him ' and then each one seems to have 
 
 written something different. I will write on the blackboard 
 some of the answers : 
 
 / wrote to him yesterday, 
 on Sunday, 
 this morning, 
 three weeks ago. 
 during the holidays. 
 last week, 
 in January, 
 at Christmas, 
 when it was his birthday, 
 last month, 
 on the i7th of July. 
 a long time ago. 
 
 " Now there is something the same about all the words that 
 come after him. What is it that is the same ? What do you 
 say ? . . . That they all tell us when somebody wrote to his 
 uncle ? Very well, and what do you say ? . . . That they all 
 answer the question when. Very well, and what do you say ? 
 That they are all different ways of saying then ? 
 
 '' Yes, they are all answers to the question when. Now, we 
 must find a name to give to all the different ways of answering 
 the question when. We will call them complements of time. If 
 each of them were like the word yesterday, and contained one 
 word only, we could call them adverbs of time, but an adverb 
 is always a monolog or single word, and these are nearly all 
 polylogs. 
 
 " Now, if a complement of time answers the question when, 
 what question do you imagine we can answer with complements of 
 place ? . . . Yes, quite right ; the question where. Now, each of 
 you write an answer to the question : ' Where did you see it ? ' " 
 
168 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 [In the same way treat complements of duration, frequency, 
 manner, etc.] 
 
 Similar exercises can be given on other forms of complements, 
 as well as on subjectives, predicates, and modifiers. In this 
 manner clear notions will be inculcated concerning the chief 
 ergonic categories and their names. 
 
 Section 23.— The second or intermediate stage, of the duration of 
 from one to three years (according to the radius of the microcosm), 
 will consist of : 
 
 (a) More advanced exercises in subconscious comprehen- 
 
 sion. 
 
 (b) Articulation and fluency exercises. 
 
 (c) The assimilation of primary matter by means of various 
 
 catenizing devices. 
 
 (d) The production of secondary matter by means of a 
 
 large number of varied exercises based on etymology, 
 semantics, and ergonics. 
 During this stage the traditional spelling will be intro- 
 duced and taught by means of various types of orthoepic 
 exercises. 
 
 The second or intermediate stage is the beginning of what 
 most people would term the study proper of the language. 
 
 It will commence when the student is able to reproduce with 
 ease the sounds of the language, not only as isolated elements, 
 but in groups of varying lengths, and is able to transform with 
 tolerable accuracy the symbols into sounds and the sounds into 
 symbols. 
 
 Although this stage may be of indefinite duration, we would 
 suggest that it should not be unduly prolonged nor brought to 
 a premature conclusion. As in the case of the first stage, its 
 duration is not to be measured by days, nor even by the number 
 of lessons devoted to it ; it should begin when the pupil is ripe 
 to begin it, and should terminate only when the pupil is ripe for 
 the next stage. 
 
 At what moment will the pupil be considered ripe for the third 
 stage ? Bearing in mind the end we have in view and the broad 
 principles of the differentiated programme, we may answer 
 that the third stage may begin and the second stage terminate 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 169 
 
 when the efforts of the student have enabled him to understand 
 the greater part of what he hears and reads, and to use in a 
 simple manner and with a relative freedom from error by the 
 oral and written mediums, about 75 per cent, of the matter con- 
 tained in the ordinary everyday speech of the average person. 
 
 The essential difference between the second and third stages 
 lies in the fact that in the former the greater part of the study 
 will be pursued on a basis of consciousness, and in the latter on 
 the basis of subconsciousness. 
 
 During the second stage a relatively small mmiber of carefully 
 selected units will be presented one by one, each of which is there 
 and then to be completely and thoroughly assimilated by means 
 of those processes of study which we shall examine and analyse 
 later on. During the third stage a relatively large number of un- 
 selected units will be brought within the range of the student's 
 perceptive faculties in a haphazard order ; their assimilation will 
 be neither immediate nor thorough ; they will gradually become 
 inculcated by the slow cumulative process of natural absorption. 
 
 One of the chief aims of the intermediate stage is to ensure 
 perfect fluency, both of expression and understanding. 
 
 In Section 19 we have spoken of the necessity for fluent 
 expression ; more important still is the necessity for fluent 
 comprehension. It is possible to express ourselves in broken 
 and halting sentences. By a desultory firing off of insecables, 
 we may possibly make ourselves understood ; the only sufferers 
 will be the persons who have to listen to us. 
 
 But unless we have acquired the art of fluent comprehension, 
 it is manifestly impossible to understand what is said to us by 
 fluent native speakers — and many native speakers are incapable 
 of any but ultra-fluent speech. Nor is it pleasant to be obliged 
 to interrupt with continual exhortations to speak slower, to 
 speak more distinctly, not to run the words together, to repeat, 
 etc., etc. Lack of fluent comprehension is to be attributed to a 
 faulty method rather than to slo^vness of perception. Students 
 whose training in fluent comprehension has been sound should 
 understand the foreign language better when spoken rapidly 
 than when uttered word by word. 
 
 The second or intennediate stage will commence under the 
 
170 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 most auspicious conditions. The pupils will have mastered the 
 foreign sounds and will be able to use the phonetic symbols 
 both actively and passively. Their hearing faculties will have 
 been sharpened and their powders of auditive observation 
 developed. They will be able to reproduce sentences, both 
 seen and unseen, with accuracy and fluency. 
 
 Their elementary lessons on the various branches of lexi- 
 cology will have sharpened their wits and they will be to a large 
 extent immune from those vicious tendencies and errors which 
 are invariably the result of misconception and misunderstand- 
 ing of the nature of language. 
 
 The study proper of the French language in its active aspects 
 will now commence. The pupils will be from one to three 
 Terms behind those who have not been through the pre- 
 liminary stage, but they will now be ideally prepared and 
 perfectly ripe to enter the new stage of their study. No time 
 will be lost on long parenthetical explanations nor in those 
 vexatious interruptions which break the thread of an organized 
 and systematic course of language-study. 
 
 Other things being equal, they will rapidly overhaul their less 
 fortunate fellow-students, they will run while the others are 
 crawling, and their progress will be proportionate to their speed. 
 
 This stage will be characterized by a number of varied but 
 gradually converging lines of study. Most of them will be 
 based on the microcosm, that nucleus of scientifically chosen 
 units representing the quintessence of the language. 
 
 The lessons will generally consist of two or three parts, thus 
 ensuring variety and interest. Catenizing work will be inter- 
 spersed with exercises of a more lively character ; appeal will 
 be made to the auditive and visual faculties, to the powers of 
 perception, imitation and reasoning. 
 
 In the same way that the instructor of scientific gymnastics 
 devises special exercises, each of which is destined to act on a 
 certain set of muscles, so also will the language teacher devise 
 special exercises, each of which will play its part in the pro- 
 portional development of the pupil's linguistic knowledge. 
 
 The microcosm, formed in advance, will be characterized by 
 the various features and qualities described in Section 20. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 171 
 
 An adequate number of graduated substitution tables in 
 phonetic and orthographic script and with translations and 
 notes will be in the hands of each pupil. These will be accom- 
 panied by a number of appropriate exercises, both for oral and 
 written work. 
 
 There will be object-lessons, questions and answers both sys- 
 tematic and non-systematic. Abundant material for practice 
 in material association can be found in any class-room. 
 
 Appropriate progressive exercises for homework will be pro- 
 vided in book or card form ; the right exercise at the right 
 moment will strengthen the associations of the pupil and lighten 
 the work of the teacher. Each new fact perceived will be 
 driven home by cumulative examples and concretized instances. 
 Nothing taught from the microcosm is meant to evaporate when 
 once cognized and inculcated. Absolute assimilation is to be the 
 order of the day ; the pupil is to digest, in the shortest possible 
 time, with the least effort, and with a freedom from error, the 
 greatest quantity of the most essential matter of the language. 
 
 It will be useful to note at this point that in order to utilize 
 with rapidity and success many of the proposed exercises, a set 
 of special books should be in the hands of each pupil. This 
 being an ideal programme — that is to say, a programme of work 
 to be carried out under ideal conditions — we must assume the 
 existence of such books, and trust that ere long many of them 
 will be available for school work. While awaiting this moment, 
 the teacher may make good some of these deficiencies by writing 
 out various tables and groups on the blackboard, to be copied by 
 the pupils into special exercise -books provided for that purpose. 
 
 The second stage will be characterized, as we have said, by a 
 number of varied but gradually converging lines of study. We 
 will now describe and illustrate the more important of them. 
 
 Subconscious Comprehension 
 
 By the time that the pupil has arrived at the second stage, 
 the type of exercise for which we have suggested the above 
 title will have developed considerably. Having exhausted 
 the subjects connected with the schoolroom and its contents, 
 
172 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 recourse will be had to pictures, of which, fortunately, there is 
 no lack. The teacher will exhibit one of these and proceed to 
 talk about the various objects, persons, and scenes portrayed 
 thereon ; he will describe country and town scenes, journeys, 
 and various occupations. 
 
 Many lessons may be given quite independently of pictures. 
 The habit of direct comprehension having been fostered and 
 developed daily over a long period, it will be possible for the 
 teacher to make himself understood even without recourse to 
 material association. The following is an example of the sort 
 of talk that will probably be fairly well understood during the 
 intermediate stage. 
 
 " Le cheval est un animal utile. Dans les rues on voit beau- 
 coup de chevaux. Ces animaux trainent les charrettes et les 
 voitures. Les vaches sont aussi des animaux. Les vaches, 
 comme les chevaux, mangent de I'herbe. La vache a deux 
 cornes ; le cheval n'en a pas. La vache nous donne du lait. 
 Le lait est blanc. Nous buvons du lait. C'est la vache qui 
 nous donne le lait que nous buvons. Le mouton aussi est un 
 animal ; il est plus petit que le cheval et plus petit que la vache. 
 Le mouton nous donne de la laine. La laine est blanche. Avec 
 la laine nous faisons du drap et de I'etoffe. Mon veston est fait 
 en laine. Le mouton est un animal utile. Le chien est aussi 
 un animal utile ; il ne nous donne pas de lait ni de laine, mais 
 le chien garde la maison. II y a aussi des chiens qui gardent les 
 moutons. II y a des chiens qui sont tres grands, il y en a 
 d'autres qui sonts petits. Le chat est un animal ; il n'est pas 
 si utile que le chien. Les chats aiment beaucoup le feu ; ils 
 boivent du lait ; ils attrapent les souris. La souris n'est pas un 
 animal utile ; au contraire, c'est un animal nuisible ; on n'aime 
 pas les souris." Etc., etc. 
 
 Systematic Questionnaire 
 
 A second line of study may be carried out concurrently 
 conceived on the following lines : 
 
 Teacher. Est-ce la fenetre ? 
 Pupils. Oui, c'est la fenetre. 
 
AN roEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 173 
 
 T. Est-ce la porte ? 
 
 P. Non, ce n'est pas la porte. 
 
 T. Qu'est-ce que e'est ? 
 
 P. C'est la fenetre. 
 
 T. Le plafond est-il blanc ? 
 
 P. Oui, il est blanc. 
 
 T. Le plafond est-il noir ? 
 
 P. Non, il n'est pas noir. 
 
 T. Quelle est la couleur du plafond ? 
 
 P. II est blanc. 
 
 T. Qu'est-ce qui est blanc ? 
 
 P. C'est le plafond. 
 
 T, Le livre est-il sur la chaise ? 
 
 P. Oui, il est sur la chaise. 
 
 T. Le livre est-il par terre ? 
 
 P. Non, il n'est pas par terre. 
 
 T. Ou est-il ? 
 
 P. II est sur la chaise. 
 
 T. Qu'est-ce qui est sur la chaise ? 
 
 P. C'est le livre. 
 
 T. Est-ce que le professeur prend le livre ? 
 
 P. Oui, il prend le livre. 
 
 T. Est-ce qu'il prend la craie ? 
 
 P. Non, il ne prend pas la craie. 
 
 T. Qu'est-ce qu'il prend ? 
 
 P. II prend le livre. 
 
 T. Qui est-ce qui prend le livre ? 
 
 P. C'est le professeur. 
 
 T. Ouvrez le livre ! Ouvrez-vous le livre ? 
 
 P. Oui, i'ouvre le livre. 
 
 T. Ouvrez-vous la porte ? 
 
 P. Non, je n'ouvre pas la porte. 
 
 T. Qu'est-ce que vous ouvrez ? 
 
 P. J'ouvre le livre. 
 
 T. Qui est-ce qui ouvre le livre ? 
 
 P. C'est moi. 
 
174 STUDY AND TEACfflNG OF LANGUAGES 
 
 T. £tes-vous venu ici hier ? 
 
 P. Oui, je suis venu ici hier. 
 
 T. £tes-vous venu ici samedi ? 
 
 P. Non, je ne suis pas venu ici samedi. 
 
 T. Quand etes-vous venu ici ? 
 
 P. Je suis venu ici hier. 
 
 T. Qui est-ce qui est venu ici hier ? 
 
 P. C'est moi. 
 
 T. Avez-vous mis le livre sur le pupitre ? 
 
 P. Oui, j'ai mis le Uvre sur le pupitre. 
 
 T. Avez-vous mis le crayon sur le pupitre ? 
 
 P. Non, je n'ai pas mis le crayon sur le pupitre. 
 
 T. Qu' avez-vous mis sur le pupitre ? 
 
 P. J'y ai mis un livre. 
 
 T. L' avez-vous mis sur le pupitre ? 
 
 P. Oui, je I'ai mis sur le pupitre. 
 
 T. L' avez-vous mis sur la chaise ? 
 
 P. Non, je ne I'ai pas mis sur la chaise. 
 
 T, Oh I'avez-vous mis ? 
 
 P. Je I'ai mis sur le pupitre. 
 
 T. Qui est-ce qui I'a mis sur le pupitre ? 
 
 P. C'est moi. 
 
 There is no limit ^to the number of model sentences which 
 can be developed into systematic questions and answers. 
 Any of those from the conjugation exercises will serve this pur- 
 pose," as will also any incidental sentences whatever. In this 
 type of exercise catenizing and semanticizing are performed 
 simultaneously. 
 
 The questions may be classified and asked in the cross 
 order : 
 
 Teacher Pupil 
 
 Qu'est-ce que c'est ? C'est la fenetre. 
 
 Qu' est-ce que c'est ? C'est la porte. 
 
 Qu'est-ce que c'est ? C'est le plafond. 
 Etc. Etc. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 
 
 175 
 
 Teacher 
 
 Oil est le livre ? 
 
 Oil est la craie ? 
 
 Oh. est la plume ? 
 Etc. 
 
 Quelle est la couleur du 
 plafond ? 
 
 Quelle est la couleur du mur ? 
 
 Quelle est la couleur du 
 papier ? 
 
 Quelle est la couleur de la 
 craie ? 
 
 Quelle est la couleur du livre ? 
 
 Quelle est la couleur de la 
 plume ? 
 
 Quelle est la couleur de 
 I'encre ? 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Qu'est-ce que je fais ? 
 
 Qu'est-ce que je fais ? 
 
 Qu'est-ce que je fais ? 
 
 Qu'est-ce que je fais ? 
 
 Qu'est-ce que je fais ? 
 Etc. 
 
 Another form of systematic 
 series of question-and-answer 
 are typical specimens : 
 
 Qu'est-ce que le cheval ? 
 Qu'est-ce que le chien ? 
 Qu'est-ce que le chat ? 
 Qu'est-ce que le mouton ? 
 Qu'est-ce que la vache ? 
 
 Etc. 
 Qu'est-ce que la table ? 
 Qu'est-ce que la chaise ? 
 Qu'est-ce que le lit ? 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Pwpil 
 II est sur la table. 
 Elle est sur le pupitre. 
 EUe est sur la chaise. 
 
 Etc. 
 
 II est blanc. 
 II est jaune. 
 
 II est blanc. 
 
 Elle est blanche. 
 II est bleu. 
 
 Elle est rouge. 
 
 Elle est noire. 
 
 Etc. 
 Vous vous levez. 
 Vous marchez. 
 Vous allez a la porte. 
 Vous regardez le plafond. 
 Vous prenez le livre. 
 
 Etc. 
 
 questionnaire will be based on a 
 groups, of which the following 
 
 C'est 
 C'est 
 C'est 
 C'est 
 C'est 
 
 C'est 
 C'est 
 C'est 
 
 un animal, 
 un animal, 
 un animal, 
 un animal, 
 un animal. 
 
 Etc. 
 un meuble. 
 un meuble. 
 un meuble. 
 
 Etc. 
 
176 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Teacher 
 
 Qu'est-ce que le fer ? 
 Qu'est-ce que Tor ? 
 Qu'est-ce que I'argent ? 
 Etc. 
 
 Pupil 
 
 C'est un metal. 
 C'est im metal. 
 C'est im metal. 
 Etc. 
 
 Qu'est-ce que le mur ? 
 
 Qu'est-ce que le plafond ? 
 
 Qu'est-ce que le plancher ? 
 Etc. 
 
 C'est une partie de la 
 chambre. 
 
 C'est une partie de la 
 chambre. 
 
 C'est une partie de la 
 chambre. Etc. 
 
 Qu'est-ce que le chapeau ? 
 Qu'est-ce que le veston ? 
 Qu'est-ce que le gilet ? 
 Etc. 
 
 C'est un vetement. 
 C'est im vetement. 
 C'est im vetement. 
 Etc. 
 
 Quelle est la couleur du pla- 
 fond ? 
 
 Quelle est la couleur du col ? 
 Quelle est la couleur du ciel ? 
 Etc. 
 
 11 est blanc. 
 11 est blanc. 
 11 est bleu. 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Quelle est la couleur de la 
 neige ? 
 
 Quelle est la couleur de la 
 craie ? 
 
 Quelle est la couleur de 
 I'herbe ? 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Elle est blanche. 
 
 Elle est blanche. 
 
 Elle est verte. 
 Etc. 
 
 Ou est Londres ? 
 Oti est Douvres ? 
 Etc. 
 
 Londres est en Angleterre. 
 
 Douvres est en Angleterre. 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Oh est Paris ? 
 Ou est Lyon ? 
 Oti est Bruxelles ? 
 Oh est Geneve ? 
 Oh est Rome ? 
 Etc. 
 
 Paris est en France. 
 Lyon est en France. 
 Bruxelles est en Belgique. 
 Geneve est en Suisse. 
 Rome est en Italic. 
 Etc. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAIMME 
 
 177 
 
 Teacher 
 
 Ou est-ce qu'on parle fran- 
 gais ? 
 
 Ou est-ce qu'on parle ang- 
 lais ? Etc. 
 
 Quelle est la capitale de la 
 France ? 
 
 Quelle est la capitale de 
 I'Angleterre ? 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Qu' est-ce qu'on prend quand 
 on lit ? 
 
 Qu'est-ce qu'on prend quand 
 on ecrit ? Etc. 
 
 Que fait-on avec un crayon ? 
 Que fait-on avec une clef ? 
 Etc. 
 
 Quel est le premier jour de 
 
 Pwpil 
 
 On parle fran9ais en France. 
 On parle anglais en Angle- 
 terre. Etc. 
 
 C'est Paris. 
 
 C'est Londres. 
 Etc. 
 
 On prend un livre. 
 On prend un crayon ou une 
 plume. Etc. 
 
 Avec un crayon on ecrit. 
 Avec une clef on ferme la 
 porte. Etc. 
 
 la semaine ? 
 
 C'est lundi. 
 
 Quel est le deuxieme jour de 
 
 
 la semaine ? 
 
 C'est mardi. 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Quel est le premier mois de 
 
 
 I'annee ? 
 
 C'est Janvier. 
 
 Quel est le deuxieme mois de 
 
 
 I'annee ? 
 
 C'est fevrier. 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Combien de secondes y a-t-il 
 
 
 dans une minute ? 
 
 11 y en a soixante 
 
 Combien de minutes y a-t-il 
 
 
 dans une heure ? 
 
 11 y en a soixante 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Que puis-je faire si j'ai un 
 livre ? 
 
 Si vous avez un livre, vous 
 pouvez lire. 
 
 M 
 
178 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Teacher Pupil 
 
 Que puis-je faire si j'ai une Si vous avez une brosse, 
 brosse ? vous pouvez brosser. 
 
 Etc. Etc. 
 
 Que dites-vous si vous voulez Si je veux un crayon, je dis 
 iin crayon ? " Donnez-moi un crayon." 
 
 Etc. Etc. 
 
 Under ideal conditions each pupil will possess a book con- 
 taining a hundred or so of these groups properly graduated and 
 accompanied by appropriate exercises. Each group (containing 
 about ten members) will appear in phonetic script, with English 
 translation either on the same page or at the end of the book. 
 
 The manner of using these groups will be somewhat as follows : 
 
 Teacher. Turn to page one. I am going to read out to you 
 the sentences that you will find in group one. 
 
 Qu^est-ce que le cheval ? Cest un animal, etc. 
 
 Now you see from your book what these sentences mean. 
 Qu'est-ce que le cheval ? means What is a horse ? The answer 
 Cest un animal means Us an animal. I am now going to ask 
 these questions, and to each of them you will answer Cest un 
 animal. 
 
 Qu'est-ce que le cheval ? 
 
 Pupils. Cest un animal. 
 
 Teacher. Qu'est-ce que le chien ? 
 
 Pupils. Cest un animal. Etc., etc. 
 
 Teacher. We will now take the second group. I shall ask 
 the question QiCest-ce que la table ? and you will answer Cest un 
 meuble. 
 
 Qu'est-ce que la table ? 
 
 Pupils. Cest im meuble. 
 
 Teacher. Qu'est-ce que la chaise ? 
 
 Pupils. Cest un meuble. Etc., etc. 
 
 Teacher. Now I think that this is rather too easy for you. 
 I'm going to mix the questions, so be careful to give the 
 right answer, Cest un animal or Cest un meuhley as the case 
 may be. 
 
 Qu'est-ce que le chien ? 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 179 
 
 Pupils. C'est un animal. 
 Teacher. Qu'est-ce que la table ? 
 Pupils. C'est un meuble. 
 Teacher. Qu'est-ce que le lit ? 
 Pupils. C'est un meuble. 
 
 New groups will be repeated and mixed together as before. 
 In a very short time the result will be : 
 
 Teacher. Qu'est-ce que le chapeau ? 
 
 Pupils. C'est un vetement. 
 
 Teacher. Quelle est la couleur du plafond ? 
 
 Pupils. II est blanc. 
 
 Teacher. Oh est Londres ? 
 
 Pupils. Londres est en Angleterre. 
 
 Teacher. Qu'est-ce qu'on prend quand on lit ? 
 
 Pupils. On prend un livre. 
 
 Teacher. Qu'est-ce que la vache ? 
 
 Pupils. C'est un animal. Etc., etc. 
 
 After some twenty or thirty periods of this type of work the 
 pupils (either collectively or individually) should have no great 
 difficulty in giving prompt and fluent answers to any of the 
 thousand or so questions of which the collection may be made 
 up. 
 
 Non-systematic Questionnaire 
 
 After a certain amount of systematic questioning has been 
 given the teacher may venture on questions chosen at random. 
 If a large number of mistakes occur this work should be dropped 
 immediately and be postponed to a more propitious moment. 
 
 Qu'est-ce que c'est ? C'est le plafond. 
 
 Est-il haut ou bas ? II est haut. 
 Quelle est la couleur du 
 
 plafond ? II est blanc. 
 
 Pouvez-vous le toucher ? Non, jenepeux pas le toucher. 
 
 Pourquoi pas ? Parce qu'il est trop haut. 
 
 Qu'est-ce que c'est ? C'est la porte. 
 
 Est-elle ouverte ou fermee ? Elle est fermee. 
 
 Pouvez-vous I'ouvrir ? Oui, je peux I'ouvrir. 
 
180 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Pouvez - vous toucher la 
 porte si vous restez la ? 
 Pourquoi pas ? 
 
 Qu'est-ce que c'est ? 
 
 A qui est-ce ? 
 
 Est-il ouvert ou ferme ? 
 
 Oh est-il ? 
 
 Qu'est-ce que je regarde ? 
 
 Est-ce un livre fran§ais ou 
 anglais ? 
 
 Voyez-vous la fenetre ? 
 
 Ou est-elle ? 
 
 Est-elle ouverte ou fermee ? 
 
 Le cheval, est-ce un animal 
 ou une plante ? 
 
 Un animal utile ou inutile ? 
 
 Avez-vous un chien ? 
 
 Est-il ici ? 
 
 Ou est-il ? 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Non, monsieur, je ne peux pas 
 toucher la porte si je reste ici. 
 
 Parce que la porte est trop 
 loin. 
 
 C'est un livre. 
 
 C'est a moi. 
 
 II est ouvert. 
 
 II est sur le pupitre. 
 
 Vous regardez le livre. 
 
 C'est un livre anglais. 
 Oui, je la vois. 
 Elle est la. 
 Elle est ouverte. 
 
 C'est un animal. 
 Un animal utile. 
 Oui, monseiur, j'ai un chien. 
 Non, il n'est pas ici. 
 II est chez moi. 
 Etc. 
 
 Substitution Tables 
 
 Another concurrent line of study will be the development and 
 use of substitution tables. The principal object of this type of 
 work is to contribute on a large scale to the enriching of the 
 pupils' vocabulary in the form of fluent sentences. Some of 
 the most suitable models during the early stages will be those 
 taken from the conjugation exercises. The pupils will repeat, 
 read, translate, and, in some cases, act, tables of the ' simple ' 
 type, such as : 
 
 Je suis pret a 
 
 commencer. 
 
 lire. 
 
 ecrire 
 
 me lever. 
 
 prendre le livre 
 
 sortir 
 
 partir. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 
 
 181 
 
 J'ai mon livre 
 mon crayon 
 mon papier 
 mon cahier 
 ma plume 
 
 Je mets le livre sur 
 
 devant moi. 
 
 le pupitre 
 la chaise, 
 le plancher. 
 la table, 
 les genoux. 
 le cahier. 
 
 Je vais 
 
 k la porte. 
 a la fenetre. 
 au pupitre. 
 au coin. 
 k la table. 
 k Londres. 
 en France. 
 k la gare. 
 
 Je mets la craie 
 
 Je 
 
 dois 
 
 veux 
 
 peux 
 
 ne dois pas 
 
 ne veux pas 
 
 ne peux pas 
 
 devrais 
 
 voudrais 
 
 pourrais 
 
 dans la boite. 
 
 sur 
 
 devant 
 
 derri^re 
 
 k c6t6 de 
 
 pr^s de 
 
 loin de 
 
 sous 
 
 apprendre ces phrases tout de suite. 
 
182 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Je dois apprendre ces phrases 
 
 tout de suite. 
 
 maintenant. 
 
 ce soir. 
 
 demain. 
 
 samedi. 
 
 pour lundi. 
 
 la semaine prochaine. 
 
 Je 
 
 la donne 
 la passe 
 la prete 
 I'envoie 
 
 au professeur. 
 
 J'^cris quelque chose au tableau, 
 mon nom 
 un mot 
 une phrase 
 des mots 
 des noms 
 
 Needless to say, every table will first be presented and studied 
 in the phonetic transcript with as few graphic separations as 
 possible. 
 
 These and other tables will be developed progressively into 
 their compound form : 
 
 Je ne peux pas 
 
 venir ici 
 
 demain 
 
 Je ne dois pas 
 
 aller 1^ 
 
 lundi 
 
 Je ne veux pas 
 
 rester ici 
 
 la semaine prochaine 
 
 Vous ne pouvez pas 
 
 le faire 
 
 le mois prochain 
 
 Voulez-vous 
 
 r avoir 
 
 I'annee prochaine 
 
 Faut-il 
 
 le voir 
 
 mardi 
 
 11 ne faut pas 
 
 parler 
 
 maintenant 
 
 11 faut 
 
 le dire 
 
 aujourd'hui 
 
 11 vaudrait mieux 
 
 sortir 
 
 a deux heures 
 
 11 est difficile de 
 
 partir 
 
 samedi prochain 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 
 
 183 
 
 Je mets 
 
 mon 
 
 livre 
 
 sur 
 
 le pupitre 
 
 Je vols 
 
 son 
 
 crayon 
 
 devant 
 
 la table 
 
 Je laisse 
 
 votre 
 
 cahier 
 
 derriere 
 
 la chaise 
 
 
 notre 
 
 papier 
 
 
 la boite 
 
 
 leur 
 
 timbre 
 
 
 Tarmoire 
 
 
 le 
 
 
 
 
 
 un 
 
 
 
 
 Je dis que ^ 
 
 je suis 
 
 ici 
 
 11 dit que 
 
 tu es 
 
 la 
 
 Dites-moi si ^ 
 
 il est 
 
 chez moi 
 
 Savez-vous si 
 
 nous sommes 
 
 a Londres 
 
 Je ne sais pas si 
 
 vous etes 
 
 en Angleterre 
 
 11 pense que 
 
 ils sont 
 
 en France 
 
 Voila pourquoi 
 
 
 fatigue(s) 
 
 Vous voyez que 
 
 
 pret(s) 
 
 11 ne savent pas que 
 
 
 occupe(s) 
 
 Personne ne sait que 
 
 
 content(s) 
 
 Exercises of various kinds based on these tables will be given 
 as homework, specimens of which are included in the list of 
 exercises figuring in the next section. 
 
 Exercises in Material Association 
 
 Concurrently with the various lessons and exercises which we 
 have briefly sketched out, the names of all available objects 
 may be taught by material association. These will include 
 the parts of the room ; the various pieces of furniture, etc. ; 
 parts of the body ; articles of clothing ; small objects, including 
 those to be found in the average pocket. 
 
 Qu'est-ce que c'est ? 
 
 99 
 
 
 C'est la main. 
 ,, la tete. 
 ,, le bras. 
 
 ^ At an appropriate moment the pupils will learn, once for all, the various 
 rules of elision (^w' for (/7/e, s' for si, etc.). 
 
184 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Qu'est-ce que c'est ? 
 
 Etc. 
 
 C*est la bouche, 
 „ la poitrine. 
 Ce sont les mains. 
 ,, les bras. 
 ,, les doigts. 
 ,, les jambes. 
 Etc. 
 
 A large number of verbs, indicating concrete actions, may be 
 taught in the same way. 
 
 Qu'est-ce que je fais ? Vous touchez la chaise. 
 
 levez 
 portez 
 renversez 
 ramassez 
 regardez 
 tenez 
 
 Certain more or less material adjectives may be treated : 
 Quelle est la couleur de ce livre-ci ? II est blanc. 
 
 >» 
 
 >' 
 
 9* 
 
 J> 
 
 »> 
 
 >» 
 
 >» 
 
 noir. 
 
 5> 55 
 
 „ „ rouge. 
 
 55 55 
 
 55 55 
 
 vert. 
 
 Le plafond est-il haut ou bas ? 
 
 La classe est-elle grande ou petite ? 
 
 Le livre est-il grand ou petit ? 
 
 La fenetre est-elle chaude ou froide ? 
 
 jaune 
 II est haut. 
 Elle est grande. 
 II est petit. 
 Elle est froide. 
 
 Etc. 
 
 Many of these groups fall more or less into the classes of 
 exercises already treated — subconscious comprehension, sub- 
 stitution tables, questionnaire, etc. The distinguishing feature, 
 however, should be the fact that each word is consciously and 
 materially associated with some object, action, or quality. 
 
 Systematic Conjugation Exercises 
 
 On one of the first pages of a book of which the above would 
 be a suitable title will be found a series of sentences similar to 
 the following : 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 185 
 
 1. Je suis pret a commencer. 
 
 2. J'ecoute le professeur. 
 
 3. Je comprends ce que j'entends. 
 
 4. J'ai mon livre devant moi. 
 
 5. Je sais ce que je dois faire. 
 
 6. Je prends le livre {or Je le prends). 
 
 7. Je commence a le lire. 
 
 8. Je finis de le lire. 
 
 9. Je le mets sur le pupitre. 
 
 10. Je me leve. 
 
 11. Je marche. 
 
 12. Je m'arrete. 
 
 13. Je vais a la porte. 
 
 14. J'ouvre la porte (La porte s'ouvre). 
 
 15. Je ferme la porte (La porte se ferme). 
 
 16. Je sors de la classe. 
 
 17. J'entre dans la classe. 
 
 18. Je viens au pupitre du professeur. 
 
 19. Je monte sur I'estrade. 
 
 20. Je re9ois la craie. 
 
 21. Je la tiens dans la main droite. 
 
 22. J'ecris quelque chose au tableau. 
 
 23. Je lis ce que j'ai ecrit. 
 
 24. Je I'efface. 
 
 25. Je descends de I'estrade. 
 
 26. Je laisse tomber la craie. 
 
 27. Je la remasse. 
 
 28. Je la donne au professeur. 
 
 29. Je retourne a ma place. 
 
 30. Je m'assieds. 
 
 31. Je dois apprendre ces phrases tout de suite. 
 
 They will, however, appear in phonetic script and without 
 any separation between the words. The transcription will be 
 that of the most rapid speech. 
 
 1. 3sqipreakDma'se. 
 
 2. 3ekutl3prDfe'soe:r. 
 
 3. 5k5prask33a'ta. Etc. 
 
186 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 All of these sentences may already have been eatenized during 
 the preliminary stage in the form of fluency practice. 
 
 The integral English translation will appear on the opposite 
 page ; the orthographic script will be given in another part 
 of the book. 
 
 The page inmiediately preceding will contain the same series 
 of sentences but in the interrogative form : 
 
 1. extvupreakoma'se ? 
 
 2. ekutevulprDfs'soeir ? 
 
 3. kopranevuskavuzata'de ? Etc. 
 
 The first lesson will be carried out somewhat on the following 
 lines : 
 
 " Pronounce after me [ssqipreakoma'se], 
 
 [The pupils do so.] 
 
 " That means 1 am ready to begin. Are you ready to begin ? 
 
 [One or more pupils will answer affirmatively.] 
 
 " Very well, then, tell me in French that you are ready to 
 begin. . . . 
 
 [Addressing a particular pupil] : " What does that mean ? 
 . . . Yes, it means / am ready to begin. Now I am going to 
 ask you in French whether you are ready to begin. WTien I 
 do so, each of you must answer in French, [sitvupreakomu'se] ? 
 
 [The pupils answer " [5Si{ipreakDma'se]." 
 
 " Yes, that's very good. You probably know the French 
 word equivalent to the word yes . . . oui, that's right. Well, 
 put that word in front of the sentence. Now then, again : 
 [extvupreakDma'se] ? " 
 
 The pupils answer : " [wi, ssqipreakDma'se]." 
 
 And so on for the first five sentences. At the sixth sentence, 
 ** I shall now ask you whether you are taking your books. 
 You will answer [wi, 3pram5'li:vr], and in order that your 
 answer may be true you will take the book which is lying 
 before each of you. [eskavupranevDt'liivr] ?" 
 
 The pupils take their books and answer : " [wi, 5pram5'li:vr]." 
 
 The questions and answers may be gone over several times, 
 sometimes with the class collectively and sometimes with 
 individual pupils. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAIMME 187 
 
 " I want you to pay particular attention to the way I ask the 
 questions, because to-morrow I shall want some of you to take 
 my place and ask me the questions instead. You will find all 
 the questions on page . . . Your work for to-night will be 
 to learn the first nine questions and their meanings." 
 
 The whole of the thirty-one sentences will be treated in this 
 manner. After one or two lessons the interrogative will be 
 replaced by some form of command, preference being given to 
 some infinitive form : 
 
 1. II faut maintenant etre pr^t a conamencer. 
 
 2. H faut ecouter le professeur. Etc. 
 
 Some of the brightest pupils will be invited to take the 
 teacher's place and ask the questions (or give the commands). 
 
 The book containing these conjugation exercises will give on 
 successive pages all or most of the conjugational variations of 
 each one of the sentences, one series per page. 
 
 At a subsequent lesson, some weeks later, the procedure will 
 have reached the following stage : 
 
 " You, A, will give the orders to B, C, and D. You, B, will 
 refuse to execute the order ; you, C, will be obedient and do 
 what you are told to do and will tell me what you are doing. 
 You, D, will also do what you are told, and will tell me what C 
 and you are doing. E, you will tell me what C is doing. F, 
 you will tell me what C and D are doing. G, you will tell me 
 that you haven't to do the action. H, you will tell me that you 
 are not doing the action, but that you will do it to-morrow. 
 I, you will ask J whether you are to perform the action, and you, 
 J, will tell him that he mustn't. You, K, will tell me that you 
 would do it if you had to." Etc., etc. 
 
 " Now, are you ready ? Start at sentence ten." 
 
 A. " Levez-vous ! " 
 
 B. " Je ne veux pas me lever ! " 
 
 C. "Jemel^ve." 
 
 D. '' Nous nous levons." 
 
 E. " II se l^ve " (or " C se l^ve."). 
 
 F. '' lis se Invent " (or " C et D se levent "). 
 
188 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 G. " Je ne dois pas me lever." 
 H. " Je me l^verai demain." 
 
 I. " Faut-il me lever ? " 
 
 J. " Oui, il faut vous lever." 
 K. " Je me leverais si je devais le faire." 
 
 At a later stage the terminology will be inculcated some- 
 what in the following manner : 
 
 " We will go through some of the actions again. Let me see, 
 who's taking the part of the present tense, first person singular? " 
 
 " I am, sir." 
 
 " Very well, stand up. All the present tenses stand up. . . . 
 You're a present tense, aren't you ? Stand up, then. Which 
 person are you ? Third person singular. All right." 
 
 '' Please, am I to stand up ? I'm the present tense negative." 
 
 " No, I shan't want you for a moment. Now you six, we will 
 take the verb marcher. Conjugate ! " 
 
 I'pil No. 
 
 1. 
 
 '' Je marche." 
 
 
 2. 
 
 " Tu marches." 
 
 
 3. 
 
 " 11 marche." 
 
 
 4. 
 
 " Nous marchons." 
 
 
 5. 
 
 " Vous marchez." 
 
 
 6. 
 
 " lis marchent." 
 
 " Now the verb aller.^^ 
 
 Pupil No. 1. " Je vais a la porte." 
 
 „ 2. " Tu vas a la porte." 
 
 „ 3. " II va a la porte." 
 
 „ 4. " Nous allons a la porte." 
 
 „ 5. " Vous allez a la porte." 
 
 „ 6. " lis vont a la porte." 
 And so on with several verbs. 
 
 '' Now then, infinitives, get ready. Stand up. Why aren't 
 you standing up, M ? " 
 
 " Please, sir, I'm not an infinitive ; I'm the past participle." 
 *' All right, past participle, you'll come on presently. You, 
 infinitive, over there, you were talking. What's your con- 
 comitant ? " 
 
 "II ne faut pas." 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 189 
 
 " Well, you will bring me to-morrow three copies of the 
 present tense of Je ne dots pas parler pendant la legon. Now 
 then, infinitives, let me hear your lines ; we will take as an 
 example the verb se lever. ^^ 
 
 Pupil No. 16. " Je ne veux pas me lever." 
 
 17. " Voulez-vous vous lever ? " 
 
 18. " II ne faut pas vous lever." 
 
 19. " Je voudrais me lever." 
 
 20. 'Taut-il me lever?" 
 
 21. " Vous pouvez vous lever." 
 
 22. " II est difficile de se lever." 
 
 23. " II vaudrait mieux se lever." 
 And so on with several verbs. 
 
 *' Past participles, stand up. Are you a complete tense ? " 
 
 '' No, sir." 
 
 " What do you want to make a complete tense ? " 
 
 *' A past participle concomitant." 
 
 " What are the past participle concomitants in French ? " 
 
 " The two auxiliaries, avoir and e^re." 
 
 " Do you know when to use one or the other ? " 
 
 " I think I do, sir." 
 
 '' Give me some examples of the use oietre, then." 
 
 " Je suis venu, Je suis alle, Je me suis leve, Je suis retourne, 
 Je me suis assis."*^ 
 
 " What is the name of that tense ? " 
 
 '' The passe indefini." 
 
 " You said just now Je me suis assis. What does that mean ? " 
 
 " It means / sat down.^^ 
 
 " Do all French people say Je me suis assis ? " 
 
 " No, sir ; ladies say Je me suis assise. ^^ 
 
 " What do we call the change from assis to assise ? " 
 
 " Agreement, sir." 
 
 [To the whole class:] "Levez-vous! . . . Qu'avez- vous fait?" 
 
 " Nous nous sommes leves." 
 
 " Asseyez-vous ! Qu'avez-vous fait ? " 
 
 " Nous nous sommes assis." 
 
 '' And if you were girls instead of boys, what would you 
 answer ? " 
 
190 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 " Nous nous sommes assises." 
 
 " And if this were a mixed class of girls and boys ? " 
 
 " Nous nous sommes assis." 
 
 " Infinitive M, the imperative affirmative, the past participle, 
 the present tense second person singular, stand up. Repeat 
 the word you represent for the verb donner.^* 
 
 The infinitive : " [done]." 
 
 The imperative affirmative : " [done]." 
 
 The past participle : " [done]." 
 
 The present tense, second person plural : " [done]." 
 
 " But that's the same word ! Do you mean to tell me that 
 each of you have to say [done] ? " 
 
 A pupil : " It happens to be the same in this case, sir." 
 
 " Let's try another verb. We'll take the French equivalent 
 for to open.'' 
 
 The infinitive : " [uvriir]." 
 
 The imperative affirmative : *' [uvre]." 
 
 The past participle : " [uveir]." 
 
 The present tense, second person plural : " [uvre]." 
 
 And so on, eliciting one after another the various terms 
 considered necessary for the understanding of French granmiar. 
 
 The Ergonic Chart ' 
 
 Shortly after the beginning of the secondary stage the Ergonic 
 Chart will be introduced and gradually developed. A primitive 
 chart may consist of a blackboard reserved specially for this 
 purpose, a number of small squares of card, and a supply of 
 drawing-pins. A more ambitious apparatus may be devised 
 of stout straw-boards neatly covered with black paper and 
 provided with grooved ledges, pegs, and holes. 
 
 The various lexicological units will be written in fairly large 
 letters on small cards or slips of paper. 
 
 At the first lesson in which this branch of the programme is 
 treated a few simple sentences will be chosen from among those 
 already forming part of the pupil's stock. 
 
 The pupils will be invited to write words on slips and to come 
 
 ' See Appendix I. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 191 
 
 and attach them to the blackboard. The nature of the various 
 ergonic classes will be introduced, explained, combined, and 
 analysed. 
 
 As time goes on this rough synoptic table or scheme of ' visible 
 grammar ' will be developed slowly but surely. Each new 
 abstract fact will become spatialized, concretized, and readily 
 assimilated even by those who have hitherto seemed incapable 
 of grasping the most elementary knowledge of the mechanism 
 of speech. 
 
 Just as we designed various exercises to develop the auditive 
 faculties, so will our ergonic chart strengthen and encourage the 
 capacities of visualization. 
 
 The various lessons given in front of the ergonic chart will 
 treat of the function of each of the parts of speech, the mechan- 
 ism of the French system of inversion, the mechanism of the 
 verb, and the verbal inflexions. The various phenomena con- 
 nected with the interrogative and negative forms, modification 
 by adjectives and adverbs of degree will all be shown so 
 clearly that the learning of ' rules and exceptions ' will be 
 dispensed with and superseded by direct and spatialized 
 understanding. 
 
 Living Ergonics 
 
 In a type of work which we may designate by the above title 
 the pupils themselves take the place of the slips or cards, and 
 the schoolroom floor serves as a background for the ergonic 
 chart. 
 
 The following arrangement and general method of working 
 will be found suitable for a class of about twenty pupils : 
 
 Pupil No. Role Type-unit 
 
 1. 
 
 Subject 
 
 je 
 
 2. 
 
 Negative 
 
 ne 
 
 3. 
 
 Imperative (second person) 
 
 pre7iez 
 
 4. 
 
 Present 
 
 prends 
 
 5. 
 
 Imperfect 
 
 prenais 
 
 6. 
 
 Future 
 
 prendrai 
 
 7. 
 
 Conditional 
 
 prendrais 
 
192 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Pupil No. Role Type-unit 
 
 8. Past participle concomi- ai (or suis) 
 
 tant 
 
 9. Infinitive concomitant peux 
 
 10. Adverbs pas, toujours 
 
 11. Past participle pris 
 
 12. Infinitive prendre 
 
 18. Direct object le lime (or le) 
 
 14. Indirect object au professeur (or lui) 
 
 15. Subjective complement blanc 
 
 16. Place id 
 
 17. Duration pendant deux heures 
 
 18. Manner lenteinent 
 
 19. Time maintenant 
 
 Later on it will be well to appoint one of the pupils as repre- 
 sentative of such units as Est-ce que, Je pense que, Ilfaut que, 
 etc. If the number of pupils is in excess of the number we 
 have mentioned, minor roles (such as adverbs of degree) can 
 be created, or certain parts may be doubled by understudies. 
 
 The pupils should be taught to ' fall in ' in the manner 
 illustrated on opposite page.^ 
 
 Each pupil should learn his ergonic name and be instructed in 
 his part. During the first two lessons the parts should be con- 
 fined as far as possible to the type units. Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 
 and 13, however, must be prepared to produce their respective 
 tenses (first person singular) of prendre (for use with the direct 
 object), venir (for use with the place complement), do?iner (for 
 use with the indirect object), attendre (for use with the duration 
 complement), and etre (for use with the subjective complement). 
 
 The Subject will be told that he occupies the first place in 
 the sentence except in cases of inversion. He must also be told 
 to ' fall out ' whenever the Imperative is present. 
 
 The Imperative will be told that he can only be preceded 
 by n£. 
 
 The Present, Imperfect, Future, and Conditional will be told 
 that they are the Simple Tenses and must stand to the left of 
 
 ^ The pupils are presumed to be facing the left of the diagram. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 193 
 
 the Subject except in cases of inversion, when they will change 
 places with the Subject. 
 
 © 
 ® 
 ®@®®Q)®® 
 
 @ 
 
 @ 
 
 
 The Past Participle Concomitant will be told that he can 
 never appear without the Past Participle, who will generally 
 stand next to him on the left, but who may be separated from 
 
 N 
 
194 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 him by pas and other adverbs (10). He will also be told 
 when to take the form of ai or of suis. 
 
 The Past Participle will be shown his place. 
 
 The last two pupils will be told that they form together the 
 Past Indefinite Tense. 
 
 ^ Similar instructions will be given to the Infinitive Concomitant 
 and the Infinitive. 
 
 Ne will be told that his place is on the right of the Imperative, 
 Present, Imperfect, Future, and Conditional Tenses, and of the 
 two Concomitants. 
 
 Pas will be instructed to take up his position on the left of 
 the above tenses. 
 
 The Direct Object must be mstructed that his place is 
 normally to the left of the verb, from which he can only be 
 separated by pas and other adverbs. If he should repre- 
 sent a personal pronoun, however, he must stand to the right 
 of the Simple Tenses and of the Past Participle Concomitant, 
 but between the Infinitive Concomitant and the Infinitive. He 
 will also be told to change places with the Indirect Object when 
 the latter is represented by me, te, se, or vous. 
 
 The Indirect Object will be given similar instruc- 
 tions. 
 
 The other pupils will learn their respective positions and 
 duties. 
 
 Obviously the whole of the class must pay attention to all 
 these instructions, and each individual will be expected after 
 a few lessons not only to be expert in his own part, but to 
 be fairly well acquainted with the parts played by the other 
 members. 
 
 A special exercise -book in which all the instructions will be 
 noted should be compiled by each pupil. One page (at least) 
 will be reserved for each ergonic part. The following is a 
 characteristic specimen of one of the pages : 
 
 John Smith. Infinitive Concomitant 
 
 Type-unit : peux. 
 
 Conjugation of same : peux, peux, pent, pouvons, pouvez, 
 
 peuvent. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAIVIME 195 
 
 Place : On the left of Subject. May be separated from 
 Subject by ne, by Direct Object (when a personal 
 pronoun), and by Indirect Object (when a personal 
 pronoun). 
 Changes places with Subject in case of inversion. 
 On the right of Infinitive. May be separated from 
 Infinitive by jxis. Direct Object (when a personal 
 pronoun), and Indirect Object (when a personal 
 pronoun). 
 Most frequent units : dois, dois, doit, devons, devez, doivent. 
 
 veux, veux, veut, voulons, voulez, veulent. 
 faut. 
 
 espere, esperes, espere, esperons, esperez, 
 esperent. 
 
 Specimen Lesson 
 
 " Subject, Present, Direct Complement, Time Complement, 
 take your places ! " 
 
 [They do so.] 
 
 " Each pupil will recite his unit." 
 
 " Je — prends — le livre — maintenanV^ 
 
 " The whole class will repeat Je prends le livre mainienanty 
 
 [They do so.] 
 
 '' What does that mean ? " 
 
 " / take the hook now, or / am taking the book now^ 
 
 " Very well. Negatives, take your places." 
 
 " Each pupil will recite his unit." 
 
 " Je — ne — prends — pas — le lime — maintenant.^^ 
 
 " Negatives, dismiss ! " 
 
 [Addressing the Direct Complement :] " What part are you 
 taking ? " 
 
 " Direct Complement, sir." 
 
 " Very well. Do you know by what other name you are 
 known ? " 
 
 '' Yes, sir ; Direct Object." 
 
 " That's right. Are you a noun or a pronoun at 
 present ? " 
 
 '' A noun, sir." 
 
196 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 " Well, I now want you to represent the pronoun Z^." 
 
 [Direct Complement passes behind Present Tense and takes 
 his place on the other side.] 
 
 " Each pupil will recite his unit ! " 
 
 ' ' Je — le — prends — maintenant. ' ' 
 
 '* Negatives, take your places ! " 
 
 " Each pupil will recite his unit." 
 
 " Je — ne — le — prends — pas — maintenanV^ 
 
 " Negatives, dismiss ! Present Tense, dismiss ! Fall in, 
 Future ! " 
 
 " Each pupil will recite his unit." 
 
 " Je — le — prendrai — maintenant^ 
 
 " Dismiss ! " 
 
 '' Form the following sentence : Je peux venir id demain.^^ 
 
 " Each pupil will recite his unit." 
 
 " The whole class repeat Je pence venir ici demain.^^ 
 
 '' Negatives, take your places." 
 
 " Each pupil will recite his unit." 
 
 " The whole class repeat Je ne peux pas venir ici 
 demain.'*^ 
 
 " Dismiss ! " 
 
 " Form the French equivalent of the sentence / did not give 
 it to him yesterday. 
 
 " That's right. Subject, extreme right as usual. What are 
 you doing here, Imperfect ? This sentence does not concern 
 you ; go back to your place. Now, then. Past Participle, we 
 are waiting for you. Direct and Indirect Complements, what 
 are you running round each other for ? Direct to the right and 
 Indirect to the left. Ne, a little more to the right. Direct 
 and Indirect Complements have to stand between you and the 
 Past Participle Concomitant. In order now ? Each pupil will 
 recite his unit." 
 
 " The whole class will recite the sentence Je ne le lui ai pas 
 donnd.'^ 
 
 " That wasn't very smart ; we must go over that again. 
 Dismiss ! Once again ; the French equivalent of / did not give 
 it to him.^^ 
 
 Etc., etc. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 197 
 
 The Script 
 
 The introduction of the orthographic script should be post- 
 poned as long as possible. Were the phonetic script merely an 
 instrument to ensure a normal pronunciation it might be dis- 
 pensed with as soon as habits of normal pronunciation had been 
 acquired. But seeing that the phonetic aspect of language has 
 an importance apart from questions of pronunciation, that many 
 problems connected with the mechanism of the language can 
 only be adequately understood by studying the true base of all 
 linguistic phenomena, the sounds the introduction of the con- 
 ventional spelling system should be delayed as long as possible 
 — the longer the better. We would suggest that a minimum of 
 two years should be accorded to the exclusive use of the phonetic 
 transcription. 
 
 The traditional spelling requires no particular period of 
 transition ; we have data proving conclusively that the pupil 
 who has been trained by the use of phonetic symbols, all other 
 things being equal, is a better speller than the one who has 
 not enjoyed the advantages of such a training. It will be 
 found that when the more important lexicological units of a 
 given language have been assimilated, the orthographic form 
 of such units is acquired by the spontaneous or automatic 
 process. 
 
 The pupils themselves will soon discover the essential 
 facts of orthoepy ; they will soon perceive that [y] is 
 almost invariably written in French by means of the letter 
 u, etc., etc. 
 
 The introduction of the traditional spelling may be the signal 
 for a general recapitulation of all past work. It may take the 
 form of exercises in which the phonetic is to be converted into 
 the orthographic text, and vice versa. 
 
 Much can be done by a series of guessing competitions. We 
 write on the blackboard various words and sentences, and ask 
 the pupils to guess for what words they stand, or we devise home- 
 work to the same effect. 
 
 " Take care of the phonetics and the spelling will take care 
 of itself" is a true saying and worthy of all respect. 
 
198 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Section 24.— The third or advanced stage, of the duration of from one 
 to three years, will complete the scholastic training of the pupil. 
 It will consist of : 
 
 (a) Subconscious work (rapid reading, mental and oral; 
 
 hstening to talks, stories, and lectures). 
 
 (b) Free composition (descriptions of objects, pictures, and 
 
 events). 
 
 (c) Free translation (French into Enghsh and English into 
 
 French). 
 {d) Conversation. 
 (e) Systematic study of texts. 
 
 Under ideal conditions, the third or advanced stage will 
 commence at the moment that the previous efforts of the 
 student have enabled him to understand the greater part of 
 what he hears and reads, and to express in a simple manner and 
 with a relative freedom from error by the oral and written 
 mediums about 75 per cent, of the matter contained in the 
 ordinary everyday speech of the average person. 
 
 This 75 per cent, of matter consists of the relatively small 
 number of units contained in the microcosm ; the 25 per cent, 
 which remains consists of the residue of the language, the mass 
 of the vocabulary, the infinite number of ergonic combinations 
 of all degrees. 
 
 The study of a language is never-ending ; no one can claim to 
 have a perfect knowledge even of his own language after a life- 
 time of intensive study. All that one can hope to do is to acquire 
 the faculty of converting thoughts into lexicological units, and 
 vice versa, to such a degree that the attendant problems and 
 difficulties are reduced to a practical minimum. 
 
 Tlie ideal programme starts at a fixed point : that at which 
 our knowledge of the foreign language stands at zero. The 
 ideal programme has no concluding point ; it continues through- 
 out the lifetime of the student ; every conversation in which he 
 participates, every lecture of which he is an auditor, every book 
 of which he is a reader, and every composition of which he is the 
 author advances him on his way. 
 
 To determine the point at which the scholastic or tutorial 
 study should be replaced by those types of study which consist 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 199 
 
 of the using of the language in social intercourse, and the apply- 
 ing of language to intellectual ends would be but an arbitrary 
 proceeding, and we shall not attempt it. 
 
 Nor do we propose to give in any detail any precise indica- 
 tions as to the manner in which the last section of the scholastic 
 programme is to be carried out by teacher and by student. If 
 the conclusions that we have so far reached are sound, and if 
 the two stages so far described have been traversed in accord- 
 ance with the principles already indicated, and in the manner 
 which will be fully described in the later sections of this book, 
 there will be little or no need to dwell at any length on the 
 problems of the advanced stage. 
 
 Nor need we postulate any special process of transition. 
 When the student has reached the point which is the signal 
 for his entry into the third stage, he will be able to plunge 
 straight into this without any further preliminary work. 
 
 If the first and second stages have been conscientiously treated 
 by an expert method-maker, a competent teacher, and an 
 average student, the third stage will take care of itself. 
 
 Starting this stage imder the same happy auspices that 
 marked the entry into the second, but increased in a tenfold 
 degree, the student will henceforth progress with the same ease 
 and rapidity as if the language were his mother tongue. The 
 pupil's working power will have been fostered and cultivated. 
 Everything that he has learnt has been designed not only to 
 increase his linguistic knowledge, but also to increase his power 
 of acquiring further knowledge. The daily investments made 
 during the earlier periods have long since been yielding, and will 
 continue to yield, compound interest, the rate of progress will 
 continue on the same scale, and little by little the artificial 
 element of study will give way to the natural and spontaneous 
 course of study with all its stimulus and incentive. 
 
 The first two stages are necessarily and essentially of an 
 artificial character. Except for the daily exercises in subcon- 
 scious comprehension, the student does not work on the lines 
 of a young child in the earliest period of his study of his native 
 language. Arrived, however, at the end of the second stage, 
 the student is more or less in the same position as the child at 
 
200 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 a later stage, and commences to enjoy all the advantages and 
 facilities of the process of spontaneous and natural assimilation. 
 
 In order better to realize the differences and resemblances 
 between the natural programme pursued when learning our own 
 native language and the semi-artificial programme which it is 
 the main object of this book to describe, we may aptly form an 
 analogy between this subject and that concerning the growth 
 of plants. 
 
 In the state of nature there is neither garden nor gardener ; 
 there is no hot -house, no watering-can, neither spade nor rake, 
 nor any of those artificial appliances considered indispensable 
 by the horticulturist. 
 
 The flower blooms and engenders seed ; the seed may germi- 
 nate, form a root, send up a stem, and finally develop into a hardy 
 and worthy representative of its family. This is the natural 
 method in all its simplicity. 
 
 The gardener wishes the phenomena of growth to be mani- 
 fested at a given time and in a given place. Were he to take 
 the seed, to treat it with chemicals in a laboratory, to tend it 
 with a thermometer, with X-, N-, and Z-rays, and with doses of 
 electrical energy, he would not be submitting the plant to the 
 natural method of growth. The results might be satisfactory ; 
 perhaps one day some artificial method may supersede the 
 other, but up to the time of writing these methods are not 
 current among gardeners. 
 
 Does he then adopt the other extreme and leave the raising 
 of plants to unaided nature ? Is he a passive spectator of the 
 chance fall of the seed, of its chance germination aided by 
 chance showers ? Does he not rather tend the soil with nitrates 
 and garden tools ? Does he not place the seed into the ground 
 at a given and predetermined depth at a predetermined period 
 of the year ? Does he not ensure the future development by 
 means of scarecrows, soot, lime, and weed-killers ? Does he not 
 subsequently prick out the embryonic plant, bind its fragile 
 stem to a support, water it during the drought, and encourage 
 it with a glass bell ? 
 
 All these proceedings are of an artificial nature in that they 
 differ in kind and degree from those of Mother Nature. And 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 201 
 
 yet, in so far that each one of these proceedings is an intense 
 application of the methods of nature, such proceedings may 
 be termed natural in a somewhat quahfied acceptation of the 
 term. 
 
 But when the prehminary stage of soil preparation has been 
 accomplished, and when the plant has attained the proportions 
 of a hardy microcosm of its future self, the gardener may leave 
 the plant to nature during the residuary stage and nature will 
 do the rest. 
 
 The gardener has exercised all his arts in order to ensure a 
 successful passage through the critical stage ; he has curbed 
 the vicious tendencies and has supplied the right food at the 
 right time. The plant can now take care of itself, find its own 
 food, or be prepared to fast. 
 
 Such is the not inapt analogy that we would suggest between 
 the respective developments of that concrete organism called a 
 plant and that abstract organism which is the lexicological 
 stock contained in the brain of a student. 
 
 In both cases the development may be carried out by the 
 unaided processes of nature ; in both cases this development 
 may conceivably be forced by purely artificial means, and in 
 both cases this development may be brought about by a wise 
 and intense application of natural methods in a semi-artificial 
 manner during a certain period, after which nature unaided 
 accomplishes the rest. 
 
 To leave too little to nature and to expect too much from 
 nature are both errors ; to determine to what extent conscious 
 intervention and artificial aid may be judicious or essential is 
 an important function both of the gardener and of the language- 
 teacher. 
 
 The reader would perhaps wish to push the analogy still 
 farther. He may suggest that the adult plant still requires the 
 attention of the expert gardeners ; that there must be pruning 
 and training, constant supervision and ever-present care. He 
 may suggest that the analogy points to similar activities on the 
 part of the teacher even in the third stage. 
 
 It is dangerous to push an analogy too far ; in this case there 
 is a dijfSrence sensible between the development of a concrete 
 
202 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 vegetable organism and an abstract organism which is nothing 
 more nor less than a given quantity of lexicological material in 
 the brain of a language-learner. ^ 
 
 (Let it be carefully noted here that we are not forming an 
 analogy between a seed and a person, nor between a seed and 
 a lexicological unit.) 
 
 In one case the developed product will be a concrete mass of 
 vegetable matter ; in the other it will be the faculty of using 
 a mass of lexicological or thought-interpreting matter. 
 
 The ultimate destiny of the plant is to produce leaves, flowers, 
 fruits, and the seeds of the next generation, whereas in the other 
 case the faculty of using the lexicological units is an end in 
 itself. 
 
 We agree that this faculty may also be a means to a further 
 end : the production and appreciation of literary work ; but this 
 has little or nothing in common with the teaching or learning 
 of a foreign language. The subject of our inquiry and the title 
 of this book is the scientific study of languages ; we trust that 
 none will expect us to include considerations concerning the 
 scientific production and the scientific appreciation of literature ! 
 
 The third stage is intended to enable the student to become 
 acquainted with, and eventually to be able to use, the vast mass 
 of the vocabulary. The microcosm is the framework containing 
 innumerable cells called ergonic categories ; each of these cells 
 contains a little, and a very little, matter ; during the residuary 
 stage these cells will become filled with the rich lexicological 
 matter of the language, new cells will be formed in turn to be 
 filled, and the term foreign language will gradually become a 
 misnomer, for it will become transformed into a second native 
 language existing side by side and on intimate terms of amity 
 with the other. 
 
 The third stage will give to the student neither a good pro- 
 nunciation nor fluency, for the obvious reason that long before 
 entering this stage he will possess both. The good pronuncia- 
 tion will have been acquired as early as the first period, and one 
 of the chief objects of the second period was to ensure perfect 
 fluency both of expression and of understanding. 
 
 The good habits formed during the first periods should bear 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 208 
 
 fruit during the whole period of subsequent study. Care, how- 
 ever, must be exercised in order to prevent any relapse or giving 
 way to the vicious tendencies. Should any serious outbreak of 
 these occur, the student must at once be subjected to an inten- 
 sive special treatment in order to stamp out the incipient per- 
 nicious habit. Various ailments and their cures are cited in 
 the part devoted to " Special Programmes " (Section 28). 
 
 When necessary, we must inculcate the principles of study, 
 warn the student against an exaggerated use of his synthetic 
 faculties, and drive home the precept that by imitation alone are 
 languages learnt. 
 
 Let us occasionally ask the pupil to quote some of the latest 
 acquisitions to his lexicological stock ; let him answer the 
 question : " What word or combination of words have you 
 particularly noticed during this last week's work, and which of 
 them have you incorporated into your nucleus of lexicological 
 units ? " 
 
 Presuming that the student has managed to keep clear of the 
 vicious tendencies, and that quality has been, and is being, main- 
 tained, what is solely required during the final period is quantity. 
 
 To this effect the student must read books and listen to speech 
 in order to enrich his vocabulary, and must speak and write in 
 order to use the material so acquired. 
 
 In this connexion let us bear in mind the dictum that " Read- 
 ing maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an 
 exact man." 
 
 The vocabulary of our native language increases by the con- 
 tinual growing of the well-formed nucleus. The microcosm of 
 the second stage forms the nucleus to which the matter of the 
 advanced stage will naturally gravitate and in which it will 
 become absorbed. The symmetrical and continual enlarge- 
 ment of a well-formed nucleus is the formula of the snowball, 
 and also of our * advanced stage.' 
 
 This third stage is undifferentiated, if by non-differentiation 
 we mean the simultaneous absorption of all the aspects of each 
 new unit or of groups of new units. 
 
 Although undifferentiated, there is no reason why it should 
 not be graduated, especially at the beginning. Not that we 
 
204 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 would subdivide this stage in a rigid manner into a series of 
 sub-stages each of which is to be preparatory to the next. 
 
 What we would imply is that the first texts to be studied 
 and our first conversations should be relatively simple ; that 
 now, as before, the more frequent should have a preference 
 over the less frequent units, and that modern colloquial should 
 still preponderate over the archaic and literary forms of ex- 
 pression. 
 
 The charm and quaintness of old-fashioned or unusual forms 
 of expression is solely due to the fact that they are not those of 
 current everyday speech, and in order to appreciate the aesthetic 
 value of such forms a sound knowledge of the everyday idiom 
 is essential. Were the language of Gray's Elegy the language 
 of everyday speech, and did we express the banalities of daily 
 life by means of lexicological units such as those to be found in 
 Hamlet's Soliloquy, the greater part of their charms would be 
 lost. 
 
 When for some cause or other an old-fashioned phrase with 
 a literary flavour comes back from the grave and is used in 
 colloquial and vulgar speech, how rapidly it loses its charm I 
 " What ho, there, ye base varlets ! " was once a delightfully 
 old-fashioned gem of diction. Comedians and costermongers 
 have reduced it to the level of a vulgarism. 
 
 Thou, thee, thy, and thine are English archaisms ; they conse- 
 quently evoke quaint and pleasing literary emotions. The 
 French tu, te, toi, ton, etc., are not archaisms ; they conse- 
 quently evoke no aesthetic emotion whatever. It is forbidden 
 has an old-time majestic ring which is not to be found in the 
 semantic equivalent It is prohibited ; but Es ist verboten suggests 
 nothing but unsesthetic severity. 
 
 If for no other reason than this, it is essential that the 
 student's first text-books should contain but the plainest and 
 least artistic specimens of the language. 
 
 Let us first acquire a perfect knowledge of the commonplace, 
 trivial, and even vulgar expressions of modern inartistic speech, 
 in order to render ourselves capable of appreciating at a later 
 period the aesthetic side of speech. 
 
 In this respect, again, the student of the foreign language is, 
 
AN roEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 205 
 
 even in the advanced stages, not in the same position as the 
 native. The native, being perfectly familiar with the colloquial 
 language in all its banality, appreciates fully the beauty, the 
 glamour, the delicacy, the majesty, the severity, the tender- 
 ness, the asceticism, and the humour to be found in the higher 
 regions of linguistic expression. 
 
 The first texts should be prepared carefully in accordance with 
 the principle of gradation. They should contain from 90 per 
 cent, to 95 per cent, of the matter of the microcosm. As time 
 goes on, this percentage may be decreased, but will probably 
 never fall below 65 per cent, or 70 per cent. 
 
 The best type of text will consist of short anecdotes, humorous 
 stories, and interesting items of general information selected from 
 current periodicals and carefully edited and simplified. The 
 colloquial and simple explanatory styles should be used ; both 
 slang and archaisms should be avoided. 
 
 The easiest and most natural texts are those which constitute 
 the most faithful reflection of the language as it is truly spoken 
 by all sorts and conditions of native speakers without the inter- 
 vention of the descriptive or explanatory styles. 
 
 But mere reproductions of street-corner conversations concern- 
 ing the weather or the current political situation will not suffice. 
 In addition to its simplicity and fidelity to real speech, the 
 subject-matter must have an intrinsic interest. The dramatic 
 or the humorous elements must be present. For adult pupils 
 the only reading matter fulfilling these conditions would appear 
 to be modem comedies by such authors as Pinero or H. A. Jones 
 and their foreign equivalents. 
 
 Reading may be intensive and extensive. In the former case 
 each sentence is subjected to a careful scrutiny, and the more 
 interesting may be paraphrased, translated, or learnt by heart. 
 In the latter case book after book will be read through without 
 giving more than a superficial and passing attention to the lexi- 
 cological units of which it is composed. 
 
 All the usual expedients may be utilized to make conversa- 
 tion, to stimulate composition, and to cause the student to 
 exercise his perceptive and imitative faculties. Exercises 
 and tests of the most varied nature may be given in order to 
 
206 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 ensure^a^sound and proportionate attention to all the aspects 
 of the matter studied. 
 
 The student will read aloud, will listen to the reading of the 
 teacher, will summarize the contents of a chapter. There will 
 be dictation, both phonetic and orthographic ; the pupil will 
 convert phonetic passages into the orthographic form, and vice 
 versa ; he will give answers to a questionnaire that must ever be 
 kept up to date by his teacher. 
 
 There will be recapitulations in which the newer will be 
 correlated with the older matter. Semantic groups will be 
 formed and new ergonic families will be formulated. The 
 student will learn to use a note-book, or, better still, the loose- 
 leaf book, or, best of all, the card index. 
 
 As time goes on the texts will become more and more rich in 
 new material ; from the everyday colloquial we pass through 
 various types of style ; the simple explanatory style as employed 
 by writers on popular science and current events, the simple 
 descriptive style as found in books of adventure and travel, 
 then the more florid varieties of the explanatory and descriptive 
 styles, and finally into the realms of the classical literature 
 modern and ancient. 
 
 Mechanical exercises are replaced to an ever- increasing 
 extent by freer and more ambitious types of work. The 
 linguistic material already acquired has taken deep root and 
 is sending out stout branches, and the quasi- organism can grow 
 and develop by purely natural means. 
 
 At the moment when, according to old-fashioned ideas, the 
 systematic study of theory should conamence, our pupils under 
 the ideal conditions of to-morrow will dispense with it, for it 
 will have served its purpose. 
 
 Practice will now be the order of the day ; practice in 
 speaking, in reading, in composing, yes, and practice in 
 translating. 
 
 After from one to two years of practice in the advanced stage, 
 speaking, understanding, reading, and writing, not the broken 
 Anglo-French which it was formerly the habit to inculcate, 
 but the real French of France, our pupils will be promoted to 
 the higher forms, and pass from the hands of the language- 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 207 
 
 teacher into the hands of those who are entrusted with the 
 teaching of that branch of art known as French Hterature. 
 The work of the language-teacher is over. 
 
 Section 25.— We may append here a comprehensive and descriptive 
 list of most of the tsrpes of exercises which will be found of use 
 during the three stages. While many of them are suitable for 
 work in the class-room, they will generally be utilized as material 
 for homework and for private study. 
 
 No serious attempt has been made to classify the following 
 list of exercises ; indeed so many of them are designed to fulfil 
 more than one purpose that it would be difficult, if not im- 
 possible, to classify them in any precise or satisfactory manner. 
 
 Certain types of exercises have been so fully treated in sub- 
 sections 22 and 23 that it is unnecessary that they should 
 figure in the present list. 
 
 For the sake of conciseness the instructions for the performance 
 of these exercises have been worded in terms perfectly compre- 
 hensible to the reader of the present work, but of too abstract 
 a nature for the use of school-children. In the actual French 
 method, examples will be given in most of the cases in order to 
 show exactly what the pupil is required to do. 
 
 Our object in supplying specimens has been to illustrate by 
 more or less typical examples the nature of each of the exercises 
 proposed ; consequently no consistent attempt has been made 
 to graduate them nor apply them to particular problems. The 
 object of our present inquiry is to suggest the lines on which 
 French might be taught, but not to furnish the method itself. 
 
 (A) Mechanical Exercises 
 Serving to inculcate Primary Matter 
 
 1. Copying out matter in the phonetic transcript. (This 
 exercise is characteristic of the elementary stage.) 
 
 The object of this exercise is to familiarize the pupil with 
 the forms of the symbols and to make him proficient in tracing 
 them. If the matter so given coincides with the sentences and 
 
208 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 polylogs to be catenized, this exercise will be an auxiliary to 
 the operation of catenizing. 
 
 The text serving as model should be printed in distinct and 
 fairly large type. 
 
 While some teachers advocate the use of script characters, 
 others prefer the pupils to ' print ' them. A pupil who has been 
 in the habit of ' printing ' the characters will be less likely to 
 confuse the phonetic and orthographic scripts, and for this 
 reason the latter course is to be reconmiended. 
 
 The pupil should pronounce each letter as he traces it, and 
 pronoimce each unit as completed. 
 
 2. Copying out matter in orthographic form. (For use 
 
 during the intermediate stage.) 
 
 This form of exercise will be useful as one of the means to 
 teach the orthographic forms of units hitherto met with only 
 in their phonetic form. The pupil should pronounce every 
 word as it is completed. 
 
 3. Reading aloud from phonetic transcription. (Char- 
 
 acteristic of the elementary and intermediate stages.) 
 
 A valuable auxiliary to catenizing, serving to connect the ear 
 and eye memories, and to ensure their correlation. 
 
 4. Reading aloud from the orthographic transcription. 
 
 (Characteristic of the later intermediate and advanced 
 stages.) 
 
 This should only be resorted to in the microcosmic stage, when 
 the student is perfectly well acquainted with the pronunciation 
 of the units contained in the reading matter. During the 
 advanced period the reading aloud of an orthographic text will 
 constitute a most valuable form of subconscious assimilation. 
 
 5. Phonetic dictation (including nonsense dictation). 
 
 (Elementary and intermediate stages.) 
 
 A useful auxiliary to catenizing and the natural sequence to 
 Exercises 1 and 8. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 209 
 
 6. Orthographic dictation. (Intermediate and advanced 
 
 stages.) 
 
 Complementary to Exercises 2 and 4. Of value for orthoepic 
 work (the study of relations between sounds and their con- 
 ventional representation). 
 
 Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6 obviously to be used in the class-room. 
 
 7. Transcribing in phonetic form matter supplied in ortho- 
 
 graphic form. (Intermediate and advanced stages.) 
 
 This may be called visual phonetic dictation. It enables the 
 pupil to make progress in pronunciation, orthoepy, and orthog- 
 raphy without the presence of the teacher. Especially valuable 
 at the moment of the introduction of the orthographic script. 
 
 8. Transcribing in orthographic script matter supplied in 
 
 phonetic form. (Intermediate and advanced stages.) 
 
 Complementary to Exercises 2, 6, and 7. 
 
 9. Repeating substitution tables after the teacher. 
 
 (Intermediate stage.) 
 
 The teacher pronounces the model sentence previously caten- 
 ized by the pupil ; the pupil repeats it after him. The teacher 
 pronounces the sentence modified successively by the sub- 
 stitutive elements of the various columns. Each sentence pro- 
 nounced is immediately repeated by the pupil. This exercise 
 should be constantly performed after the pupil has acquired an 
 adequate stock of model sentences. 
 
 10. Reading substitution tables. (Intermediate stage.) 
 Complementary to and the natural sequence of 9. 
 
 11. Copying out substitution tables. (Intermediate stage.) 
 Complementary to 1 and 9. 
 
 (B) Semi-Mechanical and ' Intellectual ' Exercises 
 
 Serving to inculcate primary matter and to develop the 
 pupil's capacity of producing correct secondary matter. 
 
210 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 12. Repeating substitution tables, the substitutive elements 
 
 of which are suggested by the teacher in English. 
 (InteiTnediate stage.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Teacher. Je ne peux pas venir ici demain. 
 
 Pupil. Je ne peux pas venir ici demain. 
 
 T. Next week. 
 
 P. Je ne peux pas venir ici la semaine prochaine. 
 
 T. On Monday. 
 
 P. Je ne peux pas venir ici lundi. 
 
 T. Next month. 
 
 P. Je ne peux pas venir ici le mois prochain. 
 
 T. At two o'clock. 
 
 P. Je ne peux pas venir ici a deux heures. Etc., etc. 
 
 One of the most productive forms of work ensuring rapid 
 results on absolutely sound lines. The integral translation 
 does not prevent the pupil from ' thinking in French.' 
 
 13. Giving integral English equivalent of French ergonic 
 
 units previously memorized. (Intermediate stage.) 
 
 Eccample : 
 
 Teacher Pupil 
 
 La semaine prochaine. Ne^ week. 
 
 La fenetre. The window 
 
 Regardez le livre. Look at the book. 
 
 Je voudrais. I would like to. 
 
 Faut-il ? Shall I ? 
 
 Deux ou trois. Two or three. 
 
 Encore un peu. A little more. 
 
 II ne faut pas. You mustn't. 
 
 En France. In France. 
 
 Je ne sais pas. I don't know. 
 
 Je vais. I am going. 
 
 Etc. . Etc. 
 
 All matter given in this form of exercise is presumed to have 
 been previously learnt by the pupil in the form of integral 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 211 
 
 equivalents. The introduction of unseen sentences or poly logs 
 would convert this exercise into a type of synthetic translation, 
 a form of work exemplified in Exercise 41. 
 
 14. Giving the integral French equivalent of English 
 
 ergonic units. (Intermediate stage.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Teacher Pupil 
 
 Come here. Venez ici. 
 
 I don't understand. Je ne comprends pas. 
 
 It's no use coming. C'est inutile de venir. 
 
 I'd rather see it. J'aimerais mieux le voir. 
 
 Is there ? Y a-t-il ? 
 
 I am not reading. Je ne lis pas. 
 
 Give me. Donnez-moi. 
 
 Wait for me. Attendez-moi. 
 
 This exercise, complementary to 13, must be severely re- 
 stricted to approved and previously assimilated bilingual 
 equivalents. On no account should units be given which have 
 not previously been seen and studied. The English unit must 
 be the exterior cue, suggesting the whole of the French equiva- 
 lent unit. The non-observance of this principle converts this 
 exercise into that difficult and advanced form of work ex- 
 emplified by Exercise 42. 
 
 15. Giving known French equivalents of certain units of 
 
 other languages than English — e.g. German or Latin. 
 (Intermediate and advanced stages.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Teacher Pupil 
 
 Heute. Aujourd'hui. 
 
 Schon. Beau. 
 
 Ich bin gekommen. Je suis venu. 
 
 Ich weiss nicht. Je ne sais pas. 
 
 Es ist nicht. Ce n'est pas. 
 
 An interesting variation of 14, strengthening and confirming 
 the semantic associations. In view of the fact that French is 
 
212 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 (generally) the first foreign language studied in English schools 
 this type of exercise will be of comparatively rare occurrence 
 in the teaching of French. It will probably be found more 
 effective as a feature of the German and Latin courses. 
 
 16. The teacher to pronounce various sounds ; the pupil 
 
 to call out their respective numbers as he does so. 
 (Elementary stage.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Teacher Pupil 
 
 [e] French, No. 2. 
 
 [ei] English, No. 13. 
 
 [a] French, No. 14. 
 Etc. Etc. 
 
 A very practical and effective method for developing the 
 auditive perception. 
 
 17. The teacher to pronounce various soimds ; the pupil 
 
 to point out each one on the phonetic chart as he 
 does so. (Elementary stage.) 
 
 A variation of 16. Calculated to co-ordinate the pupil's 
 auditive and visual perceptions by utilizing the principle of 
 spatialization. 
 
 18. Converting foreign units into another etymological 
 
 form. (Intermediate and advanced stages.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Convert the following past participles into the corresponding 
 infinitives : allS, eu, ouvert, regu, donnS, descendu, fini, mis, 
 compris, su. 
 
 Convert the following singulars into their corresponding 
 plurals : le crayon, mon livre, lafeneire, le livre noir, son cahier, 
 leur nom, une plume, une grande chambre, voire devoir. 
 
 Convert the following adjectives into adverbs: facile, lent, 
 bon, convenable, mauvais, difficile. 
 
 Convert the following examples of the present tense into the 
 past indefinite tense : je prends, je vois, je regois, je suis, je 
 viens, il marche, il Scoute, il met, votes sortez, vous allez. 
 
AN roEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 213 
 
 One of the best manners of inculcating the principles of 
 etymology. A favourite exercise of many modem methods. 
 The above examples are shown in orthographic script, but this 
 type of exercise should first be presented in phonetic form. The 
 same remark applies to most of the following exercises. 
 
 19. Replacing dashes by words. (Intermediate and ad- 
 
 vanced stages.) 
 
 Eaxtmple : 
 
 Replace each dash by an appropriate word : 
 
 Venez — . 
 — est-il alle. 
 
 Dites — de . 
 
 II va souvent — France. 
 Je ne — pas demain. 
 Je ne le lui ai pas — . 
 
 An interesting exercise capable of almost infinite gradation 
 from the easiest to the most difficult degrees. If so designed 
 that the completed sentences are identical with models previ- 
 ously catenized, the exercise will be of the mechanical order, 
 and will serve to inculcate still further the primary matter of 
 the microcosm. If, on the other hand, the resultant sentences 
 constitute original unseens, the exercise will serve as a means 
 of producing secondary matter. 
 
 Exercises of this type may be differentiated and specialized 
 by confining each to some particular point of semantic or 
 ergonic importance. 
 
 20. Completing imfinished sentences. (Intermediate and 
 
 advanced stages.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Complete the following sentences : 
 
 II m'est impossible . . . 
 
 Pourquoi n'avez vous . . . 
 
 Donnez m'en . . . 
 
 Je les ai vus . . . 
 
 Je I'aurai . . . 
 
214 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Je suis ici depuis . . . 
 
 . parce que la porte est ouverte. 
 
 . rest6 chez moi. 
 
 . n'est pas venue. 
 
 . si vous Taimez, oui ou non. 
 
 . qui est venu ici. 
 
 . que j'ai mis ici. 
 
 A type of exercise similar to 19, but leaving greater scope to 
 the ingenuity of the pupil. If the completed sentences con- 
 stitute matter of the secondary order, this work may be con- 
 sidered as Limited Composition and will pave the way to Free 
 Composition. The remarks made concerning Exercise 19 are 
 here of equal application. 
 
 21. Simplification of developed sentences. (Intermediate 
 
 and advanced stages.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Strike out all the units in the following sentences which are 
 not essential to ergonic completeness : 
 
 Les autres sont venus tout de suite. 
 
 Le livre rouge est sur P autre table. 
 
 Vous en trouverez plusieurs dans le premier tiroir. 
 
 La lettre que j'ai regue hier m'a ete envoyee par un ami. 
 
 C'est trop grand et pas du tout beau. 
 
 An exercise in disintegration serving among other things to 
 call the pupil's attention to the semantic and ergonic values of 
 various units. 
 
 22. Composing simple substitution tables. (Intermediate 
 
 and advanced stages.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Develop each of these sentences into a simple substitution 
 table by replacing the unit enclosed between the vertical lines by 
 appropriate ergonic equivalents : 
 
 Je le I donne | k mon ami. 
 
 Je I suis ici I depuis trois jours. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 215 
 
 lis I venaient ici | tous les jours. 
 
 Je I peux I venir ici. 
 
 Oti avez-vous I vu | mon livre ? 
 
 One of the soundest and simplest methods of converting 
 primary into secondary matter. 
 
 23. Composing compoimd substitution tables. (Inter- 
 mediate and advanced stages.) 
 
 Exam/pie : 
 
 Develop each of these sentences into a compoimd substitution 
 table by replacing the units enclosed between vertical lines by 
 appropriate ergonic equivalents. The resultant sentences need 
 not be of ideal semantic value. If it is found that a given unit 
 cannot be replaced by any other, the unit may be underlined 
 and left. 
 
 Je ne peux pas | venir ici | demain. 
 J'ai vu j trois | livres I sur | la table. 
 Je suis I ici | depuis trois | jours. 
 II I me I r I a I donne. 
 
 This is a developed form of Exercise 22, and will give play to 
 the pupil's ingenuity and power of research and adaptation. 
 
 24. Composing ergonic (or complex substitution) tables. 
 (Intermediate and advanced stages.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Form a table showing the ergonic relations of the units con- 
 tained in the following sentences : 
 
 II prend le livre. 
 
 II le prend. 
 
 II prendra la plume. 
 
 Quelqu'un la prendra. 
 
 Elle ne prenait pas les livres. 
 
 H pent prendre quelque chose. 
 
 II ne doit pas prendre cela. 
 
 Elle a pris son parapluie. 
 
216 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 II aura pris sa lettre. 
 
 II ne veut pas les prendre. 
 
 Mon ami ne doit pas la prendre. 
 
 The exercise may be performed by the use of the ergonic 
 chart, using slips and pins, or may be worked out at home on 
 paper. 
 
 25. Finding French synonyms of French units. (Inter- 
 
 mediate and advanced stages.) 
 
 Eccample : 
 
 Find units (monologs or polylogs) having the same or nearly 
 the same semantic value as the following : 
 
 Ilfaut ; dois-je ; joli ; obscur ; gens ; erreur ; je voudrais ; 
 sous ; sur le plancher ; penser que ; essayer de ; de 
 nouveau ; quelque chose d' autre ; tant soil peu ; com- 
 pletement ; quoique ; se rappeler. 
 
 A useful variety of recapitulation work for the more ad- 
 vanced stages. 
 
 26. Expressing the sense of a given sentence in other words. 
 
 (Advanced stage.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Express in other words the meaning conveyed in each of the 
 following sentences : 
 
 Veuillez entrer. Je suis id depuis trois jours. A qui 
 est ce livre ? Qa ne me fait rien. II me faut de V argent. 
 Cela ne vous ferait-il rien de venir id ? Je tiens par- 
 iiculierement a le faire. Je me vois oblige de V accepter. 
 
 Similar to Exercise 25, but of a more advanced type. 
 
 27. Classifying units according to their ergonic value, 
 
 (Intermediate and advanced stages.) 
 
 Eccample : 
 
 Classify the following units according to the ergonic categories 
 to which they belong : 
 
 Aujourd'hui. Je. Venir. Sur la table. Parlerais. Pendant 
 quinze jours. Recevoir. Lentement. Verra, Pendant 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 217 
 
 les vacances. II. Demain. A Londres. Viendrai. Trop 
 grand. Pris. Souvent. Le semaine prochaine. D'une 
 autre maniere. Ce que je veux. 
 
 This is a form of analysis perfectly correlated to the various 
 other forms of ergonic work suggested in these pages. 
 
 28. Conjugating verbs. (Intermediate and advanced 
 
 stages.) 
 Example : 
 
 Conjugate the following verbs in all their moods, tenses, and 
 persons : 
 
 Donner, finir, recevoir, vendre, itre, avoir, venir, aller, 
 se lever. 
 
 A classical but none the less useful form of work especially 
 during the later stages. 
 
 29. Declining pronoims. (Intermediate stage.) 
 Example : 
 
 Decline the following pronouns according to their case : 
 Je^ tUf il, elle, nous, vous, ils, elles. 
 
 An etymological exercise limited (in French) to the above 
 examples. 
 
 80. Answering questions. (Intermediate and advanced 
 stages.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Answer the following questions : 
 
 En quoi est faite ime table ? 
 
 Quelle heure est-il maintenant ? 
 
 £tes-vous alle faire une promenade hier ? 
 
 Avec quoi coupe-t-on ? 
 
 Quelle distance y a-t-il d'ici k la gare ? 
 
 Quel est le nom de la ville que vous habitez ? 
 
 Quelle langue parle-t-on en Espagne ? 
 
 Another example of limited composition in a very easy form. 
 The student should recognize the fact that the question itself 
 supplies most of the units required in the answer. 
 
218 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 81. Forming suitable questions for given answers. (Inter- 
 mediate stage.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Form questions to which the following sentences are 
 answers : 
 
 Je suis venu a deux heures. 
 
 II est all^ a Londres. 
 
 C'est un livre rouge. 
 
 Oui, il est grand. 
 
 J'y suis rest6 pendant deux heures. 
 
 Avec un couteau on coupe. 
 
 Complementary to Exercise 30. 
 
 32. Converting affirmative sentences into the negative form. 
 
 (Intermediate stage.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Convert the following sentences into the negative : 
 
 Je lis. 
 
 J'^cris la lettre. 
 
 J'ai vu mon ami. 
 
 Je suis all^ a la gare. 
 
 Je peux venir ici. 
 
 Venez ici. 
 
 Prenez-le. 
 
 A simple method of deriving secondary matter. This exer- 
 cise may be preceded in the early portion of the intermediate 
 stage by one in which negative sentences are converted into 
 affirmatives. 
 
 33. Converting positive sentences into their interrogative 
 
 form. (Intermediate stage.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Convert the following sentences into the interrogative, 
 avoiding as far as possible the use of est-ce que : 
 
 C'est un livre. 
 Vous parlez fran9ais. 
 
AN roEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 219 
 
 II comprenait. 
 Vous le lui avez donne. 
 Je le prends. 
 Mon frere est ici. 
 Le plafond est blanc. 
 
 A very necessary exercise for students of French and English, 
 in which the formation of the interrogative presents a certain 
 degree of difficulty. 
 
 34. Converting positive sentences into the interrogative- 
 negative form. (Intermediate stage.) 
 
 Eccample : 
 
 Convert the following sentences into their interrogative- 
 negative form : 
 
 Vous I'aimez. 
 
 II est venu. 
 
 Vous I'avez fait. 
 
 Mon fr^re est alle k Paris. 
 
 Vous viendrez plus tot. 
 
 Les autres ne les prennent pas. 
 
 An extension of Exercises 82 and 33. 
 
 85. Converting direct into indirect questions. (Interme- 
 diate stage.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Convert the following direct into indirect questions : 
 
 Vient-il ? 
 
 fites-vous pret ? 
 
 Oti allez-vous ? 
 
 Que dit-il ? 
 
 Quand viendra-t-il ? 
 
 Combien en avez-vous pris ? 
 
 Qui est-ce qui a fait 9a ? 
 
 A practical manner of showing the connexion between the 
 interrogatives and connectives. 
 
220 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 36. Replacing nouns by pronouns. (Intermediate stage.) 
 Example : 
 Replace the words printed in italics by appropriate pronouns. 
 
 Je prends le livre. 
 
 Je vois la plume. 
 
 II ecrit la lettre. 
 
 n boit du cafe. 
 
 Je donne le livre d monfrere. 
 
 Mon frere me donne des livres. 
 
 MM. A et B. envoient les leitres d mes amis, 
 
 A very necessary exercise in word-order. 
 
 87. Supplying verbs either in the indicative or subjimctive 
 moods. (Intermediate and advanced stages.) 
 Example : 
 
 Replace the dashes by a verb in the indicative or in the 
 subjunctive moods as the case may be : 
 
 II pense que je — . 
 
 II faut que je — . 
 
 Je crois qu'il — . 
 
 Je ne crois pas qu'il — 
 
 II est dommage qu'il — . 
 
 Je veux que vous — . 
 
 J'espere que vous — . 
 
 Je le ferai a moins qu'il ne — . 
 
 A practical method of inculcating the use of the subjimctive 
 mood. 
 
 38. Classifying previously seen monosyllabic words on a 
 phonetic basis. (Intermediate stage.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Classify the following words into sixteen classes according to 
 the phonetic vowel contained in each : 
 
 Main, veux, une, bout, neuf, plein, vieux, clef, mal, autre, 
 eu, un, fais, rose, comme, bon, si, elle, place, beau, me, 
 vent, mais, bonne, pas, tdt, ceufs, vin, gai, poche, bas, ne, 
 venu, blanc, jouer, laid, vie, bras, ceil, bain, oui, nez. 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 221 
 
 chosCy brun, livre, ou, table, homme, soif, pret, crois, 
 train, age, en, chez, jaune, sain, qui, rue, long, yomme^ 
 le, mieux, pris, tres, feuille, ouest, double, haul, ton, 
 quinze, cent, que, ville, vous, deux, jeune, douze, plume. 
 
 A form of exercise to be used a short time after the introduc- 
 tion of the orthographic script. If the Hst is sufficiently long 
 this will be an excellent method of teaching orthoepy. 
 
 39. Composing matter in French in the form of a conversa- 
 
 tion with the teacher. (Advanced stage.) 
 
 This starts as an oral variant of Exercise 30, but develops 
 gradually into a fluent use of the spoken language. 
 
 40. Composing matter in the foreign language in order to 
 
 illustrate the ergonic and semantic fimctions of 
 various units. (Intermediate and advanced stages.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Compose sentences in order to demonstrate the ergonic and 
 semantic fimctions of the following imits : 
 
 D^ autre, fosse, il y a, si, lorsque, faut-il, celui, plus, encore, 
 mercredi, laisse, souvent, seul, comme, eux, mon, jusqu'd 
 ce que. 
 
 This may be differentiated into two separate types of exercise, 
 one treating the purely ergonic and the other the semantic 
 functions of units. In the former case the sentence will show 
 whether the student understands the formal function of the 
 unit ; in the latter whether he appreciates the meanings. In 
 the latter case especially, this exercise is a rather advanced 
 stage of composition. 
 
 41. Expressing in EngHsh ideas supplied by a French text. 
 
 (Intermediate and advanced stages.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Express the following sentences by more or less approximate 
 English equivalents : 
 
 Je n'en suis pas partisan. 
 
 Je sais pertineroment qu'il est venu. 
 
222 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Je n'y tiens pas beaucoup. 
 
 Je tiens particulierement a le faire. 
 
 Quand meme il serait venu, je ne Taurais pas vu. 
 
 De quoi vous oceupez-vous ? 
 
 Cela ne vous ferait-il rien d'ouvrir la porte ? 
 
 Je ne vous en prive pas ? 
 
 The above examples are only suitable for the advanced 
 stage. This type of exercise, however, may be graduated 
 from the easiest to the most difficult degrees. Among other 
 qualities it constitutes a sound reagent against habits 
 of so-called ' literal translation ' and semantic imprecision in 
 general. 
 
 42. Expressing in French ideas suggested by an English 
 
 text. (Intermediate and advanced stages.) 
 
 Example : 
 
 Express the following ideas more or less approximately in 
 French : 
 
 For some reason or other. 
 
 That's one for you ! 
 
 I have often wondered. 
 
 I haven't been there for three years. 
 
 I'm particularly anxious to know. 
 
 As in the case of Exercise 41, we have only given examples of 
 the most advanced order. 
 
 43. Subconscious comprehension. (Elementary, inter- 
 
 mediate, and advanced stages.) 
 
 Detailed examples of this type of exercise have already been 
 given in Section 23. 
 
 44. Free composition. (Advanced itage.) 
 Example : 
 
 Write a description (not exceeding 250 words in length) of 
 the town in which you live. 
 It cannot too often be repeated that free composition in the 
 
AN IDEAL STANDARD PROGRAMME 223 
 
 foreign language is the worst possible method for acquiring fresh 
 material. The sole object of this form of exercise should be to 
 utilize previously assimilated primary matter and the secondary 
 matter which can be legitimately derived from it. If certain 
 ideas cannot be expressed in French without inventing unseen 
 forms, such ideas must not be expressed at all ; they should 
 be abandoned, or replaced by ideas which can be expressed by 
 means of known and authentic units. 
 
 45. Answering (in English) questions based on the lexi- 
 
 cological theories. (Elementary, intermediate, and 
 advanced stages.) 
 
 Mixed examyles of such questions : 
 Describe the sound [9]. 
 
 What sort of sound is represented by a in lady ? 
 Explain the mistakes generally made by a Frenchman in 
 
 pronouncing the word worthy. 
 By what letter or letters do we generally represent in our 
 
 ordinary spelling the English sounds [e], [ei] , [o:], [z] ? 
 What soimd- values are generally given to the following 
 
 letters or combinations of letters in English orthography : 
 
 a, alk, er, th, igh^ ea ? 
 What orthographic modification is made to the verb in 
 
 order to form the regular preterite ? 
 Draw up a list of the semantic varieties of the verb 
 
 get 
 What is the place in the sentence of the adverb 
 
 always ? 
 
 46. Re-translation. (Advanced stage.) 
 
 The student will choose, or the teacher will choose for him, a 
 short passage from an authentic French text. He will translate 
 it into English to the best of his ability ; the teacher will read 
 the result and suggest corrections and modifications. The next 
 day the student will translate the passage back into French. 
 On its completion he will compare the result with the original, 
 make the necessary corrections, and repeat the operation until 
 the re-translation is word perfect. 
 
/ 
 
 224 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 47. The missing- word exercise. (Advanced stage.) 
 
 As a modification of the preceding exercise and with a view 
 to facilitating it, the student, after translating the text into 
 English, will make a fresh copy of the French original, replacing, 
 however, a certain number of units by blank spaces. The next 
 day, instead of retranslating the English text back into French 
 as suggested in the preceding exercise, he will merely fill in to 
 the best of his ability the blank spaces. After two or three 
 efforts he will be prepared to perform Exercise 46 in its 
 integrity. 
 
PART VI 
 
 SPECIAL PROGRAMMES 
 
 Section 26.— In that part of this book devoted to the Preliminary 
 Factors of Linguistic Pedagogy, we have seen that no one pro- 
 gramme can possibly be ideally suitable for all classes of students ; 
 hence, in addition to the Standard Programme that we have just 
 described, we must be prepared to draw up Special Progranunes. 
 Limited Programmes of various types are designed to meet the 
 special requirements of those whose aim is less than the four 
 aspects of a given language. 
 
 Limited Programmes 
 
 The Ideal Standard Programme assumes the pupils to be 
 school- children without any previous knowledge of the foreign 
 language. 
 
 All important variations from this may be considered as 
 Special Programmes. The most suitable variations to meet 
 special cases can only be determined by a reference to the 
 preliminary factors of linguistic pedagogy outlined in Part III. 
 
 We may first consider programmes suitable for students whose 
 ultimate aim is less than the four aspects of a given language 
 {i.e. the active and passive uses of both the oral and written 
 forms). 
 
 In this respect twelve classes of aims are conceivable. All 
 but two of these (Nos. 7 and 8) are more or less of the freak 
 order and hardly worthy of any consideration from those whose 
 endeavours are to place the study of language on a scientific 
 basis. We will nevertheless examine the special requirements 
 of the twelve classes of students and append a few comments. 
 
 1. Those whose sole aim is to understand the language when 
 written. Under this heading come those students who study 
 the language in order to be able to acquaint themselves with 
 the contents of their foreign correspondence or to read foreign 
 
 P 225 
 
226 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 books of literary or of scientific value of which no translation 
 exists. 
 
 The elementary stage will be confined to the theories of 
 etymology, semantics, and ergonics. No phonetic instruction 
 whatever will be given. The second stage will consist of the 
 study of the microcosm. All the exercises will be based on the 
 passive aspect of the language and will be confined to translating 
 into English isolated units and texts. 
 
 The third stage will be characterized by the same 
 features. The end will be considered achieved when pro- 
 ficiency has been attained in the comprehension of foreign 
 texts. 
 
 2. Those whose sole aim is to understand the language when 
 spoken. It is just conceivable that some persons may be 
 so exceptionally placed that such knowledge will meet the 
 particular end they have in view. It will at least enable 
 them to become auditors of lectures, speeches, and dramatic 
 performances. 
 
 The entire programme may consist almost exclusively of [a 
 course of exercises in subconscious comprehension. 
 
 3. Those whose sole aim is to speak the language. The only 
 conceivable case would be that of the traveller or tourist desirous 
 of expressing his more immediate wants when visiting the 
 foreign country. 
 
 The programme would consist of causing the student to learn 
 by heart the necessarily limited number of useful sentences 
 and minor units requisite for his wants. 
 
 4. Those whose sole aim is to write the language. The only 
 conceivable case would be that of a person obliged to com- 
 municate with foreign correspondents ignorant of his language. 
 In order to attain the desired limited end, the student, needless 
 to say, will be obliged to acquire the capacity which is the aim 
 of class 1. The programme will therefore be a mere extension 
 of that outlined for class 1, but will at the same time embrace 
 the active aspect of written work. Oral memorizing will be 
 replaced by graphic memorizing. The student instead of 
 repeating will write a given sentence the given number of times 
 on a given number of separate occasions. 
 
SPECIAL PROGRAMMES 227 
 
 5. Those whose aims are to understand the language when 
 spoken and written. Such cases will merely be the combination 
 of the requirements of classes 2 and 4. 
 
 6. 2' hose whose aims are to speak and to write the language. 
 Such cases will merely be the combination of classes 3 and 4. 
 
 7. Those whose aims are to read and write the language. This 
 is a case of far more frequent occurrence. Few students of 
 Latin or Greek have any other aims than these. From their 
 very nature, the dead languages are of literary and not of 
 colloquial interest. In the case of living languages we may cite 
 the case of correspondence clerks whose sole aim is generally 
 to understand and to answer letters received from foreign 
 correspondents. 
 
 The prograname will be essentially that of the Standard 
 Programme, except that little or no attention will be paid 
 to the oral aspect of language. The student will either not 
 pronounce any units at all or will use a fancy pronunciation 
 of his own. 
 
 No economy of time will be effected by the exclusion of the 
 oral form ; on the contrary, the student will voluntarily deprive 
 himself of that most powerful instrument of study — viz. his 
 power of auditive perception and association. As a matter of 
 fact, those teachers and students who are loudest in their de- 
 preciation of the phonetic aspect of language will never consent 
 to forgo the use of the spoken word. 
 
 8. Those whose aim is to speak the language and to understand 
 the spoken language. This combination of classes 2 and 3 is of 
 most frequent occurrence. Probably the majority of those who 
 study Oriental languages have no further aim in view ; indeed 
 in the case of many of such languages the colloquial and literary 
 forms differ to such an extent that they must be considered as 
 entirely different languages the simultaneous study of which 
 would entail needless confusion and difficulty. 
 
 If the student is illiterate he will have to forgo all the ad- 
 vantages of script forms ; if he is not, the programme to be 
 adopted will be identical with the Standard Programme, except 
 for the exclusion of the traditional form of spelling. The spoken 
 language will be represented graphically by means of a suitable 
 
228 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 phonetic alphabet without any subsequent reduction to classical 
 writing. 
 
 9. Those whose aim embraces all hut the understanding of the 
 written language. 
 
 10. Those whose aim embraces all but the understanding of the 
 spoken language. Both classes 9 and 10 are almost inconceiv- 
 able cases and we may dismiss them from our attention. 
 
 11. Those whose aim embraces all but the speaking of the 
 language. 
 
 12. Those whose aim embraces all but the writing of the language. 
 Classes 11 and 12 are rare but conceivable cases. For the sake 
 of economy of effort and of time the student should include 
 the fourth aspect, and then work according to the Standard 
 Programme. 
 
 Section 27.— A Documentary Programme is designed to meet the 
 special requirements of those whose aim is not the assimilation 
 of a language in any or all of its aspects, but a documentary 
 knowledge only. 
 
 We must provide for students who are desirous not of assimi- 
 lating the units of the language with a view to making any 
 natural or direct use of them, but of gaining a thorough theo- 
 retical knowledge of its mechanism, morphological, ergonic, 
 and semantic. 
 
 Their incentive may be one of pure curiosity ; they are 
 interested in a given language and want to look into it to see 
 how it works. 
 
 Or they may have a more definite end in view. Students of 
 lexicology in the abstract require a sufficient knowledge of some 
 dozen languages in order to obtain the documentation necessary 
 for them to pursue their studies or researches. 
 
 Few students of phonetics would wish to limit themselves to 
 the study of the sounds of their own language ; their aim is 
 to master as many sounds as possible in order to be able to 
 compare them and discover the laws that determine their 
 relations. There are certain aspects of the science of 
 phonetics bound up with the ergonic and semantic aspects of 
 language ; if the phonetician keep himself strictly within 
 
SPECIAL PROGRAMMES 229 
 
 the limits of his particular science, many facts of the utmost 
 importance will escape his attention, ignorance of which facts 
 will perhaps lead him to false conclusions. The student of 
 phonetics must have access to a number of languages and acquire 
 a knowledge, if only superficial, of their mechanism. 
 
 The student of semantics must also have a certain knowledge 
 of a number of languages ; indeed this branch of know ledge from 
 its very character is a multilingual study. He cannot spare 
 the time to assimilate from one to a dozen foreign languages ; 
 what he requires is an adequate documentation concerning 
 them. 
 
 The student of ergonics is in precisely the same situation. He 
 cannot determine, except by guesswork, the varied phenomena 
 of function until he has examined at first hand examples culled 
 from dozens of languages and dialects. Life is too short to 
 attempt to assimilate all these ; it is sufficient to acquire for 
 each language which may be of utility a certain set of data 
 with which to work. 
 
 Our Standard Programme must be considerably modified 
 to suit the needs of such students as these. From the very 
 fact that they are students and research workers in the field of 
 theoretical lexicology, we must conclude that they require no 
 preparatory training ; for them there need be no preliminary 
 stage. 
 
 The all -important stage will be the microcosmic, and the all- 
 important process of study will be mere cognition. The seeker 
 of documentation need neither catenize nor spend his time 
 in assimilating semantic values. All that he asks for is the 
 requisite number of ergonic lists and tables, including the ergonic 
 chart of the language, adequate English translations of each 
 unit, and a concise list of ' directions for use.' 
 
 The lessons we give him will consist of explanations ; the 
 exercises he writes out will merely serve to show whether 
 he has understood our explanations and is able to apply 
 them. 
 
 A documentary course may often profitably serve as an intro- 
 duction to the assimilatory! course. Adult pupils for whom 
 the study of language for its own sake has a certain fascination 
 
230 STUDY AND TEACmNG OF LANGUAGES 
 
 are justified in considering a thorough documentary knowledge 
 of its microcosm as a necessary prehminary stage of their study. 
 With their curiosity satisfied as to the number and nature of 
 the sounds, the nature of its ergonic categories and their place 
 on the chart, and the semantic peculiarities of its etymons, they 
 would be prepared by means of the forty odd types of exercises 
 suggested in these pages to convert such documentary know- 
 ledge into assimilated knowledge. 
 
 Section 28.— Corrective Programmes are designed to meet the special 
 
 requirements of those who have previously studied the language 
 
 in so disproportionate a manner that one or more of the four 
 
 aspects has, or have been, totally or partially neglected, or of 
 
 those who have previously studied the language in so defective 
 
 a manner that the unsound knowledge so acquired will have to 
 
 be converted into sound knowledge. 
 
 We now have to meet the case of students who have previously 
 
 acquired certain notions of the foreign language and who are 
 
 desirous either of increasing their limited stock of knowledge 
 
 or of ridding themselves of vicious habits due to defective or 
 
 disproportionate study. 
 
 If the student frankly recognizes the fact that his previous 
 study has been conducted on a defective basis, if he is conscious 
 of his failings, and sees clearly what is lacking, it will be relatively 
 easy to deal with him. 
 
 If, on the other hand, he is very satisfied with himself, is not 
 prepared to acknowledge any other defects than that of a 
 limited vocabulary, and is unwilling that we should extirpate 
 the grave flaws which stand as a barrier between his present 
 attainments and the perfection toward which it is his aim to 
 rise, then our task will be an almost impossible one. This type 
 of student is by no means uncommon. 
 
 We can only strive to change his views concerning himself and 
 prove to him with all the data at our disposal that with regard 
 to certain fundamentals he is in a state of absolute ignorance, 
 that he must set out to develop his faculties of study, and 
 possibly also unlearn and forget much that he has learnt. 
 If he is unwilling to be convinced, scientific methods of study 
 
SPECIAL PROGRAMMES 231 
 
 are not for him, and the conscientious teacher, if he can afford 
 it, must refer the recalcitrant pupil to some language quack who 
 will teach the pupil not what he ought to learn, but what he 
 wants to learn. 
 
 We shall revert to this aspect of the question in the section 
 entitled " The Student." 
 
 Just as there are twelve categories of students whose aims 
 fall short of the complete course for which the Standard Pro- 
 gramme is designed, so we find twelve similar categories of 
 students whose previous study has been defective. 
 
 There are those who can understand what they read but not 
 what they hear ; those who can speak but not write ; others 
 who understand what they hear but cannot speak ; others who 
 can understand the written and spoken language but who can 
 make no active use of either, etc., etc. 
 
 The most frequent case, indeed the only one of which we pro- 
 pose to treat, is that in which the student has already attained 
 considerable proficiency in reading. His written work is very 
 defective, his speech far worse, and he is incapable of under- 
 standing anything we say to him unless we deliver ourselves 
 monolog by monolog with a pronunciation distorted so as to 
 conform itself to his foreign ear. 
 
 Let us note, by the way, that unless we perform this act of 
 linguistic sacrilege, he will accuse us of speaking our own 
 language badly, and will protest against our abnormally rapid 
 and indistinct enunciation of our native tongue. 
 
 Presuming, however, a willing pupil, we may take him in 
 hand firmly and with authority, and treat him to a special 
 corrective programme in order to convert his bad habits into 
 good ones and his defective units into sound ones. 
 
 We must start by submitting him to a searching and com- 
 prehensive examination in order to see how much he knows, 
 to what extent his lexicological knowledge is superficial or 
 defective. 
 
 We shall present him with a list of some hundreds of questions 
 and shall request him to answer them in writing. 
 
 The following rough list will show the most useful types of 
 question to be asked of the French student of English. W^e 
 
232 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 will add in each case the sort of answers which must, alas, 
 often be expected. 
 
 Phonetics 
 Questions 
 
 1. Comment prononce-t-on 
 la voyelle dans cut ? 
 
 2. — et la voyelle dans leave ? 
 8. — et la voyelle dans man ? 
 
 4. Comment prononce-t-on 
 les mots take et home ? 
 
 5. Quelle est la prononcia- 
 tion usuelle de will et de 
 can ? 
 
 6. Quelle est la difference 
 entre IV franyais et IV anglais ? 
 
 7. Decrivez le son de th 
 dans thin. 
 
 Possible Answers 
 
 1. A peu pr^s comme eu. 
 
 2. Conmfie i en fran^ais. 
 
 3. Comme a en fran9ais. 
 
 4. Comme tek et hom. 
 
 5. Comme ouile et canne. 
 
 8. Quelle est la difference 
 entre le mot anglais foi't et le 
 mot franyais fort an point de 
 vue de la prononciation ? 
 
 6. LV anglais doit etre roul6 
 tres fortement. 
 
 7. C'est un son qui res- 
 semble k s ou a t fortement 
 aspire. 
 
 8. En anglais on prononce 
 le t; en fran9ais on ne le pro- 
 nonce pas. 
 
 Etymology 
 
 1. Comment forme-t-on dans 1. En y ajoutant d ou ed. 
 la langue parlee le participe Quand le mot finit par y, on 
 pass6 des verbes reguliers ? prononce ied. 
 
 2. Comment forme - 1 - on 2. En y ajoutant s on es. 
 dans la langue parlee le pluriel Quand le mot finit par y, on 
 des substantifs reguliers ? prononce ies. 
 
 Semantics and Ergonics 
 Traduire en anglais : 
 
 1. Vient-il ? 1. Comes he? Do he comes? 
 
 2. Je Tai vu hier. 2. I have seen him yester- 
 
 day. 
 
SPECIAL PROGRAMMES 
 
 288 
 
 3. II ira a Londres. 
 
 4. Je le verrai quand il 
 viendra. 
 
 5. Dites a votre ami qu'il 
 vienne. 
 
 6. Prenez son crayon et sa 
 plume. 
 
 7. Je ne m'en souviens pas. 
 
 8. Qui voyez-vous ? 
 
 Qui est-ce qui vous voit ? 
 
 9. Sans rien faire. 
 
 10. Quelqu'un est venu. 
 
 11. II veut le faire. 
 
 12. Votre ami ne I'a-t-il pas ? 
 
 13. Je me rejouis. 
 
 14. Je vais chercher mon 
 chapeau. 
 
 15. Bonjour, monsiem*, com- 
 ment allez-vous ? 
 
 16. Je me demande ce que 
 c'est. 
 
 17. II m'est impossible de 
 I'attendre. 
 
 18. Je suis ici depuis quinze 
 jours. 
 
 Repondre aux questions suivantes 
 
 19. Comment doit-on rendre 
 en fran^ais le mot will ? 
 
 20. Comment rend-on en 
 anglais Vimparfait fran9ais ? 
 
 21. Comment exprime-t-on 
 le pronom indefini on ? 
 
 22. Quelle est la difierence 
 essentielle entre some et a?iy ? 
 
 23. Quelle est la fonction du 
 participe present anglais ? 
 
 3. He shall go in London. 
 
 4. I shall see him when he 
 shall come. 
 
 5. Say {ou Tell to) your 
 friend that he comes. 
 
 6. Take his pencil and her 
 pen. 
 
 7. I remember not me of it. 
 
 8. Whom see you ? 
 Who sees you ? 
 
 9. Without to do nothing. 
 
 10. Anybody is come. 
 
 11. He will make it. 
 
 12. Has not your friend it ? 
 
 13. I rejoice. 
 
 14. I go to search {or seek) 
 my hat. 
 
 15. Good- day, sir, how do 
 you do ? 
 
 16. I ask me what is it. 
 
 17. It is to me impossible to 
 wait him. 
 
 18. I am here since fifteen 
 days. 
 
 19. Par vouloir. 
 
 20. Par Vimparfait anglais. 
 
 21. Par one. 
 
 22. Some s'emploie dans les 
 phrases affirmatives et any 
 dans tous les autres cas. 
 
 23. Pour exprimer qu'on 
 fait quelque chose maintenant. 
 
284 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 24. Quand doit-on employer 24. Pour rendre le passe 
 le pr^t^rit anglais (I came, I d^fini ou Timparfait. 
 
 gave, etc.) ? 
 
 25. Comment dirait-on en 25. On dirait still a little ou 
 anglais encore un peu ? (dans les phrases negatives) 
 
 yet a little. 
 
 Lest it be thought that the ' possible answers ' suggested 
 above constitute a gross exaggeration of the case, the writer 
 here affirms that the above are t}^ical of the answers he has 
 received from a majority of adult French students during a 
 period of sixteen years. 
 
 Obviously we do not suggest that every student who has previ- 
 ously studied English on defective lines will invariably commit 
 every one of the absurdities quoted above. According to the 
 number and the nature of the errors, the teacher must determine 
 the degree and extent of the corrective course. 
 
 In order that the pupil may focus his entire attention on one 
 thing at a time, each of the parts of which the course is made 
 up must be segregated from the others. A sound, even if 
 superficial, knowledge of the laws of lexicology will be essential. 
 To this end the student must be provided with an adequate 
 quantity of literature on the subject, written in his own 
 language. The style should be simple and chatty, accom- 
 panied by a number of the most characteristic and striking 
 examples. To each section and chapter should be appended 
 a long questionnaire to ensure the perfect assimilation of the 
 matter so read. Indeed the corrective course may well take 
 the form of a long series of concise questions with their appro- 
 priate answers, conceived somewhat on the lines of the test 
 questions given above. The student should read each question 
 carefully and compare it with the answer. At the end of each 
 page he should go over the list again, both to make sure that 
 he has understood and to give himself a further opportunity of 
 assimilating the facts stated therein. 
 
 He should then endeavour to reproduce the answers in writing, 
 comparing the result with the matter given in his book. By 
 learning and assimilating the correct answers to, say, twenty- 
 
SPECIAL PROGRAMMES 235 
 
 five questions per day, with a daily recapitulation of all the 
 previous work, the student in the course of a few weeks will 
 have converted the greater part of his unsound into sound 
 knowledge. This work can, of course, be performed at home ; 
 to a large extent the teacher will be replaced by the book. 
 The function of the teacher will be to supplement the informa- 
 tion given by the book and to furnish additional examples 
 where necessary. 
 
 Furthermore, the teacher having, by means of the answers to 
 the tests, ascertained the student's weaker points, he will give 
 special attention to these, and will successively explain in a 
 clear manner and illustrate by striking examples the various 
 lexicological theories. If the pupil's weak point is pronuncia- 
 tion he must take a course of systematic pronunciation 
 exercises and work intensively at phonetic transcription. If 
 the pupil's weak point is semantics he must take a course of 
 systematic semantic exercises. If his weak point is ergonics, 
 a special course of ergonics, including constant use of the 
 ergonic chart, will eventually enable him to overcome his 
 difficulties. 
 
 Most of the exercises enumerated in the previous section will 
 be of great utility ; the teacher in face of so extensive a choice 
 of instruments must select those which are the most likely to 
 bring about the required reforms. 
 
 Never during the corrective course should the student be 
 encouraged or even allowed to speak his own broken jargon. 
 He will probably want to do so, and may urge that 
 ' practice makes perfect,' etc., etc. The teacher may reply 
 that practice in broken English indeed does result in perfect 
 broken English, and that as the aim of the student is precisely 
 to eradicate it, and not to foster and to encourage it, he must 
 do his best to let it become atrophied by disuse. It will be 
 time to talk about conversing in English when the student has 
 acquired a sufficient stock of healthy units to enable him to 
 do so without recourse to the broken dialect which it is theii; 
 joint aim to extirpate. 
 
 Nor should the student be encouraged to do any free written 
 composition ; in short, all the forms of exercise appertaining to 
 
236 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 the advanced stage of the Standard Programme should be 
 shunned during the corrective course. 
 
 While the proportion of mistakes exceeds 10 per cent, no 
 good purpose can be served by giving the student oppor- 
 tunities of perpetrating blunders or ' abnormalities ' on this 
 scale. 
 
 A mistake is always ' abnormal,' and always tends to show 
 that there has been a fault in method. To say that a given 
 student makes a mmiber of mistakes in his work is equivalent 
 to saying that his work is too difficult for him and that he is 
 being crammed. The object of the correction course is not to 
 reduce the element of error successively from 50 per cent, to 
 40 per cent, to 30 per cent, and so on, but so to work 
 during a given period that the student shall have formed an 
 entirely new conception of language and its study based, not 
 on eventual fluency and eventual freedom from error, but on 
 the principle of perfect correctness and perfect fluency from 
 the start. 
 
 One of the points on which we must be the most insistent is 
 the necessity for simple expression. The average adult student 
 imagines that his first foreign compositions will have all the 
 richness of expression that characterizes his compositions in 
 his native tongue. Forgetting that his proficiency in casting 
 his thoughts in the mould of his own language is the result of 
 years of daily practice, he thinks to express these same complex 
 and highly developed concepts in a language the lexicological 
 material of which he has not yet succeeded in assimilating a 
 fraction per cent. 
 
 He must be given to understand in the clearest and most 
 categoric of terms that he must perfectly assimilate a simple 
 and limited vocabulary in order to express simple thoughts, 
 that in proportion as his lexicological nucleus grows, so will he 
 be able to express more complex and more subtle phases of 
 thought. His first compositions must be couched in the lan- 
 guage of the simplest minds ; he can no more aspire toward 
 style and beauty of expression than he can hope to express the 
 complex facts of the higher mathematics without any notions 
 of elementary algebra. 
 
SPECIAL PROGRAMMES 237 
 
 As the art student must learn to use the pencil before attempt- 
 ing the use of the brush, as the student of mathematics grapples 
 with simple equations before aspiring toward the calculus, 
 in short, as we all learn to walk before learning to run or to 
 perform gyrations on the tight rope, so also must the student 
 of language content himself during the early stages with the 
 expression of simple thoughts before attempting to vie with 
 the masters of foreign literature. 
 
PART VII 
 THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 
 
 Section 29.— The first (lualifications of the expert teacher are a know- 
 ledge of the foreign language and of the student's native tongue, 
 and the ability to organize the programme, to choose the 
 appropriate material and the most appropriate means of con- 
 veying and of inculcating it. 
 
 The first and most important qualification of the ideal 
 teacher is a thorough knowledge of both the foreign language 
 and the student's native tongue. We say the ' ideal ' teacher — 
 that is to say, one who is prepared to conduct the pupil from his 
 starting-point through the two preparatory stages and deep into 
 the third stage, treating all the aspects of the language en route. 
 
 We must not, however, lose sight of the possibilities of limited 
 programmes and of the help that may be afforded on special 
 points by teachers whose knowledge of the language is limited 
 to one or more of its aspects. Competent teachers exist who 
 only profess to give lessons in one particular aspect ; they have 
 specialized on this one aspect in connexion with many languages, 
 and being deeply specialized, the help that they can afford is 
 necessarily superior to that given by the ' general practitioner.' 
 
 The expert phonetician, with little or no lexicological know- 
 ledge other than that which comes immediately within his 
 special scope, is more qualified to teach the pronunciation of 
 Russian, Urdu, or Arabic than native teachers of these languages 
 without such expert knowledge. 
 
 It is possible and perfectly feasible to learn the ergonic system 
 of a given language from one who is mi versed in its phonetics 
 or semantics. 
 
 The qualification of the ' ideal ' teacher is not necessarily the 
 sine qua non of all teachers. It would be truer to say that all 
 teachers should possess in a perfect degree such qualifications 
 
 238 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 239 
 
 as enable them to teach the branch or aspect that they profess 
 to teach. We may have persons with special qualifications for 
 dealing with pupils in the preliminary stage ; others who are 
 in every way fitted to inculcate the microcosm of the second 
 stage ; others again who have specialized themselves for work 
 connected with the third stage. 
 
 As time goes on, and methods become'more and more perfect, 
 we shall probably witness a tendency toward specialization, 
 just as we have seen the advent of specialists in other professions 
 than that of pedagogy. 
 
 In the absence of any text-books or manuals setting forth 
 any consistent schemes of programmes suitable for various 
 types of students and their varied requirements, it is the 
 teacher himself who has to consider what course will have to 
 be pursued in different cases and to organize the programme 
 best adapted to each particular end. 
 
 A programme can only be carried out with success if it is con- 
 ceived in advance on systematic and proportional lines and 
 thoroughly organized in accordance with consistent principles. 
 The vocabulary must be chosen carefully, unit by imit ; there 
 must be a reason governing the selection of each and a reason 
 for presenting it at a given moment and not at another. 
 
 To the trained or expert teacher falls in most cases the re- 
 sponsibility of selecting from among the thousands of monologs 
 and the hundreds of thousands of polylogs those which are best 
 calculated to form the microcosm which will represent the 
 nucleus of the pupil's studies. 
 
 The haphazard principle of the ' sack ' will not do. 
 
 Many methods appear to have been composed on the ' sack ' 
 principle. The author takes a sack and fills it with thousands 
 of slips of paper on each of which is inscribed a unit of the 
 vocabulary of the language he is going to teach. The sack is 
 well shaken up in order to prevent any possible chance of grada- 
 tion or logical succession. He then plunges his arm into the 
 sack and withdraws a handful of slips ; this handful constitutes 
 the first chapter of the book and is entitled " First Lesson.'' 
 
 The process is repeated until the book is full, the remaining 
 nine-tenths of the slips are thrown away, and the sack is put on 
 
240 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 one side against the day when the author will make up his mind 
 to apply the ' sack ' method to another language. 
 
 It is ridiculously obvious that the sack method of choosing 
 the matter is the wrong method, and yet time after time we 
 see method-writers making themselves obviously ridiculous by 
 adopting it. When the only qualification of an instructor is a 
 mere knowledge of the language that he proposes to teach, the 
 method of presenting the matter must necessarily be unsyste- 
 matic. Such methods may possibly lead to eventual success on 
 the part of the student, but such success cannot be attributed to 
 the instruction, but is attained in spite of him at the cost of a 
 terrible amount of wasted effort and misdirected energy. 
 
 The presentation of matter can only be considered systematic 
 when a definite selection is made in advance, when the instructor 
 is able to furnish a synopsis of the course of lessons he is about 
 to give, and moreover to adduce a reason why each unit of the 
 vocabulary should be presented at a given moment and not at 
 another. 
 
 Systematically presented matter and properly graduated 
 matter are convertible terms, for one implies the other. 
 
 There will be found to be five bases of gradation — ^that is to 
 say, five different considerations governing the choice of matter 
 and the order of presenting it. These, as we have seen, are : 
 
 (a) Frequency. 
 
 (b) Ergonic combination. 
 
 (c) Concreteness. 
 
 (d) Proportion. 
 
 (e) General Expediency. 
 
 The most difficult task of the method -maker is precisely the 
 choosing and graduating of the vocabulary in strict accordance 
 with these five considerations. The frequency principle, fascin- 
 ating as it is, must often be subordinated to the claims of ergonic 
 combination. Those two in their turn may have to be subordin- 
 ated to the pressing claims of concreteness, and even when the 
 best compromise has been made to satisfy the claims of these 
 three principles, we are still faced with the claims of proportion 
 and general expediency. 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 241 
 
 The normal programme should contain evenly distributed 
 portions of phonetics, ergonics, semantics, and orthography. 
 The only one of these aspects that must suffer if time is limited 
 is the last-named, for orthography, after all, is but the artificial 
 aspect of language. Some instructors teach so disproportion- 
 ately that they insist on perfection in the pronunciation of a 
 group of words — and then forget to give the meaning of them. 
 Another will spend hours in demonstrating the semantic or 
 ergonic peculiarities of a group of verb forms — and forget to 
 tell the student how to pronounce them. 
 
 In the case of Special Programmes the principle of proportion 
 is, however, entirely subordinated to other considerations. The 
 veteran who knows the language from end to end — without 
 being able to produce a single sound in it correctly ! — must be 
 treated to phonetics in the strongest possible doses, to the total 
 exclusion of every other aspect. 
 
 Proportion also must be observed in the active and passive 
 aspects of study. A course of lessons may be given of which 
 the result is to enable the student to understand the language 
 at sight or at hearing, but without advancing him one iota in 
 the extremely useful art of making himself understood. The 
 treatment should be proportioned to the requirement ; the 
 general practitioner in the teaching profession, as in the medical 
 profession, should make it his business to diagnose before treating. 
 
 The teacher who is particularly competent in one special 
 kind of teaching must not necessarily follow his accustomed 
 methods under all circumstances. He must adapt them to the 
 special needs of his pupils. 
 
 Instructors, like all other mortals, may suffer from absent- 
 mindedness ; it may be true — or it may not — that a learned 
 professor once wrote a grammar of the Katanga literary dialect 
 and forgot to inform his readers whether it contained any nouns. 
 It is certainly true that many writers of modern-language 
 manuals frequently forget to inform their readers whether the 
 language it purports to teach contains any sounds I 
 
 Neglect of the phonetic aspect of words, as the neglect of 
 the semantic or any other aspect of words, must result in dis- 
 proportionate work. If the object of the author is to produce 
 
242 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 a specialized work on one particular aspect of the language, 
 all well and good, but more often than not we find serious 
 omissions arising, not out of design, but from sheer neglect 
 and the ignoring of the principle of proportion. 
 
 The most general omission is that of the phonetic aspect ; 
 the veteran student who declares, with a tone savouring of pride 
 and disdain, that the sounds of the language have no interest 
 for him, who skips every chapter on pronunciation, and who 
 cannot tell the difference between a high front vowel and the 
 glottal stop, will blush with shame if he so much as omits to dot 
 an i when writing the language of which he claims to be a master. 
 He is like a musician who knows everything about music except 
 the notes. 
 
 Not only does the expert teacher who is the architect of his 
 own method select the material that will go to make up the 
 microcosm, but to him often falls the duty of determining the 
 appropriate means by which each item is to be cognized by 
 the pupil and subsequently inculcated. He has to decide at each 
 turn whether a given unit or group of units is to be semanticized 
 by material association, by translation, by definition, or whether 
 the meaning is to be gathered from the context. 
 
 He has to decide which units are to be treated as primary 
 and which as secondary matter. 
 
 His judgment must determine at what moments quantity is 
 to be sacrificed to quality, and vice versa. He has to deal with 
 the difficult problems entailed by a class containing pupils of all 
 degrees of intelligence, capacity, good will, and slackness. He 
 must so direct the various forms of mechanical drill that interest 
 is maintained ; in order to avoid monotony, and to prevent 
 such mechanical work from becoming tedious, he must devise a 
 constant series of new types of exercise, sacrificing no important 
 principle and never losing sight of the immediate and ultimate 
 end of any particular phase of work. 
 
 He has to determine the relative proportions of class teaching 
 and individual teaching. In order that a given lesson may 
 bear the maximum of fruit he must reinforce it and drive home 
 its conclusions by means of well-chosen homework. He must 
 at all times consider the good and evil results of contiguity and 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 243 
 
 other forms of association ; he must come to feel intuitively 
 at what moments two subjects of study should be segregated 
 in order to avoid confusion, or be associated in order that each 
 may be contrasted with the other to their mutual advantage. 
 
 Moreover, it depends to a large extent on the teacher to make 
 the lessons represent an ever-changing source of interest and 
 novelty, of which each phase will contribute in the progressive 
 and sound building up, strengthening, and developing of the 
 nucleus. 
 
 Section 30.— Another function of the teacher is to furnish explana- 
 tions. 
 
 In addition to the choosing and presenting of matter, it comes 
 within the functions of the instructor to furnish explanations 
 concerning it. Without explanation the pupil can do little or 
 nothing ; a list of the most useful words and sentences, however 
 well chosen and graduated, is but the groimdwork of the teach- 
 ing. In itself it is but a mass of matter without signification, 
 incapable of being assimilated until put into combination, and 
 supplemented by information respecting it. 
 
 The writer possesses rather a good book the object of which is 
 to teach Chinese. There is a large quantity of valuable material 
 in it ; there is reason to suppose that it is more or less graduated. 
 He is, however, unable to make the slightest use of it, because, 
 as far as he can see, there are no explanations in it. If there are 
 any, they are in Chinese, and as he does not understand that 
 language he is not able to decipher them. 
 
 Many instructors either give no explanations at all, or else 
 give them in the very language of which the student is presumed 
 to be ignorant. 
 
 Their object in so domg is to react against some of the vicious 
 tendencies, more especially those relating to bilingual conscious- 
 ness and illegitimate importation. 
 
 It may be said that the child learns his mother tongue without 
 any explanations, and that in order to follow the natural method 
 he and the adult must follow the same plan and dispense with 
 explanatory matter. This is, however, hardly a true statement 
 of the case ; for we shall see as a matter of fact that the child 
 
244 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 does receive explanations during the process of learning his own 
 language. If these explanations do not take the form of rules, 
 equations, diagrams, and general advice, they are none the less 
 present in the form of object and context-lessons, in which the 
 meaning and the use of w^ords are demonstrated by gestures 
 and association of ideas. The meaning of the word dog is ex- 
 plained to him when we point to the animal in question and 
 pronounce the word dog. 
 
 Be it as it may, the adult requires explanations of some sort 
 or other, and we must recognize that he has a right to them and 
 that the withholding of them will retard his progress by many 
 months. 
 
 In order to distinguish clearly the difference between the 
 matter of the language itself and the explanations which may 
 accompany it in order to render possible its assimilation, we 
 shall speak of the former as the concrete and the latter as the 
 explanatory matter. 
 
 Some adults maintain that the concrete matter is sufficient 
 for them and that they prefer to discover for themselves the 
 explanation of the phenomena contained in it. You will hear 
 people recommend the plan of taking an easy novel in, let us 
 say, Italian, of starting at the first chapter, and forcing ourselves 
 to understand it. They say that the first pages will give us a 
 vague idea of what it is about, and that as we continue the 
 matter will become less and less vague ; we shall guess with more 
 and more success, and before we have reached the end of the 
 book it will be as easy to read as our own language. 
 
 They say that this process will enable us to dispense 
 with dictionary, granmiar-book, and all other sources of 
 information. 
 
 The best refutation of this theory is to hand such a person 
 an easy book written in Russian or Arabic and to ask him to 
 demonstrate the method. He will at once confess his inability 
 to do so, saying that he must first learn the alphabet. But the 
 learning of the alphabet necessitates explanation I Even the 
 child learning his mother tongue cannot learn the alphabet 
 without explanatory matter. 
 
 Our friend will concede that the learning of an alphabet indeed 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 245 
 
 requires explanatory matter, but will hold this to be an ex- 
 ceptional case, and will maintain that, apart from this, the non- 
 explanatory principle still holds good. We may then give him 
 a book written in Hungarian ; here at least he will be able to 
 contemplate his own Latin characters. If he succeeds, by dint 
 of efforts worthy of Sherlock Holmes, in deciphering a word 
 here or there, that will represent his limit ; there will be no 
 progression from the unknown to the known ; he will have to 
 give it up. 
 
 The fact of the matter is that the method of immediate com- 
 prehension of written matter ah ovo is only possible when the 
 language is cognate with our own, or with one already learnt. 
 A Frenchman or any one knowing French can easily become 
 acquainted with Italian by the process of guessing the meaning 
 of the words which are already half familiar. 
 
 Not long ago an acquaintance of the writer's declared to 
 him that if he were furnished with explanations concerning the 
 mechanism of a given language he would lose all interest in it. 
 For him the charm lay in discovering the key to the various 
 problems without any outside aid. The fallacy (for this is 
 obviously a fallacy) consists in placing linguistic work on the 
 same footing as mathematics, chess, patience, jig-saw puzzles, 
 acrostics, or any other sort of intellectual problem- solving game. 
 Obviously all such amusements would lose their charm if some- 
 body were by our side and insisted on furnishing us with ready- 
 made solutions, for their sole interest hes in overcoming the 
 problems by our own unaided efforts. 
 
 But the normal study of language has nothing in common 
 with guessing competitions, however intellectual their nature. 
 To be perfectly consistent, such a person when travelling should 
 shun time-tables, maps, and signposts on the grounds that these 
 things furnish ready-made solutions to problems that he would 
 rather solve unaided. 
 
 " I have to go to Glasgow," he would say. " This presents a 
 number of interesting problems which I intend to solve by the 
 method of discovery. Time-tables exist, also maps, but I will 
 have none of them, nor will I follow the man from Cook's. I 
 have a pocket compass to guide me, and by its aid and that of 
 
246 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 the sun and stars I ought to steer my course with sufficient 
 accuracy." 
 
 This method of discovery is the only one available when the 
 country is unmapped and the railway line non-existent ; it is 
 the only method when the language is one of those remote 
 tongues of which neither dictionary nor grammar has ever been 
 written. The study of French, however, like the journey to 
 Glasgow, is not an occasion to exercise one's faculties of ingenious 
 guessing, but one where the practical man should profit by all 
 the information which experts are only too ready to place at his 
 disposal. 
 
 The practical study of languages in the early stages has 
 nothing in common with chess problems. Rather should it be 
 placed in the same category as geography or history. A foreign 
 language is one of those things of which the ' directions for use ' 
 sftould be carefully read and frequently consulted ; the ideal 
 programme of language-study is that which enables us to assimi- 
 late in the shortest possible time with the least effort the greatest 
 quantity of the most important matter. The method of dis- 
 covery is in flat contradiction to this principle, and he who 
 would use such a method may be likened to a deaf and dumb 
 man trying to find his way about the streets of a strange to\vn. 
 
 This is no imaginary case. Very many language students, 
 especially those who are engaged at the same time in other 
 studies of a real problem-solving nature, think it a necessary 
 part of their work to discover what has already been discovered, 
 to explore regions that need no exploration. 
 
 Explanatory matter is, or ought to be, in the nature of in- 
 formation the object of which is to facilitate our efforts to 
 imitate the models which are set before us. 
 
 Its nature may be morphological, ergonic, or semantic — that 
 is to say, it may deal specifically with form, function, or meaning. 
 
 Explanations may be of the descriptive or of the historical 
 order. In the practical study of language the descriptive aspect 
 alone is of any real value, for when we are learning a given 
 language we wish to know what its characteristics are and not 
 how they have become what they are. 
 
 As we have just mentioned, the function of explanation is to 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 247 
 
 facilitate the efforts of the student to imitate and to develop 
 with success the models which are set before him. 
 
 We must give him a great deal of phonetic information. His 
 auditive faculties have become so atrophied by disuse and by 
 the associations of the sounds of his own language that he will 
 be unable even to hear the sounds of the foreign language. An 
 Englishman to whom we pronounce the French [y] may pos- 
 sibly think that he hears his familiar English sound [u] ; the 
 Frenchman to whom we pronounce the English sound [0] will 
 be under the impression that he hears [s] or [t]. We must open 
 his ears by means of phonetic explanations. The imitative 
 faculties of the average student are also in a state of atrophy ; 
 in his infancy he could pick up new sounds by mere imitation ; 
 he can no longer do so, and as a result he produces sounds which 
 are vastly different from those which are required of him. We 
 must make him conscious of his organs of speech by means of 
 phonetic explanations. 
 
 It is generally not necessary to give much information con- 
 cerning orthography. Experience proves that the adult, at 
 any rate, picks up this branch with extraordinary rapidity and 
 accuracy. This is probably due to the great respect in which 
 he holds the traditional spelling and the intensive development 
 of his visual perceptive faculties. If the language (unlike 
 English or French) possesses a rational spelling system, a 
 short series of orthoepic explanations will be useful to him. 
 We may tell him that ei in German corresponds to the 
 sounds [ai], that gy in Hungarian invariably represents the 
 sound [j], that the Welsh II is the traditional way of ex- 
 pressing [1], etc. 
 
 Information concerning inflexions and other forms of mor- 
 phological change will be very useful at a certain moment. 
 There is no reason whatever for withholding the general laws 
 concerning the formation of the plural of regular English nouns 
 or of the English present or past participles. The student of 
 French (like the Frenchman himself) must be informed con- 
 cerning the nature of the modification which various classes of 
 words undergo in order to change their ergonic values. What 
 has been taught for centuries under the name of accidence 
 
248 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 (declension and conjugation) may still be taught, although more 
 in conformity with the principle of proportion. 
 
 It is of distinct utility to explain to the student the laws of 
 ergonics as applied to the language he is learning, to show in 
 what circumstances the subjunctive replaces the indicative, or 
 when the dative replace the accusative pronouns. By dint of 
 prolonged and totally unnecessary efforts, a good problem- solver 
 may discover the key to the ergonic mystery surrounding the 
 use of the twenty-four ' verbal particles ' in English ; a few 
 pages devoted to the rational explanation of these phenomena 
 will bring about the same result with a vast economy of time, 
 and the days and weeks gained thereby may be devoted to the 
 real business of language learning. 
 
 The explanations concerning the semantic aspect of words 
 are of enormous importance for time-saving purposes. Such 
 explanations constitute the chief raison cCetre of the bilingual 
 dictionary. As a general rule it is profitable to explain to the 
 pupil the meaning or rather the meanings of each word that he 
 learns. If they are not explained, he will have to pick them 
 up himself, and experience proves that the foreigner is not an 
 adept at discovering the meanings of words by his own unaided 
 efforts, especially during the first stages of his study. 
 
 If we withhold information on this subject, the student, more 
 often than not will be content to associate the foreign word 
 with a word in his own language, and thenceforth consider the 
 two as identical in semantic nature. So important indeed is 
 this subject that we have devoted a special place to its con- 
 sideration, and have examined the processes by which the 
 meanings may be attached to the various morphological units 
 that the student has memorized. 
 
 The chief raison d^etre then for clear and abundant explana- 
 tions is to react against certain of the vicious tendencies of 
 which the student is so frequently a victim. 
 
 On the other hand, an excess of explanatory matter will 
 defeat its own ends and lead to other vicious tendencies. In 
 order that the student may not import his own ergonics into 
 the foreign language, we teach him systematically by means of 
 explanatory matter the true ergonic values of the words he 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 249 
 
 learns, and by so doing we may induce him to give way to over- 
 analysis. In order that he may not import his own semantic 
 values into the words he learns, we give him information con- 
 cerning the real semantic values of these words by means of 
 true equivalents, but by so doing we may encourage the tendency 
 toward an excess of bilingual consciousness. 
 
 We shall find a way out of this dilemma if we always make 
 explanation subsidiary to assimilation. Let our ergonic ex- 
 planations follow and not precede the memorizing of the 
 examples. Let us reserve our explanation of the function of 
 the English preterite until our pupil has already learnt by heart 
 a large number of sentences, such as / saw him yesterday, I came 
 here just now, or Why did you do it last night ? 
 
 Let us explain to him the semantic value of the different 
 varieties of get after he has memorized a stock of sentences 
 containing them. 
 
 Explanation is only a vicious process when given in excess 
 of the assimilatory processes. Explanatory matter is only 
 harmful when given out of proportion to the concrete 
 matter. 
 
 Let us remember above all that we must do nothing which 
 will have the effect of deadening the student's faculties of 
 auditive perception and imitation. These must not be replaced 
 by explanatory matter, but, on the contrary, quickened by it. 
 
 Section 31.— The vehicular language for all explanatory matter 
 should be that which is best known by the student. 
 
 While the concrete matter (that is to say, the speech material 
 itself) must necessarily be of the language which is the subject 
 of instruction, it by no means follows that the explanatory matter 
 should also be given in this same language. On the contrary, 
 it is difficult at first sight to see on what grounds such a pro- 
 cedure can be justified. 
 
 We have already alluded to a certain book which is full of 
 valuable information concerning the Chinese language and to 
 the fact that the average English student is totally unable to 
 make any use of it owing to the fact that it is written entirely 
 in Chinese. Strange to say, methods exist the object of which 
 
;i! 
 
 250 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 is to teach the most elementary vocabulary of a foreign 
 language, and in which the ' directions for use ' are given in 
 precisely the language of which the student is presumed to be 
 ignorant. 
 
 There are three justifications for this seemingly absurd pro- 
 cedure, two of which are based on considerations of expediency 
 and the other on pedagogic grounds. 
 
 It is urged that a teacher may be perfectly competent to write 
 a method or to give lessons, but at the same time be ignorant 
 of the language of his reader or pupil. In reply to this we must 
 firmly insist such a teacher is not perfectly competent. One of 
 the qualifications for the teacher of the elementary language to 
 those who are unacquainted with it is a sufficient knowledge of 
 the pupil's language to enable him to use it for vehicular pur- 
 poses, If the teacher is a method- writer, the least he can do 
 is to take the necessary steps to have his explanatory matter 
 translated into the language of the pupil, even though it should 
 increase the expenses of the undertaking. 
 
 But it may further be urged that when a class contains pupils 
 of many different nationalities it is obviously impossible to use 
 as many languages for vehicular purposes. This objection is 
 indeed the only one with any claims to respect. We can only 
 say in answer that if a class of beginners is composed of such 
 heterogeneous members, it is impossible to cause them to 
 " assimilate in the shortest possible time with the least effort 
 the greatest quantity of the most important matter." In other 
 terms our teaching in such cases cannot be strictly scientific, 
 but a pis oiler ; it must be conducted in accordance with 
 principles of mere expediency. We shall have to omit explana- 
 tions altogether, or else give them in the form of diagrams and 
 gestures. But let us recognize that this course is dictated from 
 pure necessity, and, instead of making a virtue of this necessity, 
 let us rather express our regret that circumstances force us to 
 diverge from the principle which serves as the point of departure 
 in our inquiry. 
 
 But as a compensation for our inability to speak to all our 
 pupils in their own language we should at least be able to pro- 
 vide each one with a book in which he will be able to read the 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 251 
 
 explanations which we are unable to provide orally. Lest it 
 be said that such a procedure would be too costly, we will observe 
 that the general adoption of one standard system of teaching, 
 recognized as scientific in the best sense of the term, would 
 render superfluous that amazing multiplicity of books which 
 is the cause of so much needless expense at the present 
 day. 
 
 This leads us to the second alleged justification of the pro- 
 cedure that we are criticizing. A book designed to teach the 
 elements of some lesser known language lying outside the 
 beaten track, or one written with the object of teaching some 
 special aspect of one of the primary languages, can only com- 
 mand a limited circle of readers. If the explanatory matter 
 is written in Russian, the clientele will be confined to Russia ; 
 if written in Dutch the book will only find a sale in Holland, 
 and so on. But when the book is composed according to the 
 principle that a language should be taught without the aid 
 of any outside vehicular language, there is the possibility of 
 finding a sale for it in every country of the world. 
 
 The third alleged justification of the principle, strangely 
 enough, professes to be based on pedagogic considerations. 
 It is frequently urged that the use of the mother tongue during 
 the lesson is a dangerous proceeding, and one to be avoided in 
 the largest possible measure. As we have already dealt with 
 this point in that part of our inquiry entitled " The Principles 
 of Linguistic Pedagogy," we will not go over the ground afresh ; 
 it will suffice to refer our readers to the various arguments 
 adduced therein, which show with cumulative force that the 
 exclusion of the mother tongue is generally, if not always, a 
 vicious procedure productive of most harmful results. 
 
 Section 32.— The teacher should foster and encourage the pupils' 
 
 capacities of visualization by adopting for explanatory purposes 
 
 the principle of visual correlation. 
 
 Visual correlation is the term that we shall use to express 
 
 what the Germans call Uebersichtlichkeit or ' Synopticity.' 
 
 It denotes the arrangement of matter on a page or a series of 
 
 pages in such a manner that the faculties of understanding are 
 
\ 
 
 252 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 assisted by the mere contemplation of it. This is the graphic 
 method, perhaps the most important of the mnemonic devices, 
 including as it does the principles of localization (or spatializa- 
 tion), visualization, association, and separation. 
 I ' Understanding, classification, and division are almost synony- 
 
 mous terms. No subject is understood until it has been divided 
 up into its component parts. In the Japanese language the 
 root of the verb understand (wakaru) also means be divided. 
 Thus instead of vaguely suggesting, as in English, standing 
 under, or taking with, as in French, the Japanese expression in 
 accordance with true psychology suggests. It is to me divided. 
 Nothing could better express the idea of understanding. Nearly 
 all explanations are prefaced by saying we must divide our subject 
 into two 'parts, and the subject under examination is developed 
 further by processes entailing constant repetition of sentences 
 such as, There are three aspects of this question, or This particular 
 subject must be considered under six headings. 
 
 Our inquiry itself consists of dividing up into parts and 
 of further subdividing the whole question of language- 
 study. 
 
 Many subjects are taught almost exclusively by means of 
 diagrams ; other subjects can only be learnt successfully by 
 their help. It is virtually impossible to learn geography with- 
 out maps, geometry without diagrams, genealogy without 
 trees, architecture and mechanics without drawings and plans. 
 With the improvement of pedagogic methods the system of 
 diagrams is coming more and more into vogue ; it is being 
 applied to the study of history, statistics, and a host of other 
 subjects. There are indeed few branches of knowledge the 
 study of which is not facilitated by some form of graphic 
 illustration. 
 
 This is only right and natural, considering that the faculty 
 of understanding, consciously or unconsciously, works by the 
 mnemonic process of spatial correlation. We listen to a de- 
 scriptive explanation of some knotty problem ; as the speaker 
 introduces his points, establishes differences and identities, we 
 form a mental picture of the subject in which we locate the 
 various factors. The mental graph that we form enables us 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 253 
 
 to grasp the problem, to comprehend it, and to survey it in its 
 different aspects. Those who do not form mental images are 
 probably incapable of mider standing. The difference between 
 so-called intelligent and unintelligent pupils consists in their 
 respective ability or inability to form these mental images. 
 The chief function of all ' memory systems ' good or bad is to 
 encourage and help the student to arrange his thoughts spatially 
 or diagrammatically. 
 
 It is worth while to try the following experiment. Take a 
 list of twenty names ; these may be names of people, places, 
 plants, animals, books, plays, foreign or technical words — in 
 short, any terms whatever. Try to learn them so that you may 
 repeat them off in their order without any mental confusion. 
 After ten minutes your efforts may be successful — or they may 
 not. Take a second group of names and dispose them in some 
 spatial form. 
 
 A simple method is to utilize the parts of the room in which 
 you happen to be. Go to the door, and while contemplating it, 
 repeat one of the words slowly and write it in your imagination 
 on one of the panels. Move to the object nearest the door ; it 
 may be a corner, a pictiu'e, or a piece of furniture ; there repeat 
 the second word and trace its graphic form on the object in 
 front of which you stand. Then move on a foot or so and 
 ' localize ' the next word, and go on until the list is exhausted. 
 This process need not take more than five minutes, at the con- 
 clusion of which you will probably reel off the twenty names 
 in their correct order with hardly any hesitation or mental 
 effort. 
 
 This experiment is not designed to prove that the royal road 
 to language-learning consists of learning lists of words ; far 
 from it. What it does demonstrate is the fact that the physical 
 separation of the units of a problem will go far to facilitate 
 its mastery ; instead of being superposed, as it were, on one 
 spot of what we may call the receptive surface of the brain, 
 each unit has its own place and acquires an identity of its 
 own. 
 
 But these considerations may lead us into the depths of 
 psychology and nmemonics ; we must content ourselves at 
 
254 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 present with stating that when a problem is separated into its 
 component parts and when these are disposed according to their 
 agreements and disagreements either in a real spatial relation 
 or the mental conception of one, that problem becomes ' under- 
 stood,' we become masters of it, and are able to reproduce the 
 diagram at will. 
 
 Probably most of us use this faculty of image -making, but 
 do it with such perfect unconsciousness that we are unaware 
 of it. We are sometimes just conscious enough to note that a 
 particular lesson or lecture was more deeply engraved on our 
 memory because it was given in new or unaccustomed sur- 
 roundings. Many of us can recall the particular spot in which 
 we learnt a certain word or expression. When turning into the 
 Charing Cross Road from Trafalgar Square, Monsieur X, who 
 is talking French to us, uses some French expression which 
 strikes us as being new material for our vocabulary. It is 
 almost certain that when we use this expression for the first 
 time our thoughts will go out in a flash to the corner of Charing 
 Cross Road, the geographical spot which has served to fix the 
 expression in our memory and to prevent it from being con- 
 fused with a few hundred others. 
 
 Apart from geographical or spatial considerations, however, 
 all good learners form arbitrary mental images corresponding 
 to the factors of the problems they are learning. We describe 
 to a foreigner the phenomena connected with the relative 
 pronoun in English. We say : " The relative pronoun is 
 expressed by who (for person), and which (for objects)." Our 
 pupil shuts his eyes or gazes into vacuity for an instant, while 
 he places who to the left and which to the right of the blank 
 surface he has conjured up before himself. " When expressing 
 the objective relation, who is replaced by whom, but which 
 remains invariable." 
 
 Our pupil immediately conceives the word whom as occupying 
 its space a little distance below who, and places a second which 
 on the same latitude as whom and the same longitude as the 
 first which. 
 
 " These four words may be replaced by thai, which performs 
 the same function as each of the four." 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 
 
 The mental image has now become : 
 
 Persons Things 
 
 Subject : 
 
 WHO 
 
 WHICH 
 
 255 
 
 THAT 
 
 Object : 
 
 WHOM 
 
 WHICH 
 
 '^ When used in the objective relation, that may be sup- 
 pressed." 
 The mental image of our pupil develops into its final form : 
 
 Subject : 
 
 Persons 
 
 
 Things 
 
 WHO 
 
 \ 
 
 THAT 
 
 (that) 
 
 WHICH 
 
 / 
 
 WHOM 
 
 
 WHICH 
 
 Object : 
 
 When we come to test his knowledge he will evoke his mental 
 image and read it off to us without hesitation, error, or effort, 
 and we call him an intelligent pupil. And the strange part of 
 it is that our pupil is quite unconscious that he composed a 
 diagram and wrote it down on the tablets of his mind, and that 
 he read off what he had written when called upon to repeat his 
 lesson. 
 
 His companion has never developed this visualizing habit. 
 Our remarks were superposed one on the other, each obliterating 
 the preceding one. No wonder that he calls the English 
 language difficult and the problem of the relative pronoun 
 insoluble — and no wonder we call him an unintelligent 
 pupil ! 
 
 One of the functions of the teacher is to foster the visualizing 
 habit ; to aid the visualizer by providing him with ready-made 
 diagrams in order to prevent him from creating them in a less 
 practical form and from having to efface a part or the whole 
 of an inadequate one. We must also strive by concrete devices 
 to develop the latent powers of the so-called ' unintelhgent ' 
 
256 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 pupil. If he cannot form his own diagrams we must form them 
 for him. By demonstrating problems before him with constant 
 reference to a wall-chart or a diagram chalked on the black- 
 board, always with the same disposition of parts, he carmot fail 
 to receive the graphic impressions that we are forcing on his 
 consciousness. 
 
 It must not be forgotten that first impressions are the most 
 lasting ; the first visualization generally forms the basis for all 
 subsequent knowledge and constitutes the nucleus to which all 
 further acquired matter will be attracted. It is therefore of 
 great importance that each diagram should be drawn up in 
 accordance with sound and consistent principles in order to 
 avoid a subsequent change of form which will shock the pupil's 
 graphic sense and lead to painful mental confusion. We may 
 decide to use the following scheme to show the declension of the 
 German definite article : 
 
 
 Masculine 
 
 Feminine 
 
 Neuter 
 
 Plural 
 
 Nominative 
 Genitive 
 Dative 
 Accusative 
 
 der 
 des 
 dem 
 den 
 
 die 
 der 
 der 
 die 
 
 das 
 des 
 dem 
 das 
 
 die 
 der 
 den 
 die 
 
 But, if we do so, subsequent considerations must not tempt 
 us to alter it to, let us say : 
 
 
 Masculine 
 
 Neuter 
 
 Feminine 
 
 Plural 
 
 Nominative 
 Accusative 
 Dative 
 Genitive 
 
 der 
 den 
 dem 
 des 
 
 das 
 das 
 dem 
 des 
 
 die 
 die 
 der 
 der 
 
 die 
 die 
 den 
 der 
 
 for by so doing the sense of visual correlation developed by 
 the former will be thrown into confusion by the second, 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 257 
 
 even though the latter should prove the more practical of 
 the two. 
 
 The writer's first impressions of the French conjugation were 
 gained by studying a paradigm in which the infmitive, parti- 
 ciples, present, and past indefinite tenses were disposed toward 
 the bottom of a left-hand page ; the right-hand page started 
 with the imperfect and was followed by the pluperfect, preterite, 
 past anterior, future, and future anterior ; on the next page 
 were the remainder of the tenses. From that day to this he 
 has always visualized the tenses in this relation ; for him the 
 conditional is still the over-the-page tense, and a mention of 
 the future anterior always carries his eye in imagination to the 
 bottom of a right-hand page. The writer has taught French for 
 many years and has always used a far more rational disposition, 
 but has never been able to visualize it on account of the depth 
 of the original impression. 
 
 The two following schemes are each perfect in their way, 
 but one only should be chosen and used with any particular 
 pupil : 
 
 (1) 
 
 
 je 
 
 me 
 
 me 
 
 moi 
 
 
 
 tu 
 
 te 
 
 te 
 
 toi 
 
 
 
 il 
 
 le 
 
 lui 
 
 lui 
 
 
 
 elle 
 
 la 
 
 lui 
 
 elle 
 
 
 
 nous 
 
 nous 
 
 nous 
 
 nous 
 
 
 
 vous 
 
 vous 
 
 vous 
 
 vous 
 
 
 
 ils 
 
 les 
 
 leur 
 
 eux 
 
 
 
 elles 
 
 les 
 ( 
 
 leur 
 
 :2) 
 
 elles 
 
 
 je 
 
 tu il 
 
 elle 
 
 nous vous ils 
 
 elles 
 
 me 
 
 te le 
 
 la 
 
 j» 
 
 „ les 
 
 les 
 
 me 
 
 te lui 
 
 lui 
 
 5> 
 
 „ leur 
 
 leur 
 
 moi toi lui elle ,, ,, eux elles 
 
 If we decide on using the following visual presentation of 
 certain English prepositions, we must hold to it ; the square 
 
 R 
 
258 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 must not be transfonned into a triangle, nor should the positions 
 of each preposition be changed. 
 
 OVER 
 
 TO 
 
 AT 
 
 FROM 
 
 /^e^R ^— Q 
 
 ACROSS 
 
 ,0^ 
 
 .x^ 
 
 </ 
 
 ^-^'- xoot°^ 
 
 / 
 
 AG/MN5T 
 
 ^A^f^°'^ 
 
 If you have learnt phonetics from a diagram which places 
 the lips on the left-hand side, avoid those which picture them 
 on the right. 
 
 The principle of Visual Correlation has been applied to 
 problems of declension and conjugation from time immemorial. 
 Paradigms showing in vertical and lateral columns the relations 
 of gender, number, and case are among the most familiar features 
 of grammar-books. But such graphic methods are generally 
 limited to the classical problems which we have just quoted ; it 
 is hardly realized that a principle which has been applied with 
 success to certain special subjects may be applied with equal 
 success to others. 
 
 Let us suppose that we teach a foreigner the laws governing the 
 respective uses of the English simple and compound present and 
 preterite. They may be expressed in the following manner ; 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 259 
 
 " The English present and preterite tenses may be simple or 
 compound ; the compound tenses are made up of the auxiliary 
 do and the infinitive of the verb. When simple, the verb 
 itself undergoes modification ; when compound, the auxiliary 
 do is modified in place of the verb. The simple form is the more 
 generally used of the two, the compound form generally being 
 reserved for use in cases of inversion, when modified by not or 
 in cases of special or emphatic affirmation. The reason that the 
 compound form is used in connection with inversion is because 
 it is contrary to modern usage to invert the subject with the 
 verb unless the latter forms part of a group of twenty- four 
 anomalous verbal units of which do and its modified forms are 
 members. Alone these twenty-four particles may be modified 
 by the negative adverb not. As each of those twenty-four 
 particles and no other verbal forms have the power of expressing 
 emphatic or special affirmation, we must have recourse to the 
 auxiliary do each time that such affirmation becomes necessary." 
 
 This is almost an ideal example of how not to present matter. 
 The adult student, let alone the child, may be heartily congratu- 
 lated on his visualizing capacities if he is able from the above 
 involved statement to gain any precise notion of the relative 
 functions of the simple and compound tenses in question. This 
 series of laws may easily be presented in graphic form by means 
 of the diagram on p. 260. 
 
 One of the main objects of the ergonic chart is precisely to 
 foster habits of visual correlation and diagrammatic concretiza- 
 tion by showing in one comprehensive scheme the sum of all 
 the ergonic lists and substitution tables which have been the 
 object of the pupil's previous study. 
 
 \Vhether in guise of ergonic chart, substitution table, 
 mnemonic diagram, concretized formula, or practical scheme 
 of analysis, the object of each of these graphic representations 
 is identical : the development and encouragement of the faculty of 
 visualizing. 
 
 The enthusiastic teacher who may be inspired to make 
 graphic representation the beginning and the end of his peda- 
 gogic efforts should not lose sight of the fact that this sort of 
 work is of the documentary and not of the assimilative order. 
 
260 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 A complete collection of the most perfect and ingenious dia- 
 grams will not teach a single student how to speak and 
 understand the language when spoken. They are of immense 
 service for explanatory purposes and will be of the greatest 
 assistance to the student who wishes to utilize to the fullest 
 extent the sentences that he has memorized ; but they will 
 
 fSfUttt 
 
 SimpU. Ttttif.i 
 
 I GIVE 
 HE GIVES 
 
 Contfciird Tfusrs 
 
 PrtUril I GAVE 
 
 The sitnplf icnfir? 
 are- lo be uscH in 
 
 The roinp<>iiii(J 
 tfPseh arc lo he 
 used only 
 
 cases except 
 
 This 1^ tlie mfmitivc concomitant, 
 a variety of do which must not he 
 ronfused with the verb do. 
 
 This IS the infinitive f^Ttie^ not to 
 l)e confused with s;tve of the 
 simple present Icnse. 
 
 ' 1 In cases of 
 
 Inversion, (>ecause rhc subject 
 
 may only be 
 verted with... 
 
 When the tenRe 
 13 modified by 
 
 not, because twl can only b«| 
 used with . _ 
 
 In cases of 
 speciaj or 
 emphatic 
 
 assertion, because special or 
 emphatic assertion 
 may only be ex- 
 pressed by means 
 of .- 
 
 one of the 'verbaf 
 particles,' a group 
 of twenty four ver- 
 bal forms of which 
 do, does, and did 
 are members. 
 
 not replace fluency practice, memorizing, and subconscious 
 comprehension. 
 
 The use of graphic demonstration at the expense of oral 
 repetition and catenizing work is an obvious abuse of the 
 principle, and will surely tempt the student into many of the 
 habits described under the heading of " Vicious Tendencies," 
 more especially those relating to over-reliance on the visual 
 memory and over-analysis. 
 
 It is for the teacher to judge at what moment to have 
 recourse to this auxiliary and in what doses to administer 
 it. 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 261 
 
 Section 33.— Further functions of the teacher are : 
 (a) To cause or to stimulate the pupil to work. 
 (6) To give the pupil opportunities of hearing the language 
 spoken, and to act the part of second person in a con- 
 versation. 
 (c) To act as examiner, to award marks, and to correct errors. 
 Besides organizing the programme and determining the 
 manner in which the material is to be assimilated by the pupils, 
 the teacher will take all the active measures necessary to 
 stimulate the pupils in their task of assimilation. He must 
 help them to digest the primary matter and must help them 
 to produce the secondary matter. However well organized a 
 programme of study may be, it will be inoperative if the 
 stimulus is not present to act as the mainspring of the perfect 
 mechanism. The teacher will encourage the good pupils by 
 his congratulations and arouse the laggards and slackers by 
 timely applications of the spur. 
 
 As every teacher knows, there are always a certain number 
 of pupils, both children and adults, who have not the slightest 
 intention of doing what they are not compelled to do ; they 
 will be driven, but not led. In such cases one of the functions 
 of the teacher is to drive. The teacher of real genius may so 
 possess the gift of pedagogy that he will end by convincing the 
 slackers that it will be to their immediate interest and conduce 
 to their immediate well-being to abandon their attitude of driven 
 cattle in favour of the more intelligent and more pleasant role 
 of interested participators in an interesting game. In every 
 individual there are to be found latent capacities of intense 
 interest and enthusiasm ; in the case of children these capacities 
 become active in strange ways, often manifested by the mania 
 of the collector and the curiosity of the investigator. 
 
 It is for the teacher to develop these latent capacities, to 
 direct them into useful channels and to utilize them. The 
 schoolboy who becomes an ardent collector of foreign stamps 
 may also become an enthusiastic collector of foreign inflections ; 
 those same strange impulses which make of him a veritable 
 encyclopaedia of football lore may also make of him a store- 
 house of phonetic, semantic, or ergonic lore. 
 
262 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 The teacher will also constitute an instrument of assimila- 
 tion. Many adult pupils enlist the services of a teacher solely 
 on this account ; he is the indispensable second person in all 
 conversations, he broaches the topic that will bring the conversa- 
 tion into being ; he will ask the questions that stimulate replies 
 in the same language ; he is the producer of oral material of 
 which the pupil is a passive auditor, or plays the part of passive 
 auditor when the pupil is spokesman. " Je ne veux pas de 
 legons," says the French adult student (only too often), " ce 
 que je desire, c'est avoir I'occasion de parler et entendre 
 parler, comme ca je me perfectionnerai dans la conversation 
 et j'estime qu'on ne pent faire des progres qu'en parlant." 
 
 If the matter contained in the nucleus is sound, and if the 
 student possesses a well-digested and proportionate microcosm 
 of the language, his procedure is rational, and should be en- 
 couraged. It may be noted, however, that no expert teacher 
 is requisite to play this particular role. Any native speaker 
 of the language will suffice if the pupil's aim does not comprise 
 a constant commentary replete with corrections and suggestions. 
 An economical plan would be for each adult student to engage 
 the services of two teachers, one of these, the expert, will give 
 the necessary information, supply the necessary matter, and 
 make the necessary corrections on a reasoned and systematic 
 basis ; the other, the casual or untrained teacher, possessing as 
 his sole qualification a fluent knowledge of his native language, 
 will serve as a mere instrument of conversation, a means by 
 which the student will be enabled to use the material he has 
 assimilated under the guidance and supervision of the other. 
 
 We have noted on more than one occasion how im- 
 portant are the services of a ' repeater.' \^Tien we hear a 
 foreign sentence repeated many times in a clear voice, with 
 energy and persistency, it will indeed go hard with us if the effect 
 is not lasting and if we are not able to reproduce it with more 
 or less accuracy and fluency. 
 
 The teacher is to the oral aspect of language what the book or 
 the text is to its graphic aspect. In this respect the only sub- 
 stitute for a teacher is the phonograph with records which 
 have been made specially with a view to this work of repetition. 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 263 
 
 Another function of the teacher is to test the pupil's know- 
 ledge at any given moment and to award ' marks ' in order 
 that the pupil may realize his degree of progress. This in itself 
 is a valuable stimulus to good work, for the competitive instinct 
 is very powerful with most of us. Attempts to break records, 
 to surpass our previous efforts or the efforts made by our fellow- 
 students constitute an incentive not to be despised. 
 
 Closely connected with this aspect of the teacher's work is 
 the correcting of mistakes. As we have already seen, the 
 making of mistakes (other than mere slips) on a considerable 
 scale points to a grave flaw in the programme. Whatever 
 mistakes do occur, needless to say, must be corrected at once, 
 and the cause of error ascertained and removed, otherwise the 
 faulty expression will become incorporated into the nucleus and 
 exercise a sinister influence on the sound matter with which it 
 is surrounded. 
 
 Section 34.— A very important function of the teacher is to react 
 against the six vicious tendencies to which all students are more 
 or less subject. 
 
 All students, especially adults, are more or less subject to a series 
 of what we may term '' vicious tendencies." Few are exempt 
 from them, the most experienced language-learners may be their 
 victims, and the vast majority of students are slaves to them. 
 
 The most general of these may be grouped under the following 
 six headings : 
 
 1. Neglect of the peculiar characteristics of the foreign 
 
 language. 
 
 2. Illegitimate importation of elements from the mother 
 
 tongue. 
 
 3. Artificial separation of monologs (single words), and 
 
 non-recognition of polylogs (group words). 
 
 4. Preference for strong forms. 
 
 5. Over-reliance on visual memory. 
 
 6. Exaggeration of bilingual consciousness. 
 
 It should be made clear at this point that all these tendencies 
 are not wholly bad, nor are they always bad. They bear some 
 
264 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 similarity to various types of poisons which under certain con- 
 ditions may be prescribed in small doses as beneficial, but an un- 
 restrained indulgence in which will produce fatal results either 
 immediately or later on as a result of cumulative absorption. 
 Innocuous as they may be when judiciously administered, they 
 are, nevertheless, dangerous instrimients. Every one of them 
 is contrary to the natural process by which a child learns to use 
 his mother tongue, and for this reason if for no other it behoves 
 us to exercise the greatest caution when brought face to face 
 with them. 
 
 In a general way it is necessary to take a strong line and to 
 react against them ; indeed, it may be said that the first function 
 of the instructor is to help the student to resist them. 
 
 In certain cases, however, we shall see that it is possible to 
 mar what would otherwise be an effective system of teaching by 
 an exaggeration of our precautions. To exclude from one end 
 of the programme to the other all graphic forms under the pre- 
 text that writing encourages an over-reliance on visual memory 
 would be an exaggeration of the danger, as also would be the 
 total exclusion of translation on the grounds that the pupil 
 must not be encouraged into habits of bilingual consciousness. 
 It is precisely the art of the instructor to determine at what 
 moment a pupil is beneficially or prejudicially affected by a 
 given procedure. 
 
 It is precisely in order that these dangerous tendencies may 
 be better resisted and that the pupil may better realize their 
 nature that we have insisted on a course of preliminary work 
 previous to the study proper of a given language. Those who 
 have acquired (or rather reacquired) the faculty of oral imita- 
 tion, who have a practical knowledge of the nature of language 
 and language-study, and who are acquainted with the leading 
 phenomena of memory are more or less immune. The young 
 child learning his mother tongue is exempt from these ten- 
 dencies altogether ; his ignorance and inability to abuse his 
 faculties of reason shield him from harm ; he acquires his 
 mother language with no other preparatory course than that 
 of oral imitation. He requires no courses of phonetics, 
 ergonics, semantics, etymology, pedagogy, and mnemonics. 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 265 
 
 The older student, not enjoying this immunity, does require 
 them. 
 
 This indeed is the fundamental difference between the mother 
 tongue and the foreign language. 
 
 Section 35.— In order to perform effective work, the teacher (or student) 
 should have at his disposal an adequate number of the right 
 sort of instruments in the form of a practical library for reference 
 and other purposes. 
 
 If we wish to make a wooden table, two things are essential : 
 wood and tools. If we started to convert some rough planks into 
 a table with no other tool than a blunt pocket-knife our work 
 would be laborious and long and the result would be a very 
 indifferent table. 
 
 We must have the right sort of material and the right sort of 
 tools. The fact that we cannot make bricks without straw nor 
 make a silk purse out of a sow's ear is proverbial. Experience, 
 moreover, has proved that the best instrument for extracting 
 a cork is a corkscrew, that a hammer is a better tool for driving 
 in a nail than the back of a clothes brush, and that a screw- 
 driver is a poor substitute for a tin-opener. 
 
 If we started to learn French with no other material than the 
 average pocket dictionary and no other tool than the average 
 '' French Grammar," our work would be in vain. In language- 
 learning, as in table-making, house-building, and machine 
 constructing we must have the right tools and the right material. 
 We must have the instruments which will enable us to overcome 
 with the minimum of effort and of time the obstacles which 
 stand between us and our end,, obstacles presented by our 
 ignorance of French phonetics, orthoepy, orthography, etymo- 
 logy, semantics, and ergonics. 
 
 Of the ' material ' represented by the lexicological units, 
 we have already spoken at length ; we will add a few words 
 concerning the instruments. 
 
 These will consist chiefly of books, fickes, lists, diagrams, 
 and charts containing the units themselves and all the ex- 
 planatory matter which will help us to understand and to 
 assimilate them. 
 
266 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 It is difficult to work with insufficient or inferior material, 
 and it is false economy to study a language without a variety 
 of first -class tools each of which will enable us to learn or to 
 teach something more easily or better. 
 
 The following rough list enumerates most of the contents of 
 the library which should be at the disposal of (let us say) English 
 students wishing to learn French. 
 
 1. A French-English dictionary giving the morphology 
 (orthographic and phonetic), inflexions, ergonic and semantic 
 values, and frequency degree of all the lexicological units con- 
 tained in the microcosm, accompanied by the most character- 
 istic examples of their regular and irregular uses. 
 
 2. A complementary English-French dictionary conceived 
 on the same lines and which might very easily be designed in 
 such a way as to enable an Englishman ignorant of French 
 to compose an almost unlimited number of correct French 
 sentences. 
 
 3. A set of Ergonic Lists containing the most important 
 members of the most important ergonic categories, in ortho- 
 graphic and phonetic scripts and with full translations and notes. 
 
 4. The large-scale Ergonic Chart of the language, with all 
 the necessary mechanical devices. 
 
 5. Limited relevis from the Ergonic Chart in the form of a 
 series of graduated substitution tables. 
 
 6. A Phonetic Chart of the French sounds. 
 
 7. A detailed list of all the French sounds (vowels, consonants, 
 simple and compound), each sound to be described, represented 
 by a diagram showing the position of the organs of speech, and 
 illustrated by a list of some of the more important units (mono- 
 syllabic if possible) into the composition of which it enters. 
 
 8. Lists of words classified according to their initial and final 
 syllables. 
 
 9. Miscellaneous word lists comprising among their features : 
 
 (a) Words containing only the less difficult sounds. 
 
 (b) Words having the same spelling in both languages. 
 
 10. A series of graduated exercises containing most of those 
 described in connexion with the Standard Programme. 
 
THE FUNCTIONS OF THE TEACHER 267 
 
 11. A comprehensive set of questions and answers serving 
 to explain the more useful and interesting phenomena of the 
 language in all its lexicological aspects. 
 
 12. A supplement to 11 in the form of a series of syste- 
 matic ' directions for use ' of the language in all its lexicological 
 aspects. 
 
 13. Easy texts (graduated) containing a high proportion 
 of the units figuring in a given microcosm, with English 
 translation and notes. 
 
 14. A questionnaire containing some thousand easy questions 
 and their answers. The first part of the book will give these 
 questions and answers in their classified order ; the second part 
 will contain the same questions in mixed order. 
 
 15. The sentences of most frequent occurrence in everyday 
 speech with indications by which most of them may be con- 
 verted into simple or compound substitution tables. 
 
 16. A series of model letters both of general and special 
 interest. 
 
 17. A corrective method designed to cure bad lexicological 
 habits due to previous and defective study. 
 
 18. A large bilingual dictionary less precise but more extensive 
 than those described in 1 and 2. Every word should be ac- 
 companied by its phonetic transcript and all necessary ergonic 
 and semantic information. 
 
 19. An elementary text-book of lexicology, with sections de- 
 voted to general phonetics, etymology, semantics, and ergonics. 
 
 20. An elementary text-book of linguistics or philology, de- 
 scribing and explaining the phenomena of language in general. 
 
PART VIII 
 THE STUDENT 
 
 Section 36.— There are two categories of students who are necessarily 
 the architects of their own programme or method : 
 
 (a) Those who are unable to command the services of any 
 
 teacher whatever. 
 (6) Those to whom the services of casual or non -expert 
 teachers are alone available. 
 
 Many students from the force of circumstances are their own 
 teachers. Such must necessarily nearly always be the case 
 when the language is that of a remote people or one of those of 
 which teachers are rare. If the student happens to reside in a 
 village or small town it is rarely possible for him to take lessons. 
 Even in the largest towns it is difficult to find teachers of 
 languages little known and less studied. 
 
 In such cases as these the student must perforce be his own 
 teacher and rely on books and phonograph records. Were the 
 language-learner's ideal library an objective fact instead of an 
 abstraction, the student would lose comparatively little by the 
 exchange. As matters stand, however, he must do the best he 
 may by applying to himself advice of the kind that we have 
 suggested in the foregoing sections. He must also to a certain 
 extent be the architect of his own method. Except in rare cases 
 it will be difficult for him at the present day to procure any 
 ready-made ergonic lists, still less an ergonic chart ; these he 
 must compose for himself with the help of a large dictionary 
 and a series of ' grammars ' and other works presumably 
 written for those who are more or less in his situation. 
 
 Those who are unable to avail themselves of expert teachers 
 may as a pis alter make use of the help afforded by some one 
 who, without being a teacher, possesses a first-class acquaint- 
 ance with the foreign language which is possibly his native 
 
 268 
 
THE STUDENT 269 
 
 tongue. If he cannot fulfil all the functions of the teacher he 
 will be able to fulfil a portion of them more or less successfully. 
 
 One of the most frequent cases in which the student is thus 
 obliged to engage the services of a casual teacher is that of the 
 traveller, missionary, or trader who goes to some country where 
 the language spoken by the natives is not one of those studied 
 in European schools. 
 
 The student must in this case, as before, be the architect of 
 his programme and draw up his own ergonic tables. 
 
 The first care of the student working in these unfavourable 
 but interesting conditions is to ascertain which are the sounds 
 of the language in question. He must ask his teacher to pro- 
 nounce a given unit a number of times. He will then attempt 
 to transcribe what he hears with appropriate symbols. He will 
 also do his best to reproduce orally what he hears and continue 
 to do so until his teacher is fully satisfied. The student will 
 generally have to be more critical than his teacher ; too often, 
 unfortunately, the latter is satisfied with mediocre results. It 
 will be permissible for the student wilfully to mispronounce 
 certain sounds in order to ascertain whether his teacher is as 
 strict as he ought to be in correcting everything which is not 
 in order. With patience and perseverance the student should 
 eventually ascertain exactly how many sounds are contained 
 in the language, which they are, and to what extent many of 
 them differ from sounds already known to him. At the same 
 time he will have been careful to note the stress, intonation, and 
 other alogistic features of the language. 
 
 WTien once he is able to write what he hears, his next en- 
 deavour will be to draw up the ergonic lists which will serve as 
 material for the chart. His procedure will be somewhat as 
 follows : 
 
 '' How do you say / see two men ? " 
 
 The answer will be noted and transcribed without any con- 
 siderations of graphic continuity ; it will be written as one 
 word. The English translation will be written on the opposite 
 page. 
 
 '' How do you say / see three men ? " 
 
 The answer will be carefully noted and transcribed ; there 
 
270 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 will be a difference between the two sentences, which difference 
 may be taken to represent the change from two to three. It must 
 then be ascertained how to express / see four men, I see Jive 
 men, etc. The answers will be noted and a simple substitution 
 table will be the result. 
 
 It may be asked : " Why not ask the teacher simply to recite 
 the numbers from one upward ? " 
 
 It would not be a sound proceeding, for there is a strong 
 possibility that the numerals will not have the same form 
 when isolated as when used as modifiers. In French the 
 words corresponding to five, six, seven, eight, nine, and ten 
 possess two or even three forms, according to their function 
 and position. 
 
 We shall then ask how to say / see one man, and note the 
 unit corresponding to one and also whether the equivalent 
 of man differs from that of men ; if so this sentence will not 
 form part of our table ; it can be set on one side for future 
 reference. 
 
 We shall then ask how to express / see two women and 
 compare this sentence with / see two men. We shall note 
 whether the unit corresponding to two changes in any way. 
 If not, we shall read the sentences / see three women, I see 
 four women, I see five women, etc., in order to be sure that 
 there is neither concord nor assimilation on the part of the 
 numerals. This point being established, we shall replace 
 women by trees, houses, horses, etc., etc., and note the units 
 corresponding to each of these simple concepts. Our table 
 has now become a compound substitution table. We shall 
 next ask how to say / hear two men. The difference between 
 this and the first sentence will correspond to the difference 
 between see and hear. Other simple verbs, such as know, meet, 
 wait for, follow, etc., will successively replace the verbs see 
 and hear. Care will be taken at each step to pronounce all 
 the new combinations to make sure that they are ergonically 
 sound. 
 
 On semantic grounds our teacher will probably protest. If, 
 in making our ergonic combinations, oblivious of all except 
 ergonic considerations, we happen to pronounce the foreign 
 
THE STUDENT 271 
 
 equivalent of I follow two trees, we shall at once be informed that 
 it is a sentence not in use among the natives. In all such cases 
 we must calm our teacher as best we can ; we may perhaps tell 
 him that we are going to form the sentence It is impossible to 
 say " I follow two trees, '^ or Only a madman would say '' I follow 
 two trees " ; we shall be forgiven and our ergonic study will 
 proceed. 
 
 Whenever our teacher is inclined to interrupt our trend of 
 work by considerations of a purely semantic order, we must 
 explain to the best of our ability that the study of the exact 
 meanings of our units will come later. As we go on, our teacher 
 will begin to grasp that there is method in our madness, and may 
 possibly be able to contribute not only a number of appropriate 
 units but certain valuable hints which will enable us to accelerate 
 our pace. In order to bring about this desirable result we first 
 work at the more accessible ergonic lists, such as the one already 
 described. Before venturing on what may prove more difficult 
 ground, considerations of conjugation, declension and other 
 ptosonic features, we may first exhaust the possibilities of 
 the simple and better-known categories. Among these are the 
 complements of place, time, and duration, modifier categories 
 (such as adjectives of colour and dimension), pronouns, etc., etc. 
 For a long time we must never fail to work on the basis of com- 
 plete sentences, for only those who have had much experience 
 with strange languages know what extraordinary things may 
 happen when an isolated unit finds itself associated with others 
 in a sentence. 
 
 The result of the joint labours of student and teacher will be 
 a sufficient number of ergonic lists to form a simple chart ; the 
 working of this chart must be controlled and checked in various 
 ways until we are assured of its soundness. 
 
 In the meantime, in fact from the moment that the first 
 simple substitution table has been committed to writing, the 
 pupil may start catenizing operations and carry on the work 
 described in the second stage of the Standard Programme. 
 
 The semanticizing of the units may be carried out in one 
 or more of the four manners described in the section dealing 
 with this process. 
 
272 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Section 37.— The relations between teacher and student in point of 
 authority can only be determined in accordance with certain 
 deUcate factors, among which are the relative degree of expert- 
 ness possessed or claimed by either, the particular end that the 
 student has in view, and the inducement which the pupil is pre- 
 pared to offer in order to secure the unconditional and unquaUfied 
 services of a docile teacher. 
 The vast majority of students are in the hands of their 
 teachers, just as the teachers are at the mercy of the method- 
 maker. They must generally abide by the decisions of their 
 teacher and be content to follow his programme. 
 
 In special cases the student may possess more technical 
 knowledge of language-learning than his teacher ; this may 
 result in a mutual state of distrust and passive resistance 
 In other cases the teacher is the more expert of the two, 
 but the pupil thinks the contrary. In both cases there is 
 distrust, an enormous dispersion of force, and a sad state of 
 friction. 
 
 The relationship between a teacher and his pupil may hardly 
 be compared with that subsisting between a doctor and his 
 patient. We go to a doctor prepared to place ourselves un- 
 reservedly in his hands, for we recognize him as an expert and 
 we acknowledge our own incompetence. 
 
 But in the case of linguistic work the issue is complicated 
 by a cross factor. The teacher works in a double capacity ; he 
 is the source from which information touching the language 
 itself is to be derived, and at the same time is presumed to 
 dictate in what manner that information is to be conveyed 
 and assimilated. 
 
 To take a concrete example, let us imagine A to be a fairly 
 expert learner with three foreign languages already to his credit. 
 He wishes to study a fourth, and has decided in his own mind 
 exactly how much of that language he wishes to become 
 acquainted with and in precisely what aspect he wishes to 
 specialize. He wishes, let us say, for a thorough documenta- 
 tion on the sounds of the modern colloquial language and no 
 more ; he is not interested in its literary form, nor does he wish 
 to study its peculiar spelling system. The language is one of 
 
THE STUDENT 273 
 
 those which is rarely studied ; native teachers are difficult to 
 find, few or no books are accessible. 
 
 B represents the teacher to whom A has recourse. His 
 principal qualification as teacher is that he is bilingual, knowing 
 both his own language and that of A. 
 
 Now B may have peculiar notions of his own as to the method 
 of teaching his language. He may be convinced that all study 
 should be based on the written aspect of its classical form, and 
 that such details as the sounds of the colloquial variety are not 
 worthy of serious consideration. 
 
 But A does not go to B in order to learn how or what to study. 
 What he wants is the material itself of which B is the only 
 available source. The obvious consequence is that A and B 
 will both lose a great deal of time and patience, and expend 
 uselessly a great deal of energy. 
 
 Or the case may be the contrary. Let us imagine C as 
 a would-be learner with no notions whatever concerning the 
 nature of language, but merely endowed with the usual stock 
 of linguistic illusions. 
 
 D will be a teacher well qualified in both of his capacities. 
 He is an efficient source of linguistic information, and has a 
 sound knowledge of the processes of study. He knows far 
 better what C is likely to require than C does himself. Now, 
 unless C places himself unreservedly in the hands of D there 
 will be trouble, misunderstanding will arise, and each will pull 
 in his own direction. 
 
 Even the best type of student, who intuitively chooses the 
 right matter and the right path, would derive great benefit and 
 save many months of effort if he recognized what the nature of 
 language really is and what the principles of study are. 
 
 A preliminary knowledge of geography always facilitates 
 travel, however well endowed one may be with the bump of 
 locality. Even the most experienced traveller carries with him 
 a time-table and a railway map. But few students possess the 
 faculties of choosing the right material and of following the 
 right paths. The majority of students are bad learners, and 
 one of the aims of the science of language -study should be to 
 convert bad learners into good ones, to point out to them that 
 
274 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 fully four-fifths of their time, efforts, and money are running to 
 waste so long as they remain bad learners. 
 
 Section 38.— The least satisfactory type of student is the one who has 
 neither confidence in the programme suggested by the teacher 
 nor the capacity of working out one of his own. He is the source 
 of constant trouble, and we should do well to advise him to seek 
 another teacher. 
 
 Let us distinguish the had learner from the slow learner and 
 from the had pupil. 
 
 By had pupil we mean the one who will not work ; the lazy 
 man or boy ; the shirker. The only advice we have to give him 
 is to cease being a lazy pupil and to try to become an energetic 
 student. 
 
 The slow student is one who has no natural gift for language, 
 is rather dense, forms conclusions laboriously and often in- 
 correctly. 
 
 He is by no means a hopeless case. If he is docile and does 
 what a competent teacher tells him to do, if he works conscien- 
 tiously and with perseverance, he will eventually learn to use the 
 foreign language in the same way that he has learnt to use his 
 own. He is not a bad learner ; merely a slow one. 
 
 By had learner we mean the intelligent type of student who 
 either from want of reflection or from ignorance of language and 
 its nature, misdirects all his efforts, does what he ought not to 
 do, and leaves undone all that he ought to do, and finally 
 manages at great expense and a prodigious waste of time to 
 speak broken English (or whatever the language may be), and 
 to compose written matter with an average of ten mistakes to 
 the line. 
 
 The more general characteristics of the bad learner are due to : 
 
 (a) Thoughtlessness or lack of reflection. He has no con- 
 ception whatever of the nature of language or its 
 study. 
 
 {h) Mistaken haste. He is in such a hurry to work that he 
 forgets to buy any tools. Moral : Festina lente. 
 
 (c) Prejudice. That is to say, over-confidence in some 
 particular system and too little confidence in others. 
 
THE STUDENT 275 
 
 (d) Lack of proportionate discernment, as a result of which he 
 
 exaggerates or else he unduly belittles difficulties, or 
 forms a mistaken analogy between language-learning 
 and other subjects of study. 
 
 (e) ' Oldfogeyism ' — i.e. the incapacity to absorb new ideas, 
 
 combined with an instinctive fear of the unknown. 
 
 There are many types of bad learners, and the mixed and 
 bewildering nature of their vagaries renders these so complex 
 as to defy classification. 
 
 In default of this we must draw up a rough and unclassified 
 list of his various shortcomings. 
 
 He learns to spell a certain number of words but pays little 
 or no attention to their pronunciation and totally ignores even 
 the existence of such things as weak forms. 
 
 He learns to attach to each foreign word an arbitrary and 
 conventional translation, and ignores the self-evident fact that 
 most words have several meanings and translations. 
 
 He considers words as mathematical units, and treats them as 
 such. Unfamiliar group- words and word-groups he either avoids 
 or dismisses as unsolvable mysteries. 
 
 He neglects all the essential preliminaries. He says that 
 he has no time to waste on phonetics and ergonic charts, and 
 forthwith proceeds to waste precious months in working with- 
 out those tools which alone ensure rapid and real progress. 
 
 He has a passion for creation. He imagines that people 
 speak by rule, that every sentence has its origin in a reasoned 
 calculation. 
 
 He avoids the reproduction of models or the rational modi- 
 fication of models previously learnt by heart. He thinks 
 memorizing a vicious process only good for parrots and children. 
 He will not willingly reproduce anything that he has heard, 
 some depraved form of linguistic conscience tells him that this 
 is akin to cheating ; he must construct everything in his own 
 way, and that way generally means the way he expresses it in 
 his own language. 
 
 He considers a mistake in spelling as a crime, but treats the 
 most flagrant mispronunciations as venial offences. 
 
 He learns more or less superficially a number of classical rules 
 
 / 
 
276 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 of orthographic grammar, but ignores the simple laws under- 
 lying them, and is proud to confess to a total ignorance of 
 phonetic grammar. 
 
 Not being aware of the distinction between colloquial and 
 literary speech, even in his own language, he conceives the 
 former as being a vulgar, degraded form of what he imagines 
 to be, and terms, ' correct ' speech. Never having learnt to 
 distinguish language from literature, he confuses the two 
 subjects, or even denies the existence of a science of language as 
 apart from the art of literature. 
 
 Having no precise notion of the number of words that a 
 language may contain, nor any notion whatever of their relative 
 frequency or usefulness, he chooses his vocabulary, or allows it 
 to be chosen for him, on a haphazard method based on the 
 principle that '' a word is a word." 
 
 His eye-memory being abnormally developed and his ear- 
 memory being proportionately weak, he pays little or no atten- 
 tion to what he hears, or too much attention to what he sees, 
 ignoring the self-evident fact that he learnt his own language by 
 ear long before he ever studied a single word of it by the eye. 
 He maintains with a pathetic insistence that he cannot learn a 
 word until he has seen it written in its conventional orthog- 
 raphy. What he really means is that he is too lazy to develop 
 his auditive perceptions or ear-memory, and that he has not 
 enough energy to devote a couple of hours to learning the dozen 
 or so phonetic signs. 
 
 It is often to be noticed that those who are the least endowed 
 with the faculty of reason, who are the least capable of learning 
 by logical comparison, are precisely those who proclaim with 
 the greatest insistence that they cannot repeat or use any form 
 until it has been thoroughly explained to them. It is generally 
 the bad pronouncer who shuns phonetics and who refuses to learo 
 a word until he sees it written. 
 
 Whatever serious attention he gives to pronunciation is 
 devoted at most to its orthoepic aspect (the study of the ortho- 
 graphic representation of sounds). The study of the sounds 
 themselves he considers either too trivial or too difficult to 
 warrant any serious attention. He is not averse to using or 
 
THE STUDENT 277 
 
 even forging weird systems of imitated pronunciation however 
 complicated and inexact, but shuns a simple phonetic tran- 
 scription " because it looks so difficult." 
 
 He is unable to distinguish between real and fancied diffi- 
 culties, and consequently will set out light-heartedly to solve the 
 most hopelessly difficult problems, the successful solving of which 
 would not help him an inch on his way. On the other hand, 
 he will studiously avoid the ,easy and labour-saving devices 
 and the simple (because fundamental) explanations discovered 
 and put at his disposal by modern language specialists. 
 
 Cautious as he may be in the pursuit of his own vocation, in- 
 telligent as he is in most other branches of study, he is an easy 
 victim to the quack when he takes up the study of language. 
 
 His teacher wishes him to acquire the faculty of reproducing 
 orally, rapidly, and by ear-memory, complete sentences. Instead 
 of developing his ear-memory by patient listening and accurate 
 observation, he analyses, isolates the words, and produces, not 
 the sentence, but a mere succession of its individual words. 
 
 One type of bad learner has a child-like faith in the efficacy 
 of ' conversation ' (he probably means the process of ' spon- 
 taneous assimilation ') and is willing to spend hours of expensive 
 lessons in order to have the opportunity of speaking broken 
 English (or whatever the language may be) to his teacher. 
 
 The bad learner is generally inconsistent. He confesses to a 
 horror of theory of all sorts, more especially of phonetic and 
 grammatical theory. " Practice," says he, " practice is the great 
 thing, theory is a vain thing." He asks his teacher for '' conver- 
 sation," and when he gets it, he interrupts this '' conversation " 
 at every moment to ask why such-and-such a form was in- 
 correct, and how such-and-such an idea ought to be expressed, 
 what is the best translation of such-and-such a word; in 
 short, bombarding his teacher with demands for theoretical 
 explanations. 
 
 His attention is distracted at every moment. While his 
 teacher by special request is explaining to him why A is A and 
 not B, he wants to know the difference between X and Z. If 
 his teacher is weak enough to drop the subject A-B and turn to 
 X-Z, our student will become inquisitive on the subject of C. 
 
278 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Another type of bad learner pins his faith to theory. 
 He wishes to have the etjonology of each word he learns, an 
 * explanation ' of each form. He refuses to learn any verb 
 outside a conjugation table or any noun outside the paradigm 
 of a declension. If he is a Frenchman and his teacher should 
 chance to make use of a few simple sentences in the foreign 
 language, he will meet these with a blank stare and an ex- 
 asperating: "Qu'est-ce que 9a veut dire ? — ^Dites-le en fran^ais." 
 
 He cannot conceive the idea of direct comprehension. For 
 him translation is the one and only process of understanding 
 the meaning of foreign words or forms. He imagines that the 
 untranslatable is the unknowable. 
 
 When in the more advanced stages of his^ study he listens 
 to a lecture or a speech in the foreign language, his worried, 
 strained features bear witness to his frantic efforts to translate 
 mentally everything that he hears. 
 
 One question is perpetually on his lips and printed on his 
 brain : " Qu'est-ce que 9a veut dire en fran^ais ? What's that 
 in English ? Wie heisst das auf deutsch ? " 
 
 The bad learner has an aversion for any grammatical terms 
 which he has not already learnt in connexion with his own lan- 
 guage, and delights in giving familiar names to unfamiliar forms. 
 
 Our English preterite the Frenchman will dub imparfait ; 
 the progressive conjugation of verbs he calls the participe 
 jyrisent. He shies at such terms as causative, frequentative , 
 possessive substantive, or proper adjective. He has never heard 
 of such things in his own native French grammar. If you 
 speak of fricatives, unvoiced consonants, or rounded vowels, he 
 is not certain whether these are mysteries invented to puzzle 
 him, or whether to pass them by as bad jokes. 
 
 He diagnoses badly. He learns the spelling and the arbitrary 
 translation of a couple of thousand isolated foreign words, is 
 astonished that this does not enable him to understand the 
 spoken language, and attributes it to a weak vocabulary 
 (" Je ne peux pas comprendre, je ne connais pas assez de mots "), 
 and starts work on the third thousand. 
 
 He may recognize that he has acquired bad habits of pro- 
 nunciation (as a matter of fact he never pronounces a single 
 
THE STUDENT 279 
 
 foreign sound). As a remedy he proposes " plenty of reading " 
 and asserts that in time good pronunciation will come (" On 
 ne peut pas faire tout au debut ! "). 
 
 The conscientious teacher can never obtain any satisfaction 
 out of a bad learner. The method is always wrong for him. 
 You may run in vain the whole gamut from natural assimilation 
 to abstract theory. What he wants is a little of everj^hing 
 so long as that little is sufficiently superficial and sufficiently 
 scrappy, and then he will lay the blame on the book or on the 
 teacher if he is not able to understand, speak, read, and write 
 after fifty lessons. 
 
 We do not maintain that the bad learner commits all the 
 crimes enumerated above. There are various types of bad 
 learners ; some affect one form of aberration, some affect others. 
 In a few instances, however, the writer has met with that 
 extraordinary type which succeeds in combining the sum of all 
 the defects quoted in this enumeration. 
 
 Taken in hand firmly at the outset, the bad learner may be 
 transformed into a good one. If, however, his attitude toward 
 language-study has become an ingrained habit, he is a hopeless 
 case. He has so accustomed himself to this caricature of lan- 
 guage that he is no longer able to break himself of his habits. 
 
 When, conscious of some of these shortcomings, he again 
 applies to a teacher " pour un peu se perfectionner dans la con- 
 versation " and when the teacher strives to point out that 
 everything must be relearnt from the start, he is pained and 
 discouraged. When the conscientious teacher suggests a course 
 of elementary phonetics and grammar he is indignant. 
 
 In such cases nothing can be done except to hand him over 
 to the mercies of the nearest language quack, who will assure 
 him that his accent is very good, and that with a little time and 
 practice he will use the language like a native. 
 
 The object of this severe criticism is to describe with a certain 
 precision exactly what are the obstacles which many otherwise 
 intelligent students create for themselves, and to state in un- 
 mistakable terms the nature of their errors in order to be able 
 to correct them better. 
 
 It is evident that when the bad learner recognizes himself 
 
280 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 to be such, he will immediately strive to become a good learner. 
 If he clearly recognizes that tendencies toward such habits 
 are defects and not qualities, that nobody holding such views 
 has ever learnt a language quickly and well, then he must 
 necessarily make up his mind to make a radical change and 
 become a good learner. If he does not, then we cannot even 
 place him in the category of intelligent learners. 
 
 Many may protest that notwithstanding the holding of such 
 views they have successfully mastered the foreign language. 
 
 The answer is obvious. If they have arrived at a successful 
 result, it is to their credit that they have done so in spite of 
 their self-created obstacles, and that had they studied on rational 
 lines they would have achieved this result with a tenth of the 
 efforts they have so laboriously expended. 
 
 Others may protest that they have been or are the victims 
 of bad methods and of old-fashioned teachers. This is in very 
 many cases true. Circumstances over which they had no 
 control have made bad learners of them, and it is precisely one 
 of the objects of the present work to warn the student against 
 bad methods and to put him on his guard against a continuance 
 of practices and vicious habits of thought such as we have 
 described. 
 
 In using the term " bad learner " we have more especially in 
 mind those who, in spite of warnings and in spite of the most 
 evident proofs, persist in their fallacious methods, who persist in 
 imagining that then hastily formed notions and insufficiently 
 pondered theories are profound truths. 
 
 Let the student thoroughly understand, let us drill it into his 
 mind insistently and in clear terms, that the good learner can 
 and does perform with success in a few weeks what the bad 
 learner fails to perform in as many months or even years. 
 
 Let him understand for his own sake and for the sake of 
 his pocket, if that is of any consideration, that the sooner he 
 begins to learn according to rational principles the sooner he 
 will achieve real results. 
 
 He has learnt his own language rationally and with success ; 
 let him do the same thing with the foreign language. 
 
CONCLUSION 
 
 Section 39.— May all those who have followed us in our inquiry so 
 unite and co-ordinate their efforts that language -teaching and 
 language -study shall be placed once for all on a stable and 
 scientific basis. 
 In conclusion let us address the following exhortation to critics : 
 if you are not disposed to accept all or certain of the data we 
 have gathered, or if you are not in agreement with all or certain 
 of the conclusions we have derived therefrom, let your indigna- 
 tion not take the form of wild and destructive criticism, for this 
 will not advance the cause in which we are so deeply interested. 
 Rather let your energies be directed into the channels of con- 
 structiveness ; let your evidence and your matured judgment 
 come to confirm and to reinforce what you may consider as 
 sound, to repair what you may consider as weak, and to supple- 
 ment what you may consider as incomplete. If you are in 
 agreement with our method of procedure, do not fail to support 
 it ; if you hold with us that the future of language-teaching 
 and study should be based on organized and unified thought, 
 then collaborate in the work which so far has barely commenced. 
 We have avoided in all possible measure any form of 
 dogmatism ; if at times our arguments have tended toward 
 destructiveness, it is because our reasoned and matured 
 judgment has convinced us beyond any manner of doubt that 
 they are justified. We have endeavoured throughout these 
 pages to state facts and to form conclusions in absolute con- 
 formity with these facts. Our aim has been but to add to the 
 general store of ever-increasing knowledge of the nature of 
 language, and to contribute our share toward ascertaining the 
 principles which will enable us to emancipate language-teaching 
 and language- study from the domain of empiricism, and to 
 place it once for all on a true scientific basis. 
 
 281 
 
APPENDIX I 
 
 Shortly after completing the manuscript of this work I was 
 strongly advised by a colleague, who had had occasion to read 
 it through, to append a model of an Ergonic Chart. He urged 
 that this would considerably facilitate and encourage research 
 work, and by so doing would contribute in no small measure to 
 the utility of the book and to the success of the inquiry. 
 
 For more than one reason I was reluctant to follow this 
 advice. In the first place, I realized only too well that the 
 perfect Ergonic Chart did not yet exist ; the classification of 
 the units, the terminology, and many technical principles were 
 still in an embryonic stage. 
 
 In the second place, I doubted whether it was possible to 
 accommodate a chart within the limited dimensions afforded 
 by the pages of a book. To condense it unduly would render 
 it unintelligible ; to abridge it unduly would deprive it of its 
 utility. 
 
 My colleague pointed out, in reply, that even a rudimentary 
 chart would be better than no chart at all ; that the ergonic 
 symbols might be replaced provisionally by an arbitrary system 
 of numbers ; that my readers would understand that an ap- 
 pendix is not an exhaustive treatise, and that many of them 
 would probably exercise their ingenuity in constructing large- 
 scale charts from the materials and key plan which I would 
 provide. In short, he overcame my objections and encouraged 
 me to produce the following scheme. 
 
 282 
 
CONDENSED AND ABRIDGED SCHEME FOR A FRENCH ERGONIC CHART 
 
 »»1 
 
 sl 
 
 @ 
 
 @ 
 
 @@ 
 
 P9 
 
 sl9 ,36 
 
 plO 
 
 011] 
 
 
 @ [mii] 
 
 p49 1 
 
 
 
 
 625 
 
 rnbb 
 
 t&i 
 
 @ 
 
 
 
 @ 
 
 
 
 @ 
 
 
 
 
 ' — ' 
 
 ' — ' 
 
 s2 
 
 @ 
 
 sl2 
 
 .ElL 
 
 s21 
 
 p50 
 
 
 P53 
 
 ^ II 
 
 
 B® 
 
 sij 
 
 
 ml 
 
 p61 
 
 @ @ 
 
 p51 1 
 
 
 
 slZ 
 
 p55 
 
 ^g 
 
 
 
 
 P5Z 1 
 
 
 
 sl2 
 
 p56 
 
 @@ 
 
 
 
 s3 
 
 sl5 
 
 Pl2 
 
 @ @ @ @ @ 
 
 
 Pl3 1 
 
 @ @ @ 
 
 EH 
 
 pl4 
 
 @ @ 
 
 ^ 
 
 g @ @ ^ |mi] 
 
 sl4 
 
 
 pl5 
 
 
 p40 
 
 p41 
 
 @ ^.,@...@ ^ 
 
 @ @ 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 pl6 
 
 
 
 
 p42 
 
 P« 
 
 @ 000^21 
 
 
 
 
 s4 
 
 
 EH 
 
 
 il5 
 
 
 §2] 
 
 
 Pl7 
 
 
 S (ml] |i|] 
 
 
 
 
 pl8 
 
 
 ^0 
 
 
 
 
 pl9 
 
 
 @ iu 
 
 
 
 
 p20 
 
 
 g ge] 
 
 
 
 
 p21 
 
 
 isg S ED 
 
 
 
 
 p22 
 
 
 ^ig 
 
 
 
 
 p25 
 
 
 ^iH] 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sl6 
 
 
 p24 
 
 
 g @ 
 
 
 p25 
 
 
 ^ S 
 
 
 m 
 
 P2 
 
 
 
 s6 
 
 
 s7 
 
 
 s8 
 
 s9 
 
 p29 
 
 
 @ 
 
 
 @ 
 
 @ 
 
 0iz] 
 
 p51 
 
 _ 
 
 sl8 
 
 p34 
 
 p50 
 
 @i7] 
 
 
 p45 
 
 Q @ g 
 
 @@0 
 
 
 II127 625 
 
 
 p32 
 
 @ 
 
 p35 
 
 
 gSEsi] 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 P57 
 
 1, 
 
 
 @@ 
 
 
 
 
 
 p36 
 
 
 p58 
 
 n,53 p45 
 
 @@ 
 
 
 p59 
 
 @@ 
 
 
 p57 
 
 
 oM p44 
 
 p46 
 
 @@ 
 
 
 n28 524 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 
 p60 
 
 p38 
 
 mm 
 
 @ 
 
 
 
 
 
 p33 
 
 p39 
 
 @@ 
 
 @@ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CONDENSED AND ABRIDGED SCHEME FOR 
 A FRENCH ERGONIC CHART 
 
 The scheme comprises two parts — the Catalogue of Units and 
 the Chart itself. 
 
 The Catalogue 
 
 This contains an infinite nmnber of units, grouped on 
 mathematical grounds into three types. 
 
 The first of these consists of groups of Minimals — i.e. units 
 which it is not possible or not desirable for the purpose of this 
 particular scheme to subject to further analysis. 
 
 These we may call the Minimal groups (abbreviated to m). 
 
 Example : m8 = moi, toi^ lui, elle, nous, vous, eucc, elles. 
 Second example : m22 = a c6t6, ailleurs, au coin, au-dessus, 
 
 au milieu, derriere, devant, id. Id, quelque part, nulle 
 
 part, Id dedans, etc. 
 
 The second type of group consists of two or more lists of units 
 considered collectively. As these groups represent the sum of 
 their varieties, we may call them Sum groups (abbreviated to s). 
 
 Example: sl9 = m26 + m30 + mSl + m32. 
 
 This means that for the sake of conciseness we are using 
 the symbol si 9 instead of the cumbrous statement " m26 and 
 m30 and m81 and m32." 
 
 Second example ; sl2 = pll + sl5. 
 
 This means that for the sake of conciseness we designate by 
 the symbol sl2 the two groups of units pll (noun compounds) 
 and si 5 (a certain category of nouns and pronouns). 
 
 The third type of group consists of two or more lists of units 
 used in combination with each other. As these groups consist 
 
 a83 
 
tr^s 
 
 
 trop 
 
 assez 
 
 • X 
 
 etc. 
 
 4 
 
 
 284 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 of the product of their components, we may call them Product 
 groups (abbreviated to p). 
 
 Example : p61 = m20 x ml2. 
 
 This means that p61 stands for all the units contained 
 in list m20 combined with all the units contained in list 
 ml2. 
 
 m20 will be found to consist of units such as tres, trop, and 
 assez ; ml 2 will be found to consist of units such as beaUy hon, 
 and grand ; hence we have 
 
 beau 
 bon 
 grand 
 etc. 
 
 which results in the p61 units ires beau, tres bon, trhs grand, 
 trop beau, trop bon, trop grand, assez beau, assez bon, assez 
 grand, etc. 
 
 Each of the three types of groups, m, s, and p, have been 
 classified, according to their function, into a series of numbered 
 categories, or lists. Thus we find the series ml to m78, si 
 to s25, and pi to p61, making in all 164 lists. To combine the 
 elements of each minimal list with other units in such a way 
 as to produce p-units, and to combine successively such p-units 
 with other units until we arrive at an unlimited number of 
 complete sentences constitutes the process of Ergonic Synthesis. 
 
 To reduce, by means of symbols and formulae, complete 
 sentences to their minimal parts constitutes the process of 
 Ergonic Analysis. 
 
 Stated concisely, ergonic synthesis, or the systematic com- 
 position of sentences, consists of converting m-units into 
 p-units ; ergonic analysis consists of converting p-units into 
 m-imits. A complete scheme of ergonic analysis consists of 
 reducing the pi of a given language to its m-values. 
 
 The Chart 
 
 This key plan or chart bears toward the French language 
 the same relation as a map of the world toward geography. 
 
A FRENCH ERGONIC CHART 285 
 
 Just as the map shows us the broad continental masses, the 
 states into which they are divided, the provinces of which 
 these are made up, and the situation of the chief towns con- 
 tained in each, so does this chart show the main syntactical 
 divisions of the language, the subdivisions of each of these, 
 and their further subdivisions down to the smallest units 
 which can conveniently be shown on a chart of these limited 
 dimensions.^ 
 
 This chart will be found to consist of 238 rectangular panels, 
 each of which is designated by one or other of the 164 ergonic 
 symbols. Each of the panels is assumed to contain that list 
 of units for which its particular symbol stands. The processes 
 of synthesis and analysis described above are therefore shown 
 in spatial form. 
 
 The panel serving as a framework for the whole contains the 
 six possible factors of a sentence — viz. si, s2, s3, s4, so, and p2. 
 It is therefore a product panel, and is designated by the 
 symbol pi. 
 
 Each of the six component panels is built up of smaller 
 panels. Two of these (m75 and m3) contain minimal units 
 only ; the others (sum and product panels) are themselves 
 built up of still smaller panels. By this process of dichotomy 
 we arrive ultimately at the last of the minimal panels (which 
 happens to be the components of p61), and thus complete our 
 analytic survey. 
 
 The somewhat complicated appearance of the chart is partly 
 due to its extreme condensation ; on a background of ampler 
 dimensions the last panel of s2 (viz. si 6) would be shown on 
 the more generous scale in which it appears as a component 
 of s^. Similarly the enormous mass of units represented by 
 si 2, instead of being condensed into a single panel as in the 
 
 ^ Both the geographical and the linguistic charts may be drawn to a large 
 or to a small scale ; the advantages and disadvantages of each are similar 
 in both instances. In the case of geography we place at the disposal of the 
 student, not one comprehensive map of the world to answer all purposes, 
 but the a//as — z.e. a series of geographical charts drawn to various convenient 
 scales, each having its particular use and function and generally accom- 
 panied by a gazetteer. 
 
286 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 first variety of s4, would be expanded to a scale more worthy of 
 its importance. 
 
 The other reason for the complex aspect of this chart is due 
 to the fact that in this concise eccposS this one chart has to serve 
 all purposes. 
 
 Let me add that I do not advise any teacher to bewilder and 
 dishearten his young pupils by demonstrating to them the 
 ergonic theory by means of this condensed chart. What I do 
 suggest is that the present diagram should serve as a basis for 
 composing an ' Ergonic Atlas,' containing a number of charts 
 drawn to various scales and in various degrees of complete- 
 ness. Many or most of these would be designed in such a 
 way that each panel would contain a few specimens of the actual 
 units themselves (see pp. 182, 183). 
 
 As it hardly comes within the scope of this book to give 
 a more detailed explanation of the ergonic theory and its 
 technique, we must now refer the reader to the chart and the 
 catalogue, and let these speak for themselves. 
 
 THE CATALOGUE OF UNITS 
 I. MINIMAL GROUPS 
 
 ml = nouns normally requiring the antecedency of s20. 
 
 si.mas. a. ami, arbre, bureau, cahier, centime, chapeau, 
 coin, cote, crayon, devoir, eleve, exemple, franc, 
 frere, gargon, homme, jardin, journal, livre, 
 morceau, mot, mur, nom, ceil, paquet, pays, 
 pere, pied, professeur, pupitre, Soulier, tableau, 
 timbre, tiroir, verre, etc. 
 b. ax^ier, anglais, argent, bois, fer, frangais, lait, 
 or, pain, papier, plaisir, verre, vin, etc. 
 
 si. fern. a. adresse, armoire, boite, campagne, carte, chaise, 
 chambre, chose, clef, dame, demi-heure, demoi- 
 selle, difficultS^ douzaine, fagon, femme, fenHre, 
 
A FRENCH ERGONIC CHART 287 
 
 feuille, fille, fin, fl£ur, fois, gare, idee, langue, 
 legon, lettre, main, maison, maniere, mh'e, 
 montre, paire, partie, phrase, place, plume, 
 poche, porte, question, rdponse, rue, soeur, 
 table, ville, etc. 
 b. craie, eau, encre, pierre, viande, etc. 
 
 plu.mas. amis, arbres, bureaux, cahiers, centimes, 
 
 chapeaucc, coins, cotes, crayons, devoirs. Sieves, 
 exemples, francs, freres, gargons, hommes, 
 jardins, journaux, livres, morceaux, mots, murs, 
 noms, yeux, pays, paquets, pieds, pupitres, 
 Soulier s, tableaux, timbres, tiroirs, verres, etc. 
 
 plu.fem. adr esses, armoires, boites, cartes, chaises, 
 
 chambres, choses, clefs, dames, demoiselles, 
 difficultes, douzaines, fagons, femmes, fenetres, 
 feuilles, filles, fleurs, fois, gares, idees, langues, 
 legons, lettres, mains, maisons, manieres, 
 montres, paires, parties, phrases, places, plumes, 
 poches, portes, questions, riponses, rues, sceurs, 
 tables, villes, etc. 
 
 in2 = nouns never or hardly ever requiring s20. 
 
 si.mas. a. Jean, Henri, Charles, etc., Monsieur Lebrun, 
 etc. 
 
 b. [le] Japon, \le'\ Danemark, etc. 
 
 c. Paris, Bruxelles, Geneve, Londres, etc. 
 
 si. fern. a. Marie, Louise, Madeleine, etc., Madame 
 Lebrun, Mademoiselle Lebrun, etc. 
 b. [la] France, [V] Angleterre, [la] Belgique, [Za] 
 Suisse, etc. 
 
 plu.mas. a. Jean et Henri, Jean et Marie, Monsieur et 
 Madame Lebrun, etc. 
 b. [les] tltats-Unis, etc. 
 
 plu.fem. Marie et Louise, etc. 
 
 IIl3 = personal pronouns, subject. 
 
 ]e, iu, il, elle, on, ce, nous, vous, ils, elles. 
 
288 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 in4 = various classes of pronouns, 
 fa, ceci, cela. 
 heaucowp, assez, trop, un peu, etc. 
 
 si. mas. celui-ci, celui-ld, Vautre, le mien, h tien, le sien, 
 
 le ndtre, le voire, le leur, un, le premier, le 
 dernier, le second, le deuxieme, etc. 
 
 si. fern. celle-ci, celle-ld, Vautre, la mienne, la tienne, la 
 
 sienne, la notre, la voire, la leur, une, la premiere, 
 la derniere, la seconde, la deuxieme, etc. 
 
 plu.mas. ceux-ci, ceux-ld, les auires, les miens, les iiens, 
 
 les siens, les nSires, les voires, les leurs, deux, 
 irois, quatre, etc., les premiers, les derniers, etc., 
 quelqueS'Uns, plusieurs, etc. 
 
 plu.fem. celles-ci, celles-ld, les auires, les miennes, les 
 
 iiennes, les siennes, les noires, les voires, les 
 leurs, deux, irois, quaire, etc., les premieres ^ 
 les dernier es, etc., quelques-unes, plusieurs, etc. 
 
 1115 - personal pronouns, non-subject, enclaved in s3. 
 
 a. me, ie, le, la, se, nous, vous, les. 
 
 b. me, ie, lui, lui, se, notes, vou^s, leur. 
 
 c. y, en. 
 
 d. me le, me la, me les, m^y, m'en, ie le, ie la, ie les, 
 fy, fen, le lui, la lui, les lui, lui en, nous le, 
 nous la, nous les, nous y, nous en, vous le, vous 
 la, vous les, vous y, vous en, le leur, la leur, les 
 leur, leur en, y en. 
 
 1116 = personal pronouns, subject, enclaved in s3. 
 
 -je, -iu, {-iYily [-t]-elle, ['i]-on, -ce, -nous, -vous, 
 'ils, -elles. 
 
 ni7 = a certain group of personal pronouns (used only in con- 
 nexion with the imperative affirmative) enclaved in s3. 
 
 a. -moi, -toi, -le, -la, -nous, -vous, -les. 
 h. -moi, -toi, -lui, -lui, -nous, -vous, -leur. 
 
A FRENCH ERGONIC CHART 289 
 
 c. -y, -en. 
 
 d. -le-moi, -la-moi, -les-moi, -rn'y, -tri^en, -le-toi, 
 'la-toi, -les-toi, -fy, -fen, -le-lui, -la-lui, -les- 
 lui, -Vy, -lui-en, -le-nous, -la-nous, -les-nous, 
 -nous-y, nous-en, le-vous, -la-vous, les-vous, 
 -vous-y, -vous-en, -le-leur, -la-leur, -les-leur, 
 -les-y, -leur-en, -y-en, 
 
 m8 = a certain group of personal pronouns occupying the 
 position shown on chart. 
 
 moi, toi, lui, elle, soi, nous, vous, eucc, elles. 
 
 ni9 = a certain group of adjectives (of various classes) constitut- 
 ing the most important member of s20. 
 
 si.mas. le, un, du, ce, chaque, le meme, Vautre, mon, 
 
 ton, son, noire, voire, leur, toui le, etc. 
 
 si.fem. la, une, de la, ceiie, chaque, la meme, Vautre, 
 
 ma, ta, sa, noire, voire, leur, touie la, etc. 
 
 plu. les, des, ces, les memes, les auires, mes, ies, ses, 
 
 nos, vos, leurs, ious les, touies les, quelques, 
 plusieurs, etc. 
 
 inlO = numeral adjectives. 
 
 a. un, deux, trois, quatre, cinq, six, sept, huit, neuf. 
 
 b. dix, vingt, trenie, quaranie, cinquante, soixanie, 
 quaire-vingis. 
 
 c. onze, douze, treize, quaiorze, quinze, seize, dix- 
 sepi, dix-huit, dix-neuf. 
 
 d. vingi ei un, vingt-deux, etc. 
 
 e. ceni, deux cent(s), etc., cent un, cent deux, etc. 
 
 f. mille, deux mille, etc., mille un, etc. 
 
 mil = ordinal adjectives. 
 
 si.mas. premier, prochain, dernier, second, deuxieme^ 
 iroisieme, quairieme, etc. 
 
 si.fem. premiere, prochaine, derniere, seconde, deuxieme, 
 etc. 
 
290 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 plu.mas. 
 
 plu.fem. 
 
 premiers^ prochains, derniers, seconds, 
 deucciemes, etc. 
 
 premieres, prochaines, dernieres, secondes, 
 deuxiemes, etc. 
 
 ml 2 = adjectives of quality, and participial adjectives. (Those 
 marked by an asterisk normally precede ml ; those not 
 so marked normally follow ml.) 
 
 si. mas. anglais, *beau, blanc, bleu, *bon, brun, cher, 
 
 content, court, difficile, drole, facile, fatigue, 
 ferine, frangais, *grand, gris, important, in- 
 ter essant, jaune, *joli, juste, libre, *long, 
 *mauvais, neuf, noir, *nouveau, occupe, ouvert, 
 *petit, plein, pret, propre, rouge, sale, vert, vide, 
 *vieux, vrai, etc. 
 
 plu.mas. anglais, ^beaux, blancs, bleus, *bons, bruns, 
 
 chers, contents, courts, difficiles, droles, faciles, 
 fatigues, fermes, frangais, *grands, gris, im- 
 portants, interessants, jaunes, *jolis, justes, 
 libres. Hongs, *mauvais, neufs, noirs, *nou- 
 veaux, occupes, ouverts, ^petits, pleins, prets, 
 propres, rouges, sales, verts, vides, *vieux, 
 vrais, etc. 
 
 si.fem. anglaise, *belle, blanche, bleue, "^bonne, brune, 
 
 chere, contente, courte, difficile, drole, facile, 
 fatiguee, fermee, frangaise, *grande, grise, im- 
 portante, interessante, jaune, "^jolie, juste, libre, 
 Hongue, "^mauvaise, neuve, noire, *nouvelle, 
 occupee, ouverte, ^petite, pleine, prete, propre, 
 rouge, sale, verte, vide, "^vieille, vraie, etc. 
 
 plu.fem. anglaises, '^belles, blanches, bleues, *bonnes, 
 
 brunes, cheres, contentes, courtes, difficiles, 
 droles, faciles, fatiguSes, fermies, frangaises, 
 *grandes, grises, importantes, intSressaiites, 
 jaunes, *jolies, libres, Hongues, *mauvaises, 
 neuves, noires, *7iouvelles, occupies, ouvertes. 
 
A FRENCH ERGONIC CHART 291 
 
 *petit€S, pleines, pretes, propres, rouges, sales, 
 vertes, vides, *vieilles, vraies, etc. 
 
 mis = simple tenses of verbs. (The eight simple tenses are 
 designated respectively by the symbols a, b, c, d, e, f, 
 g, h. For the sake of completeness, the two archaic 
 tenses past historic and past subjunctive are included in 
 this list.) 
 
 a. si. Istpers. vais, ai, dis, suis,fais, parte, vois, etc. 
 si. 2nd pers. vas, as, dis, es, fais, paries, vois, etc. 
 si. 3rd pers. va, a, dit, est, fait, parte, voit, etc. 
 
 plu. 1st pers. allons, avons, disons, sommes, faisons, 
 
 parlons, voyons, etc. 
 plu. 2nd pers. allez, avez, dites, etes, faites, parlez, 
 
 voyez, etc. 
 plu. 3rd pers. vont, ont, disent, sont, font, parlent, 
 
 voient, etc. 
 
 b. si. 1st pers. allais, avais, disais, etais,faisais, parlais, 
 
 voyais, etc. 
 si. 2nd pers. allais, avais, disais, etais,faisais, parlais, 
 
 voyais, etc. 
 si. 3rd pers. allait, avail, disait, etait, faisait, parlait, 
 
 voyait, etc. 
 plu. 1st pers. allions, avions, disions, Stions, faisions, 
 
 parlions, voyions, etc. 
 plu. 2nd pers. alliez, aviez, disiez, etiez, faisiez, parliez, 
 
 voyiez, etc. 
 plu. 3rd pers. allaient, avaient, disaient, etaient, 
 
 faisaient, parlaient, voyaient, etc. 
 
 c. si. 1st pers. allai, eus, dis, fus, fis, parlai, vis, etc. 
 si. 2nd pers. alkis, eus, dis, fus, fis, parlas, vis, etc. 
 si. 3rd pers. alia, eut, dit, fut, fit, parla, vit, etc. 
 
 plu. 1st pers. alldmes, eumes, dimes, fumes, fimes, 
 
 parldmes, vimes, etc. 
 plu. 2nd pers. alldtes, eutes, dites, fuies, files, parldtes, 
 
 vites, etc. 
 plu. 3rd pers. alUrerU, eurent,^ direnti furent, firent, 
 
 parUrent, virent, etc. 
 
292 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 d. si. 1st pers. irai, aurai, diraiy serai, ferai, parlerai, 
 
 verrai, etc. 
 si. 2nd pers. iras, auras , diras, seras, feras, parleras, 
 
 verras, etc. 
 si. 3rd pers. ira, aura, dira, sera, fera, parlera, verra^ 
 
 etc. 
 plu. 1st pers. irons, aurons, dirons, serons, ferons, 
 
 parlerons, verrons, etc. 
 plu. 2nd pers. irez, aurez, direz, serez, ferez, parlerez, 
 
 verrez, etc. 
 plu. 3rd pers. iront, auront, diront, seront, feront, 
 
 parleront, verront, etc. 
 
 e. si. 1st pers. irais, aurais, dirais, serais, ferais, 
 
 parlerais, verrais, etc. 
 si. 2nd pers. ircds, aurais, dirais, serais, ferais, 
 
 parlerais, verrais, etc. 
 si. 3rd pers. irait, aurait, dirait, serait, ferait, 
 
 parlerait, verrait, etc, 
 plu. 1st pers. irions, aurions, dirions, serions, ferions, 
 
 parlerions, verrions, etc. 
 plu. 2nd pers. iriez, auriez, diriez, seriez,feriez, parleriez, 
 
 verriez, etc. 
 plu. 3rd pers. iraient, auraient, diraient, seraient, 
 
 feraient, parleraient, verraient, etc. 
 
 f. si. 1st pers. aille, aie, dise, sois,fasse, park, voie, etc. 
 si. 2nd pers. ailles, aies, dises, sois, f asses, paries, 
 
 voies, etc. 
 si. 3rd pers. aille, ait, dise, soil, fasse, parle, voie, etc. 
 plu. 1st pers. allions, ayons, disions, soyons, fassions, 
 
 parlions, voyions, etc. 
 plu. 2nd pers. alliez, ayez, disiez, soyez, fassiez, parliez, 
 
 voyiez, etc. 
 plu. 3rd pers. aillent, aient, disent, soient, f assent, 
 parlent, voient, etc. 
 
 g. si. 1st pers. aUasse, eusse, disse, fiisse, fisse, parlasse, 
 
 visse^ etc. 
 
A FRENCH ERGONIC CHART 298 
 
 si. 2nd pers. alias ses, eusses, disses, fusses, fisses, 
 
 parlasses, visses, etc. 
 si. 3rd pers. alldt, eut, dtt, fut, fit, parldt, vit, etc. 
 plu. 1st pers. allassions, eussions, dissions, fussions, 
 
 fissions, parlassions, vissions, etc. 
 plu. 2nd pers. allassiez, eussiez, dissiez, fussiez, fi^siez, 
 
 parlassiez, vissiez, etc. 
 plu. 3rd pers. alUissent, eussent, dissent, fussent, fissent, 
 parlassent, vis sent, etc. 
 
 h. si. 2nd pers. va, aie, dis, sois,fais, parle, vois, etc. 
 plu. 1st pers. allons, ayons, disons, soyons, faisons, 
 
 parlons, voyons, etc. 
 plu. 2nd pers. allez, ayez, dites, soyez, faites, parlez^ 
 voyez, etc. 
 
 ml 4 = simple tenses of the auxiliary verbs avoir and itre. (For 
 the sake of conciseness, the 3rd person singular only is 
 given.) 
 
 a. fl, est. 
 
 b. avait, itait. 
 
 d. aura, sera. 
 
 e. aurait, serait. 
 
 ml 5 = past participles (a = antecedency of avoir ; b = antecedency 
 of Stre). 
 
 a. si.mas. aime, attendu, eu, commencS, compris, connu, 
 
 demande, du, dit, donne, icrit, envoyS, espiri, 
 eti, fait, fallu, fini, laisse, lu, mis, montrS, 
 oublie, parle, pensi, porti, pu, pris, regardi, 
 rencontre, rSpondu, su, trouvS, vu, voidu, etc. 
 si.fem. aimee, attendue, ene, commencee, comprise, etc. 
 
 plu. mas. aimis, attendus, eus, commences, compris, etc. 
 
 plu. fern, aimees, attendues, eiies, commencies, com- 
 prises, etc. 
 
 b. si.mas. alle, devenu, entre, sorti, venu, etc. 
 si.fem. alUe, devenue, entrie, sortie, venue, etc. 
 
 plu.mas. alles, devenns, entris, sortis, venus, etc. 
 plu.fem. allies, devenues, entries, sorties, venues, etc. 
 
294 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 ml 6 = simple tenses of verbs and verb-compoimds constituting 
 the antecedents of the infinitive (ml8). 
 (For the sake of conciseness the 3rd person singular only 
 is given.) 
 
 (m6 and m21 may be enclaved at the points marked by 
 the sign ||.) 
 
 a. pent, doit, veut, faut, finit \\ de, commence || d, 
 est II difficile de, a\\ V intention de, etc. 
 
 b. pouvait, devait, voulait, fallait, finissait \\ de, 
 commengait \\ a, itait \\ difficile de, avait \\ 
 V intention de, etc. 
 
 d. pourra, devra, voudra, faudra, finira \\ de, com- 
 menceraW d, sera \\ difficile de, aura \\ V intention 
 de, etc. 
 
 e. pourrait, devrait, voudrait,faudrait,finirait \\ de, 
 commencerait \\ d, serait \\ difficile de, aurait \\ 
 V intention de, etc. 
 
 ml7 = past participles of verbs and verb-compounds of which 
 the simple tenses constitute category ml6. 
 
 pu, d'Ci, voulu, fallu, fini de, commend a, lit 
 difficile de, eu V intention de, etc. 
 
 ml 8 = infinitives, 
 
 aimer, aller, attendre, avoir, commencer, com- 
 prendre, connattre, demander, devenir, devoir, 
 dire, donner, icrire, envoyer, entrer, espirer, 
 itre, faire, finir, laisser, lire, mettre, montrer, 
 ouhlier, parler, penser, porter, prendre, regarder, 
 rencontrer, rSpondre, rester, savoir, sortir, 
 tr Oliver, venir, voir, vouloir, etc. 
 
 inl9 = gerunds. 
 
 aimant, attendant, ayant, commengant, com- 
 prenant, connaissant, demandant, devenant, 
 devant, disant, donnant, icrivant, envoyant, 
 entrant, espirant, Hant, faisant, finissant. 
 
A FRENCH ERGONIC CHART 295 
 
 laissant, lisant, mettant, montrant, oubliant, 
 parlant, pensant, portant, prenant, regardant, 
 rencontrant, ripondant, restant, sachant, sortant, 
 trouvantf venant, voyant^ voulant, etc. 
 
 ni20= adverbs serving to modify ml2 and m25. 
 
 assez, aussi, Hen, exactement, ligerement, par- 
 faitement, plus, heaucoup plus, si, tellement, 
 tout a fait, ires, trop, un peu, un pen trop, etc. 
 
 in21 = adverbs and adverb-compounds, enclaved normally in 
 s8. 
 
 pas, bien, si hie?!, tres bien, cependant, dejd, 
 encore, ginSralement, ju^tement, mal, tres mal, 
 mieux, beaucoup mieux, peut-etre, pourtant, 
 quelquefois, rarement, tres rarement, seidement, 
 souvent, tres souvent, tou jours, presque tou jours, 
 tout a fait, pas assez, pas bien, pas tres bien, 
 pas encore, jamais, presque jamais, pas mal, 
 pas tres mal, peut-etre pas, plu^, que, pas 
 souvent, pas tres souvent, pas toujours, pas 
 tout a fait, etc. 
 
 in22^ adverbs of place (simple and compound). 
 
 a coti, ailleurs, an coin, au-dessus, au milieu, 
 derriere, devant, id. Id, quelque part, nulle part. 
 Id dedans, etc. 
 
 in23 "^ adverbs of time. 
 
 alors, apres, maintenant, plus iard, tout d 
 Vheure, tout de suite, etc. 
 
 ni24 = adverbs of manner, frequency, etc., never or hardly ever 
 modified by m20. 
 
 ainsi, aussi, autrement, ensemble, de temps en 
 temps, tous les jours, chaque fois, chaque an nee, 
 etc. 
 
296 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 in25 = adverbs of manner, etc. 
 
 convenahlement, difficilement, doucement, facile- 
 mentf fort, lentement, rapidement, idt, lard, 
 vite, etc. 
 
 Ill26 = prepositions of place. 
 
 a, a coti de, a tr avers, au bout de, au coin de, au 
 dessus de, au milieu de, autour de, chez, contre, 
 dans, de, derriere, devant, en, en face de, jusqu^d, 
 loin de, par, pres de, sous, sur, vers, etc. 
 
 in27 = certain prepositions of time (occasional but not necessary 
 antecedents of m65 and m66a ; necessary antecedents 
 of m66b, m66c, m68, and m70). 
 
 a, d la fin de, a partir de, apres, au commence- 
 ment de, au mois de, avant, depuis, en, jusque, 
 pendant, vers, etc. 
 
 11128 = certain prepositions of time and duration. 
 dans, depuis, il y a, pendant. 
 
 ni29 = certain prepositions serving as factors of adjective 
 phrases (p54). 
 
 d, avec, en, sans, etc. 
 
 Ill30= certain prepositions serving as factors of phrases of 
 manner, etc. (p35). 
 
 a, cL cause de, avec, comme, de, en, malgrS, par, 
 pour, sans, etc. 
 
 mSl = prepositions serving as factors of s6. 
 a, pour. 
 
 ni32 = prepositions of the passive voice. 
 par, de. 
 
 m33 = prepositions serving as antecedents of the infinitive. 
 
 sans, pour, pour ne pas, afin de, afin de ne pas, 
 etc. 
 
 in34 = the preposition en, antecedent of the gerund (p44). 
 
A FRENCH ERGONIC CHART 297 
 
 m35 = ^ quelle heure, combien, comment^ depuis quand, lequel, 
 laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles, oil, far ou, pourquoi, quand, 
 *que, qui, etc. 
 
 *when used as a factor of p25, que becomes ce que. 
 TtiZ6 = qui, quoi, lequel, laquelle, lesquels, lesquelles. 
 ni37 = quel, quelle, quels, quelles. 
 
 in38 = connectives serving as factors of adjective clauses (p55). 
 
 que, dont, a qui, auquel, a laquelle, auxquels, 
 auxquelles, avec qui, avec quoi, avec lequel, 
 chez qui, dans lequel, de qui, duquel, de laquelle, 
 desquels, desquelles, oil, pour qui, pour lequel, 
 sur lequel, etc., etc. 
 
 m39 = the connective qui serving as factor of adjective clauses 
 (p56). 
 
 m40 = the connective que and si, serving as factors of p24. 
 
 m41 = the connective of the comparative, que. 
 
 ni42 = the connective of place, oit. 
 
 Ill43 = connectives of time and duration. 
 
 quand, lorsque, pendant que, depuis que. 
 
 in44 = certain connectives of cause, purpose, condition, etc. 
 parce que, puisque, comme, si, etc. 
 
 ni45 = certain connectives of cause, purpose, condition, con- 
 cession, etc., requiring a subjunctive sequency. 
 
 quoique. Men que, avant que, a moins que, 
 jusqu'd ce que, pour que, etc. 
 
 ni46 = units which together with the connectives m38 constitute 
 the adjective clauses p55. 
 
 il a, il fait, il le fait, il le donne, il me donne, 
 il va, il parle, il me parle, il met, il le met, il voit, 
 il fera, il a vu, il a vue, il a vus, il a fait, il a 
 faite, il a f aits, il afaites, etc., etc. 
 
298 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 in47 = units which together with the connective qui (m89) con- 
 stitute the adjective clauses p56. 
 
 est id, est sur la table, est d Paris, vient id, va 
 d Paris, fait ga, le fait, Hait id, sera id, a fait 
 ga, Va fait, les a faits, doit venir, pent le faire, 
 voulait venir, voulait le faire, est venu, est venue, 
 sont venus, sont venues. 
 
 ni48 = units which together with the connectives que and si 
 (m40) constitute the noun clauses p24. 
 
 il vient, il viendra, c'est vrai, c'Stait vrai, ce sera 
 vrai, je suis lihre, je suis id, je suis venu, je 
 peux venir, c'est un livre, etc., etc. 
 
 11149 = units which together with the connectives slO constitute 
 the noun clauses p25. 
 
 je veucc, vous voulez, je voulais, je voudrais, je 
 peux, il dit, votes dites, vous allez, il vient id, 
 etc., etc. 
 
 Ill50= units which together with the connective of the com- 
 parative que (m41) constitute the clauses p26. 
 
 vous ne le croyez, il ne le croit, il ne le dit, etc. 
 
 niSl = units serving as factors of clauses p30 (indirect object) 
 and p32 (place). 
 
 je veux, je voulais, vous voulez, je peux, vous 
 pouvez, etc. 
 
 in52 = units which together with the connectives m58 and m44 
 constitute respectively clauses p33 and p38. 
 
 il est id, il le fait, il vient, je suis id, je serai 
 id, je suis venu, vous voulez, etc. 
 
 in53~ units which together with the connectives m45 constitute 
 clauses p89. 
 
 il soil id, je le fasse, il vienne, vous le disiez, 
 il y aille, ce soil bon, etc. 
 
A FRENCH ERGONIC CHART 299 
 
 l}[i5 4} = beaucoup, assez, tant, autant, troy, plus, moins, peu, un 
 pen, etc. 
 
 ni55 = ^ serving as factor of p48 and p49. 
 
 ni56 = l^s, ces, mes, tes, ses, nos, vos, leurs, les auires, etc. 
 
 m57 = ce, cette, ces. 
 
 m58 = -ch -Id. 
 
 in59 = celui, celle, ceux, celles. 
 
 in60= celui, celle, ceux, celles, ce, tout ce. 
 
 m61 = quelque chose, quelqu'un, rien, persomie. 
 
 in62 = ^ serving as factor of p21. 
 
 m63 = the negative particle ne. 
 
 ni64 = certain adjectives serving as factors of p62. 
 
 si. mas. beau, hon, difficile, dr die, facile, int&ressant, joli, 
 
 triste, etc. 
 
 si.fem. belle, bonne, etc. 
 
 plu.mas. beaux, bons, etc. 
 
 plu.fem. belles, bonnes, etc. 
 
 m65=quasi-adverbs of time. 
 
 aujourd^hui, hier, demain, avant-hier, apris 
 demain, ce matin, cet apr^s-midi, ce soir, hier 
 matin, hier apres-midi, hier soir, demain matin, 
 demain apres-midi, demain soir, ce mois-d, 
 cette semaine-ci, cette annSe-ci, cette fois-ci, le 
 mois dernier, la semaine derniere, Vannie 
 derniere, la fois demise, le mois prochain, la 
 semaine prochaine, Vannie prochaine, la fois 
 prochaine, etc. 
 
 11166 = the following units : 
 
 a. lundi, mardi, mercredi, jeudi, vendredi, samedi, 
 dimanche. 
 
800 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 b. Janvier, fSvrier, mars, avril, mai, juin, juillet, 
 aout, septembre, octobre, novembre, dicembre. 
 
 c. printemps, ete, automne, hiver. 
 
 TJCi&l = de7'nier, prochain. 
 
 ']0[i6S = une heure, deuce heiires, trois heures, etc., to onze heures. 
 midi, minuit. 
 
 ni69 = cinq, dix, et quart, vingt, vingt-cinq, et demie. 
 
 moins cinq, moins dix, moins un quart, moins vingt, moins 
 vingt-cinq. 
 
 ItilO = dix-neuf cent, dix-huit cent, etc. 
 
 m71 =un, deux, trois, etc., to quatre-vingt-dix-neuf. 
 
 11172 = longtemps, quelque temps, un mois, un an, une semaine, 
 une heure, un quart d^ heure, une demi-heure, etc. 
 
 10[ll3 = quelques, plusieurs, des, deux, trois, quatre, etc. 
 
 XaT^^mmnents, instants, secondes, minutes, heures, jours, 
 semaines, mois, ans, siecles. 
 
 11175 = est-ce que, qu'est-ce que, qui est-ce que, oil est-ce que, quand 
 
 est-ce que, etc. 
 
 Units of the following type might conveniently be added 
 here : 
 
 b. je pense que, je crois que, je suppose que, 
 fespere que, etc. 
 
 c. il faut que, je veux que, je crains que, il est 
 necessaire que, etc. 
 
 11176 ~ the preposition a serving as factor of p27. 
 
 ni77 ^ appropriate members of s4, s5, and p2. 
 
 s4. ga, quelque chose, Vautre, le mien, la table, etc. 
 s5. bon, beau, fatigui, fini, commence, etc. 
 
 p2. id, la, sur la table, etc., maintenant, aujourd^hui, 
 etc., a Jean, a mon ami, etc., ensemble, avec 
 moi, etc. 
 
A FRENCH ERGONIC CHART 301 
 
 lll78 = past participles of transitive verbs. 
 
 si. mas. commence, demands, donne, ecrit, envoy S, fait, 
 
 etc. 
 
 si.fem. commencee, demandee, donnSe, etc. 
 
 plu.mas. commences, demandes, donnes, etc. 
 
 plu.fem. commencees, demandees, donnees, etc. 
 
 II. SUM GROUPS 
 
 51 = m75 + slO + sll. 
 
 All units preceding the subject (s2). 
 
 52 = m3 + sl2 + sl6. 
 
 Subject. 
 
 53 = sl3 + p3 + sl4. 
 
 Predicate, but not including the complement (s5) nor the 
 extensions (p2). 
 
 54 = sl2 + sl5 + sl6. 
 
 Direct object. 
 
 55 = sl7 + p4 4- p5 + p6 + p7. 
 
 Complement {of verbs of incomplete predication). 
 
 56 = p29 + p30. 
 
 Indirect object. 
 
 57 = m22 + p31-hp32. 
 
 Place. 
 
 58 = m23 + sl8 + p33. 
 
 Time and duration. 
 
 59 = m24 + p34 + p35 + p36 + p37 + p38 + p39. 
 
 Various extensions {or complements), including those of 
 manner, cause, result, purpose, frequency, order, 
 condition, concession, hypothesis, etc. 
 
302 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 510 = m35 + p8 + p9 + plO. 
 
 Interrogatives or connectives. 
 
 511 = s7 + s8 + s9. 
 
 Complements of place, time, duration, manner, etc., placed 
 before the subject. 
 
 512 = pll + sl5. 
 
 Nouns and pronouns (excluding personal pronouns) with 
 all their concomitants, adjuncts, modifiers, etc. 
 
 513 = pl2 + pl3 + pl4. 
 
 Simple tenses with their modifiers and enclaves. 
 
 514 = pl5 + pl6. 
 
 Infinitive compounds. 
 
 515 = m2 + m4 + pl7 + pl8 + pl9 + p20 + p21 + p22 + p23. 
 
 Proper nouns, certain classes of pronouns, and pronoun 
 cmnpounds, 
 
 516 = p24 + p25 + p56. 
 
 Noun chuses. 
 
 517 = sl2-f-m8. 
 
 Nouns and various classes of pronouns, xvith their adjuncts, 
 concomitants, modifiers, etc. 
 
 518 = p45 + p46. 
 
 Phrases of time and duration. 
 
 519 = m26 + m30 + m31 + m32. 
 
 All prepositions. 
 
 520 = m9 + mlO + p47 + p48 + p49. 
 
 Demonstrative, distinguishing, possessive, numeral, ordinal, 
 and fractional adjectives, all necessary concomitants 
 of nouns. 
 
 521 = p50 + p51 + p52. 
 
 Nouns and their possible modifiers. 
 
 522 = sl7 + m50. 
 
 Complement of comparative adjectives and adverbs (not 
 including the connective que). 
 
A FRENCH ERGONIC CHART 808 
 
 S23 = m65 + p57 + p58 + p59. 
 Quasi-adverhs of time, 
 
 S24=m72 + p60. 
 
 Quasi-adverhs of time and duration. 
 
 S25 = mlO + m54 + p47. 
 
 Numeral, ordinal, and fractional adjectives . 
 
 III. PRODUCT GROUPS 
 
 In the following formulae all non-essential factors are italicized. 
 
 pi = 5i X 52 X S3 X 54 X 55 X 'p2. 
 Complete sentences. 
 
 'p2 = s6xs7 xs8xs9. 
 
 Various extensions {or complements) of place, time, 
 
 duration, manner, etc, etc. 
 The Indirect Object is included for expedient if not for 
 logical reasons, 
 
 p8 = in63 X m5 x ml4 x m6 x m21 x ml5. 
 
 Tenses compounded by auxiliaries and past participles^ 
 
 p4 = sl9xsl7. 
 
 Predicative phrases. 
 
 p5=p61xp;26. 
 
 Predicative adjectives and their modifiers. 
 
 p6=m2^xm64xp27. 
 
 Certain predicative adjectives and their modifiers, including 
 infinitives preceded by a. 
 
 pl = m78xp28. 
 
 Passive past participles with their complementary phrases. 
 
 p8 = m37 X p58. 
 
 Nouns modified by interrogative adjectives. 
 
304 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 p9 = sl9xm36. 
 
 Interrogative adverb equivalents. 
 
 plO = sl9xp8. 
 
 Interrogative adverb-equivalents containing adjective 
 modifiers (dans quelle rue). 
 
 pll = s20xs21. 
 
 Nouns {with modifiers) and their essential antecedents. 
 
 pl2 = Tn63 X m5 x ml3 x m6 x m21. 
 
 Simple tenses (imperative excluded) with their modifiers 
 and enclaves. 
 
 pl3 = 'ni63 X m5 x ml3h x m21. 
 
 Simple imperative negative tenses with modifi£rs and 
 enclaves. 
 
 pl4 = ml3h X m7 X m21. 
 
 Simple imperative affirmative tenses with modifiers and 
 enclaves, 
 
 pl5=p40x p41. 
 
 Infinitive compounds in which the antecedents of the in- 
 finitive are simple tenses. 
 
 pl6=p42xp41. 
 
 Infinitive compounds in which the antecedents of the in- 
 finitive are compound tenses. 
 
 pl7 = m57 X ml X m58. 
 
 Nouns modified by ee — ei, ce — la, etc. 
 
 pl8 = m59xp54. 
 
 Celui, etc, modified by phrases. 
 
 pl9 = m60xp55. 
 
 Celui, etc., modified by non-subject clauses. 
 
 p20 = m60xp56. 
 
 Celui, etc., modified by subject clauses. 
 
 p21 = m61 xm62xp61. 
 
 Quelque chose, etc., modified by adjectives (quelque chose 
 de beau). 
 
A FRENCH ERGONIC CHART 805 
 
 p22 = ni61 X p55. 
 
 Quel que chose, etc., modified by non-suhject clauses 
 (quelque chose que je connais). 
 
 p23=m61 xp56. 
 
 Quelque chose, etc., modified by subject clauses (quelque 
 chose qui est arrive). 
 
 p24 = m40 xm48. 
 
 Noun-clauses with connectives que and si (que c'est vrai, 
 si c'est vrai). 
 
 p25=slOxm49. 
 
 Noun-clauses with adverbial connectives (ou il va). 
 
 p26 = ni41 X s22. 
 
 Complement of comparative adjectives and adverbs {in- 
 cluding the connective que). 
 
 p27 = m76xml8. 
 
 Infinitives preceded by a {corresponding in function with 
 the Latin supine in -u). 
 
 p28 = m32xml7. 
 
 Complementary phrases {in par aiid de) to passive past 
 participles. 
 
 p29 = m31xsl7. 
 
 Phrases expressing the indirect object. 
 
 p30 = m31 X m39 x m51 . 
 
 Phrase-clauses expressing the indirect object. 
 
 p31 = m26xsl7. 
 
 Clauses expressing place. 
 
 p32 = ^2^xm42xm51. 
 
 Clauses and phrase- clauses expressing place. 
 
 p33 = m43xm52. 
 
 Clauses expressing time and duration. 
 (Note. — Clauses of time and duration containing sub- 
 junctives are included for reasons of expediency in p39). 
 
 u 
 
306 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 1^34! = ni20xm25xp26. 
 
 Adverbs of manner with modifiers. 
 
 p35=m30xsl7. 
 
 Clauses expressing manner, cause, purpose, frequency, 
 condition, concession, etc. 
 
 p36=m33xp43. 
 
 Infinitive clauses (expressing manner and purpose). 
 
 p37 = m34 X p44. 
 
 Gerunds [expressing manner). 
 
 p38 = ni44xm52. 
 
 Clauses {not containing subjunctives) expressing manner, 
 cause, condition, hypothesis, etc. 
 
 p39 = ni45 X m53. 
 
 Clauses {containing subjunctives) expressing condition, 
 concession, purpose, time, duration, etc. 
 
 p40 = ^^'^ X nil6 . . .xm6 . . .xm21+ . . . ml6. 
 
 Simple tenses {together with their modifiers and enclaves) 
 used as antecedents of the infinitive. 
 
 'p4}i = fn63x ml8. 
 
 Infinitives together with enclaved pronouns. 
 
 p42*= ^^<^ X rnl4 X m6 X m21 x ml7. 
 
 Compound tenses {together with their modifiers and en- 
 claves) used as antecedents of the infinitive. 
 
 p43=ml8xm77'. 
 
 Infinitives, together with appropriate objects, complements, 
 extensions, etc. 
 
 p44=ml9xm77'. 
 
 Gerunds {not including en), together with appropriate 
 objects, complements, extensions, etc. 
 
 p45=m27xs23. 
 
 Phrases expressing time {hours, days, weeks, months, years, 
 etc.). 
 
A FRENCH ERGONIC CHART 307 
 
 p46 = m28xs24. 
 
 Phrases expressing time and duration, 
 
 p47 = m9xmll. 
 
 Ordinal adjectives together with their modifiers. 
 
 p48 = ni54 X m55. 
 
 Simple fractionals {or quantitatives) together with de. 
 
 p49 = s25 X m55 x m56. 
 
 Fractional and ordinal modifiers of nouns, combined, for 
 the sake of expediency, with les, ces, mes, etc. 
 
 p50=p53xp54. 
 
 Nouns (already modified by simple adjectives) further modi- 
 fied by adjective phrases. 
 
 p51 = sl2 x p55. 
 
 Nouns (already modified by adjectives and phrases) further 
 modified by non-subject clauses. 
 
 p52=sl2xp56. 
 
 Nouns (already modifi£d by adjectives a7id phrases) further 
 modified by subject clauses. 
 
 p53= p61 X ml X p61. 
 
 Nouns modified (on either side) by adjectives (which them- 
 selves are modified by adverbs). 
 
 p54=m29xsl2. 
 
 Adjective phrases. 
 
 p55=-m38xm46. 
 
 Adjective clauses (non-subject) including connectives. 
 
 p56=m39xm47. 
 
 Adjective cUmses (subject) including connectives. 
 
 p57 = m66 X m67. 
 
 Names of days, months, and seasons (with their modifiers). 
 
 p58 = m68xm59 
 
 Names of hours (with their modifiers). 
 
808 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 p59 = m70xm7'2. 
 
 Names of years. 
 
 p60=m73xm74. 
 
 Measures of time. 
 
 p61 = m20xml2. 
 
 Adjectives of quality modified by adverbs. 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS, WITH THE 
 MEANINGS ATTRIBUTED TO THEM IN THE 
 PAGES OF THIS BOOK 
 
 Accidence. That part of etymology which is more especially 
 concerned with the changes of form found in the con- 
 jugation of a verb or the declension of a noun, pronoun, or 
 adjective. 
 
 Accuracy. The reproducing of a given form in conformity to 
 a given model (not necessarily a classical or traditionally 
 ' correct ' model). 
 
 Active use of language. Speaking and writing, as opposed to 
 the passive use of language : listening and reading. 
 
 Aggregative study. Study in which all the various aspects of 
 lexicology are treated together, instead of being isolated 
 and treated apart as in Segregative study. 
 
 Alogism. The means of expressing a given concept without 
 the use of any concrete lexicological unit. Alogisms fall 
 into three chief categories : position, stress and intonation, 
 and sous-entendus. (See p. 41.) 
 
 Catenizing. Learning to pronounce accurately and rapidly a 
 given succession of sounds, without conscious calculation, 
 generally apart from all considerations of meaning. 
 
 A sentence, phrase, or word is said to be ' catenized ' 
 when the student can articulate it at a moment's notice 
 with fluency and without conscious effort. 
 
 The memorizing or learning by heart of a given unit 
 is only complete when it has been both catenized and 
 semanticized. 
 
 The only sound method of learning the gender of a 
 
 309 
 
810 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 French noun is to catenize it to an appropriate adjective 
 (e.g. le-mur, la-croix, une-belle-promenade). 
 
 [The term catenating has been suggested as a more 
 suitable term than the above.] 
 
 Cognate. (1) Allied by derivation. (2) A phoneme, a morphon, 
 a language, or a dialect, which is cognate to another or 
 others. 
 
 Colloquial. Relating to that style of speech normally used in 
 normal circumstances by the majority of the native 
 speakers of a given language or of a given variety of a 
 given language ; as opposed to the classical style of speech 
 based upon literary tradition. 
 
 Both the colloquial and classical varieties of speech may 
 be spoken and written. 
 
 The colloquial style may be divided into various ' strata,' 
 according to the social position of the speaker. 
 
 Concomitant. Any ergon which is the necessary comple- 
 ment to any other, e.g. peucc, dais, veux, commence a, ai 
 Vintention de, etc., are concomitants of the infinitive. (See 
 Appendix I, in which p40 and p41 are each concomitant 
 to the other.) 
 
 Concretization. A phase of semanticizing. The concrete associ- 
 ating of a given unit of speech with the concept for which it 
 stands (as in ' Material Association'). (See pp. 127, 128.) 
 
 Correct. (See Accuracy.) 
 
 Derivation. That branch of etymology which is more par- 
 ticularly concerned with the deducing of one part of speech 
 from another (e.g. the noun considiration from the verb 
 considirer). 
 
 As opposed to inflexion or ptosonics, which is concerned 
 chiefly with conjugation and declension. 
 
 Dialect. Variety of a given language (including the classical or 
 standard variety, should such exist). 
 
 The popular language of Liege is a Walloon dialect ; 
 Walloon is a group of French dialects ; French is a group 
 of Neo-Latin dialects ; Latin was a group of dialects in- 
 digenous to a part of the Italic peninsula. 
 
GLOSSARY 311 
 
 Direct method. A somewhat vague term loosely denoting a 
 system of language teaching largely based on the doctrine 
 that translation should be excluded in the greatest possible 
 measure. 
 
 "The Direct Method expresses neither more nor less 
 than the theory that language should be taught by direct 
 connexion with objects and living ideas." — Ilardress 
 O'Grady. 
 
 Disintegration. (1) The resolving of an integral group of units 
 into its component parts. (2) Learning the meaning of the 
 individual words of which a previously memorized sentence 
 is composed. 
 
 Documentary. Relating to knowledge about a given subject, 
 as opposed to the assimilation of the subject itself (or 
 A ssimilatory knowledge) . 
 
 Ergon. The unit of ergonics. Any speech-unit considered 
 from the point of view of its function or powers of combining 
 with other units, as distinct from its meaning ovform. 
 
 Ergonics. The science which teaches us (a) to classify the 
 units of a given language according to their function in 
 the sentence ; (b) to build up original (i.e. unknown) 
 units from the smaller known units of which they are 
 composed. 
 
 Ergonics comprises the whole range of analysis and 
 synthesis from the sentence at one extreme down to the 
 insecables at the other extreme, whereas Syntax is only 
 concerned with the reduction of a sentence into Subject, 
 Predicate, and Object, and vice versa. 
 
 Etymology. (1) The science which teaches us (a) to deduce 
 original {i.e. unknown) monologs from a given root or 
 cognate (e.g. journaucc from journal, finissant from finir, 
 lentement from lent) ; (b) to deduce the meaning of a given 
 unknown word by its morphological relation to its ancestral 
 or other cognates (e.g. knowing the meaning of cadre, to 
 deduce the meaning of encadrer). (2) The science which 
 treats of the history of words in general. 
 
312 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 The unit of etymology is the etymon. 
 
 Most of the phenomena of inflexion (ptosonics or acci- 
 dence) and derivation come into the province of etymology. 
 (See p. 44.) 
 
 Etymon. The unit of etymology. Any group of significative 
 speech-units cognate with each other and with their 
 common ancestral form or forms. (See p. 44.) 
 
 Graphic continuity. The representation of two or more units 
 of speech by means of one continuous written unit. 
 
 Graphic continuity involves the terms monolog, polylog, 
 and miolog. 
 
 Immediate comprehension. (See Subconscious Comprehension.) 
 
 Immediate (or non-mediate) expression. The power of express- 
 ing a given concept without conscious effort, synthesis, or 
 translation. 
 
 Inflexions. (1) Morphological variations of a given etymon 
 consequent on the use of affixes, vowel-change, etc., corre- 
 sponding to definite etymological or ergonic phenomena. 
 E.g., looked, gave, and them are the respective inflexions 
 of look, give, and they (but a is not an inflexion of an, nor an 
 of a). (2) The changes undergone by words to express the 
 relations of case, gender, person, tense, etc. 
 
 Insecables. The ultimate significative units of speech. They 
 constitute fractions of greater units but cannot themselves 
 be decomposed into lesser units. (See p. 45.) 
 
 Integral. Considered as a whole, without analysis, without 
 consideration of the component parts. 
 
 Intellectual exercises. Exercises involving the development 
 and use of the reasoning powers, as opposed to mechanical 
 exercises, which develop the reflex powers. 
 
 Language. The medium by which thoughts and emotions are 
 expressed and conveyed from one person to another. (See 
 p. 29.) 
 
 Language is often confused by the thoughtless with 
 literature or literary variety of language. (See Literature.) 
 
GLOSSARY 818 
 
 Letter. (1) The ultimate unit of written speech. Any con- 
 ventional symbol standing for any given phoneme or 
 phonemes. (2) The unit of orthography. Any symbol 
 used in a conventional traditional spelling system ; such 
 symbol may or may not correspond to any given phoneme 
 or phonomes. 
 
 Lexicological units. (1) Sentences, phrases, clauses, polylogs, 
 monologs, miologs ; morphons, etymons, ergons, seman- 
 ticons. (2) Words, their components and their multiples. 
 
 Lexicology. The study of words in all their aspects. Phonetics, 
 phonology, orthography, orthoepy, etymology, ergonics, 
 and semantics are branches of lexicology. 
 
 Literature. (1) An artificial and aesthetic application of lan- 
 guage proper. (2) The application of language to artistic 
 purposes. 
 
 Localization. A mnemonic process consisting of forming place- 
 associations. 
 
 Manifestations. The two medimns by which language is mani- 
 fested to the perception — viz. speaking and writing. 
 
 Material association. A mode of semanticizing in which the 
 unit is associated more or less materially with the object, 
 quality, or action which it denotes. 
 
 Mechanical exercises. Exercises involving the use and develop^ 
 ment of the reflex powers, as opposed to intellectual exercises 
 which develop the reasoning powers. 
 
 Memorizing. Learning a given unit by heart. The special 
 variety of memorizing which aims at the correct, fluent, 
 and ready mastery of the succession of sounds contained 
 in the unit is termed Catenizing. The special variety of 
 memorizing which aims at the correct and ready associa- 
 tion of the unit with its meaning is termed Semanticizing. 
 
 Method. (1) A given means or system of learning or of teaching 
 a language. (2) A given means or system of learning or of 
 teaching a given aspect of language. (3) A book embody- 
 ing (1) or (2). 
 
814 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Microcosm. A vocabulary of the more important and most 
 characteristic units of a given language, selected by the 
 method-writer or teacher in accordance with and as a com- 
 promise between the principles oi frequency, ergonic com- 
 bination, concreteness, proportion, and general expediency. 
 
 Minimals. Units which it is either impossible or inexpedient 
 for a given purpose to submit to further analysis. 
 
 Miolog. A significative or functional unit such as an affix ; 
 miologs are generally considered as fractions of words. 
 (See p. 40.) 
 
 Mnemonics. The science which treats of the systematic and 
 rational cultivation and development of the power of 
 memory. 
 
 Monolog. A word considered merely as a conventional unit of 
 vocabulary in virtue of its being (a) written all in one piece 
 without any interrupting break or space ; (b) separated by 
 a break or space from the words with which it may happen 
 to be juxtaposed. (See p. 40.) 
 
 Morphology. The science which teaches us the form of speech- 
 units, as distinct from their meaning and function. 
 Phonetics, Phonology, Orthography, and Etymology are 
 special branches of morphology. (See p. 43.) 
 
 Morphon. The unit of morphology. Any speech unit con- 
 sidered from the point of view of its form, as apart from its 
 meaning or function. 
 
 Orthoepy. The art of deducing a given pronunciation from a 
 given orthographic form. 
 
 The various values of ough in plough, cough, ought, 
 thorough, enough do not constitute a phonetic difficulty, but 
 an orthoepic difficulty. 
 
 Prior to the modern phonetic movement, pronunciation 
 was always studied and taught on an ' orthoepic ' basis — 
 that is to say, sounds were considered to be the oral inter- 
 pretation of the letters of a given conventional spelling. 
 
 Orthography. The art of writing the right letters in the right 
 places according to a given conventional system of spelling. 
 
GLOSSARY 315 
 
 The unit of orthography is the letter, as that of phonetics 
 is the sound, and as that of phonology is the phoneme. 
 
 Orthography and orthoepy alone constitute the artificial 
 aspect of language. 
 
 Passive aspect of language. Listening and reading, as opposed 
 to the active use of language : speaking and writing. 
 
 Philology. The science which treats of the history, evolution, 
 and developments of language in general or of a given 
 language or dialect. 
 
 Phoneme. The unit of phonology. A sound, an intimate sound 
 combination, a stress or a tone, together with all the 
 variants used by different speakers in the same or in differ- 
 ent dialects in the same or in different periods of history. 
 The phoneme represented by the vowel-letter o in the 
 English word bone remains the same phoneme whether 
 pronounced [ou] (as in the south of England), [ar] as in 
 Cockney), [o:] as in Scotland, or [a:] as in Early English. 
 (See p. 43.) (See Phonology.) 
 
 Phonetics. The science which investigates the formation of 
 speech-sounds and the mode of using them in connected 
 speech. 
 
 The unit of phonetics proper is the speech-sound. 
 
 Various aspects of phonetics are associated respectively 
 with acoustics, physiology, lexicology, and philology. 
 
 Phonology. That branch of phonetics w^hich is more particularly 
 concerned with the various values of a given phoneme 
 (a) during the course of its history, {b) according to the 
 dialect in which it is used. 
 
 The phonologist teaches us that the vowel in cut generally 
 has the value of [a] in the south of England, and the value 
 of [u] in certain northern dialects, whereas the phonetician 
 teaches us how to pronounce either or both of these sounds, 
 and tells us how they are formed by the organs of speech. 
 (See Phoneme.) 
 
 Pidgin. Abnormal dialect of a given language as developed and 
 used by speakers of mixed nationalities or races, as the 
 
316 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 pidgin English of the Chinese ports or the sabir of the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 Polylog. Unit composed of two or more monologs in juxta- 
 position but functionally and semantically equal to a 
 monolog. 
 
 Primary matter. All units learnt by heart integrally (i.e. with- 
 out analysis or synthesis). 
 
 Ptosonic. Relating to inflexions as distinct from other derived 
 forms. 
 
 Reform method. Generally synonymous with Direct Method 
 (q.v.). 
 
 Secondary matter. All units derived or built up by the pupil 
 from Primary matter (q.v.). 
 
 Segregation. The principle by which each aspect, phase, or 
 particular difficulty of a language is isolated from the 
 others in order to secure the complete and sole attention 
 of the pupil, thus avoiding confusion or diffusion of 
 thought. 
 
 Segregative study. Study in which all the various aspects of 
 lexicology are isolated and treated apart, as when we learn 
 the pronunciation of words apart from their meanings or 
 functions and vice versa. 
 
 Semantic. Pertaining to meanings. 
 
 Semanticizing, (1) Conveying to the pupil (by means of 
 Material Association, Translation, Definition, or Context) 
 the meaning of a given unit. (2) Memorizing the meaning 
 of a given unit, apart from all considerations of correct or 
 fluent articulation. 
 
 [The author has not yet succeeded in finding two different 
 terms with which to distinguish these two connotations ; 
 he would be glad to receive suggestions in regard to this 
 matter.] 
 
 Semanticon. The unit of meaning or of thought. Any group 
 of speech-units each of which expresses the same or nearly 
 the same idea. (Also called a semantic group.) 
 
GLOSSARY 8ir 
 
 The identification of semanticons in two or more 
 languages constitutes the basis of all rational translation. 
 (See pp. 44, 45.) 
 
 Semantics. The science which treats of the meaning of speech- 
 units, as distinct from their form or function. 
 
 Historical semantics (often caWed semasiology) treats of the 
 changes in meaning of a given etymon during the course of 
 its history and in the range of its geographical distribution. 
 
 The unit of semantics is the semanticon. (See pp. 44, 45.) 
 
 Sound (or speech-sound). The unit of phonetics proper. The 
 acoustic effect consequent uponJmodifying a current of air 
 by the organs of speech. 
 
 A speech-sound is a fixed quantity, determined by a 
 given conformation of the organs of speech. A speech- 
 sound may cease to be used, and its place may be taken by 
 some other sound, but a speech-sound proper is not subject 
 to evolution and can therefore have no history. What is 
 generally termed the history of sounds is in reality the 
 history of phonemes. 
 
 Spatialization. The utilization of space with the object of 
 converting the abstract into a semblance of concrete form. 
 
 Study. Work performed by anybody in order to get to know 
 something or to get to know how to do something. Study 
 may be conscious or subconscious ; the extent of study may 
 be complete or partial ; the degree of study may be documen- 
 tary or assimilative. 
 
 Subconscious comprehension. The art of understanding con- 
 nected speech (spoken or written) without conscious effort, 
 analysis, or translation. 
 
 The term immediate (or non-mediate) comprehension may 
 be used in the same sense. 
 
 Substitution table. A certain arrangement in vertical columns of 
 imits having certain powers of combination. (See pp. 180 
 to 188.) 
 
 (Every p-group of an ergonic chart is necessarily a sub- 
 stitution table.) 
 
318 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Synonym. A given unit expressing the same or nearly the same 
 meaning as another given unit. 
 
 Synopticity. (See Uebersichtlichkeit.) 
 
 Syntax. That branch of ergonics which is concerned with the 
 analysis of a sentence into subject, predicate, and object, 
 or the building up of a sentence from these three com- 
 ponents. 
 
 Transcription. (1) The converting of an orthographic text into 
 a phonetic text or vice versa. (2) The result of such con- 
 version. 
 
 Translation. (1) The equivalent in a given language of a unit 
 or of a series of imits in another language. (2) The process 
 of discovering or the act of expressing such equivalences. 
 
 If any given pair of units are cognate in derivation, the 
 result is an etymological translation ; if they are cognate 
 in meaning, the result is a semantic translation. Literal 
 translation is a term which appears to be meaningless. 
 
 Uebersichtlichkeit. Visual correlation, ' survey ability,* ' synop- 
 ticity,' the quality possessed by synoptic tables. 
 
 Undifferentiated Programme. A programme which does not 
 observe the principle of segregation. 
 
 Unit. (See Lexicological unit.) 
 
 Vehicular language. The language which is used as the medium 
 of explanations. 
 
 Visual correlation. (See Uebersichtlichkeit.) 
 
 Visualization. The power of forming mental images, similar to 
 localization (q.v.). 
 
 Word. A loose term without any precise meaning, designating 
 various types of lexicological units, generally monologs. 
 
APPENDIX III 
 
 LIST OF PHONETIC SYMBOLS 
 
 The symbols have the values shown by the itahc letters in the 
 words given as illustrations. 
 
 A. French and English Sounds 
 
 Phonetic Symbol 
 
 Value of Symbol when 
 used in French Words 
 
 Value of Symbol when 
 used in English Words 
 
 Vowels 
 
 
 
 
 i: 
 
 lire 
 
 
 see 
 
 i 
 
 si 
 
 
 
 I 
 e 
 
 h\e 
 
 
 give 
 
 6 
 
 beUe 
 
 pen (also first vowel 
 element in where) 
 
 ae 
 
 
 
 cat 
 
 a 
 
 patte 
 
 (First 
 
 vowel element 
 in nor£;) 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 Cl^t 
 
 u: 
 
 jour 
 
 
 too 
 
 u 
 
 towt 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 book 
 
 o: 
 
 vdtre 
 
 
 
 
 
 b^au 
 
 (First 
 
 vowel element 
 
 d: 
 
 fort 
 
 
 in go) 
 all 
 
 3 
 
 a: 
 
 bonne 
 pate 
 
 
 stop 
 ask 
 
 a 
 
 pas 
 
 
 first 
 
 3 
 
 peser 
 
 
 again 
 
 y 
 
 Iwne 
 
 
 — 
 
 319 
 
320 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Phonetic Symbol 
 
 Vowels — cont. 
 
 Value of Symbol when 
 used in French Words 
 
 Falue of Symbol when 
 used in English Words 
 
 9ii 
 
 creuse 
 
 _- . 
 
 fi 
 
 peu 
 
 
 oe: 
 
 peuT 
 
 
 oe 
 
 ceui 
 
 .^_„ 
 
 6 
 
 fin 
 
 
 a 
 
 tant 
 
 
 5 
 
 hon 
 
 ^^_^ 
 
 6b 
 
 hrun 
 
 
 Diphthongs 
 
 
 
 61 
 
 — 
 
 late 
 
 ai 
 
 — 
 
 five 
 
 ou 
 au 
 
 ""~ 
 
 go 
 now 
 
 31 
 19 
 
 "■~~ 
 
 hoy 
 dear 
 
 89 
 
 
 where 
 
 tJ9 
 
 — 
 
 sure 
 
 Consonants 
 
 
 
 P 
 b 
 
 pas 
 bas 
 
 put 
 be 
 
 t 
 
 t&s 
 
 take 
 
 d 
 
 deux 
 
 do 
 
 k 
 
 quel 
 
 come 
 
 g 
 
 gSLTit 
 
 go 
 
 m 
 
 ma 
 
 my 
 
 n 
 
 non 
 
 no 
 
 Ji 
 
 agneau 
 
 
 
 
 nuit 
 
 bring 
 
 w 
 
 oicest 
 
 wait 
 
 f 
 
 feu 
 
 five 
 
 V 
 
 e 
 
 t;ous 
 
 very 
 thin 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 then 
 
LIST OF PHONETIC SYMBOLS 
 
 321 
 
 Phonetic Symbol 
 
 Consonants— 
 
 Value of Symbol when 
 used in French Words 
 
 -cord. 
 
 Value 
 used ifi 
 
 of Symbol when 
 I English Words 
 
 J 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 red 
 
 r 
 
 rat 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 s\ 
 
 
 
 so 
 
 z 
 
 doiLze 
 
 
 
 rose 
 
 % 
 
 cho\x 
 
 
 
 shut 
 
 3 
 
 jeu 
 
 
 
 pleasure 
 
 J 
 h 
 
 yeux 
 
 
 
 hoX 
 
 1 
 
 belle 
 
 
 
 fend 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 peupZe (final) 
 
 
 hell (final) 
 
 Various 
 
 tl = ch in church. 
 d3 = ; in^udge. 
 
 J = the Hungarian sound gy in magt/ar. 
 ' indicates that the following syllable is stressed. 
 : indicates that the vowel to which it is attached is 
 long. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Academy, French, 32 
 
 Accidence, 247, Appendix II 
 
 Accuracy, 119, 120, 121, 160, Appen- 
 dix II 
 
 Active V. passive work, 13, 65, 75, 
 Appendix II 
 
 Advanced stage, 122 
 
 Advantages of integral memorizing, 
 112, 113 
 
 Affixes, 36 
 
 Agglutinative languages, 36 
 
 Aggregative study, 73, Appen- 
 dix II 
 
 Aim of student, 69, 71, 225^. 
 
 Alogisms, 12, 39, 41, 42, 45, Appen- 
 dix II 
 
 Alphabetic aspect of language, 30 
 
 Analysis, 46 
 
 Ancestral forms, 43, 44 
 
 Archaisms, 204 
 
 Articulation exercises, 148, 149, 152, 
 153, 154, 158 
 
 Artificial language, facility of, 23 
 
 Aspects of study, 74 
 
 Association of ideas, 55 
 
 Basis of classification, 43 
 Bilingual consciousness, 49, 249, 263, 
 
 264 
 Books, 171 
 
 Calligraphy, 51 
 
 Cards and card index, 171, 206 
 
 Catalogue of French units, Appen- 
 dix I 
 
 Oatenizing, 27, 55, 103-119, Appen- 
 dix II 
 
 — exercises, 140 
 
 — tediousness of, 123 
 
 323 
 
 Chart, Ergonic, 190. 191, 266, 271, 
 
 Appendix I 
 Chart, Phonetic, 161, 162, 212, 266 
 Child, bilingual, 75 
 Children learning mother tongue, 
 
 264 
 Chinese characters, writing, 52, 104, 
 
 140 
 Chinese words, 36, 37 
 Choice of matter, 273 
 Classification of units, 12, 42-46 
 Cockney, 61 
 Cognate, Appendix II 
 Cognate languages, 58, 60 
 Cognates, ancestral, 44 
 
 — etymological, 34, 44 
 
 — foreign, 44 
 
 — semantic, 34, 35, 36 
 Coleman, H. O., 42 
 
 Colloquial style, 61, 62, Appendix II 
 Composition, 221, 222, 223, 236 
 Compound words, 37, 38, 39 
 Concentration, 73, 74 
 Concreteness, 127, 128 
 Concretizing or concretization, 22, 
 
 27, 127, 128, Appendix II 
 Confusion of thought, 73, 74 
 Conscious study, advantages and 
 
 limitations of, 136, 137 
 Context as a mode of teaching 
 
 meanings, 77-103 
 Co-ordination of efforts, 27 
 'Correct' speech, 276 
 CoiTective courses, 16, 119 
 Cummings, Thomas F., quotation 
 
 from, 120, 121 
 
 Definition, 45 
 
 — as a mode of teaching meanings, 
 77-102 
 
324 
 
 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Derivation and etymology, 44, Ap- 
 pendix II 
 
 Dialects, 60, 62, 63, 64, Appendix II 
 
 Dictation, 208, 209 
 
 Dictionary, ideal, 266 
 
 Differentiation of Semantic Cog- 
 nates, 36 
 
 Difficulty, factor of, 73, 74, 110, 277 
 
 — imaginary, 22, 23 
 
 Direct Method, 71, 72, 78, 95, 98, 99, 
 
 Appendix II 
 fallacy of, 83, 84, 85, 92 
 
 — Programme, 95, 96 
 
 — Semanticizing, 95, 96 
 Disintegration, 214, Appendix II 
 Documentary knowledge of lan- 
 guage, 16, 67, Appendix II 
 
 Ear-memory, 276 
 
 Ear-training exercises, 145, 150, 151, 
 
 158 
 Elementary stage, 122 
 Enfant bilingue, Le D^veloppement 
 
 du Langage observS chez un, 76 
 Ergonic aspect of study, 74 
 
 — Chart, 190, 191, 266, 271, Appen- 
 dix I 
 
 — combination, 122, 125, 126, 127 
 
 — theory, lectures on, 166, 167, 168 
 Ergonics, definition of, 46, Appen- 
 dix II 
 
 — living, 191-196 
 
 — unit of, 45 
 
 Ergons, classification of, 45, 46, 
 Appendix II 
 
 — minor, 125 
 
 Error, factor of, 112, 119, 121, 236, 263 
 Errors, correction of, 231, 232, 233, 234 
 Etymological aspect of study, 74 
 
 — cognates, 44 
 
 — identity, 33-39 
 
 — theory, lectures on, 163, 164 
 Etymology, 213 
 
 — definition of. Appendix II 
 
 — unit of, 44 
 Etymon, 125 
 
 — definition of, Appendix II 
 
 — the, is the unit of etymology, 44 
 
 Exercises, articulation, 148, 149, 152, 
 153, 154, 158 
 
 — comprehensive and descriptive 
 list of, 207-224 
 
 — conversion, 212 
 
 — ear-training, 132, 145, 150, 151, 158 
 
 — intellectual, 209-224, Appendix II 
 
 — mechanical, 207-209, Appendix II 
 
 — missing word, 224 
 
 — retranslation, 224 
 
 — semi-mechanical, 209-224 
 
 — systematic conjugation, 184-190 
 
 — transcription, 209 
 Expediency, considerations of, in 
 
 selecting matter, 129, 130, 131 
 Explanations, 243-251 
 Eye-memory, 276 
 
 Fallacies, popular, 121 
 
 •Fallacy of the Direct Method,' 83, 
 
 84, 85, 92 
 ' Fallacy of the monolog,' 41 
 First lesson, specimen of, 142-146 
 Fluency, 169 
 
 — necessity for, 119-122 
 
 — practice, 159, 160 
 Fluent comprehension, 169 
 Fourfold aim of the student, 12, 71 
 Frequency, principle of, 122-125 
 Functions of teacher, 238-269 
 
 Gesture, 127, 128, 133 
 
 Gradation, principle of, 14, 119-122, 
 240 
 
 Grammar, classical, 31 
 
 Graphic continuity, 11, 37-39, Ap- 
 pendix II 
 
 Gymnastics, 170 
 
 How to Learn a Language^ 7 
 
 Ideal Standard Programme, 14, 
 
 15, 138-224 
 Ignorance, utilization of, 49 
 Illegitimate importation, 263 
 Imaginary facility and difficulty, 22, 
 
 23 
 
INDEX 
 
 325 
 
 Imitation, oral, 52, 53, 54 
 Immediate comprehension and ex- 
 pression, 74, Appendix II 
 Imperative drill, 150, 151, 157 
 Incentive, 56, 69, 261 
 Incubation period, 13, 75, 76] 
 Inflexional identity, 36 
 Inflexions, 44, 163, Appendix II 
 
 — obsolete, 33 
 
 — information concerning, 247 
 Insecables, 45, 169, Appendix II 
 Instruments and tools, adequate 
 
 number of, 265, 266, 267 
 Integral translation, 210, 211, Ap- 
 pendix II 
 
 — memorizing, 112, 113, 117, 118, 119, 
 Appendix II 
 
 — units, 106, 109, Appendix II 
 Intellectual exercises, 209-224, Ap- 
 pendix II 
 
 Interest, 134, 261 
 Intermediate stage, 122 
 International Phonetic Association, 
 
 140 
 Intonation, 41, 42 
 " Intonation and Emphasis," 42 
 Intuition, 132 
 Irregular sentences, 116 
 
 Japanese, classical and colloquial, 
 
 63 
 Juxtaposition, 37, 38 
 
 Laconisms, 125 
 
 Language, definition of, 11, 19 
 
 — and literature, 11, 30, 31, 32, 276 
 Language-study, does the science of, 
 
 exist? 11, 19, 20, 21 
 
 — in empirical stage, 11, 19, 20, 21 
 Laws of memory, 55 
 Learning by heart, 103-119 
 Lessons by correspondence, 68, 69 
 Letter, the, is the unit of ortho- 
 graphy, 43 
 
 Lexicological sciences, 141, Ap- 
 pendix II 
 
 — units, 11, 39-46, Appendix II 
 Lexicology, 32, Appendix II 
 
 Library, the language learners', 
 
 266,267 
 Literary dialect, 61 
 Literature and language, 11, 30, 31, 
 
 32, 202, 207, Appendix II 
 Living ergonics, 191-196 
 Localization, 55, 253, 264, Appendix II 
 
 Manifestations of language, 64, 
 Appendix II 
 
 Material association, 77-102, Ap- 
 pendix II 
 
 Memorizing, 13, 14, 23, 54, 103-119, 
 Appendix II 
 
 — integral, 103 
 Memory, 55 
 
 — systems, 253 
 
 — training, 56 
 
 — V. calculation, 103-119 
 Mental images, 254, 255 
 Method of discovery, 245, 246 
 Method for deducing grammar of 
 
 unwritten languages, 269, 270, 271 
 Method, Appendix II 
 
 — 'natural,' 77 
 
 — object of, 47 
 
 — writers, 24, 25, 27, 240 
 Methods of language-study, diver- 
 gent character of, 23 
 
 Microcosm, 14, 122-131, 170, 198, 205, 
 
 Appendix II 
 Minimals, Appendices I and II 
 Miologs, 12, 39, 40, 41, 42, 109, 110, 
 
 Appendix II 
 Miscellanea Phonetica^ 42 
 Missionaries, 26 
 Mistaken haste, 274 
 Mnemonic aid, 85 
 Mnemonics, 253, Appendix II 
 Monolog, fallacy of, 41 
 Monologs, 12, 39, 40, 41, 42, 109, 110, 
 
 114, 164, 165, 166, Appendix II 
 
 — examples of, 40 
 
 Morphology or form, 12, 42, 43, Ap- 
 pendix II 
 Morphons, 125, Appendix II 
 
 Nonsense dictation, 158 
 
326 
 
 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Objective factors, 68 
 O'Grady, Hardress, 8, 311 
 Old-fashioned methods, 71 
 Old-fogeyism, 275 
 Oral imitation, 52 
 Organized method, 7, 8 
 Orientation of study, 69 
 Orthoepy, 221, 276, Appendix II 
 Orthographic aspect of study, 74 
 Orthography, French, 140 
 
 — unit of, 43, Appendix II 
 
 Passive use of language, 65, Ap- 
 pendix II 
 Passivity, uninterrupted, 135 
 Philology, 30, 31, 32, Appendix II 
 Philosophical language, 88 
 Phonemes, 43, Appendix II 
 Phonetic aspect of study, 74 
 
 — Association, symbols of the Inter- 
 national, 140, 247, Appendix III 
 
 — Chart, 266 
 
 ~ classification of units, 220, 221 
 
 — dictation, 154, 155 
 
 — reading, 153, 154 
 
 — symbols, 140, 161, 162, 163, 207, 208, 
 247, Appendix III 
 
 — theory, lectures on, 161, 162, 163 
 Phonetics, Appendix II 
 
 — information concerning, 247 
 
 — overdose of, 129 
 
 — theory of, 141 
 
 — unit of, 43 
 Phonograph, 262, 268 
 Phonology, unit of, 43, Appendix II 
 Pidgin, 64, 160, 235, Appendix II 
 Place association, 85, 86, 254 
 Polylogs, 12, 39, 40, 41, 42, 109, 110, 
 
 115, 164, 165, 166, Appendix II 
 
 — examples of, 40 
 
 Prejudice, 274 
 
 Preliminaries, indispensable, 139 
 
 Preliminary equipment of student, 
 51 
 
 Preparation, advantages of ade- 
 quate, 170, 199 
 
 Primary matter, 103-119, 207, Ap- 
 pendix II 
 
 Principle of active and passive 
 work, 75, 76, 77 
 
 — of catenizing, 103-119, Appen- 
 dix II 
 
 — of the fourfold aim, 71 
 
 — of frequency, 122-125 
 
 — fundamental, of linguistic peda- 
 gogy, 47 
 
 — of microcosm, 122-131, Appen- 
 dix II 
 
 — of 'sack,' 239, 240 
 
 — of segregation, 72, Appendix II 
 
 — of subconscious comprehension, 
 131, 132, 133 
 
 — of visual correlation, 251-260 
 Principles of linguistic pedagogy, 12, 
 
 13, 14, 71-137 
 Programme, artificial, 201 
 
 — corrective, 16, 230-237 
 
 — direct, 95, 96 
 
 — documentary, 16, 228, 229, 230 
 
 — ideal, 14, 15, 138-224 
 
 — limited, 16, 225-228 
 
 — natural, 200, 201 
 Programmes, special, 16, 225-237 
 
 — standard, 14, 15, 138-224 
 
 — undifferentiated, 203 
 Pronunciation exercises, 140 
 Proportion, 122, 128, 129 
 
 — principle of, 240, 241 
 Ptosonic, 271, Appendix II 
 
 Quack, language, 279 
 
 Question and answer group, 175-179 
 
 Questio7inaire^ 206, 267 
 
 — non-systematic, 179 
 
 — systematic, 172-179 
 
 Reading, 205, 206, 208 
 
 — phonetic, 153, 154 
 
 Reform method, 71, Appendix II 
 
 Regional dialect, 61 
 
 Regular sentences, 116 
 
 Retranslation, 223 
 
 Richards, S. A., 7 
 
 Ronjat, Jules, quotation from, 76 
 
INDEX 
 
 327 
 
 Scientific method, 7, 11, 20, 26 
 Script, introduction of orthographic, 
 
 197,209 
 Secondary matter, 103-119, 218, Ap- 
 pendix II 
 Segregation, principle of, 13, 72, 73, 
 
 74, Appendix II 
 Self -instruction, 68, 268, 269 
 Semantic aspect of study, 74 
 
 — cognates, 34, 35, 36 
 
 — demonstration, 77-102 
 
 — group, 44 
 
 — order, 134, 135 
 
 — theory, lectures on, 164, 165, 166 
 
 — varieties, 165 
 
 Semanticizing, 13, 55, 77-103, Appen- 
 dix II 
 
 — direct, 95, 96 
 
 Semanticon, 44, 125, Appendix II 
 Semantics, unit of, 44, Appendix II 
 Sentence, definition of, 45 
 Shorthand, 104 
 
 Sound, the, is the unit of phonetics, 
 43, Appendix II 
 
 Sounds, numbering of, 148, 212 
 
 Sous-entenduSf 41 
 
 Spatialization, 85, 86, 87, 191, Ap- 
 pendix II 
 
 Specimen lessons, 142-196 
 
 Spelling, conventional, 197 
 
 Stage, first or elementary, 15, 138- 
 168 
 
 — second or intermediate, 15, 168- 
 197 
 
 — third or advanced, 15, 198-207 
 Stages, 15, 169 
 
 — duration of, 15, 138, 168 
 Standard Programme, 14, 15, 138-224 
 Stimulus, 261 
 
 Stress, 41 
 Student, 48, 268-280 
 
 — bad, 17, 231, 274-280 
 
 — temperament of, 50 
 Study, Appendix II 
 
 — advantages and limitations of 
 conscious, 136, 137 
 
 — advantages and limitations of 
 subconscious study, 136, 137 
 
 Study, aggregative, 73 
 
 — aspects of, 74 
 
 — defective, 230 
 
 — degree of, 67, Appendix II 
 
 — disproportionate, 230 
 
 — extent of, 66, Appendix II 
 
 — manner of, 68 
 
 — orientation of, 59 
 
 — previous, 51 
 
 — subconscious, 73, Appendix II 
 Style, colloquial, 62, 227 
 
 — literary, 62 
 
 Subconscious comprehension, 142- 
 
 148, 155, 156, 157, Appendix II 
 principle of, 14, 131, 132, 133 
 
 — study, 122 
 
 advantages and limitations of, 
 
 136, 137 
 
 Subjective factors, the four, 48 
 
 Substitution tables, 116, 127, 171, 180- 
 183, 209, 210, 214, 215, Appendix II 
 
 Superstitions, literary, 63 
 
 Syllable, 43 
 
 Synonyms, 44, 164, 165, 166, Appen- 
 dix II 
 
 Synopticity, 251-260, Appendix II 
 
 Syntax, 46 
 
 Systematic pronunciation exercises, 
 140 
 
 Teacher and student, relations 
 between, 17, 272, 273, 274 
 
 — casual, 269 
 
 — f imctions of, 16, 27, 238-267 
 
 — qualifications of, 16, 238, 250 
 Temporal dialect, 61 
 Terminology, 20 
 
 — necessity for new, 36 
 Texts, 2(U, 205, 206 
 Theory of memory, 55, 56 
 
 — of study, 55, 56 
 
 Transcription exercises, 209, Ap- 
 pendix II 
 
 Transition, point of, 122 
 Translation, 166, Appendix II 
 
 — as a mode of teaching meanings, 
 77-102 
 
328 STUDY AND TEACHING OF LANGUAGES 
 
 Translation, basis of, 45 
 
 — integral, 210, 211 
 
 — rational, 80, 81 
 
 — the exclusion of, an unnatural 
 principle, 93 
 
 Uebersichtlichkeit, 251-260, Appen- 
 dix II 
 
 Unit of language, 32-46, Appendix 
 II 
 
 — of phonetics, 43 
 
 — of phonology, 43 
 
 — of speech, 46 
 
 — of thought, 44 
 Universal language, 30 
 
 Vehicular language, 16, 249-251 
 Vexed questions, 20, 21 
 
 Vicious tendencies, the six, 49, 117, 
 142, 203, 248, 260, 263, 264, 265 
 
 Visual correlation, principle of, 17, 
 251-260, Appendix II 
 
 Visualization, 17, 55, 251-260, Appen- 
 dix II 
 
 Waste of time, 275 
 Word, 30, 43 
 
 — difficulty of defining the term, 11, 
 32-39, Appendix II 
 
 Word-groups, 36 
 Word-lists, 266 
 Words, cognate, 34, 35 
 
 — compound, 37, 38, 39 
 
 — counters of thought, 30 
 
 — evolution of, 37, 38, 39 
 
l!ll! 
 
 ' ■ )l 
 
 « ;UI 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 r, ! 
 ■ 01 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ■■mTTTT 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 J" 
 
 
 if 
 
 in 
 
 • 
 
 '1 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 1 ' 1