POCKET EDITION CASSIDY'S Irish History ( From Various Sources ) In Catechism Form by Harvey HARVEY B. CASSIDY, Publisher SYRACUSE, N. Y. 07 A"f\a. 2059 PART I. Catechism of Irish History CHAPTER I. Early Inhabitants. Q. When was Ireland first colonized? A. According to Bardic tradition, about three cem- turies after the Deluge (B. C. 2000). Q. Who were the first colonists? A. Parthalonians from Greece. They were called Parthalonians from the name of their leader, Parthaloa. Q. Name the colonists who came to Ireland after the Parthalonians. A. Nemedians, Fomorians, Firbolgs, Damnonians and Milesians. Q. When were the Milesians said to have come to Ireland? A. About B. C. 1700. Q. Why were they named Milesians? A. From Milesius, King of Spain, whose eight sons were the leaders of the colonists who came to Ireland from Spain. Q. Did the Milesians secure a firm footing in Ireland? A. All the kings of Ireland, from the coming of the Milesians to the days of Roderic O'Connor, Ireland's last king, are said to have been of the Milesian race. Q. How was Ireland governed under the Milesians? A. By a number of petty princes, subject to one ■upreme monarch, called the Ard-Ri, who held his court at Tara. Q. How was the succession to the throne of Ireland regulated? A. By the law of Tanistry. Q. What was the law of Tanistry? A. A law ordaining that the royal successor should be a knight full twenty-five years old; he should be AOble, tall, and free from blemish, and should prove hia descent from the Milesians. 4 Q. When did the sovereigns of the Milesian race eease to be pagan? A. la the fifth century, when Ireland became Christian. Q. Name a few of the most remarkable kings of pagan Ireland. A. Ollav Fola, Conary the Great, Tuathal, Con of the Hundred Battles, Cormac Ulfada, Niall of the Nine Hostages, and Dathi. Q. Mention some remarkable acts attributed to Ollav Fola. A. He established meetings of learned men and nobles, to be held every third year at Tara for the purpose of making laws; the acts of these meetings were entered in a great book, called the Psalter of Tara; he also founded schools. Q. When did Conary the Great reign? A. Conary the Great was King of Ireland at the time of Our Savior's birth. Q. How did Tuathal signalize his reign? A. He formed the royal province of Meath, and imposed the Borumean tribute on the kingdom of Lein- ster, in revenge for a gross wrong done to him by the King of Leinster. Q. What was the Borumean tribute? A. A tribute forced from the King of Leinster every second year; it consisted of slaves, together with a number of cows and hogs. Q. What event marked the reign of Con of the Hundred Battles ? A. The King of Munster forced Con to agree to a division of Ireland into two parts; the Northern was called Conn's half, the Southern Mogh's half. Q. Give a brief account of Cormac Ulfada (A. D. 254). A. He was grandson of Con of the Hundred Battles, and the best of the pagan kings of Ireland. He was a great scholar, warrior, and law-giver. Having lost an eye, he abdicated, A. D. 278. Q. How did Niall of the Nine Hostages signaliie his reign? 5 A. By many warlike expeditions, in one of which Patrick, Ireland's great apostle was among his captives. Q. Who succeeded Niall as king? A. His nephew Dathi, who was killed by lightning at the foot of the Alps, about 406. He was the last king of pagan Ireland. Q. What military orders were established by the ancient Irish? A. The order of the Red Branch Knights and the Fiana of Erin. Q. Name some remarkable warriors of these orders. A. Cuchullain was the most remarkable of the Red Branch Knights; Finn MacCuail and his son Oisin were the most noted of the Fiana of Erin. Q. What proofs may be given that the pagan Irish were highly civilized? A. The very artistic ornaments in gold and silver that have been discovered in Ireland, the learning of the Druids, and the extensive commerce that existed between Ireland and foreign nations, are all proofs of the high degree of civilization attained by the ancient Irtsh. CHAPTER II. Christian Ireland. Q. Were there any Christians in Ireland before the time of St. Patrick? A. Yes, for Pope Celestine in 431 sent Palladius to be the first bishop "of the Irish believing in Christ." Q. What was the result of the mission of St. Pal- ladius in Ireland? A. His success was only partial, and he died in returning to Rome, 432. Q. Who succeeded Palladius in preaching the Gospel in Ireland? A. St. Patrick, our national apostle, who was sent to Ireland by Pope Celestine in 432. Q. Where was St. Patrick born? A. Some writers say near Dumbarton in Scotland, others at Boulogne-sur-mer in France. Q. Who was monarch of Ireland at the time of St. Patrick's arrival? A. Leogaire. Q. Had St. Patrick an interview with the Irish Monarch Leogaire? A. Yes; St. Patrick was summoned by Leogaire to his court at Tara. Q. Why was St. Patrick summoned to Tara? A. Because he had lighted the Paschal Fire on the Hill of Slane before the fire in honor of the Pagan Festival was kindled at Tara. Q. What was the result of St. Patrick's interview with Leogaire? A. He was invited to a discussion next day with the Druids, or pagan priests. Q. How did the discussion with the Druids ter- minate? A. St. Patrick silenced the Druids in argument, and made many converts, and the monarch gave him per- mission to preach wherever he wished. Q. Where did St. Patrick commence his preaching? A. At Teltown in Meath, where the public gamei were being held. Q. After preaching in Meath, whither did St. Pat- rick go? A. He travelled through the island, preaching, bap- tizing, and establishing churches. Q. When did St. Patrick found the church of ▲nnagh? A. About 455. Armagh is the primatial See of Ire- land; hence its Archbishop is called "Primate of all Ireland." Q. How long did St. Patrick labor in the conversion of Ireland? A. Sixty years; after which he died at Saul, in Ulster, in 493. Q. What proud title did Ireland obtain after St. Patrick's death? A. "The Island of Saints and Doctors." Q. Have the Irish preserved the faith preached to them by St. Patrick? 7 A. The Irish, in spite of persecutions and induce- ments of every kind, have ever kept the faith. CHAPTER III. "Island of Saints and Doctors/' Q. What was Ireland's claim to the proud title of "Island of Saints and Doctors"? A. The fanae of her sanctity was spread far and wide, and her schools were amongst the most renowned In Europe. Q. What period is called the "Golden Age of the Irish Church"? A. The sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries. Q. What does Ware say of the schools of Ireland during these centuries? A. That the youth of France, Germany, and Switzer- land flocked to them in search of knowledge. Q. What does Venerable Bede say of the schools of Ireland? A. That Ireland, in a special manner, showed her generosity to the English nobility and gentry, teaching them without fee or reward. Q. Name a few of the greatest Irish schools of the fifth century. A. Emly, Armagh, Sletty, Ardagh. Q. Name a few of the schools founded in Ireland in the sixth and following centuries. A. Clonard, in Meath; Clonmacnolse, on the banks of the Shannon; Bangor, in Down; Lismore, in Water- ford; and many others. Q. What testimony does the Saxon writer Aldhelm bear to the learning of our sainted forefathers? A. He describes Ireland as rich in the wealth of icience, and as thickly set with learned men as the poles are with stars. Q. Did the Children of St. Patrick conflne their missionary labors to Ireland? A. No; swarms of holy men left the Irish shores to preach to the nations of Europe. Q. What does St. Bernard say of Ireland as a mis- sionary country? 8 A. That from Ireland, as from an overflowing stream, crowds of holy men descended on foreign nations. Q. Name some of the countries of Europe indebted to Ireland for Apostles. A. France, Grermany, Switzerland, Italy,- Spain and England. Q. Name a few of the Illustrious men whom Ireland g|tve as missionaries to European nations. A. Ireland gave Columbanus to Italy; Gall to Swit- zerland; Kilian and Virgilius to Germany. Q. Are many churches on the Continent named after Irish apostles? A. In Germany alone no fewer than 200 churches are dedicated to Irish apostles. Q. Who was St. Columkille? A. St. Columkille, or Columba, was descended from Niall the Great, and was born at Gartan, Co. Donegal, A. D. 521. He studied under St. Finian at Moville, and also under another St. Finian at Clonard. He founded the monastery of Derry, A. D. 546, and one at Durrow, A. D. 550. Q. Relate the dispute about St. Finian's book. How was it settled? A. St. Columkille copied without permission part of a book which had been lent to him by St. Finian, and St. Finian claimed the copy. The dispute was referred to King Diarmaid, whose decision was that, **To every cow belongeth its calf, and to every book its copy." Q. On leaving Ireland, where did St. Columba go? A. In 563, St. Columba, with twelve companions, sailed to lona, a small island off the west coast of Scotland, and established there a church and monastery. Q. When did St. Columkille die? A. He died at lona, A. D. 597, and was succeeded , by St. Adamnan. Q. Give a brief account of St. Columbanus. A. St. Columbanus was bom in 539. He founded the abbey of Luxeil in France, and the abbey of Bobbio In Italy, where he died in 615. Q. Who was St. Gall? A. St. Gall was a disciple of St. Columbanus; he became the Apostle of the Swiss, and founded, In Swit- zerland, the abbey and town called by his name. Q. Who was John Scotus Erigena? A. He was an Irishman of great learning who lived in the ninth century. He taught philosophy in Paris. Q. Name any other remarkable Irish scholars of this period. A. Claud Clemens and John Albin, to whose care Charlemagne confided the two universities which he founded in Paris and Pavia. CHAPTER IV. From the Death of St. Patrick to the Danish Invasion. Q. Who succeeded King Leogaire? A. Oliol, son of Dathi, in 463. A. How did Oliol die? A. Oliol was slain at the battle of Ocha, in Meath, in 483, and Lewy, son of Leogaire, came to the throne. Q. Who was Fergus More? A. Fergus More was one of the Dalriads of Antrim, who in 503 joined the descendants of their countrymen who had previously settled in Alba. Fergus became king of the colony which in course of time conquered all Alba, and gave it the name of Scotland. Q. What was the object of the great National As- sembly of Drumceat? A. The Assembly of Drumceat, near Derry, was held in 574, chiefly to decide two important questions, viz. the suppr(3ssion of the Bards, and the claim of the Dalriadic King of Scotland to be independent of the King of Ireland. Q. What decisions were arrived at? A. Owing to the influence of St. Columkille, it was agreed to limit the number of Bards and the rights which they claimed; and the Irish King Hugh agreed to acknowledge the independence of the king of Scot- tish Dalrlada. Q. What led to the battle of Moira? A. Congall, an Ulster prince, had slain the reigning king, and was forced by King Donall to fly to Britain. 10 From this country he invaded Ireland with a large army; but Donall defeated his army at Moira, County Down, in 637. Q. What great calamity befell Ireland in 664? A. A plague raged through the land for three years. According to the Annalists, only one-third of the inhab- itants survived its ravages. CHAPTER V. The Danish Invasion. Q. Who were the Danes? A. The Danes were a race of pirates who inhabited Scandinavia and the Islands of the Baltic. Q. When did the Danes make their first attack on Ireland ? A. Towards the close of the eighth century. Q. How long did the Danish wars in Ireland last? A. About 300 years. Q. Give an idea of the ravages committed by the Danes in Ireland. A. They plundered many churches and monasteries, and among them the Abbey of Bangor, killing the abbot and 900 monks. Connaught and part of Leinster were laid waste by them. Q. In what parts of Ireland did the Danes make settlements? A. Early in the ninth century the Danes had secured possession of Dublin, Limerick and Waterford. Q. Who was Turgesius? A. Turgesius was the most remarkable of the Danish chiefs. He united the Danes scattered throughout Ire- land, and was acknowledged king by them. Q. How did Turgesius die? A. Malachi, King of Meath, having got him into his power, condemned him to be drowned in Lough Owel, in 845. Q. When, and between whom, was the battle of Carlingford fought? A. In 852, between two parties of Danes, the Dubh- gals and Fingals; the latter were victorious. 11 Q. Give a short ac,count of Cormac MacCuillenan. A. Cormac MacCuillenan, Bishop of Lismore, and afterwards of Cashel, became King of Munster In 903. In striving to force tribute from Leinster, he was killed in battle at Ballaghmoon, County Carlow, A. D. 908. Cormac compiled the Psalter of Cashel, and wrote a book on the Irish saints. Q. When did Malachy II. become King of Ireland? A. In 980. In thel)revious year he had defeated the Danes of Dublin in the battle of Tara. Q. How did he get the "Collar of Gold"? A. In one of his expeditions against the Danes he slew a chieftain, and took from him the tore or "Collar of Gold." Q. Who was Brian Boru? A. He was son of Kennedy, Prince of the Dalca* sians. In 976 he succeeded his brother Mahon as King of Munster, and in 1001 Malachy II. yielded to him th9 position of Ard-Ri. Q. How did Brian Boru signalize his reign? A. He founded churches, schools, and monasteries, built bridges, made wise laws, and secured their obser ▼ance. Q. By whom were the Danes finally overthrown in Ireland? A. By Brian Boru, at the battle of Clontarf, fought on Good Friday, 1014. Q. How did Brian die? A. He was slain in his tent by a Danish chief in th« moment of his great victory at Clontart Q. Who succeeded Brian Boru? A. On the death of Brian, Malachy II. was again recognized as king. He died in 1022 on an island in Lough Ennel, whither he had gone to prepare for death. Q. How did King Murtough O'Brien prove himself a patron of the Church? A. In 1101 he made a gift to the Church of the royal city of Cashel. Q. When did Turlogh O'Connor reign? A. From 1136 to 1156. 12 Q. When and between whom was the battle of Moanmore fought? A. In 1151, between the O'Briens of Munster and King Turlogh O'Connor; it resulted in the conquest of Munster by the latter. Q. Who succeeded King Turlogh? A. His son Roderic, in 1166. CHAPTER VI. The Anglo-Norman Invasion. Q. What is the date of the Anglo-Norman invasion of Irelamd? A. The Anglo-Normans invaded Ireland in 1169. Q. What led to the invasion of Ireland by the Anglo-Normans in 1169? A. Dermod MacMurrough, King of Leinster, being at war with some of the native princes, sought aid from England. Q. Who was King of England at the time of the Invasion? A. Henry II. Q. Did Henry II. come in person to Ireland? A. Yes, in 1172; but the half-brothers, Fitzgerald and Fitzstephen, as well as Strongbow, preceded him. Q. Where did the Anglo-Normans first effect a land- ing in Ireland? A. At Wexford, under Fitzstephen, in 1169. Q. Did MacMurrough and his allies succeed in tak- ing Wexford? A. Yes; MacMurrough having join'ed the adventur- ers, the town, after some resistance, fell into their hands. Q. What place was next captured by MacMurrough and his allies? A. Waterford, after an obstinate resistance, and then Dublin. Q. Whither did Dermod MacMurrough and his allies direct their steps after taking Dublin? A. Towards the territory of O'Rourke, Prince of Breffney, ravaging his lands and destroying churches. 13 Q. Who was monarch of Ireland at the time of the Anglo-Norman invasion? A. Roderic O'Connor. Q. Who was St. Laurence O'Toole? A. St. Laurence O'Toole was Archbishop of Dublin at the time of the Anglo-Norman invasion. He used every effort to arouse his countrymen against the invaders. Q. How was Henry H. received on coming to Ireland in 1172? A. All the Irish princes submitted to him, except the O'Neills, the O'Donnells, and a few others. Q. How did Henry II. act on coming to Ireland in 1172? A. Contrary to his promise to the Holy See, he parcelled out the lands of the Irish amongst his favorites. Q. What happened on the departure of Henry 11. from Ireland? A. The Irish chieftains, enraged ^at seeing their lands in the hands of foreigners, threw off the yoke and rose to a man. Q. Were the Irish successful in their attempts to drive the Norman invaders from the country? A. No; dissension amongst themsel\^s rendered their efforts unavailing. Q. What was the portion of Ireland possessed by the English called? A. The Pale; it comprised Dublin, Kildare, Meath, and Louth, together with the cities of Waterford, Cork, and Limerick. Q. What was the condition of the Irish living within the Pale? A. They were in a state of servitude. Q. What were the Irish living outside the Pale called? A. "Irish Enemies." Q. Who came to the relief of the Irish during the reign of Edward II.? A. Edward Bruce, brother to Robert Bruce, King of Scotland, came to Ireland in 1315 with a large body of troops. 14 Q. What success attended Edward Bruce's efforts in Ireland? A. Bruce was so successful that he was proclaimed and crowned King of Ireland. In three and a half years he fought and won 18 battles, but in 1318 was defeated and slain in a battle fought near Dundalk. Q. When was the Statute of Kilkenny enacted? A. In 1367, during the reign of Edward III. Q. What does Lord Clare say of the Statute of Kilkenny? A. That it was a perpetual declaration of war against the native Irish, as well as against those who had formed connections with them. Q. 'Give a few of the provisions of the Statute of Kilkenny. A. Intermarriage with the natives should be pun- ished by death; any man of English race taking an Irish name, using the Irish language, dress, or customs, should forfeit all his lands. CHAPTER VII. Richard II. — Art MacMurrough Kavanagh. Q. What great and formidable chieftain had Richard II. to encounter in Ireland? A. Art MacMurrough Kavanaugh, Prince of Leinster. Q. When did Richard II. pay his first visit to Ireland? A. In 1394, Richard landed in Waterford with an army of more than 30,000 men. Q. How was Richard II. received by the Irish princes? A. Many of them paid homage to him, but threw off their forced allegiance the instant he left the country. Q. What great reverse did the Anglo-Irish meet after the departure of Richard II. for England? A. They were defeated in a great battle at Kells, In County Kilkenny, in 1397; Mortimer, heir to the crown of England, was slain in this battle. Q. How did Richard II. act on receiving news of the death of Mortimer? A. He at once set out for Ireland, and directed all his efforts against Art. MacMurrough. 15 Q. How did Art MacMurrough carry on the warfare agaiBSt Richard 11. ? A. He harassed him by retiring into the forests and fastnesses at his approach, making sudden attacks on Richard's army as occasion offered. Q. What rash oath did Richard II. take when he was disappointed in his attempt to subdue MacMurr- ough? A. That ho would not leave Ireland till he had Art MacMurrough, dead or alive, in his hands. Q. Did Richard II. redeem -the rash oath he had taken regarding MacMurrough? A. No; neither Richard nor his successor, Henry IV., succeeded in subduing this brave chieftain. Mac- Murrough died at Ross, 1417, in the reign of Henry V. Q. What was the state of Ireland from 1417 to the accession of Henry VIII., 1509? A. The country was much disturbed by the contests between the Butlers and the Geraldines, the two prin- cipal families of the Pale. CHAPTER VIII. Henry VIII. Q. Was Henry VIII. always an enemy of the Cath- olic Church? A. No; he was at one time a most ardent defender of the Church. Q. What title did Pope Leo X. bestow on Henry VIII. for his zeal in the cause of the Church? A. He bestowed on him the title of ^'Defender of the Faith,'* a title still retained by the English sov- ereigns. Q. Why did Henry VIII. apostasise? A. Because the Pope, Clement VII., refused to di- vorce him from his lawful wife, Queen Catherine. Q. How did Henry VIII. act on a divorce having beent refused him by Clement VII.? A. He determined to become Head of the Church himself, thereby rejecting the authority of the Pope In his dominions. 16 Q. Did Henry VIII. succeed in his attempt to become Head of the Church in Ireland? A. No; he failed signally. Q. Give an idea of Henry VIII.'s persecution of the Irish Church. A. In his reign all the abbeys and monasteries were suppressed and their lands seized by the Crown; the Houses of Hospitality for strangers, 2,000 in number, were suppressed and their property confiscated. Q. Did Henry VIII. spare the churches in Ireland? A. No; his sacrilegious hand desecrated the churches, and the images and relics of the saints were either broken or burned. CHAPTER IX. Edward VI — Elizabeth — The Geraldines. Q. How did the people of Ireland fare during the reign of Edward VI.? A. No better than in that of Henry VIII. Q. What is said of Elizabeth's treatment of the Irish? A. That her reign was one unbroken series of rob- beries and butcheries in Ireland. Q. How were those punished by Elizabeth who main- tained that the Pope was head of the Church? A. They forfeited their estates, and in many cases their lives. Q. Give an instance to show the measures resorted to in Ireland to enforce the Oath of Supremacy during the reign of Elizabeth. A. Doctor O'Hurley, Archbishop of Cashel, had his legs placed in jack-boots filled with lime, until they were burned to the bone; he was then executed (1579). Q. How did the priests minister to their flocks in Ireland during the reign of Elizabeth? A. By stealth, and frequently in caves on the moun- tain side. Q. How were the Irish clergy treated* during the reign of Elizabeth? A. They were cast into prison, or put to death. 17 Q. What caused the Geraldine rebellion? A. The cruelty of the English in their efforts to uproot the Catholic religion and the Imprisonment of the Earl of Desmond and his brother. Q. How did James Fltzmaurice, head of the House of Desmond, act during the imprisonment of the Earl of Desmond? A. He sought aid from the Catholic courts of Europe. Q. Was Fitzmaurice successful In his appeal for foreign aid against Elizabeth? A. Yes; he obtained aid from Spain in 1579, and a small fleet, manned by Spaniards, cast anchor in Smerwick harbor, Kerry. Here they erected a fortifica- tion known as Fort Del Ore. Q. What became of the Spanish forces that came to aid the Irish in 1579? A. The transports were taken by the EJnglish, but the troops effected a retreat, in which Fitzmaurice waa slain, in 1579. Q. Who commanded for the House of Desmond after the death of Fitzmaurice? A. John of Desmond, and afterwards the Earl, his brother. Q. Did John of Desmond and the Earl receive for- eign aid in their war with Elizabeth? A. Yes; a force from Spain again entered Smerwick harbor in 1580. Q. What was the fate of this expedition? A. It -was defeated by the English troops under Lord Grey, and the garrison of Smerwick were inhumanly put to the sword; Sir Walter Raleigh was the chief actor in the horrible scene. Q. What became of the Desmonds after their defeat at Smerwick, 1580? A. Their cause never rallied. The Earl was mur- dered, his head was cut off, and sent by Ormond to Elizabeth, 1583. Q. What became of the estates of the Desmonds after the death of the Earl in 1583? 18 A. Their estates, comprising 600,000 acres, were confiscated and divided amongst English adventurers. CHAPTER X. Elizabeth— The O'Neills and the O'Donnells Death of Elizabeth. Q. Had Elizabeth any opposition to contend with in Ireland after the overthrow of the Desmonds? A, Yes; Ulster, the stronghold of the O'Neills and the O'Donnells, had yet to be subdued. Q. What crafty means did Elizabeth adopt for the Anglicizing of the North? A. She had a youth of the noble house of O'Neill brought up at her court, hoping thereby to effect a division in the sept. Q. Did Hugh O'Neill, who had been brought up at the court of Elizabeth, identify himself in after years with his olan? A. He did, to the full. Q. What remarkable chieftain had the English to battle with In the North besides O'Neill? A. O'Donnell, Prince of Tyrconnell. Q. Where did the forces of Hugh O'Neill first en- counter those of Elizabeth? A. At Clontibret, in Monaghan, where the Irish won a great victory in 1595. Q. What was the greatest battle fought during this war? A. The battle of the Yellow Ford in Armagh in 1598 The English were routed, leaving more than 2,000 dead upon the field. Q. Who were the leaders on each side at the battle of the Yellow Ford? A. Hugh O'Neill and Hugh O'Donnell on the Irish side, and Marshal Bagenal, who fell in the battle, on the side of the English. Q. How did Elizabeth act on seeing her soldiers defeated in every battle by O'Neill? A. She despatched an army of 20,000 men to Ireland, under the command of Essex, 1599. 19 Q. Did Essex succeed in subduing O'Neill? A. No; he failed signally, and returned to England. Q. How was the war between Elizabeth and O'Neill brought to a close? A. O'Neill, after his many victories, was at length forced to yield and come to terms with the deputy, Mountjoy, in 1603. Elizabeth died the same year. Q. How did the Irish Catholics act on hearing of the death of Elizabeth, 1603? A. They at once took possession of the churches; and the Holy Sacrifice was again offered up in the churches of Cork, Limerick, Waterford, Kilkenny, Cashel and other places. Q. What does Dr. White, Vicar Apostolic of Water- ford, say of the devoted Catholics of that city on the restoration of their Cathedral Church after Elizabeth's death? A. That when, on the 12th of April, 1603, the Cathe- dral bells pealed forth the summons to solemn thanks- giving, nothing but rejoicing was to be seen, and many shed tears of joy on witnessing that gladsome spectacle. CHAPTER XI. James I. — Persecutions During His Reign — Plantation of Ulster. Q. Who came to the throne on the death of Eliza- beth in 1603? A. James I., son of Mary Queen of Scots. Q. How did James I. treat his Irish subjects? A. In somewhat the same fashion as did Elizabeth; his first message to Ireland was that he would not tol- erate the Catholic religion. Q. What edict did James I. issue against the Irish Catholics in 1605? A. He commanded them to attend the Protestant churches on Sundays and Festivals; he also ordered all priests to leave the kingdom within three months. Q. Was the edict of James I. against the Irish Cath- olics, in 1605, put into execution? 20 A. Yes; almost immediately after it had been issued, several of the leading citizens of Dublin were cast into prison for refusing to comply with it. Q. Did the persecution under James I. extend be- yond Dublin? A. Yes; few parts of the country escaped, but to Waterford the place of honor must be assigned. Q. How did the city of Waterford distinguish itself during the persecution of James L? A. The members of the Corporation and the citizens vied with each other in devoted attachment to the faith, not even one among them was found to prove false to his religion. Q. How did James I. treat the people of Waterford for their devotion to their holy faith? A. He imposed heavy fines on them, and deprived the Corporation of its charter in 1617. Q. What venerable Irish prelate was led to the scaffold during the'reign of James I.? A. Dr. Devany, Bishop of Down and Connor, in his eightieth year. On the same day Father O'Lough- rane accompanied him to martyrdom. Q. What honourable testimony does Pope Paul V. give of our heroic forefathers in Ireland during the reign of James I.? A. *'That they gloried in that faith by which their fathers had procured for their country the distinguished appellation of the Island of Saints.'* Q. How did James I. treat the Northern chieftains? A. He confirmed to O'Neill the title of Earl of Ty- rone, and to O'Donnell that of Tyrconnell. Q. Did O'Neill and O'Donnell continue in favor with James I.? A. No; they met with a sad reverse; their estates were confiscated and handed over to English and Scotch adventurers. Q. What extent of territory was confiscated by James I. in the North? A. Six entire counties — 385,000 acres. Q. What became of the Earls of Tyrone and Tyrcon- nell after the confiscation of their estates? 21 A. They fled from Ireland, and so escaped the Gov- ernment plot against their lives. Q. What is the date of the flight of the Earls? A. 1607. CHAPTER XII. Charles I.— -1625-1649. Q. What was the state of Ireland during the reign of Charles 1. (1625-1649)? A. The Irish were persecuted for their religion, plun- dered of their property, and denied justice. Q. How did the Protestant Bishops of Ireland act on seeing the Irish persecuted for theif religion during the reign of Charles I.? A. They issued a declaration stating that '*Popery" was a grievous sin. Q. How did some Englishmen express their hostility to the faith of the Irish? A. Sir John Clotworthy said in the House of Com- mons that the conversion of the "Papists" was to be effected only by the Bible in one hand and the sword in the other; and Sir William Parsons boasted that before a twelvemonth not a Catholic would be seen in the land. Q. How did the Parliament of England express itself in the reign of Charles I. regarding the Catholic religion in Ireland? A. Parliament declared, in 1641, that it would not consent to the toleration of Popery in Ireland. Q. How did the Irish act, having been driven to desperation, during the reign of Charles I.? A. They took up arms in self-defense, 1641. CHAPTER XIII. The Confederation of Kilkenny. Q. What action did the Irish (Jhurch take on seeing the people in arms in 1642? A. The Clergy and Prelates of Ireland met at Kil- kenny, 10th May, 1642, and declared the war both just and necessary. 22 Q. What followed the meeting ot the Clergy and Prelates in Kilkenny, 1642? A. A general assembly of 11 Bishops, 14 Temporal Peers, and 226 Commoners. — "The Kilkenny Confedera- tion." Q. Where did the Irish Confederate Parliament hold its sessions? A. In Kilkenny. Q. What was the first act of the Confederate Par- liament, sitting in Kilkenny, 1642? A. The restoration of the splendid old fane of St. Canice, in that city, to its lawful owners, our Catholic forefathers. Q. How did our countrymen abroad act when the stirring news of the Confederates reached them? A. Owen Roe O'Neill, who had distinguished himself in the Spanish armies, gave up his command, and came to the aid of his countrymen. Preston, too, of the house of Gormanstown, who had gained distinction on the Continent, came to the front. Q. Was the Holy See interested in the struggle in which the Irish Confederates were engaged during the reign of Charles I.? A. Yes, very much; Urban VIII., at the tomb of the Apostles, invoked blessings on the arms of his devoted Irish children. Q. Whom did Pope Innocent X. send to Ireland In 1645 to aid the Confederates by his counsel? A. Rinuccini, Archbishop of Fermo. Q. What celebrated victory marks the wars of the Irish Confederates? A. The battle of Benburb, gained by Owen Roe O'Neill over the Scotch, headed by Munro (1646). Q. How long did the Irish Confederate wars last? A. Seven years. Who acted for Charles I. during the Irish Confederate wars? A. James Butler, first Duke of Ormond. Q. How were the Irish Confederate wars brought to a close? 23 A. Ormond concluded a treaty with the Confederatei in 1649. Charles was beheaded the same year. CHAPTER XIV. Cromwell. Q. After the execution of Charles I., against whom had the Irish to contend? A. Against Cromwell, who landed In Ireland in 1649. Q. What place did Cromwell first attack on coming to Ireland? A. Drogheda, which, after a brave defense, fell into his hands. Q. How did Cromwell treat the garrison of Drog- heda? A. Though he had promised quarter, the soldiers were inhumanly massacred, except thirty, who were sent as slaves to Barbadoes. Of the townspeople, every man, woman and child of Irish birth was brutally murdered. Q. What was the fate of Wexford? A. Wexford fell after a brave resistance, and Crom- well re-enacted the barbarous massacre of Drogheda. Q. What effect had Cromwell's savage policy on the Irish? A. The entire country became terrified, and nearly all the fortified towns surrendered. Q. Whither did Cromwell direct his steps after the taking of Wexford? A. To Ross, which surrendered; then to Waterord, the siege of which he was obliged to raise on account of the forces of Ormond. Q. What important places fell into Cromwell's hands after the taking of Ross? • A. Kilkenny, in 1650, after a brave resistance; and lastly, Clonmel, after a two months' siege. Q. When were the Cromwellian wars brought to a close in Ireland? A. In 1653. Q. How did Cromwell act on the conclusion of the war in Ireland? 24 A. He appointed commissioners to seize on the lands of the Irish who had taken up arms for the king. Q. How were the Catholic owners of the soil in Ireland treated by Cromwell at the conclusion of the war? A. He ordered them Into Connaught, forbidding them under pain of death to re-cross the Shannon. Q. Who came to the throne of England after the death of Cromwell, in 1658? A. Charles II. (1660). Q. Did Charles II. restore the property of the Irish who had sacrificed all for him? A. On the contrary; he confirmed Cromwell's fol- lowers in the lands they had seized, and fixed Protestant Bishops in the sees of the Catholic Bishops. Q. What great crime marks the reign of Charles II.? A. The martyrdom of Oliver Plunkett, Archbishop of Armagh (1681). After a mock trial in London, he was hanged, drawn, and quartered at Tyburn. CHAPTER XV. James II. and William III. Q. By whom was Charles II. succeeded? A. By his brother, James II. (1685). Q. Who was James II.'s rival for tlie crown? A. William, Prince of Orange. Q. Where did the forces of James II. and of William meet? A. At the Boyne, July 1st, 1690, where King James was completely overthrown. Q. How did William III. act after his victory of the Boyne? A. He marched to Dublin, and began to give instruc- tions about forfeitures. Q. What effect had William III.'s attempt at confis- cation on the Irish? A. It made them continue the war. Q. What places were attacked by William III. after his victory at the Boyne? 26 A. Athlone, 1690, defended by Colonel Grace; and Limerick, 1690, defended by the illustrious Sarsfield. In both places William had to raise the siege. Q. Who were the chief commanders on each side in this war? A. Ginckle commanded for King William, and St. Ruth, who came from France in 1691, assumed chief command for James. Q. Where did Ginckle and St. Ruth meet in arms? A, At Athlone, 1691; and at Aughrim the same year, where St. Ruth was struck down by a cannon-ball, just as his troops were exulting in the hope of victory. Q. What followed the Irish defeat at Aughrim in 1691? A. The city of Galway had to yield, and Limerick, ^after a brave resistance, fell into Ginckle's hands (1691). Q. What followed the fall of Limerick in 16917 A. The memorable treaty, Oct. 3rd, 1691. Q. Tell some of the terms of the ''Treaty of Lim- erick.*' A. Amnesty was granted to those who had taken up arms; Catholics were allowed the free exercise of their religion; and the troops, who had so bravely defended Limerick, were allowed to march out with all the honors of war, the English Government supplying them with shipping to France or elsewhere. Q. Did many of the Irish troops embark for France after the Treaty of Limerick? A. More than 12,000; and these voluntary exiles formed the Irish Brigade so renowned in after times for valor and fidelity. Q. Was the Treaty of Limerick faithfully observed? A. No; in two months after it was signed, some of its leading articles were grossly violated by the English. Q. How is Limerick styled in history? A. "The City of the Violated Treaty." Q. What rendered William III. so unpopular is Ireland? A. The penal laws of his reign, the confiscation of the estates of the Irish, the suppression of the woolen trade, and, lastly, the violation of the Treaty of Limerick. 26 Q. Name a few of the battlefields on which the Irish Brigade distinguished itself. A. The siege of Namur, 1692; Landen, 1693, where Sarsfield lost his life; Blenheim, 1704; siege of Barce- lona; and Fontenoy, 1745. Q. On hearing of the English defeat at Fontenoy, what memorable imprecation did George II. utter against the Penal Code? A. "Cursed be the laws that have deprived me of such subjects." . CHAPTER XVI. Queen Anne and the Georges. Q. Did the known partiality of the Catholics of Ireland for the Stuarts secure them the favor of Queen Anne? A. No; her reign (1702-1714) was one series of cruel enactments. Q. How did Ormond (grandson of the old Duke) enforce the penal enactments in Anne's reign? A. So well as to elicit the thanks of Parliament. Q. By whom was Queen Anne succeeded? A. By George I. (1714). Q. What prevented James Stuart, the old Pretender, and brother to Queen Anne, from coming to the throne? A. His refusal to renounce the Catholic faith and embrace Protestantism. Q. What induced the Government, during the reign of George II., to relax the Penal Code? A. The landing in Scotland (1745) of the young Pretender, Charles Edward, grandson of James II. Q. Under what circumstances was permission given, during the reign of George II., to have the Catholic churches of Dublin opened for public worship? A. A number of persons having assembled by stealth in an upper room of a house in Dublin, for the purpose of hearing Mass, the floor gave way, and ten persons were killed. Including the priest. Q. What event in Ireland marked the early years of the reign of George III. (1760-1820)? A. Insurrection of the peasantry in the South. 27 Q. What noble-hearted priest was condemned to death during the reign of George III., on the testimony of a perjured informer, and on the verdict of a packed jury? A. Father Sheehy, P. P., of Clogheen. Q. What was the origin of the Irish Volunteers? A. An invasion by the French being dreaded (1779), the people of the North asked for a protecting force, which the government was unable to grant; the people then armed In their own defense. Q. Who was appointed Commander-in-Chief of tht Irish Volunteers? A. The Earl of Charlemont. Q. Give the date of the meeting of the Volunteers al Dungannon. A. February, 1782. Q. What was the most important resolution passed by the Volunteers? A. They resolved: "That a claim of any body of men, other than the King, Lords, and Commons of Ire- land, to make laws to bind this kingdom, is unconstitu- tional, illegal, and a grievance." Q. What followed the meeting of the Volunteers at Dungannon? A. The legislative independence of the country (1782). Q. To whom was the country indebted for the Ad of Legislative Independence in 1782? A. To one of the purest of patriots — the immortal Grattan. • Q. What led to the dissolution of . the Irish Volun teers ? A. Dissensions among their leaders. Q. How did the Government act on the dissolution of the Volunteers? A. Coercive measures were once again employed. Q. To what did the coercive measures of the reign of George III. drive the Iriyh people? A. To the Insurrection of '98. 28 Q. Who were the principal leaders in the '98 movement? A. Lord Edward Fitzgerald and Wolfe Tone. Q. What fate befell Lord Edward and Wolfe Tone? A. Lord Edward died in prison of wounds inflicted on him at his arrest; Wolfe Tone died in prison of self-inflicted wounds. Q. What followed close on the suppression of the Insurrection of '98? A. The Act of Union in 1800, by which Ireland was deprived of her own Parliament. Q. What means did the Government adopt to secure the passing of the Act of Union? A. Bribery, fraud, and intimidation. Q. Was much opposition offered to the Union? A. Yes; Grattan and the patriot party denounced it in speeches of rare eloquence. Q. Vv'hat prophetic words did Dr Johnson use in referring to the Union? A. In speaking to an Irish gentleman before the Union, he said: *'Do not unite with us; we would unite with you only to rob you." Q. Quote the remarkable words of a modern his- torian. A. He says: "The Union of 1800 was not only a great crime, but was also, like most crimes, a great blunder." Q. When did Emmet's insurrection take place? A. In 1803. Q. What was the fate or Robert Emmet? A. He was made prisoner and executed. Q. Give the date of Catholic Emancipation. A. 1829. Q. To whose exertions is the country indebted for Emancipation? A. To the exertions of Daniel O'Connell, whose name will be ever dear, not only to Irishmen, but to every foe of oppression, and to every friend of civil and religious liberty. 29 CHAPTER XVII. William IV. and Queen Victoiia. Q. To what other great work did O'Connell devote his life? A. O'Connell devoted all his talents and energies to secure the Repeal of the Act of Union. Q. What association did he set on foot for this purpose? A. He founded the Repeal Association in 1840; and the great mass of the people became Repealers. Q. Were his efforts successful? A. No; and he died of a broken heart at Genoa on his way to Rome in 1847. Q. What was his dying request? A. That his heart should be sent to Rome and his body to his native land. Q. Who was known as the "Apostle of Temperance?" A. Father Mathew, a Capuchin friar, whose success in the cause of temperance was wonderful (1838-56). Q. When did the "tithe war" commence? A. In 1830, when the Catholics struck against the payment of tithes to the Protestant clergy. Q. Name the principal leaders of the Young Ireland party. A. Thomas Davis, Smith O'Brien, John Mitchel, Meagher, M'Manus, Dillon, and Duffy. Q. What was the fate of these leaders? A. Some were arrested and sent into penal servi- tude, others escaped to America. Q. What awful calamity befell the country in 1845-47? A. A great famine, caused by the failure of the potato crop. Q. What were the effects of the famine? A. Nearly a million of the people died of hunger and fever, and more than a million emigrated. Q. Who were the "Young Irelanders" of '48? A. A party of Irishmen, who, seeing the misery of their country, resolved to right its wrongs by force. Q. When was the "big wind" in Ireland? A. Date most generally accepted January 6, 1839. 30 Q. What was the Fenian Brotherhood? A. An oath-bound organization, whose object was to establish an Irish Republic. Q. What attempts at insurrection were made by the Fenians? A. The American Fenians invaded Canada in 1866; and there was a partial rising in Ireland in 1867 — both attempts were unsuccessful. Q. When was the "Home Rule Association" founded? A. In 1870. Its aim was to obtain for Ireland a Parliament of its own to manage its own affairs. Q. Who was the most remarkable of the leaders of the Home Rule movement? A. Charles Stewart Parnell, who was born at Avon- dale, County Wicklow, in 1846. Q. When did Parnell die? A. Parnell's death occurred on October 6th, 1891. Q. Name another of the great Home Rule leaders. A. John E. Redmond, who in 1900 was chosen leader of the United Irish Party. Q. What was the Land League? A. An organization founded by Michael Davitt Id 1879. Q. What was the object of the League? A. To stop rack-rents and evictions, and to enabl« the Irish farmer to live and thrive. Q. What important association was established In Ireland in 1891? A. The Gaelic League, whose aim is to foster and promote the study of the Irish language, literature, his- tory and traditions. Q. What have been the important results of the organization of the Gaelic League? A. It has stimulated patriotic Impulses and brought our people closer together. It has secured for Ireland a national university, one of the entrance qualifications being a knowledge of the Irish language. 31 CHAPTER XVIII. King Edward Vli. and King George V. Q. What has been a great factor in improving con- ditions in Ireland during the last decade? A. The Land Purchase Act. Q. How does the Land Puchase Act operate? A. The tenant farmers are enabled to purchase their farms, at a most reasonable price, and borrow money from the Government, making payments in yearly in- stalments like rent. The instalments are much less than the rent formerly paid. The final result is that the farmers own the land — a great stimulus to keeping them in Ireland and stopping emigration and has prac- tically wiped out the great curse of Ireland, Landlordism. Q. Can you tell of another recent reform in Ireland that has been of great benefit? A. Yes. The County Council Act, which is a step toward self-government, by means of which our people are given charge of local domestic affairs. Those who have seen the operations of this measure praise it for the great opportunities it offers our people to familiarize • themselves with public affairs. Q. What other things of importance have been done for the betterment of the Irish farmer? A. The establishment of co-operative banks, wherein the farmers can obtain loans on reasonable terms and share in the profits of the earnings of the institution, of co-operative dairies, the introduction of thorough-bred animals for the improvement of live stock and poultry, and also the erection of modern cottages, affording greater comfort and health to farm laborers at nominal renti. Q. What is the effect of the act giving the laborers new and cheap cottages? A. A neat, new five-room cottage, with sanitary con- veniences and an acre of ground, built under the act, may be rented for a shilling a week. Such cottages replace the miserable cabins of the poor, making the 32 face of the country brighter and the laborers more comfortable and socially improving them. Q. What benefits have been conferred upon the aged? A. Under the Old Age Pension Act every indigent person of the age of 70 years becomes entitled to a stipend from the government, which enables such per- sons to live at home, or with friends, in moderate and decent comfort, instead of being thrust into almshouses and practically prisoners. Many thousands of such pen- sioners are now drawing these pensions. Q. How does the new National University benefit Ireland? A. Prior to National University, Dublin University (Trinity College), governed and managed principally for the Anglican Church members, was the one great uni- versity of Ireland, and Catholic youths going there were in danger of losing their Faith through the anti- Catholic spirit and traditions of the institutions and its controllers. Trinity College was largely pro-British in its sentiments and influence. The new National University gives ample opportunities to Catholics as well as Protestants and is, in sentiments, strongly pro- Irish. Q. How have these acts improving Irish conditions been secured? A. Through the unity and patriotism of an Irish Nationalist Parliamentary Party, which for years has kept 84 out of 103 Irish members a unit upon all ques- tions, and, in various crises in British politics, has made Ireland's demands the foremost question. This party has finally convinced the mass of the British people that Home Rule should be granted. Q. What is most desired in Ireland? A. National Independence. Q. Why is National Independence so much desired? A. Because in spite of the alleviations referred to in preceding questions. Great Britain has ruled Ireland in her own interests and not for the welfare of the Irish people. Hence, in seventy -five years, Ireland's popula- 33 tion has been cut in two and her people denied the opportunity to develop their national resources. Q. What is the organization working for Irish inde- pendence called? A. Sinn Fein (pronounced Shin Fain.) Q. What does Sinn Fein mean? A. Sinn Fein are two Irish words meaning "Our- selves" intended to convey the idea that the Irish race must depend upon its own members to achieve the free- dom of Ireland. Q. When did Sinn Fein become a concrete organi- zation? A. In 1915. The Irish people had become dissatisfied with the policy and methods of the parliamentary party, and at a meeting held in Dublin, called at the instigation of Arthur Griffiths, the Sinn Fein Party was established Q. Is Sinn Fein a Socialistic organization and is the Irish Republic Socialistic? A. No. . Sinn Fein is not a Socialist organization, all suggestions to the contrary are lies of English propa- ganda. The Irish race is known throughout the world as the staunchest defender of freedom. The Irish Republic is a democratic Republic. Q. Who is the President of the Irish Republic? A. Eamon De Valera. Q. What is the name of the Irish Legislature? A. Dail Eireann (pronounced Dawl air-in.) THE LAND ACTS. In 1881 a land act was foreshadowed by Gladstone and the Coercion Act was made law. In 1885 the first Land Purchase Act passed, a measure to enable Irish tenant farmers to buy their farms from the landowners. The government placed £5,000,000 at the disposal of the Irish farmers, so they could borrow as much as necessary to purchase their farms immedi- ately. They were to repay the government by install- ments spread over forty-nine years, when they would be absolute owners of the soil. In 1888 the second Land Purchase Bill passed, by 34 which a second £5,000,000 was placed at the disposal of -Irish tenant farmers who desired to buy their farms. In 1891 Balfour obtained another advance from Par- liament of £34,000,000 to be used for the purchase of farms by the tenant farmers. In 1902 George Wyndham, as chief secretary of Ire- land, introduced a Land Purchase Act, "as far as pos- sible, to sweep the Irish landlords out of existence." In 1903 this (Wyndham's Land Purchase) Bill passed and became law. This has done away with the middle- men and brought on the era of improving the farms, naturally neglected under the old, insecure order of things. This radical bill provides a sum of money large enough to permit every peasant farmer to buy his farm, so that the soil of Ireland is once more rapidly passing into the hands of the Irish people. NOTES. Fcis, Aenach, Oircchtas. — Names to signify meetings of kings, chiefs, and people in ancient Ireland for business affecting tho public good. Athletic sports, horse-racing, as well as musical and literary com- petitions, were features of these gatherings. In modern times, meetings and competitions of the people. Brehon Law. — The code of laws administered in olden times in Ireland by the Brehons or judges. Eric. — The fine paid on account of murder or bodily hurt, to the relatives of the murdered or injured party. Lia Fail. — A large stone kept at Tara on which the kings of Ireland were crowne(i Termon lands. — Lands attached to certain convents and monasteries, within which lands, life and property wei'e secure. Tanist. — The title borne by the elected successor during the life of the reigning prince or chief. Rath. — A circular enclosure formed of raised earth, within which the chief and some of his officers resided. 35 Cromlech. — A burial-place formed of a great stone rest- ing on several smaller ones placed upright. Cairn. — A large heap of stones placed over the grave of a king or chief. Crannogues. — Dwellings erected on artificial islands in shallow lakes. Fosterage. — A practice by which parents sent their chil- dren to be reared in the families of some members of their tribe. Gavelkind. — A law by which a man's landed estate was divided equally among all his sons. Gossipred. — A practice by which chiefs and nobles be- came Godfathers to the children of their vassals. Galloglass. — A heavy-armed foot-soldier. Kern. — A light-armed foot-soldier. Bard. — A poet and musician. 01 lave. — A title denoting distinction in any art or science. Ogham Characters. — Ancient writing by means of short lines and points placed on and at the sides of a central line. Round Towers. — Structures varying from 60 to 150 feet in height, and generally found in connection with churches. They are of Christian origin, and were used as belfries and places of refuge. "Annals of the Four Masters," or ''Annals of Donegal/' — A compilation of the chief events in the history • of Ireland, made between the years 1632 and 1636 by the three O'Clerys and O'Mulconry, in the Fran- ciscan Monastery of Donegal. BIOGRAPHICAL. Boucicault, Dion. — Dramatist and actor, was born in Dublin, December 20th. 1822. Died in New York City, September 18th, 1890. Curran, John Philpot. — Lawyer, orator and patriot, was born at Newmarket, County of Cork. July 24th, 1750. Died in London, October 14th, 1817, aged 67 years. Dwyer, Michael. — Insurgent leader in 1798, was born in 1771. He died in 1826. 36 Davitt, Michael. — Journalist and patriot, was born at Straide, County Mayo, March 25th, 1847. He died May 30th, 1906, and in accordance to his wishes was buried in his native town, Straide. Emmet, Robert — Irish patriot, born in Dublin, March 4th, 1778. Executed in Thomas Street, Dublin, September 20th, 1803. Fitzgerald, Lord Edward. — Commander-in-Chief of the United Irishmen, died in Newgate, June 4th, 1798, aged 34 years. Flood, Henry. — Orator and statesman, was born near Kilkenny in 1732. Died December 2nd, 1791, at Farmley, near Kilkenny. Grattan, Henry — Statesman, born in Dublin, July 3rd, 1746. Died in the early summer of 1820. His remains were interred in Westminster Abbey. Griffin, Gerald — Poet and novelist, was born in Limerick, December 12th, 1803. Died at the North Monastery, Cork, June 12th, 1840. Goldsmith, Oliver. — Poet and writer, was born at Pallas- more, a small hamlet in County Longford, Novem- ber 10th, 1728. Died April 4th, 1774. Gladstone, William E. — Statesman, orator and scholar, born in Liverpool, England, December 27th, 1809. Died at Hawarden Castle, May 19th, 1898. Kickham, Charles J. — Journalist and author, was born at Mullinahone, County Tipperary, 1826. He died at Blackrock, near Dublin, August 21st, 1882. Lover, Samuel. — Poet, novelist and composer, was born in Dublin, February 24th, 1797. Died July 6th, 1868. Mathew, Father Theobald. — Apostle of Temperance, born at Thomastown, County Kilkenny, on the 10th of October, 1790. Died December 8th, 1856. Buried in Cork. Murphy, Father John. — '98 Patriot Insurgent Leader, born in Tincurry, County of Wexford; was executed on June 26th, 1798. Meagher, Thomas Francis. — Irish Nationalist and Briga- dier-General in the United States service, was born 37 in Waterford, August 3rd, 1823. Accidentally drowned off a steamer in the Mississippi, July let, 1867. Mitchell, John. — Journalist, born in Newry, November 3rd, 1815. Died at Newry. March 20th, 1875. Moore, Thomas. — Poet, born at 12 Aungier Street, Dub- .lin, May 28th, 1779. Died at Sloperton, February 26th, 1852. Madden, Richard Robert. — Physician, politician and writer, was born in Dublin, August 22nd, 1798. Died near Dublin, February 5th, 1886. O'Connell, Daniel. — Irish Liberator, born at Carhen, County Kerry, August 6th, 1775. Died at Genoa, May 15th, 1847. Parnell, Charles Stewart. — Statesman, born at Avondale, County Wicklow, June 24th, 1846. Died at Brighton, October 6th, 1891. St. Bn'gid. — Born about 455 at Faugher, near Dundalk. Died at Kildare, about 525. Tone, Theobald Wolfe. — Irish patriot, born in Dublin on the 20th of June, 1763. Died in Dublin, Novem- ber 19th, 1798. PART II. Natural History of Ireland Ireland, one of the most considerable islands of Europe, is situated in the Atlantic Ocean to the west of England, and extends from the 50th to the 55th degree of north latitude, and from the eighth to the twelfth degree of west longitude. Its form is nearly oval; from Fair-head in the north to Mizenhead in the south, its length is about three hundred miles; in breadth from east to west, it is one hundred and sixty miles, and about 1,400 miles in circumference; it contains about eighteen millions of acres, English measure. The distance of Ireland from Great Britain varies according to the in- equality of the coasts of the two countries; some of the northern parts are but fifteen miles from Scotland; how- ever, the general distance from England is forty-five miles, more or less, according to the different position of the coasts. Ireland is two hundred and twenty miles distant from France, four hundred and forty from Spain, and about fourteen hundred and forty from New France in America. In the northern parts, the longest day is seventeen houi:s, twelve minutes, and in the most sou- thern, sixteen hours, twenty-five minutes. From its being situated in one of the temperate zones the climate is mild and agreeable. ''Although less extended than Britain," says Orosius, "Ireland is, from the temperature of its climate, better supplied with useful resources." Isidore says: "It is smaller than Britain, but more fertile, from its situation." The venerable Bede con- firms the opinions of these writers; he observes, that "Ireland greatly surpasses Britain in the healthfulness and serenity of its air." Cambrensis adds, that "of all climates Ireland is the most temperate." "Neither extraordinary heat in summer is felt there, nor exces- sive cold in winter. That country," he adds, "is so blessed in these particulars that it seems as if nature looked upon it with a more favorable eye than on any other." 39 The testimony, however, of CambrensiB appeari Bomewhat doubtful and exaggerated. Rain, snow and frost are not unfrequent during the winters in Ireland; from its exposure to the exhalations of an immense ocean, and those which the westerly winds from Amer- ica bear to it, and which are not interrupted in their course by any other land, nor opposed by the contrary action of the continental winds, it must naturally be subject to such vicissitudes of climate. It must be observed, that the English writers have always endeav- ored to heighten the excellence of the climate of Ire- land, and fertility of its soil, not forgetting at the same time to lower the merit of the inhabitants, and to render them, contemptible. Cambrensis, who extols so much the fertility of that island, represents the inhabitants as a people without morals, comparing them to undiB- ciplined savages, that will not submit to be governed by laws. Camden, another English author, says, that "if that country had sometimes a bad character. It arose from the rudeness of its inhabitants." We shall not at present reply to the invectives of these writers; we will have an opportunity of doing it in another place. If ferocity and rudeness go generally hand in hand, does It become the English to disparage their neighbors with such epithets of abuse? The moisture of the Irish climate, together with the great number of lakes and bogs that are to be found throughout that country, caused by the stagnation of the waters after the tillage and culture of its lands had been interrupted, in the ninth and tenth centuries by the frequent invasion of the northern barbarians, must, it would appear, renrler that country unwhole- some, and be the cause of rheumatism, dysentery, and other distempers; they are only strangers, however, that are subject to be attacked by these disorders, the natives generally escape and live to an advanced age. Men have often been discovered to have lived to a great age in that country, whom sickness had seldom visited before death. "The climate of that country," says CambtenBis, "is so temperate that neither infeo- 40 tious fogs nor pestilential winds are felt, so that the aid of doctors is seldom looked for, and sickness rarely appears, except among the dying." Ireland is intersected by a great number of rivers and lakes. In the Province of Leinster we find the Barrow, which takes its rise in the mountains called Slieve-Bloemy, in the Queen's county, formerly Leix; it runs through part of the Counties of Kildare and Car- low, and empties itself into the sea at Waterford, with the Nore and the Suire. The Nore has its rise in the Queen's County, waters that of Kilkenny, and there loses itself in the Barrow, some miles above Ross. The Boyne, which rises in the King's County, runs through Castlejordon, Ballybogan, Clonard, Trim, and Navan, in East Meath; its waters are increased by many other small rivers, and it falls into the sea at Drogheda. The Liffey has its rise in the County of Wicklow and makes a circuitous course through the County of Kildare, where many small rivers unite their streams with it. At Leixlip, within seven miles of Dublin, a very high cascade is formed, where the waters tumble from the top of a sharp rock; in the language of the country it is called "Leimen-Uradane," in English, "The Salmon's Leap." The country people say that when the salmon strives to reascend the river in that place, it leaps, holding its tail between its teeth, in order to pass the rock; but if it fails in the attempt, which fre- quently happens from the height of the rock and rapidity of the water, it is caught in baskets, which the fishermen are careful to place at the bottom to take them. The Liffey passes through Lucan and Palmers- town, and, after forming smaller cascades in its course, empties itself in the sea at Dublin. The Slaney takes its rise in the County of Wicklow, and, after running through Baltingglass and Ennis- corthy, falls into the sea at Wexford. Lastly, the Iny and the Brosnagh, the first of which rises in Lake Ennil, the latter in the King's County, 41 lose themselves in the Shannon, one in the lake called Lough Lee, the other near Banagher. The chief rivers of Ultser are: The Bann, which rises in the County of Down, and together with the River Tonwagee, runs through the great lake called Lough Neagh; having then the County of Antrim to the right, and Derry on the left, it forms in its course a more considerable cataract than the Liffey at Leixlip; it passes then through Coleraine, and falls into the ocean. This river is considered to be one of the best in Europe for its fishery of salmon, eel and other fish. The Morne flows from the County of Tyrone, and being joined by the Derg and the Finn, which have their sources from two lakes of the same name in the County of Donegal; they run in the same channel, and, after crossing Stabane and Derry, fall into Lough Foyle, and from thence into the ocean. The Earn, the source of which is on the borders of the Counties of Longford and Cavan, crosses the latter and falls into a lake of the same name in the County of Fermanagh, and from thence passes, by Ballyshannon, into the ocean. The Swilly, in the County Donegal, falls into a lake of the same name, which communicates with the ocean. The River Laggan, in the County Down, passes through Dromore, Lisburn, and Belfast, and falls into CarrickferguB Bay. The Newry, after having served for limits to the Counties of Armagh and Down, falls into the sea at Carlingford. The Shannon, which can by a fair title be termed a river, is the chief one not only of Connaught, but of all Ireland, and deserves to be classed among the first rivers of Europe. It is called Senna by Orosius, and has its source in a mountain of the County of Leitrim, called Sliew-Nierin, which is so named from the mines of iron that are found in it. Its course from where it rises to its mouth is nearly one hundred and forty miles; many other rivers fall into it, and it forms several very considerable lakes. It waters Lanes- 42 borough, Athlone, and Banagher, separating West Meath and Ijeinster from Connaught. From Banagher it flows to Limerick, from whence it bears ships of the greatest burden into the Western Ocean, a distance of about fifty miles. The other rivers of Connaught are not considerable. The Moy, in the County of Mayo, falls into the ocean at Killala, having Tirfiacria, in the County of Sligo, on its right bank, and Tiramalgad, in the County Mayo, upon the left. The Suck runs between the Counties of Roscommon and Galway, and loses itself in the Shan- non near Clonfer. The Gill, a little river in the County Galway, discharges itself into the Bay of Galway. The rivers in the Province of Munster are the Suir, which, taking its rise in the County of Tipperary, on the borders of Ossary, passes through Thurles, Cashel, Clonmel, Carrick and Waterford, and from thence flows with the Barrow into the sea. Avoine Duff or Avoine More, in English "Black water," has its source in the County of Kerry, and, after watering Mallow and Lismore, falls into the sea at Youghal. The Rivers Lee and Bandon, in the County of Cork, discharge themselves into, the sea, one below Cork, the other at Kinsale. The Leane and the Cashon, in the County of Kerry, empty themselves into the ocean, the first in the Bay of Dingle, the other at the mouth of the Shannon. The most considerable lakes of Ireland are the fol- lowing: Lough Neagh (lough signifies lake). It is thirty miles long and fifteen broad; its waters are cele- btated for the quality they possess of changing wood into iron and stone. Lough Foile and Lough Earne, these being joined by a canal, from two lakes, Lough Swilly and Lough Cone, at present Stranford, in the Province of Ulster. There are also some other lakes less considerable in this Province, viz.: Lough Finn, Lough Sillin, Lough Ramor, Lough Reagh, Lough Eask, and Lough Dearg; the last is famed for the devotion of the faithful who resort there to perform a pilgrimage. 43 The most considerable lakes of Connaught are: Lough Corrib, Lough Mask, Lough Conn, Lough Ree, Lough Boflan, and Lough Allen, in the Shannon; Lough Gara, Lough Aarow and Lough Rea. The lakes to be met with in Munster are called Lough Ogram, Lough Oulan, Lough Kerry, Lough Lene and Lough Derg. There are in West Meath Lough Ennil, Lough Hoyle, Lough Derrevarragh, etc. In Ireland we meet, likewise, with mountains, prom- ontories and capes. The highest mountains, generally called the Curley Hills, are in the County of Wicklow; those in the Queen's County are Slieve Bloema, and in the County of Mayo, the Mountains of Cruachan. There are many bogs in that country, where the people cut turf with narrow spades for fuel; it abounds with all kinds of grain — wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, etc.; everything grows there in abundance. Its pastures are considered the best in Europe both for the quality and quantity of their grass, which caused Bede to say, that it was "an island rich in milk and honey." It appears, too, that in his time the vine was cultivated there. Fruit trees thrive well in Ireland, such as pear, apple, peach, apricot, cherry, plum, gooseberry and nut trees. It is true, they are not met with in the fields and on the roads, as in France, Flanders, and other countries, geing generally planted within enclosures, and in gardens. Ireland is rich in her herds of oxen, and flocks of sheep, goats and swine; it is said that the cows will not give their milk without the calves, and that to succeed in getting it, it is necessary to deceive them by showing a skin filled with hay or straw. The sheep are shorn twice a year. They yield a great quantity of wool, but it is not so good nor so fine as in other countries. The horses, called hobbies by the English, which were first brought from the Asturias, are bred in Ireland; they are excellent both for the saddle and the draught. Their saddle horses have a certain gentle 44 and regular movement, called "amble," but are very quick at the same time. The rider might, while seated upon his horse, when walking, bear a full glass of liquor in his hand without spilling it. Paulus Jovius, according to the account given by Ware, saw twelve Irish hobbies, of a dazzling whiteness, caparisoned In purple, with silver bridles and reins; they were led in parade with the trains attendant upon the Sovereign Pontiffs. Eagles, falcons and other birds of prey are likewise in Ireland; greyhounds and other hunting dogs are there in common. Bees are so plenty that swarms are found even in the trunks of trees. The woods, with which that country was formerly covered, fed great numbers of fallow-deer; there are stags, boars, foxes, badgers, otters. Wolves were like- wise in Ireland, but have been entirely destroyed within the last century. The plains and bogs of Ireland are full of all kinds of game; hares, rabbits, pheasants, partridges, wood- cocks, snipes, plovers, quails, water-hens, ducks and wild geese are in abundance as well as every other species of fowl. There is a particular wild bird in Ireland that resembles the pheasant; it is called in the Irish language "Keark-Frlhy." Some think that it is the same as the heather-cock; there is, indeed, an analogy from the name, as Keark-Frihy signifies heath- hen; however that be, this bird is not known, or at least very rare in France. Marshal Saxe had some brought from Ireland to stock the plains of Chambord; he sent also to that country for horses and mares and had them brought to supply his stud. The rivers and lakes of this country are filled with fish of all kinds; salmon, trout, pike, tench, perch, eel, carp and shad are very common, without mentioning the sea-fish, which are taken in great quantities. If we search into the bowels of the earth, treasures will be found in Ireland. According to the historians of the country, the first gold mine was discovered near the River Liffey, In the time of Tighernmas, the mon- 45 arcb ; afterwards one of silver was found at Airgiodross, and a foundry was established on the borders of the River Barrow, in which coats of mail, bucklers and other armor were made, and given by the Kings to such warlike men as distinguished themselves in battle. A mint was also founded for manufacturing gold chains, which the Kings and other nobles wore upon their necks as marks of distinction; rings, likewise, which were presented to those who distinguished themselves in the arts and sciences. Thus it can be said that gold and silver were in general use in Ireland, even in the most remote ages of paganism. This abundance of wealth was increased in the early periods of Christianity by the riches the inhabitants gained from the frequent voyages they made into Britain and other countries. The immense treas- ures that the Normans plundered from the . churches and monasteries of this country, as well as the annual tribute of an ounce of gold, called "airgiodt'roin," exacted from the natives by the barbarians, during their dominion over them, furnish incontestable proofs of its wealth at that time. We know, that in the time of Denis, Christian and Gregory, who were abbots successively in the Abbey of St. Benedict, established at Regensburgh (called also Ratisbon), for the Scoto-Milesians (which was the old name of the Irish), the Kings and Princes of Ireland, particularly Conchovar O'Brien, King of Munster, had sent by three remittances, about the beginning of the twelfth century, considerable sums of gold and silver, to rebuild their houses, then falling into ruins. After the abbey had been entirely rebuilt, and property pur- chased in the city and neighborhood for the support of the monks, there was a sum still remaining. I shall not speak of the rich presents from the same King of Munster to the Emperor Lothaire II., to assist in the holy wars. Cambrensis himself bears testimony to the wealth of that Island, in the age which succeeded the devastations of the Normans: (Aurum quoque quo abun- dant insula). Mines of quicksilver, tin, lead, copper, 46 alum, vitriol, sulphur, antimony and iron are discovered there in great quantities; this last metal is manufac- tured in the country and found to be not inferior in quality to that of Spain. However, the English govern- ment, having made it a part of her policy to keep the Irish in subjection and dependence, have been always opposed to the increase of their wealth and the working of their mines. Quarries of stone, resembling a hard free-stone, are also found, besides coal mines, alabaster and marble of several kinds, such as red, black, striped and some mixed with white; there is another, likewise, of grayish color, which becomes azure when polished; the houses in Kilkenny are built with this last kind, and the streets paved with it. The produce and growth of the island, and those articles which form its chief trade and export, are oxen, sheep, swine, leather, tallow, butter, cheese, salt, honey, wax, furs, hemp, wool, linen-cloths, stuffs, fish, wild- fowl, lead, tin, copper and iron. Ireland produces everything necessary and useful and could do well with- out the aid of intercourse of any other country. Its situation for trade with other nations is peculiar- ly favorable; her harbors are more numerous and more convenient than those of England. They were formerly frequented by the Phoenicians, the Greeks and the Gauls. "Ireland," says Camden, "is to be admired both for its fertility and the advantageous situation of iti seaports." Still the commerce of that country is incon- siderable, owing to the restrictions and narrow limits imposed upon it by a neighboring nation, which has tyrannized over it for some centuries and prevents its wealth to prosper and increase. In that happy country, the works of nature which are seen excite our wonder; few examples of the same kind are in any other country of Europe. By a peculiar blessing to Ireland, its land is entirely exempt from all venomous reptiles; some serpents, adders, lizards and spiders are indeed to be seen there, as in other places, but by a strange singularity, they have not the poisonous quality inseparable from their nature in other 47 countries, except in the Island of Crete. "When they are brought from other places," says Bede, "they die when approaching that sacred land 'Nullus ibi serpens vlvere valeat.' " "Neither serpents nor any venomous things," says Camden, "are to be met with." This happy exemption from poisonous insects is again ex- pressed in some verses of Adrianus Junius wherein the island is introduced as speaking of its own advantages. The wonders of two celebrated lakes in Ireland, Lough Neagh and Lough Lene, are well known to the learned by the different dissertations published upon them; among others, the philosophical lectures of Richard Barton, printed at Dublin in 1751. Lough Neagh, situated in the north of Ireland, is bordered on the northeast by the County of Antrim, by Tyrone upon the west, and Armagh upon the south; is thirty miles long and fifteen broad; its waters possess a petrifying quality, which changes wood into iron or stone. Nennius, an English author, makes men- tion of it, and it has been celebrated in some beautiful lines by the author of the Ogygia. "Every thing which is thrown into a certain lake in Ireland," says ToUius, "is changed into iron or stone, if it falls to the bottom." M. de Buffon mentions that "a lake is said to be in Iceland which petrifies." "The Lake Neaghe in Ire- land," continues he, "possesses the same quality; but these petrifications caused by the waters of the lakes are certainly nothing more than incrustations, such as the waters of Arcuel produce." Experience does not accord with the opinion of that celebrated naturalist Incrustation is caused by concretion, and the applica- tion of a strange body on the surface of another, with- out altering its substance. In the petrification attributed to Lough Neagh, the changing of a piece of wood into stone is effected by the total change of the inner part, and in that the difference of bodies consists, as the matter is alike in all. Pieces of wood, after having laid a certain time in that lake, are taken out either partly or entirely petrified; some possess the properties of the stone, its heaviness, hardness and solid cohesion 48 of the parts, which make their separation difficult; while another retains the quality of wood, which is that of being fibrous and combustible. There are two sorts of petrified wood; one is white; it appears on the outside to be wood, but is in reality a stone without any mixture. This kind being porous is incomparably lighter than the common stone; it is susceptible of being cut, and is useful for whetting edged tools. The other, being less porous, is black, harder and more weighty; a mixture in it is sometimes discovered, either on the surface or in the interior of the stone. The two kinds are alike in this, that they split like wood, and strike fire like flint stone and resist the strongest fire without being calcined or vitrified. It has been likewise remarked that the second sort, after passing through fire, becomes also white and light, as there will be voids remaining after the particles of wood which composed part of it are consumed. In those mixed bodies a matter is discovered which is solid and transparent, resembling crystal. The cele- brated Boyle makes mention of them in his essay on the origin and virtue of precious stones. He says: "There is a lake in the north of Ireland, which like any other abounds with fish. At the bottom, rocks are discovered with masses attached to them, which are clear and transparent as crystal. They are of several colors, some white, brown and amber." It is not well known what kind of wood it is that petrifies in Lough Neagh; according to the general opinion, it is the holly; but it has been observed, that the grain of the petrified wood, after being polished becomes variegated, whereas the holly does not. It would be more reasonable to say that petrification operates upon the wood (which is the oak, broom and yew tree), that grow on the borders of the lake, or its vicinity; the agreeable smell which it produces would make one think it to be cedar. As to the time requisite for this petrification, it has not been ascertained; some branches of holly are seen which, it is said, were petrified in seven years; as to the precise time which 49 might be necessary it matters not, but the truth of the phenomenon is incontestable. It is observed that petrifaction is produced, not only in Lough Neagh but also within its environs, to the distance of eight miles, even upon high and sandy soil to which the waters of the lake do not appear to have access. This discovery by destroying the system which attributed the virtue of it to the water exclusively, seems to aflSx it to the soil, or at least to supply it with that quality by the power of the rain, or vapors which arise from the lake. Although the phenomenon of petrifaction, like many others which we perceive in nature, be extraordinary, it is not supernatural; however, as it is not allowed man to fathom into all things, the cause of it is per- haps sought for in vain. The learned attribute it to the water or to the air. Water, being fluid, is capable from its condensed gravity of conveying strong particles in its current. The same may be said of the vapors which come from the earth. It is easy to conceive that pieces of wood which have lain for some time hori- zontally under the earth having preserved the pores and tubes which served as conduits to the juice that nouished them during vegetation, easily admit into these tubes fluid bodies, and that the particles of stony matter with which they are loaded being of a sulphur- ous and saline nature, separate themselves in their course, and penetrate into the sides of the tubes when the movement of the liquid is gentle, whereas too rapid a motion is injurious to petrifaction. In the course of time a more abundant concretion of these particles is formed into a solid body, which by its corrosive quality is substituted for an equal quantity of wood, by chang- ing the form of those bodies and introducing that of stone. It is nearly thus that the changing of iron into copper is accounted for, which a fountain of running water, near the copper mines of Hembrunt in Hungary and at Newsohl in Germany produces. Great advan- tages arise at present to Ireland from this phenomenon; bars of iron that lie in a stream of water which flows 50 from the copper mines in the County of Wicklow, be- come changed after seven weeks into copper, which is caused by the great quantity of vitriol accompanying the particles of copper, and prepares a mceptacle for them by consuming the iron. To be able to judge of the influence of the air as it regards petrifaction, we must consider the different circumstances of that element. The phenomenon can- not be attributed to the exterior air which forms the atmosphere of the globe; it being a much lighter fluid than water, its degree of rarefaction and motion is therefore too great to support the particles of petrifying matter, and conduct them to the equilibrium necessary for petrifaction. Petrifaction is produced in the earth, consequently it is more the effect of the interior than the exterior air; the earth, like the animal body, re- ceives much matter, and is purifled in proportion which, according to the season or climate, causes the different phenomena of thunder, rain, fever, plague and other epidemic disorders. It receives, likewise, into its cavities much of the same kind of air which surrounds the globe; but as the situation of the interior air is different from that of the exterior, in regard to the variety of matter which it generates and the causes which sometimes rarefy, sometimes condense it, without being subject to the violent agitation produced by storms and hurricanes, to which the exterior air is exposed, it must naturally produce different effects. Thus, without offending against the laws of physics, we may imagine it to be capable of bearing particles of stone or other petrifying matter into the pores and tubes of wood which it meets in its course. This is sufficient to account for the phenomenon of petrifaction. The waters of Lough Neagh are also considered to be very salutary for such as are attacked by scrofula, and other like distempers. In the bogs of Ireland, whole trees are often found lying horizontally some feet under the earth without being petrified. These have fallen, either by the violence of the waters of the deluge, which had torn them from 51 their roots, or more probably which the Normans had felled in the valleys that were then covered with wood, in order to impede the efforts of the Irish coming to attack them; it is a stratagem of war, practiced even to this day. These trees are sometimes seen burned at the thick end, no doubt because the barbarians, not hav- ing sufficient axes, made use of fire to fell them. It is easy to suppose that trees covered with branches and leaves, and heaped one upon another, might have stopped the mire, which the waters that ran in the val- leys carried along with them, and in succession of time have formed banks sufficient to prevent the running of the waters and cause them to overflow the neighboring lands. Lakes and bogs are, of course, formed by the stagnation of those waters loaded more or less with Btrange bodies; the matter whereof they are composed is an accumulation of dried herbs, hay, heath, roots, and other things produced by stagnant waters, and forms in its mixed state but one spongy substance, which easily admits the waters, and covered in course of time those trees altogether that had contributed to its growth. Some of the bogs of Ireland are twenty feet deep from their surface to the bottom, which is a kind of potters' clay or sand. Thousands of acres are seen in different districts in that country, which considerably deduct from the product of the island; otherwise it is extremely fertile. The only benefit to be derived at present from the bogs in Ireland is the turf, which is cut for fuel. Lake Lene is no less remarkable than Lake Neagh; it lies to the southern extremity of the island, in the County of Kerry. It is divided into the upper and lower lake, and contains in the wholeabout three thousand square acres; it is bounded south and east by the Moun- tains Magnerton and Turk; west by Glena; to the north of it is a beautiful plain, ornamented with fine country seats, and on the northeast is the town of Killarney. These mountains are covered from the base to their top with the oak, yew-tree, holly, and the arbutus, which represent in their different degress of vegetation an agreeable variety of colors, green, yellow, red and white, 52 forming an amphitheatre which recalls in winter the charms of the spring. Some cascades are formed by the falling of the waters from the summit of these moun- tains, particularly from Magnerton, whose murmurs, being repeated by echoes, add still more to the charms of this spot. On the top of this mountain is a lake, the depth of which is not known; in the language of the country it is called *Toulle-feron," which signifies "Hell's hole." It frequently overflows, and rolls down in frightful torrents. Lake Lene contains several islands which resemble so many gardens; the arbutus takes root among the rocks of 'marble in the midst of its waters. Nennius says, in his treatise upon the wonders of Ireland, that "there are four mines, namely, tin, lead, iron and copper, which form four circles around the lake." He adds that "pearls are found in it which Kings wear for ear-rings." There are, indeed, some precious stones in this lake, and in its neighborhood mines of silver and copper, more especially the latter, which at present makes of itself a great branch of trade. The Giant's Causeway in the County of Antrim, in the north of Ireland, where the coast is elevated above the level of the sea, is another wonder that merits the attention of the curious. This causeway, which is in the form of a triangle, extends from the foot of a mountain into the sea to a considerable distance; its apparent length, when the waters retire, is about six hundred feet. It consists of many thousand pillars, which are pentagonal, hexagonal and heptagonal, but irregular, as there are few of them of which the sides are equally broad; their size is not uniformly the same, varying from fifteen to twenty-six inches in diameter, and in general not more ^.han twenty. All these pillars touch one another with equal sides, which are so close that the joints can be scarcely perceived; they are not all equally high; they sometimes form a smooth surface and sometimes are unequal. These pillars, none of which are of a single piece, are composed of many unequal ones, from one to two feet high; and what is still more singular, these pieces are not joined by plain 53 surfaces, being set one into the other by concave and convex outsides, highly polished, the same as the sides of the adjoining pillars. There are some places where this colonnade is elevated above the earth thirty-two and even thirty-six feet, but we are ignorant of its depth. People have dug at the foot of one of the columns to the depth of eight feet, and it was found to be the same all through. The stone, as to the substance, is a homogeneous body, which admits of no mixture, and is extremely hard; when broken it is found to have a fine and shining grain; it is heavier than other kinds of stone, resists tools of the very best temper, and, of course, cannot be cut; still it dissolves in the fire. Besides the Giant's Causeway, some other colonnades of the same kind are discovered on the land side; the most considerable is composed of fifty pillars, whereof the middle one is forty feet high, and the others, on the right and left, diminish like the pipes of an organ; it is on that account the inhabitants have given them the name of "The Organ." Is the Giant's Causeway a work of nature or of art? That is a question of controversy among the learned of England and of Ireland. Those who maintain that it is the effect of nature prove it according to the rules of geometry; they cite a proposition out of Euclid, accord- ing to which "there are but three figurefe which can form a plain and continued surface, viz.: six equilateral tri- angles, four squares and three hexagons. But they say these rules of art have not been observed in the Giant's Causeway, which is composed of polygons having un- equal sides, although they are very well adapted to the opposite side of the adjoining pillars, which cannot be attributed to a superior intelligence." It is added: "The joining of those pieces which compose the pillars appears to be a work of nature"; whereas, in all other columns, both ancient and modern, the pieces are joined by flat surfaces, and it cannot be conceived how the joining of the stones that form this causeway could have 54 been made without an infinite number of instruments which are not known to us. This system of reasoning, though plausible, is not satisfactory; for, besides our not being able to deny a thing because we cannot conceive it, it is certain the arts have had their revolutions and that there have been many which formerly prevailed that have not come down to us. The inhabitants of Ireland are tall and well made; the strong exercises which tend to fortify the nerves and render the body vigorous were at all times practiced among them. Hunting, horse racing, foot racing, wrestling and other like exercises form still their usual amusements. We attribute to Lugha Lam Fada, one of their ancient Kings, the institution of military exercises at Tailton in Meath; those exercises consisted in wrestling, th^ combat of gladiators, tournaments, races on foot and on horseback, as we have seen them insti- tuted in Rome a long time after by Romulus in honor of Mars, which were called "Equiria." Those games at Tailton, which Gratianus, Lucius and O'Flaherty call "Ludi Taltini," were celebrated every year during thirty days, that is, fifteen days before and fifteen days after the first of our month of August. On that account, the first of August has been and is still called in Ireland **Lah Lugh-Nasa," which signifies a day in memory of Lugha. These olympiads always continued among the Milesians until the arrival of the English. We discover to this day some vestiges of them, without any other change than that of time and place. Wrestling, which we call in France, "Le tour du Breton," the exercise of gladiators, and races pn foot are still on festival days their common diversion in various districts of Ireland, and the conquerors generally receive a prize. The plains of Kildare are celebrated for the great concourse of nobility who assemble there every year. Race horses are brought there from every province in the kingdom, likewise from England and other countries; consider- able wagers are bet on these occasions and more noble- 55 men are mined by them than by any other mode of gaming. "The Irish/' says Camden, "are warlike, witty and remarkable for the just proportion of their limbs. Their flesh and muscles are so supple that the agility which they possess is incredible." Good, an English priest who wrote in the sixteenth century, after having been for many years in Ireland, a professor of humanity, gives the following description of its inhabitants: "They are a nation," he says, "to be praised for their strength, and particularly for the activities of their bodies; for a greatness of soul; they are witty and warlike, prodigal of life, hardy in bearing fatigues, cold and hunger; courteous and kind to strangers, constant in their love, hating also, seldom forgiving, too credulous, greedy of glory, and quick to resist injuries and insults." "Of all men," says Stanihurst, "the Irish are the most patient in fatigue, the most warlike; rarely do they suffer themselves to be cast down even in their heaviest afflictions." Ireland is divided into four provinces — in ancient times it had five; namely: Leinster in the east, Ulster in the north, Connaught in the west, and Munster in the south. These are, again, divided into two-and-thirty counties — a system of Anglo-Norman, or English, inven- tion, and, according to the learned Dr. Joyce, savant and historian, they generally represent the older native ter- ritories and sub-kingdoms. King John, "Lord" of Ireland, formed twelve of them in the twelfth century — Dublin, Kildare, Meath, Uriel (or Louth), Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Limerick and Tipper- ary. Henry VIII. divided Meath proper into two coun- ties and called one Westmeath. King's and Queen's Counties were formed in the reign of Mary I, who married Philip II. of Spain, out of the old district of Leix and Offaly. Hence their capitals are called, respectively, Philipstown and Maryborough. The County Longford was formed out of the territory of Annaly by Deputy Sir Henry Sydney about 1565. The same official divided Connaught into six counties — Galway, Mayo, Sligo, Ros- 56 common, Leitrim and Clare. The latter County, al- though situated on the Connaught bank of the River Shannon, was subsequently given to Munster, because it had formed a part of that province in ancient times. Antrim and Down were organized into counties early in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, and Lord Deputy Perrot, about 1584, formed seven others out of Ulster; namely: Armagh, Monaghan, Tyrone, Coleraine (now Derry), Donegal, Fermanagh and Cavan. Dublin County at first included Wicklow, but, in 1605, during the reign of James I., Sir Arthur Chichester made the latter a separate County. The existing division of the Counties among the Provinces is as follows — Munster comprises Clare, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, Tipperary and Waterford; Ulster con- tains Antrim, Armagh, Cavan, Donegal, Down, Fer- managh, Derry, Monaghan, and Tyrone; Connaught has Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon and Sligo; Leinster comprises Carlow, Dublin, Kildare, Kilkenny, King's County, Longford, Louth, Meath, Queen's County, West- meath, Wexford and Wicklow. The Provinces show the following proportions — Munster, 6.064,579 acres; Ulster, 5,475,458; Leinster, 4,871,118; Connaught, 4,392,043. The Island is further subdivided into 316 baronies, 2,532 parishes and 60,760 townlands, which average about 300 acres each. These are figures with which every student of Irish history should be familiar. Of the above area only 2,357,530 acres are under the plow; 14,712,849 acres are devoted to hay and pasture, of which 12,000,000 acres could be cultivated to crops. But it is a question whether such a thing would be desirable, considering the great demand and the high price for hay and cattle, beef and mutton. It would give employment to a large number of people, but experts assert that the profits on hay and cattle are larger than on grain and potatoes. Next to hay, the largest area, something more than 1,000,000 acres, is planted to oats, and only 590,000 acres to potatoes, which is surprising, as potatoes are the principal food of the Irish peasant, and, as some one has remarked, "are his food and drink and clothing." 57 PERIOD OF GREATEST EMIGRATION. Table showing the number of Emigrants who left Ireland from January 1, 1846, to January, 1878. Years. No. of Emigrants. Years. No. of Emigrants. 1846 105,955 1862 70,117 1847 215,444 1863 117,229 1848 178 159 1864 114 169 1849 254,425 1865 101,497 1850 249,054 1866 99,467 1851 289,721 1867 80,624 1852 190,322 1868 61,018 1853 173,148 1869 66,568 1854 140',155 1870 74!855 1855 91,914 1871 71,240 1856 90,781 1872 77,102 1857 95,081 1873 90,149 1858 64,337 1874 73,184 1859 80,599 1875 51,462 1860 84,621 1876 37,587 1861 64,292 1877 38,503 Total 3,592,779 Of the above, 2,618,646 arrived at United States ports. In 1845, 1846 and in 1847 the potato crop had failed. For a time Ireland seemed almost given over to hunger and death. Thousands died miserably and in starvation. Others fled across the sea, seeking refuge in America, to hand down to their children and their children's children, born in the American Republic, a bitter recol- lection of the misery they had endured and the wrongs that had been inflicted upon them. When the famine was at an end, it was found that Ireland lost two mil- lions of her population. Before the famine she had eight millions. All through the famine the government had done nothing. Private charity in England and in America had done something. America came to the rescue most nobly. The English government, if it could not appease the famine, was itself active in devising coercion bills to put down the spirit of violence which misery and starvation might haply have engendered in the Irish people. Irish emigrants to the United States in 1911 numbered 33,922. EAMONN DE VALERA, President of the Irish Republic. TERENCE MACSWINEY, Lord Mayor of Cork, died a martyr for his country, October z5th, 1920, after a hunger strike lasting 74 days, fighting for Ireland's freedom. SOME IRISH PHRASES WRITTEN PHONETICALLY WITH TRANSLATIONS These sentences are laid out to follow one another in the natural order of conversation. It is desirable that the exact pronunciation be given by someone who knows them or has heard them before. Boll oh yeea urth God save you Deea iss Mwirra yeev God and Mary to you Shay dhu vaha You are welcome Gu morrir avodh May you live long Kay-hee will thu? How are you? Thawim gu mauh I am well Kunuss thaw thu fain?... How is yourself? Mog golore Wei) enough Iss mauh ay shin That's good Will ain shkale ogguth?. . .Have you any news? Neel more -awn Not much Thor ishtoch Come in Dhoon un dhurrus Shut the door Law braa Fine day Thaw shay mor shin ... .It is so Sig sheece Sit down Kaydh meela fawilte A hundred thousand wel- comes Gurra mohiguth Thank you Slawinte booth Health to you Will thorth urth? Are you thirsty? Thaw uck-rus urrum ....I am hungry Thaw thirsha urrum I am tired Ole rudh aigin Drink something Naw bock lesh Don't mind it Caw roush? Where were you? Veece in Ayrin I was in Ireland Dain thoum ay? What time is it? Neel iss oggum I don't know Obbir ourawn Sing a song Neel ourawn oggum I have not a song Kurrig urth Hurry up Fon gu foel Wait for a while Gum mauh Good (Well done) Mauh acoUeen Good girl Mauh afar Good man Ourawn ella Another song Iss kumma lum I don't care Fon suckir Keep quiet Naw beem bowra Don't be bothering me Peea lath .' God be with you (More power to you) Beg reenka oggin We'll have a dance Areenka thu lum Will you dance with me Reenka may I will dance Thurrum dhu lauv Give me your hand Hane, dhoe, tree, kahir. One, two, three, four, five, cooig. shay, shocht six, seven Avoorneen machree Darling of my heart Fee-ugh ay shin anish .... See that now Noch dass ay shin Isn't that nice Thaw shay gu hauling. ... It is delightful Kodh-ay shin? What is that? Naw brish ay Don't break it Faug morshin ay Leave it so Boo-il ay Strike him Naw dane ay shin Don't do that Konna haev Why Bee kee-ul ogguth Have sense Kay hay shin? Who is that? Shay shin Shawn That is John Gow-im pawrdhoon ogguth I beg your pardon Thurrum kuppawn tay. . . . Give me a cup of tea Maw shay dhu hel ay,... If you please Thaw shay fuar It is cold Iss ulk^ay shin That's bad Thawn earth ogguth You are right Will thu raig Are you finished Thaw may sawsthu I am satisfied Naw bee koint Don't be talking Naw bee mogga foom Don't be fooling me Kuggur illeh Whisper here Iss more a throoa ay shin. That's a great pity Naw daroodh ay shin Don't forget that Thurrum kippeen sullish . . Give me a match Ire-ig Get up Deea lynn iss Mwirra God with us and Mary Ayreh gu braugh Ireland forever Day-luan, Day-mawirt, Monday, Tuesday, Wed- Day-kaydheen nesday Dayurdheen, Day-heena, ^ Thursday, Friday, Satur- Day-sohurrin day Day-dhounig Sunday Thaw shay in oum dhul avolleh It is time to go home Thaw shay in oum dhul ochulla , .... It is time to go to bed In annim an Auhir, oggus In the name of the Father, un Vick oggus un sprid, and of the Son and of the Naov, Amen Holy Ghost, Amen. Slawn lath Goodbye Bannoght Day lath The blessing of God with you Gu nire-ee aw lath Good luck to you I i