\ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2011 with funding from Boston Library Consortium Member Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/gasolinehowtouseOOburr GASOLINE AND HOW TO USE IT Written and Compiled by G A. BURRELL Formerly of BUREAU OF MINES OF UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT For OIL STATISTICAL SOCIETY, Inc. Boston, Mass. Publishers BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRARY" CHESTNUT HILL, M Copyright 1916 By Oil Statistical Society, Inc. Boston, Mass. k ft All Rights Reserved CONTENTS PAGE Foreword ...... 7 Precautions in Handling Gasoline . 9 Mixtures of Gasoline Vapor and Air . 12 Inflammability of Gasoline and Gaso- line Vapor . . . . . 13 Explosive Mixtures of Gasoline Vapor and Air ...... 14 Conversion of Gasoline into Vapor . 15 Extinguishing Gasoline Fires . . 17 Air-Gas Machines . . . . . 19 Burns from Gasoline and Their Treat- ment ...... 19 Detecting Gasoline Vapor in Air by x\pparatus . . . . . 22 History of Motor Vehicle in the United States ...... 25 Internal Combustion Engine . . 26 Types of Carburetors and Their Actions 30 Adjusting Carburetor .... 36 Diagnosing Carburetor ... 38 Smoke Tests for Air Leaks ... 39 Poisonous Exhaust Gases from Gasoline Engines ...... 41 The Art of Driving Automobiles . . 47 Automobile Pointers . . . . 60 Engine Troubles . . . . . 63 CONTENTS— Co ntinued Non-Freezing Solutions Use of Farm Tractors . Gasoline in Warfare Aircraft in Warfare Lubricating Oils for Motors Lubricating Pointers Gasoline as a Cleaning Fluid Gasoline in the Paint and Rubber Industries .... Benzine in the Rubber Industry . History of Petroleum . Classification of Oil Fields . Statistics Regarding Petroleum Pro duction ..... Composition of Petroleum Early History of Gasoline . Present Shortage of Gasoline Production and Exportation of Gaso line . . . Refining Crude Oil Testing Gasoline .... Determining the Gravity of Gasoline Fractionation Analysis of Gasoline Fractionation Analysis of Kerosene "Cracking" Processes . Motor Spirits .... CONTENTS— Conti The "Rittman" Process of Crackinc Petroleum .... Cracking Oil with Aluminum Chloride "Casinghead" Gasoline Gasoline Plant, Compressor Type Gasoline Plant, Absorption Methods Gasoline from Shale Natural Gas from Flow Tanks Substitutes for Gasoline Benzol versus Gasoline Use of Alcohol .... Sources of Alcohol Mixtures of Benzol and Alcohol . Naphthalene as Motor Fuel Fake Substitutes for Gasoline Fundamental Physical Laws and Defini tions ..... Useful Tables .... Weights and Measures . Explanation of Metric System Various Tables ..... Electrical Facts .... Horsepower ..... Boiler and Steam Facts Nomenclature Adopted by the Society of Automobile Engineers 165 108 170 175 176 181 183 185 188 190 194 196 198 200 203 207 213 215 220 233 236 238 239 FOREWORD Intended for the Reader The annual consumption of gasoline has reached the total of 1,500,000,000 gallons. Of the millions who use this liquid, probably ninety per cent have not a speaking acquaintance with its real nature and practical possibilities as a power, on the one hand to destroy man and the works of man, and, on the other hand, to aid and assist him. The utilization of gasoline is largely a matter of intelligent under- standing of what the substance is and what it can do if the opportunity is provided. It is the aim of this book: (1) To cut off the source of supply of the daily papers' lurid tales of burning automobiles, flaming motor boats, with whole families consumed, fearful conflagrations in cleansing establishments, garages and dwellings — all because not of gasoline, but ignorance of and carelessness with gasoline; (2) To assist the motorist in getting the full measure of power from the gasoline for which he pays; and, incidentally, but thoroughly and with care, to give him pointers as to the running and lubrication of his automobile; (3) To give to those who are using or may consider using gasoline in working the farm, or in any commercial enterprise, advice and pointers, both as to how to use gasoline itself and in what nature of machine to use it; (4) To give to the student and the professional oil man the whole story of gasoline and petroleum — historically, scientifically and practically; (5) To give to anybody who uses gasoline, to the extent of cleansing a pair of gloves, useful in- formation. Our guarantee of good faith is the name and merit of the author of this work, George A. Burrell, a consulting chemist in private practice, and until the 15th day of October, 1916, in charge of the Research Laboratory for Gas Investigations, Bureau of Mines of the United States Government. Oil Statistical Society, Inc., Publishers. PRECAUTIONS IN HANDLING GASOLINE Every user of gasoline should appreciate that he is dealing with a dangerous, inflammable substance, and that at all times he should exercise the greatest care in its use. Don't spill gasoline. Don't fill the tank of a liquid fuel stove full. Don't use a liquid fuel stove that leaks. Don't fill a gasoline stove in a closed room. Have plenty of ventilation to carry the vapor out of the room. Don't use gasoline or naphtha for washing the hands. In establishments where benzine, gasoline, naph- tha and other inflammable liquids are used, care should be taken to see that the liquids are handled in an approved manner. No open light or flame of any kind, nor any machine, or belt capable of pro- ducing a spark should be allowed in the room where the gasoline is being used. All shafting and machines with belts, that are liable to cause a static electric- spark, should be well grounded. Only incandescent electric lights should be used, and these should be provided with guards to prevent their being smashed. All electric switches, fuses, etc. , should be outside of the room. Danger signs should be posted on all doors opening into the room, warning against the carrying of open lights of any kind outside. 9 10 GASOLINE When large quantities of gasoline are used, the main supply should be stored in a metal tank buried under ground, and a safe distance from buildings. The working supply should be pumped into the buildings as needed. When it is not possible to use a pump and a buried tank, the main supply should be stored outside and well away from other buildings, under lock and key. Only small quantities should be taken into the buildings, closed metal cans, preferably safety cans, being used as containers. When the use of an open can is necessary the opening should be as small as possible, and a cover should be provided. The cover should be put on whenever the can is not in use. Signs should be posted prohibiting an open flame near a pump or other handling apparatus. The signs should explain the danger involved and give instructions for safe methods of operation. Empty gasoline barrels should be stored with bung holes down, in safe places in the open air. Rooms in which explosive or dangerous gases or vapors are used or generated should be safely en- closed, and should be provided with an improved system of ventilation. Gasoline vapor is heavier than air, and a suction fan should be used to insure proper ventilation. GASOLINE 11 Joints in pipes, tanks, conveyors, etc., used for storage of gasoline, should be kept tight. Before work is done on vessels, pipes, etc., sufficient time should be given to allow gas to escape. Special care should be exercised before work requiring the use of heat or flame is done. iVpparat us that has contained explosive gas should be filled with water or steam to force out the gas. Many fires originate from cleaning silks with gasoline; the violent rubbing of the silk generating static electricity, which produces a spark that ignites the vapor. Jobbing tailors sometimes cause fires by using gasoline in an open vessel, and smoking a cigar or cigarette at the same time. A dangerous practice, common in many garages, is the cleaning of automobile parts with gasoline from an open can. Employees find it easy to clean grease and oil from the motor, and other parts, with a brush saturated with gasoline, and the gasoline is readily ignited by a spark. There follows a few of the many causes that have started gasoline fires: Careless striking of a match. Match on floor stepped on. Overheated shaft bearing. 12 GASOLINE Spark from turning on electric Light. Rubbing two pieces of silk together. Opening door leading into room where lamp was burning. Opening a stove door. Opening door leading to locker room. Gas light in room. MIXTURES OF GASOLINE VAPOR AND AIR Gasoline vapor mixes with air in the same manner that water vapor does. Atmospheric air, for in- stance, always contains water vapor. In any par- ticular temperature a definite proportion of water vapor will be found in the atmosphere if it has become completely saturated, a condition that sel- dom exists. Usually, a limited supply of water has been taken up by the air, and the atmosphere is spoken of as having a certain relative humidity, meaning that the saturation is incomplete or that more water vapor could exist in the air were a source of moisture available. In a similar maimer gasoline vapor mixes with air. The amount of vapor carried will depend on the temperature of the air and the readiness with which the vapor can be obtained. If gasoline is exposed to the air of a room, and for a long enough time, the air will contain at a cer- tain temperature a fixed proportion of gasoline GASOLINE 13 vapor, differing for different grades of gasoline, that cannot be exceeded. Proportions of different grades of gasoline vapor that air will carry at a temperature of 63.5° F. Proportion of Gasoline Grade of Gasoline Vapor (per cent) Cleaner's Naphtha 5.0 61° B. Gasoline 11.0 09° B. Gasoline 15.0 73° B. Gasoline 28.0 It will be noticed that air will hold almost six times as much vapor from the lighter gasoline as from the heavier cleaner's naphtha. If the lighter and the better grades of gasoline are heated, their vapors, when a light is applied, also flash and burn at lower temperatures than do the heavier grades. This difference does not mean that some gasoline is a dangerous inflammable liquid and some is not. All grades are classed as highly inflammable and dangerous liquids. INFLAMMABILITY OF GASOLINE AND OF GASOLINE VAPOR If one takes the cover off of a full pail of tightly closed gasoline, and applies a match to the surface 14 GASOLINE the gasoline will flare up and burn as Jong as the gasoline lasts. On the other hand, if one puts a few drops of gasoline in a small, tightly-inclosed pail, waits a few minutes, and then introduces a flame or an electric spark, a violent explosion will most likely result. In the first case the vapor burns as fast as it comes from the gasoline and mixes with the oxygen of the air. In the second case the gasoline vaporizes in the pail and mixes uniformly with the air therein to form an explosive mixture, and upon ignition explodes. Consequently, when one hears of a disastrous gasoline explosion, one may be sure that the explosion resulted from the mixing of the vapor from the gasoline with air in proportions necessary to form an explosive mix- ture. If a lighted match could be applied to pure gasoline vapor in the absence of air, no fire or ex- plosion could take place. Gasoline liquid or vapor, like any other combustible material, needs the oxygen of the air in order to burn. EXPLOSIVE RANGE OF MIXTURES OF GASOLINE VAPOR AND AIR The amount of air required to be mixed with GASOLINE 15 gasoline vapor in order to produce an explosive mixture has been carefully determined. In one hundred parts by volume of air and gasoline, an explosion will not take place if there is less than about 1.5 parts of gasoline vapor, or more than about six parts.* In other words, the explosive range is between 1.5 and six per cent gasoline vapor. Flashes of flame will appear in mixtures containing considerably smaller and larger proportions of vapor and considerable pressure will be developed, but complete propagation of flame through the mixture will not take place. This means, for instance, that gasoline vapor must be mixed with about seventeen to forty times its volume of air for the explosion to take place in the gasoline engine. CONVERSION OF GASOLINE INTO VAPOR One gallon of gasoline when entirely changed into gasoline vapor produces about thirty-two cubic feet of vapor. These thirty-two cubic feet of vapor could render explosive about 2,100 cubic feet of air, or the amount of air contained in room measuring twenty-one feet by ten feet square. But in the *Burrell, G. A. and Boyd, H. T. "Inflammability of Mixtures of Gasoline Vapcr and Air." Technical Paper 115, Bureau of Mines. 16 GASOLINE actual use of gasoline this is an ideal condition thai could not be produced. An assumed case may be that of a person filling an open pail from a larger tank, or using gasoline for cleaning. When the pail is first filled with gasoline, a small amount of pure gasoline vapor forms over the surface of the gasoline. Just above this layer of pure gasoline vapor is a mixture of vapor and air; at some point there will be an explosive proportion, and farther away from the pail there will be a small proportion of vapor, and, finally, still farther away no vapor at all, but pure air. However, all the time the user of gasoline is at work, the vapor keeps forming from both the gasoline in the pail and that applied to the object being cleaned, rendering more and more air inflammable or explosive until finally there will exist a dangerous atmosphere that may completely surround him, so that a chance ignition will envelop him in flames, and perhaps cause great damage to property. Ignition of the gasoline vapor may take place even some distance from the gasoline in a room adjoining the room in which -the person works. As the gasoline evaporates, and more and more vapor is given off, it mixes with air farther and farther from the gasoline; and if the evaporation lasts long enough, may travel to an adjoining room. G A S L I X E 17 where it may be ignited. On ignition, a sharp flash will travel back through the adjoining room to the room where the gasoline is. EXTINGUISHING GASOLINE FIRES The best method of extinguishing a burning liquid is to form a blanket of inert gas or solid material over the burning liquid and cut off the air (oxygen) supply. Water may be used for extinguishing burning liquids, such as denatured alcohol, wood alcohol and acetone, that are mixable with it. But if gaso- line, which does not mix with water, catches fire, the application of water produces little or no effect, except to spread the burning liquid and thus scatter the fire over a larger area. Of materials used to form a blanket of inert gas or solid material over the fire, thus cutting off the oxygen supply, several are in common use. These include sawdust, sand, carbon, tetrachloride, and the so-called foam or frothy mixtures. The efficiency of sawdust is due to its floating for a time on the liquid and excluding the oxygen of the air. Sawdust itself does not catch fire easily and when it does ignite, burns without flame. It may be well handled for extinguishing small fires, 18 GASOLINE when just started, by means of long-handled wooden shovels. Sand probably serves about as well as sawdust for extinguishing fires on the ground, but it is heavier and more awkward to handle. When thrown on a burning tank it sinks, whereas sawdust floats. Carbon tetrachloride, the basis of various chemi- cal fire extinguishers, if thrown on a fire forms a heavy non-inflammable vapor over the liquid, and readily mixes with gasoline. The vapor is about five times as heavy as air. Much of the carbon tetrachloride contains impurities that give it a bad odor, but when pure its specific gravity is 1.632 at 32° F. (air = 1). When thrown on a fire, it pro- duces black smoke, the hue of which is caused by unconsumed particles of carbon. Pungent gases are also produced, probably due to hydrochloric- acid gas and small volumes of chlorine gas. Although the fumes are pungent, brief exposure to them does not cause permanent injury. The efficacy of carbon tetrachloride depends largely on the skill of the user. If liquid in a tank is on fire, the height of the liquid is important. When the liquid is low, the sides of the tank form a wall which retains the vapor; but when a tank GASOLINE 10 is nearly full of gasoline, only the most skilled operator can extinguish the flame or fire. AIR-GAS MACHINES By Air-Gas is meant an inflammable mixture of air and a volatile liquid like gasoline. Air-gas machines consist of arrangements for passing air over a large surface of gasoline. The gasoline may be contained in a number of shallow trays or in spongy or porous materials. Occasionally, the air is caused to bubble through the liquid. After be- coming saturated with the gasoline, the mixture of gasoline vapor and air is forced through pipes for consumption in houses and other buildings. At some places small villages are illuminated with air-gas. In all cases it must be used as it is made, for the gasoline vapor condenses out on storage, and also during passage through long pipes. The heating value at ordinary temperature is from 400 to 500 B. T. U. per cubic foot, BURNS FROM GASOLINE Burns are divided into three classes according to depth. A first-degree burn is simply a scorching or reddening of the outer surface of the epidermis 20 GASOLINE (skin). A second-degree burn involves and de- stroys the entire thickness of the skin. A third- degree burn destroys not only the skin but also the tissue beneath, sometimes entirely to the bone. The symptoms of a first-degree burn are: severe burning pain, reddening of the skin, formation of blisters; in a second-degree burn, destruction of the skin; in a third-degree burn, destruction of the skin and some of the tissue beneath. In severe burns shock is present. In treating a burn, first carefully remove the clothing from the burned part. Exclude the air as quickly as possible from the burned surface with some clean covering. There are a number of good coverings for burns; the one most generally used by first-aid men is picric-acid gauze. This gauze is ordinarily sterile gauze which has been saturated with a one-per-cent solution of picric acid (one-half teaspoonful of picric acid to one pint of water). It has this advantage: it is clean and ready to use. Moisten the picric-acid gauze with clean water and put it over the burned surface. Over the gauze place a layer of absorbent cotton, then apply a bandage to hold in place. Carron oil, which is a mixture of equal parts of GASOLINE 21 limewaterand linseed oil, has been used as a dressing for burns, but its use is not recommended. The best dressing is picric-acid gauze. Vaseline, sweet oil, olive oil and balsam oil are all good dressings. If nothing better is at hand, dissolve some bicarbonate of soda in sterilized water. Gauze wrung out of this and spread over the burn will give relief. Severe burns are accompanied by shock, and always treat a burned patient for shock as well as for burns. Shock is a sudden depression of the vital powers arising from an injury or a profound emotion acting on the nerve centers, and inducing exhaustion. The symptoms are abnormal temperature, an irregular, weak and rapid pulse; a cold, clammy, pale and profusely perspiring skin; irregular breathing; the person affected usually remains conscious and will answer when spoken to; but is stupid and indiffer- ent, and lies with partly-closed lids. Sometimes there is concealed hemorrhage. In treating patients for shock, lower the patient's head, wrap him in warm blankets and surround him with heat-giving objects. Give an ordinary stimulant, as black coffee, to be sipped as hot as it can be borne; half-teaspoonful doses of aromatic 22 GASOLINE spirits of ammonia may be given every twenty or thirty minutes. Small doses of whiskey or brandy may be given, provided that there is no hemorrhage. One or two teaspoonfuls every fifteen or twenty minutes will help to tide the patient over until the doctor arrives. Inhalation of oxygen is often of much service; artificial respiration may be necessary in some cases. Hot applications over the heart and spine should be used if practicable. Always hurry the doctor. APPARATUS FOR DETECTING GASOLINE VAPOR IN AIR A gas detector has been developed by the author of this book (G. A. Burrell, Journal of Industry and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 8, 1916, Page 365) for detecting gasoline vapor in air. It is useful for determining small or dangerous percentage of gaso- line vapor in garages, dry-cleaning establishments, ships where oil or gasoline may be stored, engine rooms where gasoline is used, and, in fact, any place where gasoline vapor may accumulate and menace the safety of people and buildings. It is sold by the Mine Safety Supply Company of Pittsburg, Pa. A diagram is shown. The instrument may be considered to be a U-tube, of which the 24 GASOLINE limbs (S) and (N) are two branches. Communica- tion is made between the two limbs at a point desig- nated by the arrow. To start a series of determinations the brass cap (A) is removed and water is poured into (F) until it rests in the tube (N) at the point (G), the zero point of the scale. The water will then seek the level (F) in the tube (S). To make a determination of combustible gas in air, say of gasoline vapor in air, one blows in the tube (H) by means of a rubber tube (not shown), thereby depressing the water in (M) to some point and filling the combustion space above (F) with water. One can tell when this combustion space is filled with water by hearing a slight click when the water strikes the valve (D). Next, the instrument is raised to the place where the sample is to be collected and the water allowed to seek the former levels at (F) and (G). The water in falling to (F) sucks in a sample of the air to be tested. Next the valve (D) is closed and the platinum wire in (E) electrically heated. The gasoline in the com- bustion chamber burns to carbon dioxide and water, and the contraction in volume of the sample occurs corresponding to the amount of gasoline originally present in the sample. At the end of one and one- GASOLINE 25 half minutes the electric current is turned off and the instrument shaken to cool the gases in the com- bustion space and bring them to the same tempera- ture as the gases were at the beginning of the test. The water in the combustion space will then rise to take the place of the burned-out gas and fall a corresponding distance in the glass tube (N), i.e., fall to a point on the graduated scale that will show the per cent of gasoline originally in the sample. A previous calibration, once and for all time, fixes the proper graduations on this scale. The latter carries four graduation columns, one for methane and natural gas, one for hydrogen, one for gasoline vapor and one for coal gas. The electrical energy for heating the platinum wire is derived from a storage battery. A test requires two minutes. HISTORY OF THE MOTOR VEHICLE IN THE UNITED STATES The development of motoring and of the motor industry in the Lmited States has been very rapid. At first, steam cars were favored to a large extent, but the gasoline engine became refined so rapidly as regards silentness and smoothness of operation and simplicity and suitability that it became very 26 GASOLINE popular and far outstripped the steam engine as a propellant for motor vehicles. George B. Selden, then living in Rochester, New York, applied in 1879 for patent on a gas- compression engine for propelling road vehicles. The patent was granted to him on November 5, 1895, and he 'claimed that any vehicle propelled by an internal combustion engine, manufactured since that time, was an infringement on his patents. At the commencement of the year 1910, there were seventy-one manufacturers who admitted the valid- ity of his claim, and paid a license fee of one and a half per cent of the catalogue price of their cars to the association of licensed automobile manufac- turers who agreed to recognize the Selden claim. In the year 1911 this claim was defeated by Henry Ford and others. In the year 1899 there were about six hundred motor cars in the United States. Now there are fully two and one-quarter million. THE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE Gottlieb Daimler's (England) invention of the high-speed internal combustion engine in 1885 was the first step toward the production of the modern self-propelled road vehicle, the next step being the recognition in 1887 of the advantages of Daimler's BOSTON COLLEGE LIBR/^ CBE8TNUT B G A S O L I X E 27 system by M. Levassor, and his application of that system to the propulsion of a carriage. This engine marked a great advance in the pro- duction of a source of motor power, for its efficiency was large as compared to its total weight; whilst the simplicity of its fuel system brought it within the scope of the person of average mechanical in- stincts and intelligence, for, even in its early days, the interna] combustion engine did not demand that its user should possess an intimate knowledge of engineering. Levassor placed the engine in front, the axis of the crankshaft being parallel with the side members of the frame of the vehicle. The drive was taken through a clutch to a set of reduction gears and thence to a differential gear on a countershaft, from which the road wheels were driven by chains. With all the modifications of details, the combination of clutch, gear-box and transmission remains un- altered, so that to France, in the person of M. Levassor, must be given the honor of having led in the development of the motor car. The reason for the use of the words "internal combustion engine" is that the fuel, in the case of the gasoline engine, is burned (or fired) inside the working cylinder; whereas it is burned externally 28 G A S O L I X E in the case of a steam engine, i.e., underneath the boiler or generator. The efficiency of the internal combustion engine is about three times as great as the steam engine. The essential parts of any internal combustion system are: the carburetor, the engine, the clutch, the radiator, the change-speed gears and the final transmission. The carburetor is a vessel in which the liquid fuel is converted into gas or vapor. The production of this gas is automatic and calls for little attention from the driver. A smart turn of the cranking handle is enough to set piston and crankshaft in motion, so that an initial supply of the combustible mixture may reach one of the cylinders. This first charge of gas is ignited by a properly-regulated electric spark, and there is then little for the driver to do as regards power, except to move a convenient lever which opens or closes a throttle valve between the cylinders and the carburetor, thus letting more or less gas into the engine. Cylinders get very hot unless they are cooled, hence, they have to be surrounded with water jackets through which water is forced. A fan, which is driven from the crankshaft of the engine, aids in the cooling by forcing air around and through the GASOLINE 29 radiator system through which the water circu- lates. It is very important that the driver should have a convenient means of quickly connecting the engine to the driving mechanism of the car, and to do this without jars or shocks. To do this, a multiple disc clutch or leather-faced, cone-shaped circular member is provided that can be engaged with a similar member on the engine flywheel by the driver merely pressing his foot on a pedal. This can be done gradually, so that a car can be easily and gently set in motion. An internal combustion engine can- not develop power unless the crankshaft can rotate at a relatively high number of revolutions. It is therefore necessary to introduce a system of levers between the engine and the road wheels in order to permit the number of revolutions of the crank- shaft to be maintained when hill climbing, or when the vehicle is carrying a heavy load; and the com- mon practice is to introduce three or four sets of toothed wheels, any pair of which can be put into engagement by the movement of a single lever, which lever is placed near the driver's right hand as a rule. The great distinction from a horse-drawn vehicle is that there must be both a mechanical connection 30 GASOLINE and differential connection between the two back wheels. The wheels on horse vehicles revolve loosely on the axle and one can overrun the other on curves, but a special device, known as the differ- ential gear, must be introduced into all motor vehicles between the change-speed gears and the driven- road wheels. Such a device permits one of two driving wheels to be turned around at a quicker speed than the other. The wheel turning fastest is not driven in such a case. TYPES OF CARBURETORS AND THEIR ACTIONS Since the carburetor of the modern automobile plays a very important part in the conversion of liquid gasoline into vapor, some detailed informa- tion regarding its construction and operation is given in this publication. Old patterns of carburetors were the simplest forms of devices and consisted of three principal types, the surface, wick and bubbling type. The surface type consisted of a simple tank or container for the gasoline. Air was drawn in and across the surface of the gasoline in order that it might become saturated with the vapors constantly present at that point. These rich gases were drawn GASOLINE 31 into the engine through a simple form of mixing valve which permitted the entrance of an auxiliary supply of air from the outside of the container to dilute the rich gas and make it a proper mixture to insure energetic combustion. The wick form of carburetor is essentially the same in construction as the surface type, except that the mixing compartment, through which the air flows, is separated from the fuel-containing por- tion bymeans of a wall of absorbent material, such as wicks, which feed the gasoline up into the mixing com- partment by capillary attraction, and by spreading it over more surface make it easier for the air stream passing over the wicking to pick up gasoline vapor. The bubbling type of carburetor differs from the other simple forms previously described in that the air enters at the bottom of the device and bubbles through the liquid to reach the mixing chamber from which it is drawn to the engine cylinder. Devices of the nature considered in the three above types of carburetors have great defects that would militate against their general adoption at the present day. They are only suitable for use in conjunction with high-grade gasoline that has high evaporating value. It is doubtful if they would give satisfactory results with the low-grade 32 GASOLINE fuels available to-day. In many cases these car- buretors were as large as the cylinder of the motor to which they were applied. The spraying form of carburetor was designed to eliminate one of the great disadvantages present with the simple evaporation types. As these were used, the fuel contained therein became heavier, because only the lighter and more volatile constitu- ents evaporated. After the motor had been run- ning for sometime, it was necessary to drain -out the residue and admit a supply of fresh fuel from the main container, because heavy matter left after the more volatile vapors had passed into the engine could not be vaporized by an air current merely brushing over its surface or passing through it. In the spraying type of carburetor the fuel is drawn into the entering air stream through a smaller jet or standpipe which causes it to issue in the form of a spray that soon turns into vapor. With the spraying principle every particle of the fuel is used. because the heavier portions are sprayed into the air stream at the same time that the lighter con- stituents are, and as the liquid enters the air stream in a finely-divided state of mist, it is almost im- mediately vaporized and turned into an explosive gas. GASOLINE 33 An important part of a carburetor is a float that controls the level of the gasoline in the standpipe or jet. This level is so proportioned that the liquid does not overflow the standpipe, and thus the fuel will be sprayed into the mixture only when drawn out of the jet or nozzle by means of the air stream induced by engine suction. The level in the spray nozzle is maintained by a simple automatic valve mechanism in which a float controls the admission of fuel to the device. Two important parts of float-feed carburetors are the mixing chamber and the float chamber. The mixing chamber is that portion of the carburetor in which the spray nozzle is placed and through which the air stream passes before it can reach the inlet manifold. The float chamber is that part of the carburetor to which fuel is first admitted and which serves as a container for the float which regu- lates the level of fuel in the standpipe. Whenever the fuel level falls, the float which is supported by the liquid falls and opens a valve which permits more of the liquid to flow into the float bowl from the main fuel container. When the level reaches the proper height, the float shuts the valve and the fuel supply is stopped. Mixing chambers can be so designed that the 34 GASOLINE speed of the entering air stream at low-engine speed is always sufficient to pick up enough fuel to form an explosive mixture. This is accomplished by constricting the chamber at the proper point, thus insuring a high velocity of air past the top of the spray nozzle, even at low-engine speed. This con- struction of the mixing chamber, called a Venturi mixing chamber, necessitates another improvement on the carburetor, to provide for the introduction of an auxiliary supply of air through a separate opening. This is necessary because with Venturi- tube construction great air velocity at low-engine speed means that the air velocity might be great enough to draw more fuel than was actuallv needed into the engine cylinder. An excessively rich mix- ture provided at high speed would cause overheat- ing and waste fuel, while a comparatively lean mixture at low-engine speed would interfere with prompt starting. The rich mixture is only neces- sary for starting, while a much thinner mixture, or one containing a larger proportion of air, can be used to advantage at high-engine speed. The auxiliary air passage for thinning rich mix- tures may be controlled by any form of automatic valve; for instance, by means of a spring-seated mushroom or poppet valve. The spring tension GASOLINE 35 is so proportioned that the valve will open only on medium- and high-engine speeds, at which times the suction is greater than that prevailing at low speed. The auxiliary air passages are sometimes controlled by means of reeds which open progres- sively as more auxiliary air is needed or by a series of balls which close the auxiliary air ports. The strength of the reeds or the weight of the balls may be varied so the air passages will open progressively and admit more air as the demands increase. In some carburetors (multiple jet carburetors) two or more spray nozzles are used instead of a single jet. The arrangement is usually such that the primary nozzle is used at low speed while the secondary nozzle is brought into action at higher speed when more fuel is needed. In some types the arrangement is such that the primary nozzle acts only at low speed while the secondary nozzle is brought in action at higher speed when more fuel is needed. In some types the arrangement is such that the primary nozzle acts only at low speed while the secondary nozzle supplies gasoline only at high speed. In other multiple jet carburetors, the nozzles are brought into action progressively when the throttle is open to such a point that the primary nozzle, which has a small spraying orifice, cannot 36 GASOLINE supply fuel enough; then the secondary nozzle is brought into action and contributes its quota of liquid to compensate for the augmenting demand of the engine. HOW TO ADJUST THE CARBURETOR The carburetor is one of the most important parts in the anatomy of the car — like the lungs to the human being. On it the smooth running, power, flexibility and economy of the motor are largely dependent. The fulfillment of these require- ments demands a good mixture — one that is cor- rectly proportioned and homogeneous, whether the throttle is open or shut or the motor is running- fast or slow. The other requirements of a carburetor are atomization and vaporization of the fuel. The latter varies with the design of the carburetor, but the former is more or less dependent on adjust- ments, because some carburetors have more adjust- ments than others. A good adjustment is essential, and the carbure- tor should constantly be watched, so that when it shows that it needs attention no time will be wasted in giving it. Few machines in the hands of owners of ordinary automobile knowledge have the best GASOLINE 37 adjustments that may be had, and many have settings that are poor. In many eases poor carburetor adjustment is due to ignorance of the owner. The car runs on all cylinders and has a certain amount of power, and it is not until he compares his machine with another of the same make that has a better adjust- ment that he realizes the difference. The amount of time that it takes to obtain a good setting is variable, and may run up into several hours even when an experienced man is doing the work. Here is another reason for carburetor short- comings — the owner takes his car to a repairman to have the carburetor put in perfect condition; the latter is a good mechanic and obtains a fair setting in a short time, but try as he will he cannot make it perfect. The result is that he gives it up as a bad job as soon as he has spent as much time as he feels the owner can reasonably be expected to pay for. He cannot explain to his customer that it might take several hours to obtain the best adjustment. If he did, he would be looked upon as a poor repair- man. So he tells him that it is the best that can be done, and the customer takes his word for it. All of which is somewhat aside from the subject 38 GASOLINE of how to adjust a carburetor, but, nevertheless, is something that every owner should fully understand. DIAGNOSING CARBURETOR In adjusting the carburetor, the first essential is to be able to tell the difference between a weak and a rich mixture. In either case the car will lack power and may knock, and with too rich a mixture it may also overheat. If there is too much air the motor will not re- spond immediately when the throttle is opened quickly; there will be a lag from the time the accel- erator pedal is depressed until the car begins to gather speed. The motor may also back fire, especially at high speeds. With too much gasoline, on the other hand, the car will respond instantly to the opening of the throttle, but with not the same vim as with a perfect mixture. A great excess of fuel will produce black smoke in the exhaust. Too frequently, when one of these symptoms is recognized or the car is operating badly for any reason at all, the conclusion is that the carburetor needs adjusting, and instead of improving it, it is made worse. Never touch the adjustments on a carburetor until you are sure that they require it. GASOLINE 39 Faulty ignition and leaky cylinders are often mistaken for bad carburet ion. Before looking at the carburetor, it is only common sense to make sure that the trouble is not elsewhere; otherwise, you may complicate matters by throwing the car- buretor out of adjustment. Breaker points out of adjustment, spark plugs short circuited, porcelains cracked, loose connec- tions, grounds and even a retarded spark may look like carburetor disease until an investigation is made. Likewise, valves that need grinding or cylinders that leak may also throw suspicion on the car- buretor. A faulty mixture may be the result of many things besides improper adjustment, and these must all be eliminated before the carburetor setting is changed. SMOKE TESTS FOR AIR LEAKS A thin mixture may be caused by air leaks in the manifold, cylinder head gaskets, valve plugs or valve guides. Any of these will produce missing at low speed. A leak in any part of the manifold may be determined by noting whether smoke from a cigar or cigarette will be sucked in. Other leaks may be located by feeling or listening. 40 GASOLINE The mixture will be weak if the fuel level is too low in the float chamber, and this may be due to a bent float mechanism, a stuck float, or if there is a float level adjustment there may be some difficulty with this. The absence of a hot-air or a hot- water jacket may also produce all the symptoms of too weak a charge, particularly in cold weather. A hot-air stove is a necessary adjunct to almost all carbure- tors not equipped with a hot- water jacket. Naturally any obstruction to the free flow of fuel will result in a lean mixture. There may be dirt in the pipe or in the holes of the nozzle. Too rich a mixture may be caused by a worn needle or nozzle, but is usually due to too high a fuel level. A stuck or bent float mechanism or dirt under the float valve may be the cause. If the float is made of cork, the shellac may gradually dissolve and the fuel will soak into it, making it heavier and consequently raising the level. Simi- larly, a pin hole in a metal float will allow gasoline to enter and weight it. The cork float may be repaired by drying in an oven and then shellacing it again, and the metal float by enlarging the hole, draining the gasoline out and then closing it with a little solder. GASOLINE 41 Before adjustment of carburetor is attempted, the motor should be allowed to run until it is thor- oughly warm and the spark, should be advanced about two-thirds of the way. The secret of successful carburetor adjusting is patience. Each screw or nut must be varied a little at a time until the best position is obtained. The easiest way to determine which is the best setting is to run the car up a test hill after each change. Approach the bottom of the hill at the same speed each time, depress the accelerator at a given point each time, and then note the speed obtained at the top. If there is no hill available, an acceleration test will prove to be an excellent substitute. Approach a given point at a given speed and on passing depress the accelerator and note what the speed is when passing some other point. COMPOSITION AND POISONOUS CHARAC- TER OF EXHAUST GASES FROM GASOLINE ENGINES The public press has devoted more or less space to accidents caused by exhaust gases from auto- mobile locomotives poisoning people. A number of fatal accidents have occurred, and a great many 42 GASOLINE people have suffered more or less. The accidents have been due to the running of gasoline engines in comparatively small and usually closed garages. The exhaust gases then escape into the small closed garage and render the air therein more or less danger- ous. The press has given to some of these accidents, as the result of a statement made by a Professor at the University of Chicago, the name of "Petro- mortis," and shrouds the cause of the deaths in more or less mystery. As a matter of fact, the reason why exhaust gases from gasoline engines are poison- ous is because they contain more or less of a deadly gas called carbon monoxide or carbonic oxide. The chemical symbol is CO. This gas is the constituent in illuminating gas that makes the latter poisonous. Every once in a while one reads of deaths of occu- pants of rooms into which illuminating gas has leaked or due to the fact that the gas had incom- pletely burned in a stove. In both cases carbon monoxide is the poisonous gas that causes the deaths. Carbon monoxide is also the correct name for "White Damp," found in coal mines after explosions and mine fires. This "White Damp" is responsible for more deaths in mine explosions than the actual violence due to the explosion. It forms immedi- ately after explosions in mines and traps the miners, GASOLINE 43 who have escaped the blast, before they can get out of the mine. In a gasoline locomotive fuel is burned within an engine cylinder, and the exhaust from the cylin- der is a mixture of gases. The composition of this mixture of gases will depend on the relative pro- portions of gasoline vapor and air that undergoes explosion in the engine cylinder. If the mixture is a "rich" one, there will not be enough air to completely burn the gasoline vapor, and caibon monoxide will form in greater or less quantities, for carbon monoxide along with other gases is a product of incomplete combustion. When gasoline under- goes complete combustion, only carbon dioxide and water vapor should result from the explosion. Carbon dioxide, except in very large proportions, is not classed as a dangerous gas. But when gaso- line vapor does not have enough air to completely burn it, then some carbon monoxide forms. Gaso- line vapor is explosive in air when proportions of it are present between about 1.5 and 6.0 per cent. When the proportion of gasoline vapor exceeds about two per cent, the quantity becomes so large that not enough air is present to completely burn the gasoline, and carbon monoxide begins to form. Hence, it will be appreciated that, except for a 44 GASOLINE comparatively narrow range of explosibility, the chances of carbon monoxide occurring in the ex- haust gases are very great. The following table shows the maximum amounts of carbon monoxide that different sizes of engines produce under conditions of proper and improper carburetor adjustment. fe u p Noxious 0° F. WITH CED *ETOR Carbo Dioxid IO CO CO Ol © N i^ © © C~l Ol 71 eo © CO CO o 'O co CO b- -f © © © © a CO Ol co ^ CO LfJ -f* iO CO © © X 2 able Quantity o: et a Minute at 6 at 30 in.) Produ WITH Bad Cabbuj Carbon Monoxide a B T-H ■* GO CO © tO OS © © i> b- to «* © CO "3* to to X J— 1 to © © © ■"# 1— 1 TJ © J> O Ol — CO M to CO b- © CO >o c 1—1 1—1 1—1 r - 1 Ol 1—1 Ol co &* B H PS BJ „ H a> a*. o 4-» ! Maximum P Gases (Cubic Barome 1 rburetor Carbon Dioxide of pr tmen o b- CO o ^H © "* CO © CO © X © co o CO to l-H CO b- CO tO CO - © © © b- tO CO X © © ■ 1-1 rH 1-1 1-1 1-1 1— 1 Ol w w S 3 ditio r adj Piston Dis- placement Cubic Feet a Minute Good Ca Carbon Monoxide ,—1 CO co o © b- b- b- -+ co X © Tfl CO — CM b- co CM 60 'O -t CO © © b- -* © b- © © r con ureto 03 © (M CO to to © © © 01 X i^ © b- re CO i— I © b- CI © © i — i © © i— I r-l (M rH (N ~1 (M CO co -? ~f © X X X X! X X LO IO LO X X X Cfi O Q ■* tO *0 lo LO © © © © © b- X X work ( 2 hours' labor ) or idle. \ 13| acres ) Ford tractor ■< 10 gallons gasoline > ^Yhen at work. ( 1 gallon of oil ) Fifty of these tractors are at present being tried out under practical conditions as a step pre- liminary to their wide-spread exploitation. The United States Department of Agriculture in Bulletin 719, summarizes the experience of nearly two hundred farmers in Illinois in using different sized tractors on farms of different acreage as follows: GASOLINE 73 "The chief advantages of the tractor for farm work are: (1) Its ability to do heavy work and do it rapidly, thus covering the desired acreage within the proper season; (2) the saving of man labor and the subsequent doing away with some hired help; and (3) the ability to plow to a good depth, especially in hot weather. "The chief disadvantages are difficulties of effi- cient operation and the packing of the soil when damp. "The purchase of a tractor seldom lowers the actual cost of operating a farm, and its purchase must usually be justified by increased returns. For farms of two hundred crop acres or less use the three-plow tractor. "For farms of from two hundred one to four hundred fifty crop acres, the four-plow tractor, with the three-plow outfit for second choice. "For farms of from four hundred fifty -one to seven hundred fifty crop acres the four-plow tractor, with the three-plow outfit for second choice. "A farm of one hundred forty acres is the small- est upon which the smallest tractor in common use, the two-plcw outfit, may prove profitable. " Medium -priced tractors appear to have proven a profitable investment in a higher percentage of cases than any others. 74 GAS O L I N E "The life of tractors, as estimated by their owner, varies from six seasons for the two-plow to ten and a half seasons for the six-plow outfits. "The number of days a tractor is used each season varies from forty-nine for the two-plow to seventy for the six-plow machines. "Two and one-half gallons of gasoline and one- fifth gallon of lubricating oil are ordinarily required in actual practice to plow one acre of ground seven inches deep. The size of the tractor has little influence on these qualities. "Under favorable conditions a fourteen-inch plow drawn by a tractor covers about three acres in an ordinary working day. "Plows drawn by tractors do somewhat better work on the whole than horse-drawn plows. In Illinois the depth plowed by tractors averages about one and one-half inches greater than where horses are used. "A tractor displaces on an average about one- fourth of the horses on the farm where it is used. "Experienced tractor owners do not consider even a two-plow outfit profitable on a farm less than one hundred forty acres. The average size of a farm on which two-plow outfits are used in Illinois is two hundred seventy acres. (x A S L I N E "The four-plow tractor is most recommended by experienced owners/' At present tractors are passing through the development stage, and diverse views are held re- garding them. Many farmers would not do with- out them. Others maintain they have not reached the stage where they can efficiently do the work done by horses. It is certain, however, that they have found a place on the farm in a great many cases and that their usefulness in this respect will steadily increase. USE OF GASOLINE DURING A WAR The internal combustion engine is put to many uses in warfare. In fact without motor traffic- present war on the scale it has been staged would have been impossible. Thousands of soldiers can be moved many miles in a few hours or over night, as the strategy of the operators may demand. The magnificent roads of France are still in splendid condition despite the war, ?,nd they are used by motor cars to their utmost capacity in transporting troops from place to place; in bringing up supplies, in caring for the wounded, in swiftly carrying dis- patches, and for many other purposes. Operations that required days in past great wars can now be GASOLINE conducted in hours. As a consequence, war has lost much of its former spectacular nature, for surprises are difficult to execute with telling results. A movement launched at any particular place is quickly met by the rapid transfer of sufficient troops to guard that place. The aeroplane has been pressed into valuable service and has been developed as a swift, useful and safe means of locomotion during this war, to a point that otherwise would have required years to reach. It is justly called the eyes of the army. In getting accurate information of the movements of the enemy, and in other ways, it has rendered valuable service. When the Russian army rolled into Galicia and took possession of the Austrian oil fields, a problem of great importance confronted the Central powers. Namely, where to turn for their gasoline supply, or benzine as it is called in Germany. Before the problem became very acute, however, the oil fields were recaptured by the Central powers. It might be added that Germany, partly because of economical necessity, has advanced much farther than the United States in the use of alcohol, benzol, kerosene, and other substitutes for gasoline. According to enthusiastic Germans, three factors GASOLINE 77 have been largely responsible for the immediate success of the Kaiser's armies in Poland : VonHinden- burg, big guns and the automobile. In the battle of Tamenberg millions of German troops had to be transferred rapidly from more southerly points of the frontier to the north. This could never have been done without thousands of automobiles, in spite of the fact that several lines of railroads, very efficient in a military sense, run parallel with the line of forts, Koenigsberg-Thorn — Marienburg. Likewise, it was due to the auto- mobiles that every kind and quantity of artillery required could be brought to the battlefield in time to defeat the Russians. Of course the automobile operations were by no means restricted to the pre- liminary work of the battle, but as positions shifted, the motor equipment was always kept working hard. This was the first demonstration on a large scale of the tremendous military value of the automobile in war. The work consisting of wholesale move- ments of troops and cannon and ammunition was repeated with relative modifications in the several battles of the campaign of the fall of 1914. At the same time, motor cars enabled the Austro-Hun- garian troops to make the best of their strategic 8 G A S O L I N E retreat through Galieia, in the face of Russian armies which were in vast numerical superiority. It was the unfailing supply of enormous quantities of munitions which made it possible to hold the Carpathian passes against the Russians thrown into them, regardless of losses. Finally, automobiles constituted, to a large degree, the driving force which turned the Russians from the Carpathians and Galieia into Poland, ending the first and open- ing the second great stage of the eastern campaign. The second stage consisted largely of the advance, sometimes rapid and sometimes slow, of the united Teutons toward Warsaw, and after the conquest of that city, to the Brest-Litowsk line. Most of this advance was made in a country of soft soil, very poor in the way of roads, while most of the railroads were destroyed by the retreating Russians wherever they had time to do it. Fortunately for the invaders, the solid railroad beds could not be destroyed in the short time given to the retreating enemy, and this made possible the creation of an "automobile railroad system," in which the cars followed the lines of the railroads. In general, the hardest work for automobiles in the east was done during the Carpathian campaign, when the machines had to plug through snow and GASOLINE 79 mud several feet deep and often had to be raised and got under way. On the western front, automobiles have also found plenty to do. This applies especially to the fighting in Champagne and Vosges, where the net railroads are more sparse than in Northern France and Flanders, and where at times much violent fighting took place. Several hills commanding the surrounding ground, such as the well-known Hart- manns-Weilerkopf, changed hands as often as a score of times during the war, and the party on the offensive of course had to bring up troops and fighting machines under cover. In more than one case, all the fighting against the forces on such a hill was in vain, until the supply of heavy ammuni- tion was cut off from them, when the position was carried by storm. In some of these stornis, armored cars with small calibre guns participated, and, in spite of the obvious difficulties of such a hill-climb, rendered good service. One might even say that Germany succeeded where motor cars could operate and' did not succeed where they failed. Wherever there was a possi- bility of quickly attaining a position required and suitable for effective attack, this possibility was realized through the work of the automobile. It 80 G A S O L I N E was the alliance with the automobile which made the 30.5 and 42 centimeter, guns as effective as they proved at the sieges of Liege, Antwerp, Mareberge, etc. There is an impression that automobile driving is one of the soft jobs of the war, but most motorists will say that they would rather be serving in trenches than at the wheel of a truck. In the battle of Champagne the number of shells that had to be fired by each gun prior to the infantry attack was prodigious. Thousands of trucks were running day and night, taking shells right up to the gun positions, for the old method of transferring to horse teams has long been abandoned. Generally the guns are in positions away frcm the main roads, but special tracks are made so that the automobile can go right up to them. The ammunition is unloaded and placed in underground shelters within easy reach of the battery. Naturally the enemy keeps a close watch for the ammunition columns and shells them whenever possible. If an enemy's shell strikes an ammunition truck, there is not much left of either truck or men. • AIRCRAFT INDISPENSABLE IN WARFARE The first six weeks of the great European \\a» demonstrated beyond doubt to the participants GASOLINE 81 the value of aircraft. Aircraft in warfare unlocks the door to the secrets of war strategy and shows the movement of troops, cannons, warships, etc., of both sides in the fray. The movements of large bodies on land and of ships on the seas lying near the scene of hostilities have been apparent to the enemy. Furthermore, while aircraft in this, its infant stage, and without previous big war experience, has actually proved itself the eye of the army and navy, it has gone further and proved that it also has a very offensive kick of its own in the shape of bomb dropping from both aeroplanes and dirigibles. The severity of this kick is only limited by the scarcity in numbers of aeroplanes and dirigibles. Multiply the number of aircraft by one thousand and its kick would then become an exterminator. During the march through Belgium and to the very gates of Paris by the German army, it was aircraft that showed the Germans just when and where to strike the most effective blows. While on the other hand it showed the smaller forces of the Allies just when it was necessary to retreat in order to avoid capture or annihilation, and just the reverse order of things when the Germans retreated from Paris. 82 GASOLINE Aircraft has shown the British admiralty the location of German battleships behind the great Heligoland stronghold, and aircraft has also shown the German naval officers where British war vessels are stationed. Each knows the other's principal positions, movements and strength, and it is a matter of the smaller force backing away from the larger force. Aircraft is also utilized to hover over enemy's forces while in battle, and signal the gunners upon the ground the exact position and range for artillery fire, and through this method alone more than one battle was decided by the forces employing it to the best advantage. It is also true that, just as aircraft have developed, means of combatting them have strengthened. Aerial guns are an important part of the defense against air raiders. These shoot so high and accu- rately that often airmen have to travel so high that they cannot discern objects or movements on the ground with clearness. LUBRICATING OILS FOR MOTORS An automobile practically runs on oil, that is, between every journal or shaft and its bearing there is a thin film of oil, keeping these parts separated. GASOLINE 83 In order to perform ii s work to the best advantage, lubricating oil must possess several necessary requi- sites : (1) It must lubricate the piston efficiently at the temperature encountered in the cylinder. (2) It must give a good seal to the piston and rings, keeping them tight and preventing leakage of oil and condensed gasoline past them. (3) It should be adhesive, i.e., possess the property of sticking to the surface to be lubricated. (4) It should be as far as possible unchange- able, i.e., the supply should be renewed with oil of the same character if desired, and upon standing for a longer or shorter time, should remain the same. (5) It should be free of acids and in other ways pure. (6) It must burn without forming too much carbon deposit in the cylinder. Only the best grade of oil should be used to lubricate the internal combustion motor, and the viscosity or body required will depend upon indi- vidual requirements of the power plant. Some engines have very closely-fitting pistons and rings and tightly-adjusted bearings, which means that 84 GASOLINE a light-bodied oil must be used in order to form a film between the closely-filting parts. Other en- gines will operate better on medium-grade 'oils; while an engine that has been run for a time so that the working parts have been freed up will require heavier-bodied oils in order to cushion the shock between worn parts. Greases adulterated with animal fats to give them more body are unsuited for lubricating motor vehicle parts, because they become rancid after they have been used for a time, and they liberate fatty acids that will injure the finished surfaces of the gears and anti-friction bearings. Greases of this nature gum up very easily and as they harden the revolving gears will cut paths in which they turn, and no lubricant is supplied to the gear teeth though the transmission case may be half full of the solidified grease. Some makers advertise greases that are guaran- teed to silence noisy gear sets. These contain par- ticles of cork or shredded wood designed to fill the space between the worn gear teeth and cushion the shock that oil or grease would not be capable of doing by itself. These greases should never be employed in gear sets if efficient operation is desired, because they not only interpose an item of serious GASOLINE 85 frictional resistance and consume power, but arc also entirely unsuited for the anti-friction hall or roller bearings used to support practically all change speed gear shafts. With the water boiling in the jackets the tem- perature of the inner surface of the cylinder walls will be about 265° F. The temperature of the layer of oil that is in immediate contact with the cylinder walls, which is the part that regulates the friction, cannot be much higher than this. There are prob- ably no motor oils that have a flash point lower than 325° F. If the temperature of the cylinder walls gets up as high as this in a water-cooled motor there is something radically wrong, and the remedy is not to get another oil of higher flash point, but to locate the trouble and remove it. It is an old theory, never founded on solid facts, that a high flash point is a necessity in a motor oil, or that the oil burns up without giving sufficient lubrication. The point is overlooked that, when one has a maximum explosion temperature of gases in a cylinder of about 2700° F., and an average temperature of 950° F., an oil with a flash point of 450° F. will offer little more resistance to burning than one of 300° F. would. Either oil will burn if kept for any length of time 86 GASOLINE in contact with the hot gas. Lubricating oil does not burn very easily or very fast, however, and the time given it to burn in a motor cylinder is very short. No rigid directions can be given for the choice of oils for given purposes. It is best to try various lubricants which can be purchased for any one lubricating problem until one is found that gives satisfactory results. Lubricating oils are separated from crude oil by distillation, after the gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, etc., have been separated. After the lubrication portions of the oil have been separated, they are treated with sulphuric acid, water and alkali, and blown with air to purify them. In some cases they are filtered to decolorize them, that is, to bring them up to certain standards of color required by the trade. Fuller's earth is generally used as the filter- ing medium. A number of tests have been devised to determine the suitability of lubricating oils for the trade. These are the heat, flash, gravity, viscosity, cold and carbon residue tests. Heat Test If a small vessel of good oil is slowly heated over GASOLINE 87 an open flame until yellow vapors appear above the surface of the oil, kept at the temperature for fifteen minutes, and then allowed to stand, it will darken in color, but remain perfectly clear and without sediment even after twenty-four hours. Impure oil turns black, and after about twenty-four hours a black carbon-like sediment settles out, due to the presence of sulphur compounds. This simple test is unfailing and very valuable to show oil purchasers something about the quality of the oil they are buying. Flash Test The flash test shows at what temperature the vapors coming off the oil, when heated, will flash or ignite and go out again when a small flame is brought within one-fourth inch of the surface of the oil in the test cup. The flash point of an oil makes little difference as regards its presence in the explosion chamber of a motor, because explosion temperatures are away above flash temperatures of any oil. But for use below the piston the flash temperature should be as high as is consistent with other necessary requi- sites of the oil. Motor oils that flash below 400° F. show a very appreciable loss by evaporation; hence, 88 GASOLINE the oi] loses its viscosity, and has to be more fre- quently renewed. Fire Test The fire test shows at what temperature the oil itself will ignite from the flashing vapor when ex- posed to a small flame. In motor oils the fire test is from 50° to 70° above the flash test. Specific Gravity Test The specific gravity or "Gravity" test shows the density of the oil or weight. It is most simply made by immersing a hydrometer in the oil and noting the position to which the hydrometer sinks, as marked on the stem of the latter. Motor oils made from Pennsylvania crude run about 30° to 33° Be. gravity. Western lubricating oils frequently run lower than this. Viscosity Test The viscosity, or viscous nature or rate at which an oil will flow, is a factor of much importance. During cold weather an oil will flow more slowly than during hot weather, and at the higher tempera- ture of the working parts of a motor the difference is very great. GASOLINE 89 A lubricant is actually used to keep a shaft or journal and its bearing apart, or, in other words, the journal really revolves on a sheet of lubricant. Hence, the ease with which the particles of oil slide over one another (the viscosity of the oil) determines to a certain extent the loss of the oil when it is exposed to friction in the bearing. The test is made by noting the number of seconds required for a definite volume of oil under an arbi- trary head to flow through a standardized aperture at a constant temperature. Readings are com- monly taken at 100° to 212° F. The viscosity is usually spoken of in terms of seconds. This is the flowing time under the con- ditions given above. More or less disagreement of results follows by using different instruments; hence, it is customary to state the name of the instrument used. One of the most commonly used viscosimeters is called the Saybolt. An apparatus used in Germany and coming into use in this country is called the Engler. When oils lighter than one hundred eighty seconds are used in motor bearings, the horsepower falls until they finally seize or bind with oil of ap- proximately one hundred seconds. Oil of about one hundred eighty seconds gives the maximum 90 GASOLINE horsepower obtainable. Between eight hundred and twenty-three hundred seconds there is little differ- ence. Light and medium oils varying between one hundred eighty and three hundred seconds are commonly specified. Cold Test The temperature at which oil congeals or fails to pour is called the cold test. This test is in no way indicative of the lubricat- ing or heat-resisting qualities of an oil. Oils that flow at temperatures greater than twenty to twenty -five degrees above zero meet all practical requirements, as the oil supply must be kept in a warm place, and the heat of an engine, the instant it is started, is enough to keep oil in the crank case or lubricator warm enough to flow, no matter what the temperature cut side may be. Lubricating oils of asphaltic base, i.e., oils made from western crudes, are the only ones that will flow around zero temperature. Carbon Residue Test A certain amount of carbon in all motor oil can be "fixed" by distilling a given quantity in a stand- ard flask, and at a uniform rate twenty-five cubic GASOLINE 91 centimeters distilled at the rate of one drop per second. A coating of carbon will remain on the walls of the flask, which is weighed to determine its percentage. This "fixed" carbon is termed carbon residue, and must not be confused with carbon deposit. It frequently happens, however, that a large amount of carbon residue as determined by the above test means trouble in the gas engine from carbon deposit. This is not invariably the case, however. The color alone is no indication of the quality of an oil for motor lubrication or of the amount of carbon it contains, some of the lightest colored oils often containing the most carbon. Oils may be made light in color by filtering them through bone-black. If filtering is continued long enough, a clear white oil will be obtained. Filtering removes the carbon and impurities from the oil, and in doing this raises the gravity and viscosity of the oil. Dealers sometimes increase the viscosity of oil by adding a material known as oil pulp or thickener. This is really oleate of aluminum, and while it brings up the viscosity, it does not give the greasiness expected. At ordinary temperatures a very small quantity of this material will enormously increase the viscosity. 92 GASOLINE Service Tests Some good information regarding an oil may be obtained by observing the oil after it has been used in a motor. When a motor has been run for a few hours with a filtered oil of the highest quality, and a sample taken for examination, it will be seen that the oil has changed from its original yellow to a grayish- blue by reflected light (not direct rays from the sun). Finally, after several days running, the oil will turn completely black and opaque. A sample of it drained from the motor into a long narrow tube and allowed to stand twenty -four hours will show a black sediment at the bottom. Let a poor oil be run in the same motor under like conditions, and a sample examined, at the end of a few minutes the oil will turn to a dense and lustrous black and a large amount of sediment will form, several times greater than the sediment from the good oil. The amount of mileage to be derived from a particular oil is largely dependent upon mechanical constitution of the motor. Tight piston rings, large centrifugal rings on the crankshaft where it passes through the case, ample cooling fins in the pistons, vents between the crank case chamber GASOLINE 93 and the valve enclosures, etc., make for large mile- age per gallon of oil, in some cases as much as one thousand miles. No lubricating oil exists that will not undergo a chemical and physical change when exposed to the high temperatures on both sides of the piston on automobile motors, and that will not deposit sediment in the crank case, but a very marked difference is noted between good oil and poor oil, as regards the quantity of this sediment. LUBRICATING POINTERS A very comprehensive lubricating schedule has been prepared by engineers of a prominent motor car company for users of their product, and, as this gives very definite instructions regarding the lubri- cation of various chassis parts, it is also presented for the reader's information, as much of the advice can be applied with equal advantage to other motor cars. Every Day Car is in Use, or Every 150 Miles With Cylinder Oil: Steering knuckle bolt oilers Fill With graphite grease: Motor clutch shifter bearing sleeve grease cup Two complete turns 94 GASOLINE Motor clutch shifter shaft grease cup One complete turn Steering connecting rod and cross tube grease cups One complete turn Spring bolt grease cups One complete turn Every Week, or Every 300 Miles With cylinder oil: Motor starting crank bearing .... Eight or ten drops Shock absorber bearing studs .... Thoroughly Rear axle truss rod forward con- nection Thoroughly Rear axle brace oilers Thoroughly With graphite grease: Motor fan-bearing grease cup Two complete turns Rear axle outside bearing grease cups One complete turn Twice a Month, or Every 500 Miles With cylinder oil: Motor generator oil holes Ten drops Spark and throttle adjusting clevis joints Thoroughly Motor accelerator pedal joints ... Thoroughly All brake adjusting clevises Thoroughly External and internal brake fittings and connections Thoroughly Hand brake can oiler Thoroughly Hand brake lever ratchet Thoroughly Foot brake pedal bearing Thoroughly GASOLINE 95 With graphite grease: Motor clutch pedal shaft grease cup One complete turn Steering gear case grease cups. . . . Two complete turns With cylinder oil and kerosene: Change speed lever shaft bearings. . Thoroughly Intermediate brake lever shaft and connections Thoroughly With vaseline: Motor generator grease tube. Every Month, or Every 1,000 Miles With cylinder oil: Change speed reversing bell crank oiler Fill Crank case Drain off dirty oil, flush with kerosene and fill to pet-cock level Magneto-bearing oil wells Few drops Motor front gear compartment . . . Drain thoroughly With graphite grease: Front wheel bearings Clean with kerosene and repack Motor generator and magneto shaft universal joints Oil thoroughly Rear universal joint Remove grease hole plug and fill with grease again Front wheel hub caps Pack Motor water pump shaft universal joints Thoroughly 96 GASOLINE With gasoline: Motor carburetor air valve stem .. Clean thoroughly. Do not oil With transmission oil: Front universal joint Drain thoroughly, (half cylinder oil and half trans- flush with kerosene mission oil in cold weather). and fill to pel-cock level Rear axle case Drain thoroughly, (half cylinder oil and half trans- flush with kerosene mission oil in cold weather). and fill to level of 2 brass plugs in under side of housing Rear axle transmission case Drain thoroughly, flush with kerosene and fill to level of button-head screw in front cover Once a Season With graphite grease: Spring leaves Jack up frame to sep- arate leaves, clean and lubricate thor- oughly. Repeat whenever springs squeak G A S O L I N K 07 USE OF GASOLINE AS A CLEANING FLUID Gasoline, or benzine or naphtha, as it is more commonly called by those who use it as a cleaning fluid, is consumed in enormous quantities in thou- sands of cleaning establishments in the United States and other countries for cleaning fabrics. The foundation of this wide-spread' usage of gasoline was laid in 1866 by a Frenchman, M. Judlin, who discovered the cleaning powers of ben- zine. The success of the method is due to the fact that it alters neither the fit of the garments nor does it spoil the most delicate fabrics, while washing with soap not uncommonly affects one or both of them, so that other processes are often required after soap washing. This is not necessary after benzine cleaning. The cleaning of garments is thus simple and rapid, and in addition most of the ben- zine can be. recovered for use again. The phrase "dry cleaning" originated from the fact that no water is used in the process. In reality, the garments are immersed and washed in benzine or some other solvent. Thus the term "dry clean- ing" is a misnomer, and the real definition of dry or chemical cleaning, as it is sometimes called, is immersion in a liquid which dissolves fat. Briefly 98 GASOLINE stated, dry cleaning is based upon the solvent power of benzine and other solvents for grease. Most stains in garments consist of dirt held by grease of various kinds collected during the wearing of clothes. By removing the grease (the dirt-carrying vehicle) the dirt is released and the stain disappears. As compared .to the older methods of cleaning, this process has great advantages. The possibility of shrinkage of woolens, almost unavoidable in the water- washing treatment, is entirely excluded. Furthermore, the most delicate fabrics are not affected or in the least injured, and richly-trimmed ladies' gowns can be cleaned without the necessity of ripping off any portion or removing the trim- mings. The padding of men's coats is not shifted, and many household articles, which would be ren- dered useless by ordinary methods of cleaning, may by this process be restored to their original cleanli- ness. In addition, the expense of ripping apart and resewing is avoided. As solvent for oils and greases, benzine is not excelled. The principal requisites of the benzine are that it should be readily expelled from the gar- ments by evaporation after the immersion, sponging or washing process is over, it should be free from odoriferous substances and that it should not be GASOLINE 99 too volatile in character, because then the loss by evaporation would be too great. Under the name of "benzine soaps" are various products on the market that are much used and that form an important item of the dry cleaners' outfit. In this form (dissolved in soap) the use of benzine is extended to the cleaning of garments dirty from ordinary dust or dirt upon which benzine by itself has no effect. There are a number of methods and several kinds of apparatus for carrying out the actual process of dry cleaning according to whether the work is to be done on a large or small scale, but the principle is the same in all cases. First, as much dust as is possible is beaten or shaken out of the garments. Next, they are thor- oughly brushed, especially pockets, and then dried to remove all moisture. This is very important, as the presence of moisture prevents the benzine from acting. Water forms damp places in the goods. These places retain their own dirt and absorb dirt from their immediate neighborhood, and the dirt in them is effectually protected from the benzine. Hence, garments must be, by all means, free from moisture before they are dry cleaned. Finally, the goods are treated by benzine. 100 GASOLINE In small dry-cleaning establishments a number of vessels (up to five) are used for the convenient handling of goods to be cleaned. These vessels of sheet zinc, sheet copper or stoneware are filled about three-fourths full with benzine and fitted with tight-fitting lids. The articles to be cleaned are sorted, the light from the dark, all of them spread out and the worst stains removed with a piece of wadding the size of a fist. This piece of wadding, called a "tampon," is tied into a piece of white linen, so the corners of the latter can be used as a handle. The tampon is dipped into the benzine in a dish until it is thoroughly saturated, and dirty places of fabric vigorously rubbed until the greater portion of the dirt is removed. All of the articles are proceeded with in the same manner, the darker being taken last, because by repeatedly dipping the tampon into the benzine the latter acquires a darker color. The benzine remaining after the operation is finished is poured into a large vessel, which is pro- vided with a well-fitting lid. Then the articles treated with the tampon are washed, one after the other, in the first vessel of benzine. Next, they are washed in the second benzine vessel, and so on. GASOLINE UH The changing of articles from one vessel to another is done for the purpose of always bringing the first lot, that is, the white pieces, in contact with unused benzine, the latter becoming constantly darker by washing the articles. The articles first treated are finally washed in pure benzine and spread upon a table and examined. If dirty places are still found, the articles are rubbed with a clean tampon and again placed in pure benzine. From the latter they are thrown into a vessel pro- vided with a lid, in which the adhering benzine drains. This benzine is removed from time to time. The articles are finally wrung by passing them between the rolls of a wringer or, better, the benzine is removed by means of a centrifuge. The articles are then dried in quite hot, closed, drying chambers provided with contrivances for the escape and condensation of the benzine vapors. By this treatment, the articles are thoroughly cleaned as far as it can be done with benzine. It must be added, however, that all stains produced by alkalies, acids, sugar, milk, etc., resist the action of benzine. The same is also the case with so-called sweet stains, which are caused by a change in the color. To remove such stains, the separate pieces must be subjected to special treatment. 102 GASOLINE The method above described is practised on a small scale. For working on a larger scale, a number of good machines are required, namely, a benzine- washing machine, an extractor, a cleaning table, a tank or tub for rinsing and a couple of cylindrical tanks of zinc. The cleaning of all kinds of fabrics has developed to the extent that special treatment with benzine is given many articles for the best results. White woolen and silk goods are brushed over first with a weak solution of benzine soap in benzine and run for from ten to fifteen minutes in the benzine washer. This is done on account of the greater danger from explosion. Colored silks, when very dirty and stained, cannot be completely cleaned by the dry process, but must be followed by wet cleaning. One of the many points to be observed in dry clean- ing is that red stripes, interwoven in ladies' waists, usually give up their dye to benzine, whereby not only the silks but everything else in the washer is ruined. Waistbands containing such stripes must always be removed. A special technique has developed to properly clean and renovate real velvet goods, carpets, etc. Benzine, after use, can be purified by filtering it through sand, charcoal and flannel, by treating GASOLINE 1 03 it with dilute sulphuric acid (J to J per cent) and allowing it to stand quietly for twenty-four to twenty-six hours, but best of all by distilling it. In proper hands, the distillation is not only safe, but it wastes less of the benzine than any other purification process. In addition, no acid is left in the benzine, as is the case with the sulphuric acid treatment, and the benzine is recovered in a perfectly pure and colorless condition. USE OF GASOLINE IN THE PAINT AND RUBBER INDUSTRIES Gasoline or benzine, as it is called in the paint industry, is used extensively in paint manufacture as a solvent. The amount of benzine permissible in a paint depends entirely upon the paint. A thick, viscous, ropy paint which is so difficult to apply that it will not flow evenly is undoubtedly improved by the addition of benzine. In such cases, kerosene and turpentine can also be used, but in the cases of a dipping paint where the even spreading of a linseed oil paint is desirable, and the sudden evaporation of the solvent helps to produce a uniform coat, benzine cannot be replaced by any other solvent. Some have argued that benzine is of no value 104 GASOLINE in a structural iron paint for the reason that its rapidity of evaporation lowers the dew point, be- cause moisture is deposited as it evaporates. This is fallacious. Turpentine will do exactly the same thing, as will any other solvent depending entirely upon the hydroscopic condition of the atmosphere. If painting be done in an atmosphere where the humidity is high and the temperature near the dew point, it makes very little difference what solvents are used, the condensation being apparent in any case. A great advantage is to be obtained by the moderate use of benzine, for in brushing on a quick- drying paint containing benzine the evaporation carries with it much of the moisture in the paint. A number of excellent brands of benzine have been placed on the market as substitutes for tur- pentine, all of which are equal in physical charac- teristics to pure spirits of turpentine. Turpentine is a better solvent for son e of the mixing varnishes and fossil and se ni-iossil resin driers than benzine, but certain petroleum or paraf- fin compounds, some of which have had marked success, are absolutely identical in solvent power, speed of evaporation and viscosity to turpentine. The method by which these benzine compounds are made consists in passing certain paraffin oils GASOLINE 105 over red-hot coke in conjunction with wood tur- pentine. The product which is obtained has little or no odor. Thick or viscous paints, particularly the varnish and enamel paints, are so much im- proved by the addition of these materials that even an inexperienced painter will notice the free-flowing qualities of the material to which these dilutents have been added. The petroleum products used in the manufacture of paints are principally 62° B. benzine. Some of the gasolines ranging from 71° to 88° are used, but these are so light and bring so much higher price than the 62° that they sre not used as much. The grades, however, wdiich approach turpen- tine in physical characteristics, must be counted on as an important factor in paint on account of the extremely high price of turpentine, and the fact that it is held in a few hands. After all, any solvent, whether it be benzine, turpentine, naphtha, benzol or acetone, is nothing but a solvent and evaporates completely, leaving the other vehicles to protect the paint. Of course too much solvent is detri- mental to paint, no matter what kind it may be. 106 GASOLINE BENZINE IN THE RUBBER INDUSTRY Benzine in its solvent action on rubber shows slight action in the cold or under gentle heat. The problem that confronts the rubber manu- facture as a rule is the solution in a solvent of gums that are more or less heavily compounded, which is an easier problem than the putting into solutions of crude rubber that perhaps has not been broken down in any way. At the same time it is customary in many cases to apply a little heat during the mixing. The following table relates to different naphthas used by the rubber trade: Gravity Products Be Rhigolene Gasoline 85 C. Naphtha 70 B. Naphtha 67 A. Naphtha 65 The "C" naphtha has not only the greatest solvent power but it is easier to evaporate after it has dissolved the rubber compound. "B" and "A" require a certain amount of heat to vaporize them. Naphtha is more largely used in the proofing business than any other. It is, however, a general GASOLINE 107 solvent for all rubber cements, and large quantities of it are used in almost all lines of rubber work when there is any making up to be done of separate pieces after calendering. It is necessary that the proper grade be used, when one considers the danger that may come from fires caused by explosions or easy ignitions of the more volatile solvents. Odor- less naphthas are those from which naphthalene is removed, as it is the presence of this body that caused the strong smell. Naphtha treated by sul- phuric acid is deodorized, acquiring a rather pleasant odor as a consequence. It is often mixed with other solvents, for example, spirits of turpentine, and is thus found to have a better effect on the rubber. HISTORY OF PETROLEUM Petroleum or crude oil, from which gasoline is obtained, is made mention of in the earliest ages of which we have any records. The oil pits near Ardericca (Babylon) and the pitch spring of Zacynthus (Zante) are recorded, while Strabo, Dioscorides and Pliny mention the use of oil of Agrigentum, in Sicily, for lighting purposes, and Plutarch refers to the petroleum found near Ecbatana (Kerkuk). Reference to the use of natural gas for 108 GASOLINE lighting and heating are found in the ancient records of the Chinese. Petroleum or "burning water" was known to the Japanese in the seventh century. Reference can be found in the literature to the natural gas wells of the north of Italy in the year 1226, to the oil field of Baku, Russia, in the year 1300, etc. The earliest record of crude oil or petroleum of America was made by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1595. He mentions the Pitch Lakes of the Isle of Trinidad. Crude oil in New York was made mention of in 1632. Commercial exploitation of oil of importance was first made by James Young in Derbyshire, England, in 1850. He distilled oil and patented a process for the manufacture of paraffin. Crude oil found in Kentucky was used as a liniment as early as 1829, and sold under the name of American medicine oil. The first oil well was drilled in 1858 under the direction of E. L. Drake, on Oil Creek, Pennsylvania. At a depth of about seventy feet oil was "struck," and about twenty-five barrels a day were obtained for some time. At the end of the year the output was fifteen barrels. The production for the year 1857 was two thousand barrels. The oil industry was confined to Pennsylvania GASOLINE 109 for about ten years, but starting in 1870 it has spread all over the globe. The United States holds the position of being the largest oil producer at the present time, mining more than sixty per cent of the world's supply of petroleum. CLASSIFICATION OF OIL FIELDS For convenience of discussion the oil pools of the L T nited States are grouped in certain major areas or fields based originally on geographic position alone. As these fields have been extended, the geographic boundaries have become in many cases less distinct, and the separation has come to be based more and more on fundamental differences in type of oil pro- duced, and its adaptability to refining needs. The oils of the Appalachian field are principally of paraffin base and free from asphalt and sulphur. They yield by refining methods high percentages of gasoline and illuminating oils • — the product in greatest demand. The oils of the Ohio and Indiana fields con- tain some asphalt, but consist chiefly of paraffin hydrocarbons. They are contaminated with sulphur compounds and necessitate special treatment to purify them. Illinois oils contain varying proportions of both 110 GASOLINE asphalt and paraffin and differ considerably as to specific gravity and distillation products. Sulphur is generally present, but rarely in such form as to necessitate special treatment for its removal. Mid-continent oils vary in composition within wide limits, ranging from asphaltic oils, poor in gasoline and illuminants, to oils in which the asphalt content is negligible, the paraffin content relatively high and which yield correspondingly high percent- ages of the lighter products on distillation. Sulphur is present in varying quantities in the lower-grade oils, in certain of which, Healdton grade for example, it exists in a form requiring special treatment for its elimination. Oils from the Gulf Field are characterized by relatively high percentages of asphalt and low per- centages of the lighter gravity distillation products. Considerable sulphur is present, much of which, however, is in the form of sulphureted hydrogen, and is easily removed by steam before refining or utilizing the oil as fuel. Oils from Wyoming and Colorado are in the main of paraffin base, suitable for refining by ordi- nary methods. Heavy asphaltic oils of fuel grade are also obtained in certain of the Wyoming fields. California oils are generally characterized by GASOLINE HI much asphalt and little or no paraffin, and by varying proportions of sulphur. The chief products are fuel oils, lamp oils, lubricants and oil asphalt, though low percentages of naphthas may be derived from certain of the lighter oils, notably those of Santa Maria, Sespe and Santa Paula fields, in the southern part of the state. 112 G A S O L I X E STATISTICS REGARDING PETROLEUM PRODUCTION Statistics covering the production of petroleum and well drilling are given in the following tables : World's Production of Crude Petroleum 1914 in Barrels* Production Percentage Country Barrels of Total United States 265,762,535 59.63 Russia 67,020,522 29.00 Mexico 21,188,427 1.62 Roumania 12,826,579 2.11 Dutch East Indies 12,705,208 2.47 India 8,000,000* 1.32 Galicia 5,033,550 2.36 Japan 2,738,378 .48 Peru 1,917,802 .26 Germany 995,764 .23 Egypt 777,038 .02 Trinidad 643,533 .04 Canada 214,805 .42 Italy 39,548 .01 Other Countries 620,000 .03 Total, 400,483,489 100.00 in *"Mineral Resources of the United States in 1914," U. S. Geological Survey, page 901. V, H a a o « « J K !- « <: - fe »C -* © CM J> O -P CO '-O CO T— 1 l-H CO Ol 1—1 r-i co o CO iO 00 CM OS i-H co co i> o i> j> cm co co_ t£ j> oT cm" co tjH i— I CO CM rjH T-H CM 1-H H Cm o •< EH O H ft IN 05 H iO a t ^ Q i> N CO LO ^ 00 iq iO CO iO iC h 1—1 >< « Q i> GO CO lO 00 1> oT lO CM lO CM i> rfi r: (N CO CO © H l-H l-H 03 O o a co o: co OS '— ' o: CM CM i-H O CO ^O H? h h CO Production of Petroleum In Barrels G0COC5©G0i>G0Ol ^ tJ( ^ O O) Ol Tf C5 OuOt-^OCO^i-^t^ H C-f C5 LO i> lO « i> O CO i— * Oi i— i i> 00 l-H O O 05^ rH l> i> H/ to H b-" CO O CO CM CM Ci !-• OS f j Appalachian Lima-Indiana Illinois Mid-continent Gulf California Colo, and Wy. Other fields cS +j cc T3 13 "S ^ tC t3 4-3 CO 0) ~ ' > £ oj __l QJ — en d — c § 38 hh J o w * H— c c o — — 0/ +J r« o i- 3 cfl C co 13 cd # g c g cd 3 3 a 2 4J cd « 4J 0- H u 5 j 2*£ dj ca o a ■* e« i-H lOb-OOffllOOOCJ^J xosoxao b- CO b- 3 <* 3 t» TO > 2 ^ ^P^j, OS ^i lb- 3 3 00 U3 b- 3 b- 3 -f X O i-i n -3& Oh CD if 3 CO «f 3 b- teO!t-ClMOCI« 3 OS b- if b- lO OS BflX«it-*C.C O * n o o lo X Xb-i— XXiO — 01 # so o CO x co oo co * -;•- 3 CO CO CO Cl X 0B — ■ < w;s oiifco3Xw_^ 3b-LOb--f3b-K > OW*flt*«! b- CO C-l LO 3 f 3 X LO *-. Ol CM ii CO b- LO if X n ^ rj. u?j X ** CO b- LO Ol CO X CO b- 3 H CO N i> ■* iC ■* ■* 3 CO t-CO^- 3 COb- Z # lONffiiaM ci 3 # *. X3 — 3X33b- w b- CO ^i CO 3 3 3 ww COCOCOb- 3 X 3 13 b- CO 3 CO ^iuO CO 3 LO 3 k 3 3 LO a? 3 i-i i-i CO "# X CO X 3 3 CO 3 CO rH b- Ol 33 J 2P4 h — b- 3 3 b- I- X ~* 3 CO 3 CO ^ X X -if 3 CO CO 3 CO 3 '. 3 b- b- b- X O] CO b- 33COXb-33b- ^Oftfa^fif b- OJ X 05 CO "* Ol CO OlO'fOfflr-MS CO ■<* 3 LO^LO X 11 01 . » •* 1-* a » 10 >«j rrST'* * "' = " "5 00V0J 1P3 b- b- b- "* b- lo Owt>X CO X 3 b- CO X — 10" 3'r-Tco" co" co* j>3* 3" ufoo'r-T ooooMxh 3 b- n OJ X if. co ■* b- OJ CO^ CO^ i> os_ 3" u" — * 3* x ic'to"- lO t- 00 3_ © lO X_ s eoooeoco>o-<* oo*^- I 'X X 3LOb-CO 3-^w- b- 1-1 X 3 CO lO nf nXTfC0X3C0CO 33X3b-3C0-^ n_ ■* CO CO "* CO lO X_ S x" r-" 3" b-" 3" J> 3* 3* 'XXb-K333^i 3 b-iO_3_3_i0^if CCCOb-'iOi^Co" §S§.s.| :»jo S2: o >> ??*«* >-I-^ S ■§1l co e3 p CO . cj ^ J m tog*. (J ot CO "Si 1 -a S3 aj 2 -»-> Js! ^ © -< H in Alas Alas I Res O H -a 03 a; 2 « « « S -r -r -r s 3 3 3-- O O O ^ " s^ GASOLINE 115 COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM Petroleum is composed essentially of the chemical elements carbon and hydrogen united so as to form very complex compounds, hydrocarbons as they are called. Other chemical elements which are found in petroleum in small quantities are oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen. A main line of distinction is generally drawn be- tween petroleums of asphaltic base and those of paraffin base. Asphaltic petroleum yields on dis- tillation a dark asphaltic residue which is readily attacked by acids and is dissolved by many solvents. Paraffin petroleums yield on distillation chiefly certain hydrocarbons called paraffins, and which are not readily attacked by acids and different solvents. However, a sharp line of distinction cannot be drawn between asphaltic and paraffin oils. Nearly all asphaltic oils contain traces of paraffins, and many oils that are essentially paraffins contain asphaltic products; but rarely do crude petroleums of either class contain any considerable proportion of the other class. Some Mexican petroleum is of the mixed type, and, hence, is very hard to refine, or to satisfactorily separate into different portions. AW crude petroleums, whether of an asphaltic or paraffin character, are composed of different sub- 116 GASOLINE stances (hydrocarbons) that have different boiling points and that are of different weight. As the oil is heated the various hydrocarbons are given off, those of low-boiling point being distilled first and those of high -boiling point being distilled last. Anything like a complete separation of the compounds in petroleum presents considerable difficulty. The principle of the separation is to steadily apply heat to a container that holds the oil, letting gases and vapors that are given off pass through a pipe (con- denser) that is kept cool by means of a constant circulation of water. The various products are thus condensed and put in separate receivers. The products thus obtained, having boiling points and weights between certain limits and other qualities, are given trade names under which they are marketed. In the following tables are shown the proportions of gasoline, lamp oil, lubricating oil, asphalt and paraffin obtained from different crude oils: •4-> "S a >> Q * i § I w 3 a. o U c 100.0 100.7 100.0 100 1- i. 5 S 5 : : 5 ~ °. ^ °. ^ E ^=a »c ro re as g = j g ! -f x to -f «.*6 K ! 5 °~ as *> as ~i ro i -1 cc ^ 16.0 8.0 8.5 J = -f o >o iO Location Cairo, W. Virginia Parkersburg, W. Va. Crawford Co., Illinois Glenn Pool, Oklahoma aq 3 I 0- £ O U B = « i to m a5 C x — -f Residue BY Weight X X — — -*t lO "* CO Heavy Oil, Vacuum Distillate, by Volume (N O CO rH L~ L-t X X OO X o Ph ' ,_; P W « H to -i 1— 1 l-H l-H d W o CO gn GO rr fr- x os J M o X X fr- X Ph o Ph pt, o o Eh CO 03 fr- "* fr- r* to CO CO CO «i tO fr- ~ CO -* m i— i — l-H 1—1 I— 1 PQ o V >H {J 5 H ° LO 30 cc O l-H Specij Grav] AT 15C CO OS lO tO fr- OS CS OS OS OS Q •_ k^ J CJ « — >> C3 4J J d 12 d o M s m I J ,__ / * X ^ Js Ph 1— 1 l-H l-H o i w o p^ 02 fe i-H CO << H ^ £ Ph J •J to i> c co os p o OS OS X os fr- Ph OS OS 0: OS OS << M i H H ^H CO K « [2; Ch £ ^ P Eh K CO Q ■~H r^ ij CJ H > eg - Ph d 0C — ! 5 o 0) O ^ S cH 120 GASOLINE The following table shows the fractions obtained from Pennsylvania and dishing, Okla., crude oil, and their gravity and value.* Pennsylvania Crude Fraction Gravity Amount Unit Value °B Price Gasoline 66.2 25 Gal. @$ .12 $3 . 00 Turp. Subt. 51.9 15 ' @> .085 1.28 Kerosene 45.7 15 i @ .05 .75 300 Oil 40.3 15 ' @ .05 .75 Non. Vis. Neut. 35.5 12 ' @ .045 .54 Vis. Neut. 31.0 8 * @ .12 .90 S. R. Cyl. Stock 25.0 8 ' @ .12 .96 Ref. Parf. Wax 2 " @ .25 .50 Total, 100 Gals. $8.74 5 per cent loss gallonage in manu facture, .44 Total value of products, $8.30 Cushing Crude from Oklahoma Fraction Gravity Amount U VIT Value °B Price Gasoline 65.7 30 Gals. @$ .12 $3.60 Turp. Subt. 48.2 20 " @ .085 1.70 Kerosene 40.1 15 " @, .03 .45 Gas Oil 34.6 15 " @ .02 .30 Vis. Neut. 28. 10 ' @ .10 1.00 ^Compiled by Harry Willock, Secretary of the Waverly Oil Company, Pittsburgh, Pa, (; ASOL INE 121 Fraction Gravity Amount ■ Unit Value Price S. R, Cyl. Stock 24. 6 Gals. @ $.08 $ .48 Ref. Parf. Wax- 0.5 0.5 " @ .25 .13 Asphalt 3.5 " @ .00 21 Total, 100.0 Gals $7.87 5 per cent gallonage loss in mam ifacture, .39 Total value of products, $7.48 The above figures show that the products from 100 gallons of Pennsylvania oil only exceed in value the products of a like number of gallons of Cushing crude by $ .82, although Cushing crude sells for about one-half as much as Pennsylvania crude at the wells. Composition of Petroleum of Texas-Louisiana Coastal Plain* Spindle Top and Product Sour Lake Crude Batson Crude per cent per cent Gasoline 1.8 6.5 Kerosene 17.1 20.4 Solar 15.4 14.4 Lubricating 52.2 46.7 Asphalt 7.5 6.0 *Oil fields of the Texas-Louisiana gulf coastal plain. U. S- Geological Surrey, 1906, Bulletin 282, page 130. 12: GASOLINE Comparative Tests of Three Different Samples of Crude Petroleum; also Specific Gravities, of the Fractions Obtained from same by Distillation* Pennsylvania Illinois Oklahoma Color Yellow Nearly Black Dark Green Sulphur 0.078% 0.205% 0.283% Sp. Gr. 41.9° Be. 33. 8 C Be. 37.5° Be. DISTILLATION % BE. GR. % be.gr. % be.gr. 1st fraction 10.0 70.0 10.0 60.5 10.0 67.9 2d fraction 10.0 58.8 10.0 51.5 10.0 56.4 3d fraction 10.0 52.8 10.0 45.6 10.0 50.6 4th fraction 10.0 48.1 10.0 40.6 10.0 45.1 5th fraction 10.0 43.7 10.0 36.7 10.0 40.5 6th fraction 10.0 42.0 10.0 34.3 10.0 36.6 7tH fraction 10.0 39.3 10.0 34.2 10.0 34.2 8th fraction 10.0 38.9 10.0 34.6 10.0 33.9 9th fraction 10.0 38.8 10.0 36.8 10.0 36.6 10th fraction 8.5 36.9 6.0 21.3 _ 5.0 36.9 Coke & Loss 1.5 4.0 5.0 Total, 100.0 100.0 100.0 Comparisons of gasoline, lamp oils, lubricating oils, etc., according to a fixed range of temperatures industrial Chemistry, Allen Rogers, 1915, page 504. (i A SO LINE 123 of distillation, as in the foregoing tables, give but an approximate idea of the actual composition of the oil, although, such divisions are useful for rough comparisons. Sometimes those products that are distilled from crude oil at temperatures up to 350° F. are called gasoline; those that are distilled at tem- peratures between 350° F. and 570° F. are called lamp oils or illuminating oils, or naphtha. EARLY HISTORY OF GASOLINE Little was known about the properties of crude oil in the early days of its discovery in Pennsylvania, certainly no one dreamed of its tremendous potential possibilities. At first it was used for medicinal purposes. Next it was discovered that a certain portion of it could be removed by distillation and could be used as a fuel in lamps. A considerable portion of this distillate however was of so light and inflammable a character that it caused many ex- plosions. Hence, the next step was to remove this light portion. This latter portion was gasoline and that remaining portion the kerosene, used to-day in lamps as an illuminant. The result was that gaso- line became a waste product and remained so until the gasoline vapor lamp and stove were perfected. But these articles only consumed a limited quantity 124 GASOLINE of gasoline, and it was only with the advent of the automobile that gasoline came into extensive use. At the present time gasoline, once thrown away, is in great demand, and new uses are demanded for the by-product kerosene. In fact, "What to do with Kerosene" is a great problem at the present time with the refiner, and serious efforts are being made to devise apparatus and methods of changing it into products that can be utilized commercially. It is too high grade to be used as fuel oil, that is, oil for burning in locomotives and under marine boilers, etc., and it is of too low grade for general use in automobile engines. The gasoline of the United States, the benzine of the European continent and the petrol of Eng- land, are one and the same thing; i. e., synonyms for the same petroleum distillate. PRESENT SHORTAGE OF GASOLINE The reason for the present shortage of gasoline and consequent increase in price is that the con- sumption of gasoline is rapidly increasing, while the production of crude oil, from which it is principally derived, is generally regarded as having reached its maximum. The figures showing the production of gasoline GASOLINE 125 as given in the following table by Secretary Lane, of the Department of the Interior, were compiled in response to a United States Senate inquiry into the production, consumption and price of gasoline. (A) U. S. Res. 40, 1916. The quantities refer to barrels of forty-two gallons each. PRODUCTION AND EXPORT, \TION OF GASOLINE (In barrels of 42 gals Gasoline Year Production Exported Difference 1899 6,680,000 297,000 6,383,000 1904 6,290,000 594,000 6,326,000 1909 12,900,000 1,640,000 11,260,000 1914 34,915,000 5,000,000 29,915,000 1915 41,600,000 6,500,000 35,100,000 Secretary Lane's report states that one reason for the sudden, extraordinary rise in the retail price of gasoline has been the increase in exports due to the war. The exports of 1914 exceeded those of 1913 by 500,000 barrels, and the exports of 1915, exceeded those of 1914 by 1,500,000 barrels. He adds that increased gasoline consumption within the United States was twenty-five per cent greater during 1915 than 1914, and that there will be a like increase during 1916. 126 GASOLINE During 1915 refiners had gasoline in storage amounting to at least 2,000,000 barrels. Inquiry to-day indicates that there is little gasoline in storage. The decline of the Cushing, Oklahoma, oil field has its effect on the gasoline shortage. This pool declined from more than 300,000 barrels in April, 1915, to less than 100,000 barrels in January, 1916, This decline was partially compensated for by an increased production from other pools, the gasoline content of which production was, however, from five to seven per cent less than that of the Cushing crude. Authorities agree that the automobile and other internal combustion engines are primarily responsi- ble for the increased consumption of gasoline. The statement has been made that the horsepower of gasoline internal combustion engines in the United States is more than twice that of all engines in the United States driven by steam. The following figures indicate the increase in the number of automobiles used from 1899 to 1916. These figures were compiled by the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, and are based on State registration. GASOLINE 127 Number of Automobiles Used From 1899 to 1916 Year No. of Automobiles 1899 10,000 190, r > 85,000 1910 400,000 1911 600,000 1912 677,000 1913 1,010,483 1914 1,253,875 1915 2,075,000 1916 2,950,000 Various authorities estimate that the average consumption per automobile equals from ten to fourteen barrels per annum. This figure has been checked against inspection figures of States inspecting all gasoline sold. The average gasoline content of crude oil of various fields, the total production to date, including the year 1915, and the estimated percentage of exhaustion, are shown in the following table: 128 GASOLINE Gasoline Content of Oil from Different Fields and Products Oil Field Gasoline (Per cent) 25 12 18 18 20 20 3 20 20 91 Production Including 1915 (Millions of barrels) 1,150 438 251 617 44 58 236 11 12 835 Estimated Per- centage of Exhaustion of Oil Field 74 93 60 50 41 47 79 79 5 34 Appalachian Indiana Illinois Mid-Continent North Texas Northwest La. Gulf Coast Colorado Wyoming California A few years ago this country supplied the world with gasoline, while in 1915 our exports were only one-fifth of the total amount required for supplying the demand in foreign countries. If the home con- sumption continues to grow anything like the same rate as in the last few years, the United States will soon have no gasoline to export. Even now a con- siderable quantity of gasoline is imported into this country on the Pacific coast from the Dutch West Indies, mostly from Borneo and Java. While, GASOLINE 121) therefore, gasoline is being exported on the Atlantic coast, some is being imported on the western shores. In the ten years from 1902 to 1912, the number of vehicles using gasoline for motive power has been increased sixty-fold, while the production of the grades of crude petroleum, suitable for the extrac- tion of gasoline, increased only one hundred per cent. At the present time the average horsepower for vehicles using gasoline has increased considerably. Oh the average, the horsepower requirements for each automobile was probably one hundred per cent greater than in 1902. The discrepancy between the demand and pro- duction has been made up in several ways : (1) A considerable amount of crude oil suitable for producing gasoline has been imported. (2) Efficiency and, therefore, the economy of the motors has been very much improved. (3) A very much heavier "gasoline " is now being- used than formerly. (4) A considerable amount of gasoline is being- obtained from casing head natural gas. (5) "Cracking" processes for producing more gasoline from crude oil have been introduced. 130 GASOLINE Price of Gasoline Year Per Gallon. Cents 1897 7.4 1898 7.4 1899 10.9 1900 10.4 1901 9.7 1902 10.8 1903 12.4 1904 11.4 1905 10.7 1906 10.5 1907 10.2 1908 10.0 1909 10.0 1910 9.5 1911 10.0 1912 14.0 1913 18.0 1914 16.0 1915 15.0 1916 27.0 REFINING CRUDE OIL Three methods are used in distilling oil of the Pennsylvania type, namely, dry or destructive dis- tillation, steam distillation and vacuum distillation. Dry or destructive distillation causes cracking or decomposition, and is conducted by means of direct fire heat. The distillation is usually carried to coke. The process is best adapted to petroleum that is unfit for cylinder stocks. GASOLINE 131 The increase in the price of gasoline, between the years 1897 and 1916, is shown in following table: Steam distillation makes it possible to distill oil at lower temperature than by dry distillation, and is, therefore, used to prevent decomposition. The stills are of the same type as those used in dry dis- tillation, except that they are well insulated in order to prevent the vapors from condensing on the sides and falling back into the superheated oil. Steam is introduced into the body of the oil in the still, and the distillation controlled by fires beneath the stills. Vacuum distillation is sometimes used in con- junction with the process of steam distillation. A partial vacuum is created by means of a pump, thereby causing the hydrocarbons to distill at low temperatures. This method requires heavier stills, and although the results are said to be superior, the difference is not usually considered great enough to warrant the cost of installation and operation. The "cracking" and steam, or fractional dis- tillation, represent two distinctly different methods of refining. If a refiner desires to produce the maxi- mum amount of gasoline and lamp oil, he will use the method of "cracking" distillation. But if he wishes to produce the maximum yield of heavy 132 GASOLINE lubricating oils and petroleum asphalts, he will use the method of steam or fractional distillation. The following scheme of petroleum fractionation is that used by the Atlantic Refining Company.* (Standard Oil Company.) *Prepared by F. C. Robinson, Chief Chemist, Atlantic Refining Company, and published in "Oildom," January, 1916, Vol. 6, page 20. H 2" ' H 3 ctf _ ^'a^i" -iSss «*J5 £°ts S 3 a— +j 59 J? a ^3 03 8-= _«- :2 3 d C CJ a >i ca * o 3 = — ~ B'S " O +J — "Sal £— 3 03 J2 03 '-5 si s- bo *J5 .-2 2-3 2Q ■2 a o PQ 1 a » -s M 4) -a H ■S "2 o. 5 I « 4) g 5 US - £ I ;=«£ 136 GASOLINE The first group of products that is separated is made up of gasolines and naphthas. There is some confusion among the various names, benzine, gaso- line, naphtha, etc., but the best practice is to use the word "gasoline" for any mixture of light hydro- carbons intended for use in any kind of vaporizer, i. e., to be gasified in a gas machine, gasoline torch, gasoline stove or automobile carburetor. Also to confine the word naphtha to mixtures of hydro- carbons intended for some purpose that requires a very good odor, such as naphtha used by cleaners, varnish makers, soap makers, etc. In this scheme, the word benzine finds no place. Gasolines and naphthas vary in boiling, according to the use for which they are intended, but the best grades lay between 150° F. and 300° F.* It is essential that good gasoline be free from all heavy hydrocarbons that do not evaporate from the hand. The next group consists of several grades of lamp oil. Lamp oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons whose average boiling point is about 450 c F., entirely freed on the one hand from gasoline or naphtha, and on the other hand from the heavy hydrocarbons that *Most of the gasoline sold on the market at the present time boils up to 350° F. (Author.) GASOLINE 137 belong to gas oil and lubricating oil, and that would make the oil act badly in the lamp. The next class is gas oil. While oils of all degrees of volatility have been used, the most economical for the gas maker consists of a mixture of heavy hydrocarbons with an average boiling point of 600° to 650° F. It must be practically free from gasoline and lamp oil on the one hand and from the heavy lubricating oils and asphalt on the other. The next group is fuel oil. Tins oil occupies a peculiar position. It must not contain gasoline and must be of such a consistency that it can be pumped through pipes and burners, but, except for these re- strictions, one oil is practically as good as another for fuel. The light oils have a slightly higher heat of combustion per pound, but the heavier oils have a slightly higher heat of combustion per gallon. For some purposes, such as oil engines, special oils are required, but, in general, fuel oil is made up of oils that cannot be used for any better purpose. The next group is that of spindle oils — neutral and paraffin oils. This important group includes hundreds of light lubricating oils designed for use on thousands of different light machines, including gas engines. They must be free from gasoline and lamp oil in order that their flash test shall be high 138 GASOLINE enough to prevent loss by evaporation. The im- portant point to that is that they shall have the proper viscosity for the use intended. The next group is that of steam cylinder oils, which consist of the heaviest hydrocarbons contained in certain crude oils. In this case also the flash must be such that the oils will not evaporate in a steam cylinder, and must have the proper viscosity for the use intended at the temperature of the cylinder. The next group — paraffin wax — consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons of the paraffin series about C23 H 48 to C35 H 72 . The commercial article is rated according to the melting point, which varies from 100° to 135° F. The next group, vaseline or petroleum, consists of the higher member of the paraffin series which settle from crude oil mixed and inseparable from some of the oily constituents of the crude. It is marketed as the light-colored material used in medicine and for toilet purposes, or as the dark-colored sticky material used in large quantities by the makers of oiled paper. The next group, the dust laying oils, consists of petroleum asphalt in solution in oils similar to gas oil. The basic idea in their manufacture is that the solvent will slowly evaporate, leaving the dust par- ticles covered with a sticky adherent film. These GASOLINE 130 oils have proven successful as a cheap means of lay- ing dust. The next group, the road binders, consists of petroleum asphalt properly fluxed with heavy petroleum oils that will not evaporate, and of such qualities that they will bind the road materials to- gether both in summer and winter. The next group, coke, contains but one member. This material being almost entirely free from ash, is used very extensively by makers of electric carbons. These are the desired products. Next taking up the crude oils from which they are obtained. There are about as many varieties of crude oil as there are oil fields, but the refiner recognizes three distinct types, because each type must be handled by different methods, viz.: (1) The paraffin base crude similar to that found in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, and being essentially light- colored crudes containing paraffin. (2) Asphalt base crudes similar to those found in Texas and California, and being essentially black and con- taining no paraffin. (3) Mixed base crudes similar to those found from Ohio to Oklahoma, and being essentially mixtures of paraffin and asphalt base crudes. In order to obtain some idea of the chemical and 140 GASOLINE physical nature of the crude oil one can imagine a sample of mixed base crude brought into the laboratory for a thorough examination. The chem- ist would probably distill the sample in a vacuum or in some similar manner in order to avoid destructive distillation and would save the various fractions separate. He would not distill off more than ninety per cent, because the heaviest ten per cent cannot be distilled without breaking it down into simpler molecules. He will then start to examine the various fractions. The first fraction will be a light mobile mixture of hydrocarbons whose average boiling point is about 227° F. The second is a slightly darker and a slightly less mobile mixture of hydrocarbons whose average boiling point is about 295° F. The third cut again darker, heavier and less mobile, boiling point 369° F. The fourth cut still heavier and 460° F. boiling point. The fifth cut is about 530° F. boiling point. The remaining cuts are increasingly heavier, more viscous and darker in color, and the residue in the still is a soft pitch. The chemist now recognizes four groups of com- pounds in each fraction that the refiner may have to isolate or remove. He can isolate one group by bone black or GASOLINE 141 fuller's earth. When isolated in a pure state it is a jet black, brittle compound which is very similar to the purest asphalt. A second important class of compounds is the material soluble in strong sulphuric acid. The low- boiling members of this group represent the odor- bearing compounds of the crude, while the higher members are rich in sulphur, and are easily oxi- dized. The refiner frequently has to remove a portion of this class. A third group is that of aromatic hydrocarbons, benzol, naphthalene, anthracene, etc., which may be removed by agitating the oil with fuming sul- phuric acid. The remainder of the crude oil unattacked by fuming sulphuric acid is made up of the naphthene and paraffin series. 4. Now, starting with crude oil, it is the task of the refiner to isolate the commercial products. The processes are outlined on two charts, Figures 1 and 2, and they represent two distinctly different methods of refining, so much so that one refiner may decide to use one of them to the exclusion of the other, or he may decide to use both of them. He will be guided in this decision by his local conditions. If it be his desire to produce the maxi- 142 GASOLINE mum amount of gasoline and lamp oil, he will use the method marked "Cracking Distillation." If, on the other hand, he wishes to produce the maximum yield of the heavy lubricating oils and petroleum asphalts, he will use the method marked "Fractional Distillation," which means that he will simply separate from the crude oil the various fractions which compose it, while the refiner who uses the cracking process actually breaks down these heavy fractions by destructive distillation in a manner similar to the production of benzol and gas by the destructive distillation of coal. The first step in the cracking process is the crack- ing distillation. The crude oil is pumped into stills containing five hundred to one thousand barrels, which consist simply of horizontal steel cylinders made of sheets of half -inch boiler steel riveted to- gether and provided with manholes on top and ends; with pipe for pumping oil into the stills; with combustion, chamber underneath; with the fractional air condensers and with water condenser, and with pipe for conducting away the gases evolved during the distillation. Such a still is nearly filled with oil, i.e., mid- continent crude oil, and the fires are lighted. When the temperature of the oil in the still has reached G A SO LINE 143 175° to 200° F. some gases, consisting largely of butane and pentane, are given off and presently the highest naphtha starts to distill over. The firing is continued; the temperature in the still becomes grad- ually higher; the distillate becomes gradually heavier until the temperature in the still reaches about 325° F., at which point about six or eight per cent of crude naphtha (200° F. boiling point) has distilled over. This is set aside as crude naphtha. The distillation is continued until the temperature in the still has reached about 475° F. for crude heavy naphtha, and represents thirteen to fifteen per cent of the crude, and has an average boiling point of about 300° F. The distillation is then continued until the temperature in the still has reached about 625° F. for natural lamp distillate, which represents about sixteen to eighteen per cent, and has an average boiling point of about 450° F. When the still has reached this temperature, cracking or destructive distillation sets in. The fires are slackened in order to distill very slowly, and this slow distillation is continued until the tem- perature in the still reaches 675° to 700° F., produc- ing a distillate with an average boiling point of about 550° F., but containing some gasoline, some lamp oil and much heavier oil which is designated as 144 G A S O L I X E gas and fuel oil stock. The yield of this oil is about twenty per cent. This cracking distillation is very different from an ordinary fractional distillation; heavy molecules have been broken down into lighter ones by sub- mitting them to temperatures at which they are unstable. There yet remains in the still a heavy black tar representing about forty-two per cent of the crude oil. This is the source of paraffin wax, and the line of lubricating oils called paraffin oils. It is no longer desirable to carry on a cracking distillation because this would result in the destruction of the valuable products desired. The distillation is con- tinued in such a way as to avoid cracking as much as possible (is distilled fast), either in the same still or, more commonly, in separate smaller stills called tar stills. This tar still distillation is carried on very rapidly in order to produce the maximum yield of paraffin distillate (about twenty-two per cent). In addition to the paraffin distillate, there is also produced by destructive distillation about fifteen per cent of cracked distillate. At the end of the dis- tillation the stream becomes so heavy that it will sink in water, and is then known as wax tailings, G ASOLINE 145 which amounts to about one per cent of the crude oil. When the distillation stops there remains in the still nothing but coke, amounting to about four per cent of the crude oil. Now, taking up the various fractions: first, the crude naphtha. This is again distilled; first, in order to separate it into the various gasolines and naphthas that compose it, and, secondly, to separate it from the small amount of bottoms or light lamp oil that it contains. This is done in a still which is heated by steam, usually by injecting live steam directly into the gasoline. When the distillation starts, some gas is given off; then the lightest distillate appears at the trap, usually about 90° Baume gravity. The distillate gradually gets heavier until'all the gasoline has dis- tilled off. The receiver is then changed and the naphtha distillate is separated. At this point about ninety per cent has distilled off, leaving a bottom about ten per cent. This bottom is essentially lamp oil and is used as such. The heavy crude naphtha is handled in the same manner, except that it contains little or no gasoline and contains about fifty per cent of bottom or lamp oil. The cracked distillate is also distilled with steam to remove about four per cent of crude naphtha. 146 GASOLINE Up to this point all the operations have been different types of distillation. The next step in handling the naphtha distillate from both sources, the lamp oil distillate and the crude naphtha from cracked distillate and the test cracked distillate, is the acid treatment. It will be seen in the crude diagrams that all the fractions contain a certain per- centage of material attackable by sulphuric acid, so that this reagent affords a convenient means for re- moving color and odor from the remainder of the hy- drocarbon distillate. In practice, the naphtha distillates are agitated with about five per cent by volume, and the lamp oil distillates with about one and five-tenths per cent of sulphuric acid (oil or vitriol) for about a half hour. The color- and odor-bearing compounds combine with the acid, producing a heavy black viscous mass called acid sludge, which settles to the bottom of the vessel. The sludge is drawn off and the oil washed with water and alkali to remove all traces of acid, and is then ready for the market. The sludge from all acid treatments is separated into unstable products. This is accomplished by boiling it with water, which results in the dilution of the acid and renders it incapable of holding in solu- tion the impurities. GASOLINE 147 The weak acid (30° to 50° Baume) settles to the bottom, is drawn off and reconcentrat.ed. The upper layer consisting of the impurities is known as acid oil. This acid oil is separated by fractional distillation into a light distillate which consists of all the evil odors that the original distillate contained and a residue consisting of the asphaltic compounds that were removed by the acid. There have been given now all the processes used in the manufacture of naphtha and lamp oil. The next general subject is the handling of the paraffin distillate, which is the direct source of the paraffin wax and all of the paraffin oils. The first step is the process of cold pressing. The distillate is first cooled from 20° to 30° F. by pumping through pipes surrounded by cold brine, thereby causing the paraffin wax (amounting to about ten per cent of the distillate) to solidify. This solid ten per cent mixed with ninety per cent liquid oil forms a soft mush which is pumped through a filter press. That which stays in the press is called the slack wax and amounts to about twenty per cent of the paraffin distillate. The eighty per cent that goes through is called pressed distillate. The slack wax, consisting of about equal parts of oil and wax, is then put through a process peculiar 148 GASOLINE to- the oil business, known as the sweating process. It consists of cooling the mixture until it has become a solid cake and then very gradually warming it. The crystals of the paraffin form a network through which the oil is distributed, and when the mass is warmed the oil sweats out *and drips away. It always carries with it some wax in solution, but the final result is that the oil all sweats out, leaving t^e paraffin wax in a fairly pure state. This sweating process separates the slack wax into crude paraffin wax and what is known as Foot's oil. The latter still contains much paraffin, which is removed by putting it again through either the cold pressing or sweating process. The crude paraffin wax is then put through an- other process that is peculiar to the oil business, that of clay or bone black percolation, for the purpose of removing asphaltic coloring matter and thereby changing the crude paraffin to refined colorless paraffin. The clay used for this purpose has properties similar to those of bone black, i. e., it absorbs and retains tarry and asphaltic compounds. It is found in Florida and Georgia, where it is mined, roasted, broken up and sifted. It is very porous and light, weighing only about 2.3 as much as water. This clay or fuller's earth, as it is com- GASOLINE 149 monly called, is put into large upright cylinders holding ten to twenty tons, and provided with a finely -perforated bottom. The crude wax is melted and poured on top of the clay. It trickles down through the clay bed and passes through the per- forated bottom. The first drippings from such a filter bed are absolutely colorless, but as the filtration progresses, the color becomes more and more like crude wax. A ton of clay yields five or six tons of first-quality paraf- fin wax. The amount of asphalt or coloring matter re- tained by the clay is exceedingly small, and is removed by burning the clay in a cement kiln of the usual type, thus regenerating the clay for subsequent use. It was explained that the paraffin distillate is the source of paraffin wax and light lubricating oils. The various steps in the preparation of paraffin have also been described. The light lubricating oils are made from the filtrate from the cold presses — the pressed paraffin distillate — by putting it through the process of fractional distillation, thereby separating it into a distillate of light oils that go to make up the gas and fuel oil stock, and a residue in the still called paraffin oil stock, representing from fifteen per cent to fifty per cent of the charge of the still, depending on the quality desired. 150 G A S O L I N E This type of distillation is also peculiar to the oil business. The desired product is a heavy oil, so that all cracking must be avoided in order to produce the maximum yield of this oil. The result is accom- plished by using the very important process of dis- tillation with bottom steam or fractional distillation. A still is charged with the pressed paraffin distillate and fires are lighted. The temperature in the still rises, and when it has reached about 400° F. the distillation begins. Shortly after this the live steam is injected into the oil through perforated pipes placed near the bottom of the still. No water accumulates in the still because the temperature is too high. The steam passes upward through the oil as an inert gas and passes through the condenser with the oil vapors, and is condensed there with the oil. The effect of this current of steam through the oil is exactly that of a vacuum distillation; i. e., it lowers the boiling point of the oil in distillation and allows a heavy oil to be distilled at temperatures below the temperature of destructive distillation. It will be noted that cracking sets in about 630° F. Without the use of steam, the distillation in question would require that the still be heated to about 750° F. This would result in the destruction of the desired oil. With GASOLINE 151 steam it can be carried on with a maximum tem- perature of 600° F., thus entirely avoiding destructive distillation. The paraffin oil stock is a dark-colored unat- tractive-looking material which is transformed into the valuable paraffin oils of commerce by treating with sulphuric acid in the manner already described. The treating loss in this case is from ten per cent to thirty per cent. The whole cracking process de- scribed thus far is designed to produce the maximum yield of gasoline and lamp oil from crudes containing asphalt. Now taking up the method of refining the light- colored non-asphaltic crude oils from which the valuable cylinder oil may be made. The object in this case is to avoid all destructive distillation, in order to produce the maximum yield of the very heavy lubricating oils. The still is charged with the crude oil, fires are lighted, the crude naphtha is distilled off as in the other distillations; but when the temperature is well above the boiling point of water, steam is injected into the oil as before described. Under these conditions the crude naphtha has distilled off when the temperature in the still has reached about 280° F., while without steam the still 152 GASOLINE temperature was about 375° F. The yield from this kind of crude is about thirteen per cent. The heating is continued, more and more steam being injected, the distillate becoming heavier and heavier, until the heavy crude naphtha has distilled off. At this point the temperature in the still lias reached about 330° F., while without steam at this point the temperature was 475° F. The yield of this oil is about thirteen per cent. TESTING GASOLINE Gasoline for use in automobiles must meet several requirements. It must be readily volatile, i. e., pass into the vapor form readily, especially in cold weather. This is particularly desirable when the engine is first started and when the different parts are cold. After the engine and carburetor have run a while and the various parts have become heated, very low-grade gasoline or naphtha can be used, even kerosene. But it is difficult to vaporize these sub- stances when cold, and thus introduce them into the engine cylinders. Gasoline should not have too wide a range of boiling points, and especially the upper boiling points should not be too high. When this is the case, it is difficult to satisfactorily vaporize the gasoline. The GASOLINE 153 portions of low-boiling point vaporize satisfactorily, but those of high-boiling point do not; hence, the gasoline does not give uniform service. If much of the high-boiling portions are present, they have a tendency to carbonize the motor and cause smoking. The more of the low-boiling parts that are pres- ent, the easier it is to start a motor, and the latter responds more quickly to any additional amount that may be introduced into the cylinders. On the other hand, the high-boiling parts give more power. Gasoline is practically always bought on the specific-gravity basis. Baume Scale. That used in pleasure cars is not the same as that used five years ago. One can scarcely buy high-test gasoline now except at a high price. It has come down in test from 72° Be. to 60°. . Most of that sold at present ranges from 58° to 62°. DETERMINATION OF THE GRAVITY OF GASOLINE The test of the gravity is made with an instru- ment called a hydrometer. This is an instrument made of glass and consists of three parts: (1) The upper part, a stem or fine tube of uniform diameter; (2) A bulb or enlargement of the tube containing 154 GASOLINE air, and (3) A small bulb at the bottom containing shot or mercury that causes the instrument to float in a vertical position. The graduations are figures representing either specific gravity, or in numbers of an arbitrary scale, as Baume's, Twaddell's, Beck's and other hydrometers. The gravity is not necessarily a good criterion of the suitability of a gasoline for a particular purpose, as for an automobile. A result will be obtained with the hydrometer that shows the average of the gravi- ties of the different compounds that are in the gaso- line. For instance, a very light gasoline of 85° Be. may be mixed with naphtha of 50° Be., resulting in a mixture having a gravity of 62° Be., ordinarily con- sidered a suitable automobile fuel. But in the 50° naphtha there may have been contained some very high-boiling compounds, and in the 85° gasoline some, very low-boiling ones, so that the mixture has a wide range of boiling points, and considerable diffi- culty follows in using the mixture. Much difficulty on this account resulted in the early days of blending "Casinghead" gasoline with low-grade naphthas. FRACTIONATION ANALYSIS OF GASOLINE Better information regarding a particular gasoline can be obtained from the fractionation analysis of G ASOLIN E 155 gasoline. By this process the gasoline can he di- vided into different parts or fractions, and good information obtained regarding the range of boiling points. The fractionation analysis or distillation test of a sample of gasoline on a laboratory scale is made in essentially the same manner as the commercial large-scale distillation of crude oil is conducted. The gasoline is slowly heated, and, as the temperature rises, different portions of the. distillate are collected in different receivers. In this way one can determine as clearly as is desired the proportions of the sample that boil at different temperatures. Gasoline, like crude oil, is a liquid mixture containing many differ- ent compounds of different boiling points. The following table shows the fractionation analysis of several different grades of gasoline that were purchased on the open market. 156 GASOLINE SEPARATION OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF GASOLINE INTO FRACTIONS BY DISTILLATION 60-62° Be. Gasoline Percentage by Weight of Different Fractions Specific Grav- Gravity of Temperature Boiling at ity of Different Different Fahrenheit Different Fr actions Fractions Scale Temperatures (Water = 1) Be. Scale Up to 122° 3.3 . .64 90.1 122° to 155° 11.3 .68 77.4 155° to 212° 26.8 .71 66.6 212° to 257° 26.8 .74 60.2 257° to 302° 19.1 .76 55 . 4 302° to 347° 9.1 .77 51.1 Residue 2.5 .80 45.0 Loss 1.1 Total, 100.0 Total, 73-76° Be. Gasoline Up to 122° 18.9 .63 91.2 122° to 155° 28.9 .67 79.3 155° to 212° 30.4 .71 68.3 212° to 257° 16.2 .73 61.8 Residue 4.6 .76 55 . 4 Loss 1.0 100.0 GASOLINE 157 CASINGHEAD GASOLINE (WEATHERED; Up to 122° 30.0 .63 92.2 122° to 155° 28.5 .67 80.2 155° to 212° 24.4 .71 67.5 212° to 257° 9.8 .73 61.0 Residue G.7 .77 52 . 5 Loss .6 Total 100.0 BLENDED GASOLINE (c; ^SINGHE :ad gas( LINE AND REFINERY GASOLINE) Percentage by Weight of Different Fractions Specific Grav- Gravity of Temperature Boiling at itt of Different Different Fahrenheit Different Fr actions Fractions Scale Temperatures (Water = 1) Be. Scale Up to 122° 7.9 .63 92.2 122° to 155° 8.9 .68 77.4 155° to 212° 16.4 .72 65.8 212° to 257° 23.4 .74 59 . 5 257° to 302° 21.9 .76 54.7 302° to 347° 15.0 .77 50.4 Residue 5.9 .80 44.8 Loss .6 158 GASOLINE The following fractionation analysis represents a sample of gasoline recently purchased by the author of this book. The seller represented it to be 68° to 70° Be. The price was twenty-seven cents per gallon. It actually tested 64.5° Be. FRACTIONATION ANALYSIS OF GASOLINE BOUGHT AS 68° to 70° BE. Actual Specific Gravity — 64.5° Be. Percentage of Different Temperature Fahrenheit Fractions Boiling at Scale Different Temperatures Up to 122° 7 . 7 122° to 155° 6.1 155° to 212° 7.7 212° to 257° 6.5 257° to 302° 24.4 302° to 347° 28.7 347° to 405° 11.9 Residue 3 . Loss 1.0 It will be observed that a large proportion of the above gasoline boiled above 300° F., about forty-four per cent. This is typical of some of the gasoline that is being sold on the market to-day as high-grade gasoline. A user of this gasoline, the owner of a small four- GASOLINE 159 cylinder ear, complained about his difficulty in starting his car on a moderately warm day. The gasoline would not evaporate from the hand except on very long standing. It contained considerable kerosene. For comparison the fractionation analysis of a sample of kerosene is shown in the following table: FRACTIONATION ANALYSIS OF KEROSENE Specific Gravity 47° Be. at 60° F Percentage of Different Temperature Fahrenheit Fractions Boiling at Scale Different Temperatures Up to 257° 1 . 8 257° to 302° 10.0 302° to 347° 9 . 4 347° to 405° 22.4 405° to 445° 24.2 445° to 485° 13.5 485° to 531° 15.2 Residue 2 . Loss 1 . 5 Total, 100.0 The wide difference between the fractionation analysis of kerosene and gasoline is noticeable. In the case of kerosene only about twelve per cent 160 GASOLINE boiled below 300° F., while practically all of good gasoline should boil below 350° F., at the most. " CRACKING " PROCESSES The supply of gasoline by simple fractional dis- tillation does not equal the demand. Hence, recourse has been had to some process of increasing the production of gasoline from crude oil, and a proc- ess that is used is the so-called "Cracking" process, a widely used term for destructive distillation. Some "cracking" or destructive distillation occurs in ordinary distillation processes, but usually in comparatively small amount. It has been known for a long time that when petroleum is subjected to high temperatures, and especially when heated to high temperatures and high pressure both, that "cracking" occurs, meaning that some of the heavy and higher boiling con- stituents break up into lighter compounds. In other words a greater yield of gasoline and naphtha and a smaller yield of kerosene and other heavy con- stituents is obtained than by the ordinary distillation process. In describing the "cracking" process, a rough and homely comparison can be made between a barrel of crude oil and a pile of cobblestones. The GASOLINE 161 ordinary distillation of petroleum and its separation into different constituents as long practised may be compared to the sorting of a pile of different sized cobblestones in several smaller piles containing stones of the same size. If the pile of smaller sized stones is not adequate to meet the demand for them, recourse can be had to the breaking up or cracking of the larger stones into smaller ones. Similarly with petroleum. If, by the ordinary method of separating petroleum into its fractions, the yield of certain constituents of low molecular weight, i. e., the gasoline and naphtha, is not sufficient, then recourse can be had to the cracking of the heavier bodies, i. e., the kerosenes and other heavy con- stituents into gasoline and naphtha. The cracking process may be said to date from its accidental discovery at Newark, N. J., by a refinery workman in the year 1861. In the cracking of heavy oils two factors largely govern the course of the reactions that take place, namely, temperature and pressure. The function of the increased temperature is to break the bonds of groups that make up the complex hydrocarbon molecule. In many processes, pressure is of chief importance in controlling the temperature of dis- 162 GASOLINE tillation, but it also exerts an influence on the nature of the reactions produced. The temperature at which "cracking" takes place with the desired rapidity is usually above the boiling point of the hydrocarbons concerned. When no pressure is employed, these hydrocarbons will vaporize and pass out of the reacting sphere, the degree of alteration being small. If, however, sufficient pressure is employed to raise the boiling point to a temperature causing more rapid cracking, alteration into desired products may be obtained with a minimum of total decomposition. The first processes for the recovery of lighter boiling hydrocarbons from heavier hydrocarbons were used for the production of burning oils. The first patent of this character was that granted to James Young in England, in 1865. The distillation was conducted in a closed vessel provided with a loaded valve, which was set so the vapors could escape at any desired pressure. A pressure of ten to twenty pounds per square inch is specified, and the patent seems to be directed to the recovery of burning oils from Scottish shale oils. Other patents have been issued to Benton, U. S., 1886; Dewar and Redwood, England, 1889; Ragosin, England, 1898; Burton, United States, 1913; Bacon and Clark, GASOLINE 163 United States, 1914; Humphries, United States, 1914; Hall, England, 1913; Rittman,* United States, 1916, and many others. MOTOR SPIRITS Much interest has been aroused in technical and trade circles over the introduction of "motor spirits " by the Standard Oil Company. "Motor spirits" are prepared by a special "cracking" process of distillation of petroleum, and was worked out by Dr. W. M. Burton, a director of the Standard Oil Company of Indiana. The patent which was issued January 7, 1913, describes a method of treat- ing liquid portions of petroleum having a boiling point upward of 500° F., to obtain therefrom low boiling-point products. In other words, transform- ing petroleum products that are heavy and unsuited for use in automobile engines into a liquid that can be used for such a purpose. The distillation process is conducted under a pressure of from sixty to seventy-five pounds per square inch and at tempera- tures varying from 650° to 850° F. The distillate is condensed in the usual way. The resulting "motor spirit" has a slightly *Patent applied for. 164 GASOLINE yellowish color and, compared to a straight refinery distillate of 59° B, has the following characteristics: Comparison of " Motor Spirits " and Gasoline Specific Gravity Boiling Point Product Be. Scale °F Motor Spirits 55 95 to 500 Gasoline 59 110 to 350 As compared to gasoline, "motor spirit" has a slightly lower gravity, showing a higher carbon con- tent, meaning that more mileage can be obtained from it than from gasoline. One should be able to start a motor easier with it, because it starts to boil at a lower temperature than gasoline does. Because it has a higher range of boiling points it should be more difficult to convert it entirely into the vapor form, and, therefore, it should be more liable to carbonize the motor cylinders and cause smoking. The fact that "motor spirit" does carbonize cylin- ders and emit a small amount of smoke in the ex- haust makes it more or less unsuitable for pleasure- car use. With the slower speed motors and more constant running conditions present in motor trucks, however, these objections are not so pronounced. The chief merit of the product lies in the fact that GASOLINE 165 it will take the place of gasoline in many instances, such as for use in stationary engines, traction en- gines, trucks, etc., and that it helps dispel, for a time at least, the bugbear of a gasoline shortage. The Standard Oil Company has installed the Burton process at Whiting, Indiana, at Alton, Illinois, at Kansas City, Missouri, at Casper, Wyoming, and at other places. Fully a million barrels of "motor spirit" were produced in 1915, and for 1916 this amount will be increased to fully three million barrels. THE " RITTMAN " PROCESS OF CRACKING PETROLEUM TO OBTAIN GASOLINE A process for cracking petroleum to obtain gasoline has been perfected and patented by Walter F. Rittman, an employee of the L T nited States Bureau of Mines. The process can be used by any- body in the United States, free of charge, after making proper representations to the Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C. This process differs from most "cracking" pro- cesses, in that the reactions are made to take place entirely in what is known as the vapor phase. In other words, instead of heating and compressing the liquid petroleum and its vapor together, the petro- 166 GASOLINE leum is first vaporized, and this vapor is heated and compressed. The most favorable conditions for gasoline and production are temperatures of about 900° F., and pressures higher than ninety pounds per square inch. The apparatus consists essentially of a vessel for vaporizing the oil, a heater, where the oil vapor is heated and compressed, and a condenser for col- lecting the products. There are several companies building plants to operate this process in the United States under license from the United States Bureau of Mines. The material produced is essentially the same as the "motor spirits" of the "Burton" process. In the following table there is given the results of cracking a petroleum distillate with boiling points between 482° F. and 662° F., i.e., a high boiling "cut" from crude oil was cracked in order to con- vert as much of it as possible into gasoline.* *Taken from Bulletin 111}, Bureau of Mines. 0) X 2 8 s ^ u U 3 j O hJ a £ CO M PQ C5 O 05 © '" X i- NMMrtOJOHfllt. ,-H ,-H »H ,-H CI CI rH CI CI I— r— H Q 02 o o E u Ph 72 Gravity (Water = 1) CI O © O C O iff CO o >o CO t"C">C0 r ' o >'^©C0 r '" 1 ~f , ~1 , 0I b- i^ t- r> r> t> t- i> i> i> t- © H O H O H p< 8 6 pig © © t- © © © © © m o ^, O o H Ph 6 o o H Ph en H II M © © © © »-0 © © © lO © © ©©©©rHCOi— 1 i— It-IOIi-h COGOGOGOCOOOCOGOGOGOCO © ■* io oi co a to co © © Oi © iOC005»Oi>00i>i>©i>CC E P 5 s Si bffiOCOt-fflCOOOHLA r-t i— I Ol H i— i ,— i CI < a go co i« : no W go 5- 3 "8 4-* g" EH ° cd 3| 3 c (0 « 2 fu^a Ili^.g c H H g H O (d 4J o U £ B?s g 5°SS S CO ^ «^o H V u 0) & u Ou CO ■< o & O H s < 1 •* ~ OS CO o 1-H X "tfl oi b- in _ o> i-i -^ re >o co i> o o CO o i> — O X iO "-0 u i> I -1 lO X i> Pi © rH r-l ^F Ol h Z = Ol X o u CO 3 © o LO a 2-* © © CO o "«* CO ■* CO 03 o O CD o3 £ -C CJ CO 03 CO ■•-> 03 ^ i CU s_ -— ? CO ■4-5 "cS O cj - 3 C 03 - U <1 U U> £ GASOLINE 213 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Troy Weight 24 grains — 1 pwt. 12 ounces = 1 pound 20 pwts. = 1 ounce Used for weighing gold, silver and jewels. Apothecaries' Weight 20 grains = 1 scruple 8 drams = 1 ounce 3 scruples = 1 dram 12 ounces = 1 pound The ounce and pound in this are the same as in Troy weight. Avoirdupois Weight 27 11-32 grains = 1 dram 4 quarters = 1 cwt. 16 drams =1 ounce 2,000 lbs. = 1 short ton 16 ounces =1 pound 2,240 lbs. = 1 long ton 24 pounds = 1 quarter Dry Measure 2 pints = 1 quart 4 pecks = 1 bushel 8 quarts = 1 peck 37 bushels = 1 chaldron Liquid Measure 4 gills = 1 pint 31| gallons = 1 barrel 2 pints = 1 quart 2 barrels = 1 hogshead 4 quarts = 1 gallon Long Measure 12 inches = 1 foot 40 rods = 1 furlong 3 feet = 1 yard 8 furlongs = 1 sta. mile 5| yards = 1 rod 3 miles = 1 league 214 GASOLINE Mariners' Measure G feet = 1 fathom 5,280 feet = 1 sta. mile 120 fathoms = 1 cable length 6,085 feet = 1 naut. mile 7 1 cable lengths = 1 mile Miscellaneous 3 inches = 1 palm 18 inches = 1 cubit 4 inches = 1 hand 21.8 inches = 1 Bible cubit G inches = 1 span 2| feet = 1 military pace Square Measure 144 sq. in. = 1 sq. ft. 40 square rods = 1 rood 9 sq. ft. = 1 sq. yd. 4 roods = 1 acre 30| sq. yds. = 1 sq. rod 640 acres = 1 square mile Surveyors' Measure 7.92 inches = 1 link 25 links = 1 rod 4 rods = 1 chain 10 square chains or 160 square rods = 1 acre 640 acres = 1 square mile -36 square miles (6 miles square) = 1 township Cubic Measure 1,728 cubic inches == 1 cubic foot 27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard 2,150.42 cubic inches = 1 standard bushel 277.42 cubic inches = 1 English gallon (Imperial) 231 cubic inches = 1 American gallon 1 cubic foot =s about four-fifths of a bushel GASOLINE 215 EXPLANATION OF METRIC SYSTEM The metric system has been authorized by act of Congress in the United States, and by act of Parliament in the United Kingdom. As this system is in use in so many of the countries with which the United States trades a full explanation is given. It is a decimal system, the meter being the basis of all measures, whether of length, surface, capacity, volume or weight. The meter measures 39.37 inches, and is theoretically one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the pole. Multiples of the units are expressed by the Greek prefixes "deca," "hecto" and "kilo," indicating respectively tens, hundreds and thousands. Decimal parts of the unit are indicated by the Latin prefixes "deci,' "centi" and "mill," meaning respectively tenth hundredth and thousandth. Measures of Length The unit of length is the meter which, like the English yard, is used in measuring cloth, lace and moderate lengths. For long distances, like the mile, the kilometer is commonly used; L but for short or minute distances, the centimeter and millimeter are used. 216 G A S O L I N E 10 millimeters (mm.) = 1 centimeter 10 centimeters (cm. ) =1 decimeter 10 decimeters (dm. ) = 1 meter 1,000 meters (m.) = 1 kilometer (km.) Measures of Surface Measures of surface are derived from measures of length, and the unit is the square meter, which is used like the square yard in measuring small areas, like ceilings and floors. The are and hectare are used in land measure. As a surface area is the product of its length and width, a square centimeter would equal one hundred square millimeters. 100 square millimeters = 1 square centimeter 100 square centimeters = 1 square decimeter 100 square decimeters = 1 square meter or centare 100 centares = 1 are 100 ares = 1 hectare 100 hectares = 1 square kilometer Cubic Measure Cubic measure is constructed in the same way, remembering that a cube is the product of the length, width and height; a cubic centimeter would be a cube measuring ten millimeters each way and would contain 1,000 cubic millimeters. GASOLINE 217 The unit is the cubic meter, or stere, which, like the cubie yard, is used in measuring embank- ments, excavations, etc.; cubic centimeters and millimeters are used for minute bodies. 1000 cubic millimeters =1 cubic centimeter 1000 cubic centimeters = 1 cubic decimeter 1000 cubic decimeters = 1 cubic meter or stere 1000 cubic meters =1 cubic decameter 1000 cubic decameters =1 cubic hectometer 1000 cubic hectometers = 1 cubic kilometer Measures of Capacity Measures of capacity are based on the cubic meter, but as the cubic meter would be too large and unwieldy for ordinary purposes, the cubic decimeter was adopted as the unit and the name liter given to it. The liter is equal to 1.0567 quarts, and is used like the quart or gallon, multiples form- ing the larger, and decimal parts the smaller, denomi- nations. 10 milliliters = 1 centiliter 10 centiliters = 1 deciliter 10 deciliters — 1 liter 10 liters = 1 decaliter 10 decaliters = 1 hectoliter 10 hectoliters = 1 kiloliter 218 GASOLINE The hectoliter (2.8377 bushels = 26.417 gallons) is used like the bushel or barrel. Metric Weights The unit of weight is the gram (15.432 grains), and is the weight of a cubic centimeter of water at its greatest density — about 39° F. Milligram (1/1000 gram) = 0.0154 grain Centigram (1/100 gram) = 0.1543 grain Decigram (1/10 gram) = 1.5432 grains Gram . (1) = 15.432 grains Decagram (10 grams) = 0.3527 ounce Hectogram (100 grams) = 3.5274 ounces Kilogram (1000 grams) = 2.2046 pounds Myriagram (10,000 grams) = 22.046 pounds Quintal (100,000 grams) -220.46 pounds Metric Dry Measure Milliliter (1/1000 liter) = 0.061 cubic inch Centiliter (1/100 liter) = 0.6102 cubic inch Deciliter (1/10 liter) = 6.1022 cubic inches Liter (l) = 0.908 quart Decaliter (10 liters) = 9.08 quarts Hectoliter (100 liters) = 2.838 bushels Kiloliter (1000 liters) = 1.308 cubic yards G A S O L I N E 219 Metric Liquid Measure Milliliter (1/1000 liter) = 0.0338 fluid ounce Centiliter (1/100 liter) = 0.338 fluid ounce Deciliter (1/10 liter) = 0.845 gill Liter (l) = 1.0567 quarts Decaliter (10 liters) = 2.6418 gallons Hectoliter (100 liters) = 26.417 gallons Kiloliter (1000 liters) = 264.18 gallons Metric Measures of Length Millimeter (1/1000 meter) = 0.0394 inch Centimeter (1/10C 1 meter) = 0.3937 inch Decimeter (1/10 meter) = 3.937 inches Meter = 39.37 inches Decameter (10 meters) = 393.7 inches Hectometer (100 meters) = 328. feet, 1 inch Kilometer (1000 meters) = 0.62137 mile (3.280ft. 10 in.) Mvriaineter (10,000 meters) = 6.2137 miles Metric Surface Measure Centare (1 square meter) = 1,550 square inches Are (100 square meters) = 119.6 square yards Hectare (10,100 square meters) = 2.471 acres Metric and American Conversion Table Millimeters X .03937 = inches Centimeters X .3937 = inches Meters = 39.37 inches Meters X 3.281 = feet Meters per second = 196.86 feet per minute Kilometers X .62: tiles 220 GASOLINE Kilometers X 3280.89 = feet. Square millimeters X .0015.1 = square inches Square centimeters X .155 square inches Cubic centimeters -4- 16.383 = cubic inches X 35.3165 = cubic feet X 264.2 = gallons (231 cubic inches) X .2642 = gallons (231 cubic inches) X 2.2046 = pounds square millimeter X 1422.3 Cubic meters Cubic meters Liters Kilograms Kilograms per square inch Kilograms per square inch Kilowatts Watts Cheval vapeur Centigrade square centimeter X 14. = pounds = pounds per per X 1.34 = horsepower -f- 746 = horsepower X .9863 = horsepower X 1.8 + 32 degrees = Fahrenheit MISCELLANEOUS 1 U. S. gallon of water at 62° weighs 8.3356 lbs. and contains 231 inches. 7.4805 U. S. gallons = 1 cubic foot. A cylinder, 7 inches by 6 inches is one gallon nearly, or 230.9 cubic inches. I Imperial gallon of water at 62° weighs 10 lbs. 1 Imperial gallon contains 277.274 cubic inches or 1.20032 U. S. gallon. Capacity of a cylinder (tank) in U. S. gallons = square of diameter in inches X height in inches X .0034. Capacity of cylinder in U. S. bushels = square of diameter in inches X height in inches X .0003652. A cubic foot of water contains 1\ gallons, 1728 cubic inches and weighs 62^ lbs. GASOLINE 221 MENSURATION Circumference of circle = diameter X 3.141(1. Circumference of circle = radius X G.2832. Area of circle = radius 2 X 3.1416. Area of circle = diameter 2 ' X .7854. Area of circle = circumference 2 ' X .07958. Area of circle = ^ circumference X § diameter. Radius* of circle = circumference X .159155. Diameter of circle = circumference X .31831. Side of inscribed square = diameter of circle X .7071. Side of inscribed square = circumference of circle X .225. Side of equal ; square = circumference of circle X .8861. Volume of sphere = surface X 1-6 diameter. Surface* of sphere = circumference X diameter. Surface of sphere = diameter 2 X 3.1416. Surface of sphere = circumference 2 X .3183. Volume of sphere = diameter 3 X .5236. Volume of sphere = radius 3 X 4.1888. Volume of sphere = circumference 3 X .016887. Side of inscribed cube = radius of sphere X 1.1547. Surface of cube = area of one side by 6. Area of ellipse = both diameters X .7854. Area of triangle = base by ^ altitude. Volume of cone or pyramid = area of base by 1-3 altitude. Area of parallelogram = base by altitude . Area of trapezoid = altitude X \ sum of parallel sides. Area of trapezium = area of 2 constituent triangles. Area of regular polygon = sum of its sides X perpendicular from its center to one of its sides -^- 2. Surface of cylinder or prism = areas of both ends plus (length X circumference). 222 GASOLINE Contents of cylinder or prism = area of end X length. Surface of frustrum of cone or pyramid = sum of circum- ference of both ends X h slant height plus area of both ends. Contents of wedge = area of base X \ altitude. V. T. 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"I >>m © a^5 co 2 «s - "&=§ ° a o-S » * d ~ a 3*s y *" 35-31 J. a ° "i £ s + « 03 w - < Phh-1 H W u O :- 1- < S ■< £ w o 1* E r- > r H «! pq Ph M _' mO 02 H *W « a H Q « DC H ~ j - - H fe :- • > - W a 03 HS3 H a K p O cOO«0f; ioioio^^MMcoNNNHHOOoaaaoooo i> J> J> i> i> t- 1> J> i> i> t> i> t- I- i> i> co 50 ~ '-C ~ h M l-: X 71 h 'M co oi rM ^ ^h o a: s c ^ h c o c ^ ^ c x h >: c '•?xxxrcxrcxrcxrcc:"+o sxxt-t-^^LtL-r-f-frcrcrc XXXXXXi>i>i>i>I>i>J>i>i>I>i>i>i>i>i> O O H r) l: Ol X S l: :) C C: X ^ C M •+ X M -c :i oxca'MoaMcc-ft-rtCc^xMb-w cr. xbt-sCL:-t^xci'M--cac:xxN o c: a c: c: r. c:c:c:c:c^c;c:c;cr:c:xxxxx o h ^ x ■* c c n x c. c - :i x -t t: c t- x c c H H H H H H H H rt H C) 3) n M M :) M M 31 M X Actual Weight Per Gallon Lbs. h -t t» c m x 'M o c 10 o i* h i^ :i c -t h x -t n s i — y M iO -M O t f"M 35 I* ^ iM ffi l^ >fi CI OS t-»Oo lO lC iC C O LO lO O O lO iO iC C 't IC '" O O lO lO O lO o Specific Gravity Lbs. ai>^Noa«u>o»©oi-t>aOHeoio^OM©a HooujwaiowaoMOi-^rtQocoeoot — p M-bxxxxxxxxxxaaaaa»aaaa Specific Actual Gravity Weight Per Lbs. Gallon Lbs. L^oo^HxoO'f-f^LooNaH^^HLOc^aL': lOHcoc-iacoffiLO'-iNcofflOH^^coKao'Maic N?iHHocaaaxx!>i>i>oeoi-OL':^^^«« !>J>l>i>}>i>COOOtOOOOOCOOOOCOOOOV50 XTHC«)oaxxxaHcofflawi-oit>Mao^Hax oiooioa^a^aiooioooHjxNaMaiOHoiN i>50ffiLOTjcfcOCOM(MMHHOOfflaXX^M>00 XCCCOXX00GO000CGOaO00000C)00J>i>i>i>l>i>fc--i>I> H CO HMw*Looi>xaOHiMn^L':cNxaOHcico'* 228 GASOLINE Comparative Table — American and Metric Standards Approximate I acre 40 1 bushel 35. 1 centimeter 39 1 cubic centimeter ... . 061 1 cubic foot 028 1 cubic inch 16. 1 cubic meter 35. 1 cubic meter 1.3 1 cubic yard 76 1 foot 30. 1 gallon 3.8 1 grain 065 1 gram 15 . 1 hectar 2.2 1 inch 25 . lkilo 2.2 1 kilometer 62 1 liter 91 1 liter 1.1 1 meter 3.3 1 mile 1.6 1 millimeter 039 1 ounce (avd.) 28. 1 ounce (troy) 31 . 1 peck 8.8 1 pint 47 1 pound 45 1 quart (dry) 1.1 Exact hectar 4047 litres 35.24 inch 3937 cubic inch 0610 cubic meter 0283 cubic centimeter .... 16.39 cubic feet 35 . 31 cubic yards 1 . 308 cubic meter 7645 centimeters 30.48 liters 3 . 725 gram 0648 grains 15. 43 acres 2.471 millimeters 25 . 40 pounds 2.205 mile 6214 quart (dry) 9081 quarts (liquid) 1 . 057 feet 3.281 kilometers 1 . 609 inch 0394 grams 28.35 grains 31.10 liters 8 . 809 liter 4732 kilo 4536 liters 1.101 G A S O L I N E 229 Approximate I quart (liquid) 1 sq. centimeter 1 sq. foot . 1 sq. inch . 1 sq. meter 1 sq. meter 1 sq. yard 1 ton (2,000 lbs.) 1 ton (2,240 lb 1 ton (metric) 1 ton (metric) 1 yard 95 15 093 5 S4 91 Exact liter 9464 square inch 1550 square meter 0929 square centimeters .. 0.452 square yards 1 . 196 square feet 10.76 square meter 8361 metric ton 9072 metric ton 1 .017 ton (2,000 lbs.) 1.102 ton (2,240 lbs.) 9842 meter 9144 CDOOrHlOi-IOSaOOSi-llQOt-COCOaOi-H ©CO-h©^-* a © © © -h r* —i — oi oi 01 co co co -? -? -?■ i_o lo l- © © © i> t- t- i> x x x © © 01 01 01 05 01 01 Ol 01 01 01 01 01 01 Ol 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 '#io©i>x©© 1 -ic^co'?io©i>x©©*-HOx©© — nn ©©©©©©l>t-i>l>i>i>i>i>i>i>XXXXXXXXXX©©©© -* © ©f iO^X©iO-*LO©i>©CO x-#©©coi>x©i-i-*ro t->M©io©oi^oi©io©' ro i> oi © x x © oo x o oo oi oo © -h © -* oo *? © © »-o oi © © eqio© so © — < co lO i> © 050 X -* •* X — IC © 00 t- — © © CO ^h ,_ ^ ^ o-i oi oi oi ro oo oo -* f -* uo lo © © i> i> © oi x ■* © rHC0>*«0C0©i-lC0'Si«D000»T-<(Nr-liOl»«»O(MC0l0t-00Or-ie0>OC0000B ^-X01©©10©OOi>-'0©-*X01©©r-H©OOi>r-UO©-*X01©©->X H Ol •* Hi t- X © H (N ^ IC © X © — 01 t? LO © X © — 01 00 L.0 © X © — Ol 00 < i-KMCO'*iO©t-X©©-iOQCO^iO©i>X©© — (MCO^iO©t-X©©-i 2 HHrHHHr-lrHr-llHHIMIMOlNNNOlNOlOlO:?: ©t-COt-©©©i>00i>© — ' -* X -? © 01 00 01 © © — -?■ LO -? 01 © CO © t~ t- >-U> t- © t- © 00 01 O -< 01 © -?■ u-0 — © -f — 01 i> L.0 X -* -* X © i- 00 01 u-t Ol © © -h CO -* © © Ol LO © 00 i> 01 t~ 00 © LO 01 © © f 01 — © © © © © — i X © © — — 01 00 O © i> X OOOOOOOOOOCOOSOOOCOCOOHHH-rtHHHH ©X©iOL0 0100©-*i>©iO«>0-liO©COi>^iO OhN^J-OS t- X X © © — 01 CO -* lO LO i> t- © © — ' — 00 TO 'f ■* © © X ©Xi>©0-*'00 01 — ©©©Xi>©LO-?C0Ol — ©©©Xi>©L0— 'COOl — -» © -* © -f © -* c: -? © oo x oo x co x co x oo x oo fr- oii> oi b- oi i> oi t~ oi OOHrtlMClNTO'^-fOlOSet-NXMKROO'HrHCincOCO^TfiO ©LQiOiOiOiOiOiOuOiOiOiOiOUOiOO (MlCi> Ol lO b- (NlON (Nlflt- (NUJN Ol UJ i> as c« oo »o i-i J> co ooiooio^t-M © co c:ixoh i> co lQi-l»eO00-'3< O -* © Ol X CO © O © © — ' t- CO X -* MCO^Ct-O.CCl-OOXC- 00 i-O © X © — Ol -f lO i> © © 01 CO lO © X ©©©©©©^-^^H^^H"OlOlOlOlO10101CO00 00 0t0000'?-*>-*'* l fJ' -* 01 -J> © -* Ol -F -* 01 -* © ■* 01 ~? -* 01 •* © -* Ol —■ -* 01 — ■ © -»■ 01 -* © CO © — © CO © X © CO © — © CO — -*• © 00 © — © CO © X © CO © — i © CO © I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I -h^co — looot- — ©o — co:ot>io-H«>©©io — — coco>-ocot-i>©i-o — rt 1-H 1-1 1-1 l-H 0-1-HON) Ol — > Ol (N-HCO GASOLINE 231 INTERNATIONAL Aluminum . . . . Al 27 . 1 Antimony ... .SI > 120.2 Argon A 39.9 Arsenic As 74 . 90 Barium Ba 137 .37 Beryllium Be 9.1 Bismuth Bi 208.0 Boron 15 11.0 Bromine Br 79 . 92 JCadmium . . . . Cd 112. 49 Caesium Cs 132 . 81 Calcium Ca 40.09 Cerium Ce 140 . 25 Chlorine Cl 35.46 Chromium . . . . Cr 52.0 Cobalt Co 58.97 Columbium . . . Cb 93.5 Copper Cu 63 . 57 Dysprosium . . Dy 162.5 Erbium Er 167.4 Europium ....Eu 152.0 Fluorine F 19.0 Gadolinium . . . Gd 157.3 Gallium Ga 69.9 Germanium . . .Ge 72.5 Glucinum . . . . Gl 9.1 Gold Au 197.2 Helium He 4.0 Hydrogen H 1 . 008 Indium In 114 . 8 ATOMIC WEIGHTS Molybdenum . . Mo 96 Neodymium . . . Nd 144.3 Neon Ne 20 . Nickel Ni 58.68 Nitrogen N 14.01 Osmium Os 190.9 Oxygen O 16.00 Palladium Pd 106.7 Phosphorus P 31.04 Platinum Pt 195.2 Potassium K 39.10 Praseodymium . . Pr 140.6 Radium Ra 226.4 Rhodium Rh 102.9 Rubidium Rb 85.45 Ruthenium . . . . Ru 101.7 Samarium Sa 150.4 Scandium Sc 44.1 Selenium Se 79.2 Silicon Si 28.3 Silver Ag 107.88 Sodium Na 23 00 Strontium Sr 87 . 63 Sulphur S 32.07 Tantalum Ta 181.0 Tellerium Te 127.5 Terbium Tb 159.2 Thalium Tl 204 . Thorium Th 232.42 Thulium Tin 168.5 232 GASOLINE Iodine I 126.92 Iridium Ir 193 . 1 Iron Fe 55.85 Krypton Kr 83 . Lanthanum . . .La 139.0 Lead Pb 207.10 Lithium Li 6.94 Lutecium Lu 174- . Magnesium . . . Mg 24.32 Manganese . . . Mn 54 . 93 Mercury Hg 200.0 Tin Sn 119.0 Titanium Ti 48.1 Tungsten W 184.0 L'ranium U 238 . 5 Vanadium V 51 . 2 Xenon Xe 130.7 Ytterbium Yb 172.0 Yttrium Y 89 . Zinc Zn 65 . 37 Zirconium Zr 90.6 GASOLINE 2^ ELECTRICAL FACTS Electricity, according to Professor Silvanus P. Thompson, is the name given to an invisible agent known to us only by the effects which it produces, and in many ways its behavior resembles that of an incompressible liquid, or that of a highly attenu- ated and weightless gas. It is neither matter nor energy, yet it apparently can be associated or com- bined with matter; and energy can be spent in moving it. Under pressure or in motion it repre- sents energy, the same as air or water. Always constant in quantity, it can never be created nor destroyed. There is no flow of water without a difference of levels and no manifestation of electric action without a difference of electrical pressure. Electricity in quantity without pressure is useless. In mechanics, a pressure is necessary to produce a current of air or water. In electricity, an electro- motive force is necessary to produce a current. Mechanical phenomena are measured in pounds, feet or gallons. Electrical phenomena are measured in units of their own. The unit of electrical pressure is the volt. It is analogous to steam pressure. It is the abbreviation of the name of Volta, in honor of Count Alessandro Volta, born at Come, February 18, 1745. 234 GASOLINE The unit of electrical current is the ampere. It is a unit of the rate of flow or stream. It is in honor of Andre Marie Ampere, the founder of the science of electro-dynamics, born at Lyons, January 22, 1775. The unit of electrical resistance is called the ohm. It is in honor of George Simon Ohm, born at Erlangen, Bavaria, March 16, 1789. He was the discoverer of the fact that the flow of electricity was governed by fixed laws. By Ohm's law we define and measure electro-motive force, strength of current and resistance. Ohm's Law connects the three units, volt, ohm and ampere. The current in any circuit is directly proportional to the electromotive force, and in- versely proportional to the resistance. The units are so chosen that when there is one ohm resistance in circuit an electromotive force of one volt pre duces a current of one ampere. Ohm's law is: Electromotive force in volts Current in amperes = ~~ ; ; ; Resistance in ohms. Abbreviated into: C, current; E, volts; R, resist- ance. (1) C =-^ (2) E = CR. (3) R =-^ GASOLINE 235 (1) A dynamo with an electromotive force of 60 volts will send through a resistance of 5 ohms a current of 12 amperes. 60 C = =12 amperes. 5 (2) A dynamo to send a current of 2 amperes through a resistance of 25 ohms must have an electro- motive force of 50 volts. E = 2 X 25 = 50 volts. (3) The resistance of a circuit when an electro- motive of 800 volts sends a current of 10 amperes through it will be 80 ohms. 800 R = = 80 ohms. 10 The watt is the unit of power, and is equivalent to one ampere multiplied by one volt, or C x E = watt. A kilowatt is equivalent to 1,000 watts. The mechanical horsepower is equal to 746 watts, or for approximate computations is taken at 750 watts, equivalent to f of a kilowatt. A dynamo electric machine converts energy in the form of dynamical power into energy in the form of electric currents, by the operation of setting conductors to rotate in a magnetic field. All dy- namos are based upon the discovery made by Fara- 236 GASOLINE day, in 1831, that electric currents are made manifest in conductors by moving them in a magnetic field. HORSEPOWER A horsepower is the energy required to raise 33,000 pounds one foot in a minute. A boiler horsepower is equal to the evaporation of thirty pounds of water per hour from a feed-water temperature of 100° F. into steam at seventy -pound gauge pressure. The indicated horsepower of an engine is the power developed by the steam on the piston without any deduction for friction. The effective horsepower of an engine is the actual and available horsepower delivered to the belt or gearing, and is always less than the indicated. The horsepower of an engine is a X p X v 33,000 A — Area of piston in square inches. P — Means effective pressure of the steam on the piston per square inch. V — Velocity of piston per minute. Rule to ascertain horsepower of compound engine : Multiply stroke of piston in feet by the number GASOLINE 237 of revolutions per minute; multiply this product by the boiler pressure by gauge and take the square root of this result, which multiply by the square of the diameter of the low pressure cylinder. This product divided by 8,500 will be the estimated horsepower of the engine. An indicated horsepower requires, in the best condensing engines, about one and three-quarters gallons of water evaporated per hour. - An indicated horsepower, in large non-condens- ing engines, requires about two and one-half gallons of water evaporated per hour. x\n indicated horsepower, in small non-condens- ing engines, requires from three to ten gallons of water evaporated per hour. Horsepower of Cylindrical Flue Boiler G = Fire grate surface in square feet. H = Nominal horsepower. S = Heating surface in square yards. , H 2 = S H 2 = G A SG = H V G S For cylindrical two-Sued boilers an approximate rule is: Length X diam. = nominal h. p. 6 238 G A S O L I N E To find the diameter of a cylinder of an engine of a required nominal horsepower: 5500 X h. p. = a. v To find the weight of the rim of the flywheel for an engine: Nominal h. p. X 2000 The square of the velocity of the circumference in feet per second = Weight in cwts. BOILER AND STEAM FACTS Average Evaporative Power of Fuels lb. of pure carbon evaporates 12.4 hydrogen evaporates 53 . sulphur 3 . 44 white pine wood evaporates 7 . 65 oak charcoal 11.7 bituminous coal 12.62 anthracite coal 10.9 coke 1 1 . 85 oak wood 6 . 47 lbs. of water The Relative Volume of Steam and Water is: At 15 lbs. to square inch 1669 to 1 30 120 881 " 1 467 " 1 249 " 1 (i A SOLI X E 239 FROM THE REPORT OF THE NOMENCLA- TURE DIVISION OF THE STANDARDS COMMITTEE OF THE SOCIETY OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERS For several years there has been an insistent demand for standardization of names of car parts. Uniformity in the use of names and terminology would save many of the delays common in parts re- placement service, and make for clearness and brevity in the use of automobile terms generally. The nomenclature contained in the following list was developed at a series of meetings of engineering and service representatives of several of the leading automobile manufacturers of x4merica. It has been approved in detail by the Nomenclature Division of the Standards Committee, and has been passed upon in turn by the Standard Committee, the Council, and adopted by the members of the Society of iVuto- mobile Engineers. An attempt has been made to include in the list the more important parts throughout the whole car, bolts, studs and the like being indicated in general terms. Body parts have not been included gener- ally, nor parts of some units, such as carburetor, which vary so much in construction as to make any- thing like uniform nomenclature very difficult. 240 . G A S O L I N E Definitions of different types of construction have been included for several units in order to encourage uniform terminology in descriptions ap- pearing in the trade press and in catalogues, as well as in the technical discussions of the Society. Defi- nitions of different types of bodies are also included, because it is thought that some authority should take action to make possible the use of names which will be understood generally, rather than those which are meaningless except to persons conversant with the terminology peculiar to individual manufacturers. It is surprising how many distinctly different types of body are being sold under the name "brougham," for instance. A scheme of classification based entirely on as- semblies is impracticable for general use, on account of diverse arrangement of elements of so-called con- ventional cars. The classification adopted is there- fore based largely on function. In most cases the names do not need defining to any one familiar with automobile construction, especially when considered in connection with the other names in the same group. For spring nomenclature see sheets 49, 49xa and 49b in the S.A.E. Handbook. (Reprints furnished upon request.) GASOLINE 241 General Divisions I. Cylinders II. Valves III. Cooling System IV. Fuel System V. Exhaust System VI. Lubrication VII. Ignition VIII. Starting and Lighting Equipment IX. Miscellaneous Electrical Equipment X. Clutch XI. Transmission XII. Rear Axle XIII. Braking System XIV. Front Axle and Steering XV. Wheels XVI. Frame and Springs XVII. Hoods, Fenders and Shields XVIII. Body and Top XIX. Accessories DIVISION I CYLINDERS Group 1 — Cylinders Group 2 — Crankcase Group 3 — Crankshaft Group 4 — Starting-crank 242 GASOLINE Group 5 — Connecting-rods Group 6 — Pistons DIVISION II VALVES Group 1 — Camshaft Group 2 — Valves DIVISION III COOLING SYSTEM Group 1 — Fan Group 2 — Radiator Group 3 — Pump Group 4 — Pipes and Hose DIVISION IV FUEL SYSTEM Group 1 — Carburetor and Inlet Pipe Group 2 — Carburetor Control Group 3 — Carburetor Air-heater Group 4 — Fuel Tank Group 5 — Fuel Pipes and Feed System DIVISION V EXHAUST SYSTEM Group 1 — Exhaust Manifold Group 2 — Exhaust Pipe and Muffler DIVISION VI — LUBRICATION SYSTEM Group 1 — Oil Pan or Reservoir Group 2 — Oil Pumps Group 3 — Oil Pipes, Strainers, Gages G A SOLI N K 243 DIVISION VII IGNITION Group 1 — Spark Plugs, Cables and Switches Group 2 — Ignition Distributor Group 3 — Magneto Group 4 — Ignition Control DIVISION VIII STARTING AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT Group 1 — Generator Group 2 — Starting Motor Group 3 — Wiring- Group 4 — Battery DIVISION IX MISCELLANEOUS ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT Group 1 — Lamps and Wiring Group 2 — Switches and Instruments Group 3 — Horn Group 4 — Miscellaneous DIVISION X CLUTCH Group 1 — Clutching Parts Cone Clutch Disk Clutch Plate Clutch Group 2 — Releasing Parts DIVISION XI TRANSMISSION Group 1 — Transmission 244 GASOLINE Group 2 — Shifting Mechanism Group 3 — Control Group 4 — Propeller Shaft DIVISION XII REAR AXLE Group 1 — Housing Group 2 — Torque-arm and Radius-rod Group 3 — Drive Pinion Group 4 — Differential Group 5 — Axle Shafts DIVISION XIII — BRAKES Group 1 — Outer Brake Group 2 — Inner Brake Group 3 — Pedal (or outer) Brake Control Group 4 — Hand (or inner) Brake Control DIVISION XIV FRONT AXLE AND STEERING Group 1 — Axle Center Group 2 — Steering Knuckles Group 3 — Steering Rods Group 4 — Steering Gear DIVISION XV WHEELS Group 1 — Front Wheels Group 2 — Rear Wheels DIVISION XVI FRAME AND SPRINGS Group 1 — Frame G A SOLIN E 245 Group 2 — Frame Brackets and Sockets Group 3 — Front Springs Group 4 — Rear Springs DIVISION XVII HOOD, FENDERS AND SHIELDS Group 1 — Hood Group 2 — Engine Shield Group 3 — Fenders and Running-boards Group 4 — Windshield DIVISION XVIII BODY Group 1 — Floor-boards and Dash Group 2 — Body Group 3 — Upholstering Group 4 — Top DIVISION XIX ACCESSORIES Group 1 — Speedometer Group 2 — Tire Pump General Where terms "front" and "rear" are used, "front" should always be toward the front end of the car. These terms are sometimes confused in regard to parts that are mounted on the dash. The front side of the dash is always! that next the engine. Where parts are numbered, No. 1 should be toward the front of the car. For instance, No. 1 246 GASOLINE cylinder is the one nearest the radiator (in con- ventional construction) . "Right" and "left" are to the right- and left- hands when sitting in one of the seats of the car. Studs, screws and bolts shall take names from parts they serve to hold in place, although they are assembled with other parts. For example, the cylin- der stud is permanently screwed into crankcase but holds the cylinder in place. The name "engine" should be used rather than "motor" to avoid confusion with electric motors, and to secure a lower freight rate. DIVISION I CYLINDERS Group 1 • — Cylinders Cylinder L-head cylinder (valves on one side of cylinder) T-head cylinder (valves on opposite sides of cylinder) I-head cylinder (valves in cylinder head) F-head cylinder (one valve in head, other on side directly operated) (Cast in block, not cast en bloc) (Cylinders of V-type engines should be numbered IR, IL, 2R, etc.) Inlet- valve cap GASOLINE 247 Exhaust- valve cap Valve-cap gasket Cylinder- head Cylinder-head gasket Cylinder-head plug Water-jacket top cover Water-jacket top cover gasket Water-jacket side (or front or rear) cover Valve-spring cover Valve-spring-cover gasket Valve-spring-cover stud Valve-stem guide Priming-cup Group 2 — Crankcase Crankcase Barrel-type crankcase Split-type crankcase (split horizontally, at or near center line of crankshaft) Crankcase upper half Crankcase lower half (used only when the lower half contains bearings. A crankcase of either barrel or split type, in which all the bearings are mounted directly on the part to which the cylinders are attached, is called a "crankcase," the terms "upper half" and "lower half" not being used) 248 GASOLINE Oil-pan (used for lower part of split-type or barrel- type crankcase, whether this serves as an oil reservoir or not) Oil-pan drain-cock (or -plug) Breather Oil-pan gasket "Bushing" instead of "bearing" for removable and renewable lining used in a plain bearing Crankshaft front bearing bushing (upper half and lower half) Crankshaft front bearing cap Crankshaft front bushing support (sometimes used in barrel-type crankcase) Crankshaft rear bearing bushing Crankshaft rear bearing shims (other shims ac- cordingly) Crankshaft center bearing bushing (if only three bearings or if all except end bearings are alike) Crankshaft second bearing bushing, etc. (if more than three bearings, for example, front bearing, second bearing, third bearing, fourth bearing, rear bearing) Hand-hole cover Hand-hole-cover gasket Timing-gear cover Timing-gear-cover gasket GASOLINE 240 Flywheel housing Generator bracket (other brackets take name of part supported) Group 3 — Crankshaft Crankshaft Flywheel Crankshaft timing-gear (or sprocket) Crankshaft timing-gear key Flywheel starter-gear Crankshaft starter-sprocket Flywheel studs Clutch-spring stud Crankshaft starting jaw (or pin) Group 4 — Starting-crank Starting-crank Starting-crank jaw Starting-crank shaft Starting-crank handle Starting-crank-handle pin Group 5 — Connecting-rods Connecting-rod Straight connecting-rod ) TT , t? i j x- j r V~tyP e engine Jb orked connecting-rod ) Connecting-rod cap Connecting-rod bushing (upper half and lower half) Connecting-rod cap stud (or bolt) 250 GASOLINE Connecting-rod cap nut Connecting-rod bearing shims Connecting-rod dipper Piston-pin bushing Group 6 — Pistons Piston Piston-pin Piston-pin lock-screw (in connecting-rod or piston) Piston-ring Piston-ring groove DIVISION II VALVES Group 1 — Camshaft Camshaft Eccentric shaft (Knight engine) Camshaft timing-gear Camshaft timing-gear key Camshaft idler gear Camshaft oil-pump gear Camshaft ignition-distributor gear Exhaust cam Inlet cam Oil-pump eccentric (or cam) Group 2 — Valves Valves should be numbered 1 Ex, 1 In, 2 Ex, 2 In, etc., according to the number of the cylinder. GASOLINE 251 On V-type engines the numbers should he 1 REx, 1 LEx, etc. Poppet valve Inlet valve Exhaust valve Valve-spring Valve- spring retainer Valve-spring retainer lock Valve-lifter - Valve-lifter guide Valve-lifter-guide clamp Valve-lifter roller Valve-lifter-roller pin Valve adjusting screw Valve adjusting screw nut Valve-rocker (either at cam or at overhead valve; if both, upper and lower) Valve push-rod (intermediate between lifter and valve in I-head engine) DIVISION III COOLING SYSTEM Group 1 — Fan Fan Stationary fan support Adjustable fan support Fan hub 252 GASOLINE Fan-blades Fan pulley Fan-belt Fan driving pulley Group 2 — Radiator Radiator core Radiator shell Radiator upper tank Radiator right side Radiator left side Radiator lower tank Radiator filler-cap Radiator strainer Radiator drain-cock Group 3 — Pump Water-pump Water-pump impeller Water-pump-impeller key Water-pump body (in case of doubt, body is member mounted on engine) Water-pump cover Water-pump shaft Water-pump gland (part in contact with packing, whether threaded or not) Water-pump-gland nut (or screw, or other part used to compress* gland) Water-pump shaft gear GASOLINE 253 Group 4 — Pipes and Hose Engine water outlet Engine water inlet Radiator hose (upper and lower) Radiator water fitting (upper and lower) Water-pump outlet pipe DIVISION IV FUEL SYSTEM Group 1 — Carburetor and Inlet Pipe Carburetor Inlet manifold (more than one connection to cylinder) Inlet pipe (only one connection to cylinder) Inlet manifold or pipe gaskets (at cylinders) Carburetor gasket Group 2 — Carburetor Control (Throttle control rods will take names from parts they connect, shafts by location or arrangement, and brackets by parts they support) Accelerator pedal Accelerator pedal bracket Accelerator pedal pin Accelerator pedal rod Accelerator pedal rod-end pin Carburetor mixture hand-regulator Carburetor choke 254 GASOLINE Group 3 — Carburetor Air-heater Carburetor air-heater Carburetor hot-air pipe Group 4 — Fuel Tank Fuel tank Fuel reserve tank Fuel gage Fuel gage float Fuel gage glass Fuel tank outlet strainer Fuel tank outlet (flange, fitting, etc.) Fuel tank pressure flange (or fitting) Group 5 — Fuel Pipes and Feed Systems Main fuel valve Reserve fuel valve Fuel pipe, main tank to auxiliary tank (or names of other parts connected) Fuel pressure-pump (power pump) Fuel hand -pump Fuel press ure-gage pipe Fuel pressure-gage tee Fuel pressure pipe to tank Fuel pressure-pump pipe Fuel hand-pump pipe Fuel hand-pump tee Fuel pressure gage GASOLINE 255 DIVISION V EXHAUST SYSTEM Group 1 — Exhaust Manifold Exhaust manifold Exhaust manifold gasket Group 2 — Exhaust Pipe and Muffler Muffler Exhaust pipe (extends from exhaust manifold to muffler. If in more than one part, name sec- tions front and rear. For V-type engines with two pipes, name right and left) Muffler outlet pipe DIVISION VI LUBRICATION SYSTEM Group 1 — Oil-pan or Reservoir Oil -pan Oil tank (when separate) Oil-filler strainer Oil -filler cap Group 2 — Oil-pump Oil-pump Oil-pump body (any type of pump) Oil-pump plunger Oil-pump-plunger spring Oil-pump inlet valve Oil -pump outlet valve Oil-pump shaft 256 GASOLINE Oil-pump shaft gear (outside the pump) Oil-pumping shaft gear (inside the pump) Oil-pumping follower gear Oil-pump cover Group 3 — Oil Pipes, Strainers, Gages . (Oil pipes should be named from the parts they connect, as "Oil-pump to pressure-gage pipe") Circulating-oil strainer Oil strainer cap Sight feed Sight-feed glass OiJ level-gage Oil level-gage float Oil level-gage glass Oil pressure-gage DIVISION VII IGNITION Group 1 — Spark-plugs, Cables and Switches Spark-plugs Spark-pl ug cables (numbered according to cylinders) Coil high-tension cable (Low-tension cables should be named from the parts they connect, as: "Storage battery to ignition switch cable." (In case of more than one conductor the cable should be designated as double, triple, etc.) GASOLINE 257 Ignition coil Ignition switch Dry cell (two or more cells make a dry battery) Group 2 — Ignition Distributor Ignition-distributor breaker Ignition-distributor breaker-arm Ignition-distributor breaker-arm point Ignition-distributor fixed breaker-point Ignition-distributor brush Ignition-distributor shaft Ignition-distributor shaft gear Group 3 — Magneto Magneto Magneto distributor Magneto breaker-box Magneto breaker-arm Magneto fixed breaker-point Magneto breaker-arm point Magneto distributor brush Magneto-collector-ring brush Magneto coupling, pump end Magneto coupling, center member Magneto coupling, magneto end Group 4 — Ignition Control Spark control rod (name parts connected) 258 GASOLINE (Other control parts named as explained under throttle control) DIVISION VIII STARTING AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT General A one-unit system uses a starter-generator. A two-unit system uses a generator and a starting motor A combined unit system uses a duplex starter- generator. Group 1 — Generator Generator Generator brush Generator brush-holder Generator gear Generator shaft Generator coupling (members as indicated under magneto coupling) Group 2 — Starting Motor Starting motor Starting-motor brush Starting-motor brush-holder Starting-motor pinion Starting-motor intermediate gear Starting-motor intermediate-gear shaft GASOLINE 959 Starting-motor intermediate pinion Overrunning clutch Group 3 — Wiring (Cables and conduits should be named from parts they connect) Starting switch Starting-switch pedal (or lever) Group 4 — Battery Storage battery Filler cap Terminal post Connector strip DIVISION IX MISCELLANEOUS ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT Group 1 — ■ Lamps and Wiring Head lamp Tail lamp Side lamp Instrument lamp Tonneau lamp Dome lamp Pillar lamp Inspection lamp Inspection-lamp cord Inspection-lamp plug 260 GASOLINE Inspection-lamp socket Head-lamp socket Head-lamp support Head-lamp support tie rod Tail-lamp support (Cables and conduits should be named from the parts they connect) Junction box (wires not attached to box) Junction-box screw Junction-box cover Fuse box Fuse-box cover Fuse block Fuse clip Fuse (designated by name of part fed by circuit) Junction panel Group 2 — Switches and Instruments Lighting switch Ammeter Voltmeter Voltammeter Charging indicator Reverse current cutout Current regulator Group 3 — Horn (No names have been selected for horn parts) GASOLINE 261 Group 4 — Miscellaneous (Will include any additional electrical equipment such as electrical gearshift) DIVISION X CLUTCH General Plate clutch (one plate clamped between two others) Disk clutch (more than three disks) Dry disk clutch Lubricated disk clutch Cone clutch (leather faced, asbestos faced) Expanding clutch Group 1 — Clutching Parts Cone Clutch Clutch cone CJutch facing Clutch-facing spring Clutch-facing-spring plunger Clutch spring Clutch thrust-bearing Clutch cone hub Clutch cone bushing Clutch-spring spider (for cone clutch with multiple springs) Clutch-spring stud 262 GASOLINE Clutch-spring retainer Clutch-spring nut Clutch spindle Clutch shaft (not attached to crankshaft) Clutch shaft bearing (not in transmission case) Disk Clutch Clutch case (rotating member) Clutch housing (non-rotating member) Clutch cover Clutch housing cover Clutch driving disk Clutch driven disk Clutch driving disk stud Clutch pressure plate (front and rear," if two — used on both disk and plate clutches) Clutch driven spider (or drum — driving and driven if two) Clutch cork-inserts (Facing, spring, thrust-bearing, etc., as under cone clutch) Plate Clutch Clutch driven plate Clutch driving plate Clutch pressure levers (Other parts as under cone and disk clutches') g a s o l i n e |aa Group 2 — Releasing Parts Clutch release sleeve Clutch release shoe or clutch release bearing housing Clutch release bearing Clutch release fork Clutch release fork shaft Clutch pedal shaft Clutch pedal adjusting link Clutch release fork lever Clutch pedal Clutch pedal pad Clutch brake Clutch brake facing DIVISION XI TRANSMISSION Group 1 — Transmission Transmission case (upper half and lower half, if bearings seat in both) Transmission case cover Clutch gear Clutch gear bearing (front and rear if two) Clutch gear bearing retainer Countershaft Countershaft front bearing (if ball or roller) Countershaft front bearing bushing (if plain bear- ing) 264 GASOLINE Countershaft front bearing retainer Countershaft rear bearing retainer Countershaft drive gear Countershaft second-speed gear Countershaft low-speed gear Countershaft reverse gear Reverse idler gear Reverse idler gear shaft Reverse idler gear bushing Transmission shaft Transmission shaft pilot bearing Transmission shaft pilot bearing bushing (if plain) Transmission shaft rear bearing Transmission shaft rear bearing retainer Second and high sliding gear Low and reverse sliding gear Group 2 — Shifting Mechanism High-gear shift fork Low-gear shift fork Reverse shift fork (if three are used) High-gear shift bar Low-gear shift bar Reverse shift bar Group 3 — Control Gearshift bar selector Gearshift lever shaft' GASOLINE 265 Low gearshift connecting-rod High gearshift connecting-rod Gearshift hand lever ("hand" may be omitted) Gearshift hand lever bracket ("hand" may be omitted) Gearshift housing (center control) Gearshift gate Group 4 — Propeller-shaft Propeller-shaft Propeller-shaft front universal-joint (assembly — "propeller-shaft" may be omitted) Propeller-shaft rear ■ universal- joint (assembly — "propeller-shaft" may be omitted) Propeller-shaft front bearing (with enclosed shaft) Transmission shaft universal-joint flange (sub- stitute name of any other shaft on which flange is mounted) Universal- joint flange yoke Universal-joint slip yoke Universal- joint plain yoke Universal-joint center cross (ring or block) Universal- joint bearing bushing Universal-joint pin (may be designated as long and short, straight and shoulder, etc.) Universal-joint inner casing Universal-joint outer casing 266 GASOLINE Universal- joint casing packing Universal-joint casing nut Universal-joint trunnion (for trunnion type joint) Universal-joint trunnion block DIVISION XII REAR AXLE General Types Dead Axle — An axle carrying road wheels with no provision in the axle itself for driving them. Live Axle — General name for type of axle with concentric driving shaft. Plain Live Axle — Has shafts supported directly in bearings at center and at ends, carrying differen- tial and road wheels. (The plain live axle is practically extinct.) Semi-Floating Axle — - Has differential carried on separate bearings, the inner ends of the shafts being carried by the differential side gears, and the outer ends supported in bearings. The semi-floating axle shaft carries torsion, bending moment, and shear. It also carries tension and compression if the wheel bearings do not take thrust, and compression if they take thrust in only one direction. Three-Quarter Floating Axle — Inner ends of shafts carried as in semi-floating axle. Outer ends G A S O L I N K 287 supported by wheels, which depend on shafts For alignment. Only one bearing is used in each wheel hub. The three-quarter floating axle shaft carries tor- sion and the bending moment imposed by the wheel on corners and uneven road surfaces. It also carries tension and compression if the wheel bearings are not arranged to take thrust. Full-Floating Axle — Same as three-quarter float- ing axle, except that each wheel has two bearings and does not depend on shaft for alignment. The wheel may be driven by a flange or a jaw clutch. The full-floating axle shaft is relieved from all strains except torsion, and in one possible construc- tion, tension and compression. Types of Axle Drive The different types of live axle can be driven by Bevel Gear, Spiral Bevel Gear, Worm, Double-reduction Gear or Single Chain. In other constructions, the rear wheels are driven by Double Chains, Internal Gears, or Jointed Cross- shaft. Group 1 — Housing Rear-axle housing (if one piece) Right and left halves (if two pieces) 268 GASOLINE Bevel (or worm) gear housing Right rear-axle tube ^> (if three pieces) Left rear-axle tube Rear-axle-housing cover Differential carrier (bolted to housing) Rear-axle spring seat Axle brake-shaft bracket (right and left) Wheel brake-support, right and left ("wheel" may be omitted) Wheel brake-shield ("wheel" may be omitted) Group 2 — Torque-arm and Radius-rod Radius-rods Group 3 — Drive Pinion Axle drive bevel pinion (or worm) Axle drive pinion (or worm) shaft Axle drive pinion front bearing Axle drive pinion rear bearing Axle drive pinion thrust-bearing Axle drive pinion front bearing adjuster Axle drive pinion front bearing adjuster lock Axle drive pinion rear bearing adjuster Axle drive pinion rear bearing adjuster lock Axle drive pinion adjusting sleeve (containing both bearings) Axle drive pinion (or worm) carrier GASOLINE 269 Group 4 — Differential Axle drive bevel (or worm) gear Differential Differential case, right Differential case, left Differential side gear Differential spider pinion ("spider" may be omitted) Differential spider (or pinion shaft) Differential bearing Differential thrust-bearing Differential bearing adjuster Differential bearing adjuster lock Group 5 — Axle Shafts Axle shaft (right and left) Axle shaft wheel-flange (or clutch) DIVISION XIII BRAKES General In the following list of brake parts the terms "outer" and "inner" are used, being applicable to any case of two sets of brakes on the rear wheels. Where the brakes are external and internal these terms may be substituted for "outer" and "inner." Where one brake is located at the wheels and the other at the transmission the terms "wheel brake" 270 GASOLINE and "transmission brake" should be substituted. With other concentric or side-by-side brakes the terms "outer" and "inner" should be retained, "outer" indicating in the latter case the ones nearer the wheels. The list is made up for external contracting and internal expanding brakes. If both brakes are of one type the necessary changes will be obvious. The designation of brake parts on the rear axle as foot-brake or hand-brake parts, or by equivalent terms, is too remote to be clear, especially in the case of stock axles whose brakes may be connected either way according to chassis design. Nearly the same condition prevails in regard to designating parts on the chassis according to whether they are connected to the inner or outer brakes at the axle. The terms "service brake" and "emergency brake" should not be used. Better designations are "foot brake" and "hand brake"; or if both brakes foot-operated, "right-foot brake" and "left -foot brake." Group 1 — Outer Brake Outer brake band Outer brake band lining Outer brake band adjusting nut (yoke, etc.) GASOLINE 271 Outer brake hand lever Outer brake lever shaft Outer brake shaft inner end lever Outer brake shaft outer end lever Group 2 — Inner Brake Inner brake shoe (or band) Inner brake shoe (or band) lining Inner brake toggle (link, etc.) Inner brake toggle lever Inner brake toggle shaft Inner brake cam Inner brake camshaft Inner brake camshaft (or toggle shaft) lever Group 3 — Pedal (or outer) Brake Control Outer brake rod Outer brake rod yoke Outer brake intermediate shaft (or tube) — right and left Outer brake intermediate shaft (or tube) — right lever Outer brake intermediate shaft (or tube) — left lever Outer brake intermediate shaft (or tube ) center lever Outer brake right equalizer lever Outer brake left equalizer lever 272 GASOLINE Outer brake equalizer Brake pedal Brake pedal rod Brake pedal rod yoke Brake pedal pad Brake pedal shaft Group 4 — Hand (or inner) Brake Control Inner brake rod Inner brake rod yoke Inner brake intermediate shaft (or tube) — right and left Inner brake intermediate shaft (or tube) — right lever Inner brake intermediate shaft (or tube) — left lever Inner brake intermediate shaft (or tube) — center lever Inner brake right equalizer lever Inner brake left equalizer lever Inner brake equalizer Brake hand lever rod Brake hand lever rod yoke Brake hand lever Brake lever segment (or sector) Brake lever pawl Brake pawl spring G A S L I N E 273 Brake pawl button Brake pawl finger lever Brake pawl rod DIVISION XIV FRONT AXLE AND STEERING Group 1 — Axle Center Front axle center Front spring seats Front axle bushing Group 2 — Steering-knuckles Right steering-knuckle Left steering-knuckle Steering-knuckle bushing (upper and lower) Steering-knuckle pivot Steering-knuckle-pivot nut Steering-knuckle thru s t-bearing Right steering-knuckle arm Left steering-knuckle arm Steering-knuckle gear rod arm Group 3 — Steering-rods Steering-knuckle tie-rod Steering-knuckle tie-rod end Steering-knuckle tie-rod clamp bolt Steering-knuckle tie-rod pin Steering-gear connecting-rod 274 GASOLINE Group 4 — Steering-gear Steering-gear case Steering-gear-case cover Steering-gear bracket Steering-gear arm Steering-arm shaft (if separate from sector or other operating member) Steering-wheel rim Steering-wheel spider Steering-wheel tube (or shaft) Spark and throttle sector Spark and throttle sector tube Spark hand lever Spark hand-lever tube (or rod) Throttle hand lever Throttle hand-lever tube (or rod) Steering-column tube (stationary) Steering-column cowl (or dash or floor) bracket The various bushings in the steering column take names from parts to which they are permanently fitted, being further distinguished as upper and lower, inner and outer, if necessary. Bushings in the steering-gear case take names from the worm and sector or other main operating parts which they support, as: Steering-gear worm upper bushing; GASOLINE 275 although the steering-wheel tube may be the mem- ber which turns inside the bushing. Steering worm ) , . ~, , J (worm and sector bteermg-worm sector (or gear; > ' , Steering-worm shaft ) DIVISION XV WHEELS Group 1 — Front wheels Front wheel felloe Front wheel felloe band Front wheel rim Rim bolts Rim clamps Front wheel hub Front wheel hub-flanges Front wheel hub -cap Front wheel outer bearing Front wheel outer bearing inner race Front wheel outer bearing outer race Front wheel outer bearing balls Front wheel outer bearing ball retainer Front wheel outer bearing rollers Front wheel outer bearing roller cage Front wheel inner bearing (parts same as outer bearing) Front wheel bearing spacer 276 GASOLINE Front wheel bearing nut Front wheel bearing lock nut ' Front wheel bearing locking washer Group 2 — Rear Wheels Rear wheel hub Rear wheel hub-flange Rear wheel hub-cap Rear wheel outer bearing Rear wheel inner bearing Wheel brake-drum (Other parts named like front wheel parts) DIVISION XVI FRAME AND SPRINGS Group 1 — Frame Frame side member (right and left) Front cross member Rear cross member Center cross member (As above if only three cross members, as below if more than three) First cross member Second cross member, etc. Sub-frame side member (right and left) Sub-frame cross member (front and rear) Right rear gusset (upper and lower) (Gussets at other cross members named according to member) GASOLINE 277 Group 2 — Frame Brackets and Sockets Front spring front bracket (right and left) Front spring rear bracket (right and left) Rear spring front bracket (right and left) Rear spring rear bracket (right and left) Running-board bracket (front, right, etc., if not duplicates) Running-board bracket brace Engine front support bracket Engine rear support bracket Torque-arm bracket Radius-rod bracket Group 3 — Front Springs Front spring (right and left) Front spring shackle Front spring shackle-bolt (upper and lower) Front spring front bolt Front spring rebound-clip Front spring seat Front spring seat pad Front spring clip Front spring clip plate Front spring center-bolt Group 4 — Rear Springs Rear springs (upper . and lower for elliptic and three-quarter elliptic) GASOLINE Rear spring pivot bolt (or pin) / (for half-elliptic Rear spring pivot seat J cantilever spring) Rear spring double shackle | Rear side spring - (for platform spring) Cross spring ) (Other parts as for front springs) DIVISION XVII HOOD, FENDERS AND SHIELDS Group 1 — Hood Hood Hood sill Hood handle Hood fastener Hood fastener bracket (spring, lever, etc.) Group 2 — Engine Shield Engine shield Engine shield fastener Engine shield bracket (spring, etc.) Group 3 — Fenders and Running-boards Running-board (right and left) Running-board linoleum covering Running-board outside binding Running-board inside binding Running-board front binding Running-board rear binding Running-board shield (right and left) GASOLINE 279 Right front fender Left front fender Right rear fender Left rear fender Fender support socket Right front fender front support Right front fender rear support (Other fender supports accordingly) Group 4 — Windshield (Names for windshield parts have not been selected) DIVISION XVIII BODY Types of Bodies Roadster — An open car seating two or three. It may have additional seats on running-boards or in rear deck. Coupelet — Seats two or three. It has a folding top and full-height doors with disappearing panels of glass . Coupe — An inside operated, enclosed car seat- ing two or three. A fourth seat facing backward is sometimes added. Convertible Coupe — A roadster provided with a detachable coupe top. Clover Leaf — An open car seating three or four. The rear seat is close to the divided front seat and en- trance is only through doors in front of the front seat, 280 GASOLINE Touring Car — An open car seating four or more with direct entrance to tonneau. Salon Touring Car — A touring car with passage between front seats, with or without separate en- trance to front seats. Convertible Touring Car — A touring car with folding top and disappearing or removable glass sides. Sedan — A closed car seating four or more, all in one compartment. Convertible Sedan — A salon touring car pro- vided with a detachable sedan top. Open Sedan — -A sedan so constructed that the sides can be removed or stowed so as to leave the space entirely clear from the glass front to the back. Limousine — A closed car seating three to five inside, with driver's seat outside, covered with a roof. Open Limousine — A touring car with permanent standing top and disappearing or removable glass sides. Berline — A limousine having the driver' s seat entirely inclosed. Brougham — A limousine with no roof over the driver's seat. Landaulet — A closed car with folding top, seats for three or more inside, and driver's seat outside. GASOLINE 281 Group 1 — Floor-boards and Dash Floor-boards (horizontal) Toe-boards (sloping) Heel-boards (under seats) Dash (separates engine compartment from driver's compartment) Instrument board Group 2 — Body* Group 3 — Upholstering* Group 4 — Top* DIVISION XIX ACCESSORIES Group 1 — Speedometer* Group 2 — ■ Tire-pump Tire-pump Tire-pump driving gear Tire-pump shaft gear Tire-pump idler gear *Names for parts in these groups have not been selected. {' Date Due 1 A APR 1° 10 QS I f ~x BOSTON COLLEGE 3 9031 01449603 8 BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY HEIGHTS CHESTNUT HILL, MASS. Books may be kept for two weeks and may be renewed for the same period, unless re- served. Two cents a day is charged for each book kept overtime. If you cannot find what you want, ask the Librarian who will be glad to help you. The borrower is responsible for books drawn on his card and for all fines accruing on the same.