V ^ - 4 - t t I / ■ - \ » '] / X • ;/ > • ■■ A / A GRAMMAR OF THE V LATIN LANGUAGE. REV. D. YENNI, S. J.,^ PROFESSOR OF GREEK AND LATIN IN SPRINGHILL COLLEGE.. Quo minus sunt ferendi qui hanc artem ut tenuem cavillantnr, qua nisi oratorls futuri fundamenta jecerR quidquid superstruxeris, corruet: neeessaria pueris, Jucanda senibus, quae vel sola ex omni studiorua genere plus habeat operis quam osteutationis. Quin til. de Inst. Or at., L. I., e. 4 . NEW YORK: D. & J. SADLIER & CO., 31, BARCLAY STREET. MONTREAL: COR. NOTRE-DAME & ST. FRANCIS XAYIER STREET. 1878. BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRAKY CJTESTNOT MILL, MASS. Entered according to act of Congress, In the year 1866, by D. YENNI, £b t&e Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United Shaiaa, for the Southern District of Nevr Yom. CONTENTS ELEMENTARY PART. CHAPTER I. SUBSTANTIVES. PAS® Cases and Declensions. 9 Paradigms of the five declensions.10-11 CHAPTER II. Exceptions in declension . 13 First declension. 13 Second declension. 13 Third declension. 13 Fourth declension. 14 Irregular and compound substantives.15 Buies of Gender .*. 15 In reference to signification. 15 In reference to termination.17 Some particulars about substantives . 20 Declension of Greek words. First declension. 22 Second declension.22 Third declension.22 CHAPTER III. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives of three endings. 24 Adjectives of two endings..... 25 Adjectives of one ending.28 Comparison of adjectives.28 Irregular and defective comparison. 29 Numeral adjectives. 30 CHAPTER IY. PRONOUNS. Personal pronouns 32 iv ✓ CONTENTS. PAGE Demonstrative pronouns. 33 Relative and interrogative pronouns. 34 Indefinite pronouns. 35 Possessive pronouns.„. 3G Correlative pronouns. 86 CHAPTER Y. THE VERB. Division of verbs.37 Voices, Moods, Tenses. 37 Gerunds, Supines, Participles... 38 Tlie conjugations....*.39 The verb esse, “ to be ”....... 40 Table of the personal endings.. 42 The Active of the four regular conjugations. 44 Notes on the Active voice.. 46 Notes on the Passive voice. 47 Verbs in -io of the third conjugation...48 Deponent verbs. 50 Periphrastic conjugation. 51 List of perfects and supines. First conjugation..53 Second conjugation. 55 ^hirdconjugation... 57 Inceptives (inchoatives). 62 Fourth conjugation..... 63 List of perfects of deponents. Deponents of the first conjugation....... 64 Deponents of the second conjugation..... 64 Deponents of the third conjugation...65 Deponents of the fourth conjugation. 65 Exercises on the perfects and supines...... 66 Irregular verbs..... 67 Defective verbs. 70 Impersonal verbs.*. .....; ...71 CHAPTER YI. PARTICLES. Adverbs.. ......... .73 Prepositions. 74 ’ Prepositions in composition. 76 Inseparable prepositions.......76 Conjunctions.».. 77 CONTENTS. y Interjections.... 77 General directions and cautions. 78 SYNTAX. Subject and predicate...80 Sentences and clauses. 80 CHAPTER I. THE FOUR CONCORDS. I. Of the finitive verb with its nominative. 81 II. Of the adjective with its substantive. 82 III. Of the relative with its antecedent. 84 IV. Of a substantive with a substantive. 86 CHAPTER II. The interchange of the Act. and Pass, constructions. 87 The English conjunction that .88 Use of quod. 88 Use of ut. 89 Use of quo.;. 91 Use of ne. 92 Use of quin. 93 Use of quominus. 94 The accusative with the infinitive. 94 The nominative with the infinitive. 99 Questions and answers.100 Simple questions.100 Double questions. 102 The answers yes and no. ...104 CHAPTER III. SUBSTANTIVES. A substantive answering to the question whose ? . 104 A substantive expressing a quality of another. ..105 A substantive expressing the situation of the subject.106 A substantive limiting the meaning of another.106 A substantive denoting price or value . .107 A substantive denoting cause, manner, etc.107 A substantive denoting extent of space.109 A substantive denoting the time when . 109 Construotu of the names of cities.,....112 VI CONTENTS. PAG* Construction of domus, rus, and humus .113 Use of tlie vocative.114 CHAPTER IV. Adjectives. Government of adjectives. Adjectives governing the genitive.,114 Adjectives governing tlie dative.118 Adjectives governing the ablative.119 Use of the comparative. Comparison by quam .120 Comparison without quam .121 Numeral adjectives. Cardinals (mille, millia). 125 Ordinals.127 Distributives.... - ..127 CHAPTER V, PKONOUNS. Personal and possessive pronouns.128 Demonstrative pronouns.130 Reflexive pronouns. 132 Relative and indefinite pronouns.134 CHAPTER VI. THE VEHB. Government of verbs. Verbs with two nominatives.139 Verbs governing the genitive......140 Verbs governing the dative.147 Verbs governing the accusative.155 Verbs governing the ablative.159 Tenses of Verbs Present and imperfect.163 Perfect and pluperfect...164 Future andfut. perfect..,165 Sequence of tenses. ,..168 Moods of verbs. Indicative . 169 Subjunctive .171 Subjunctive in independent sentences.171 Subjunctive after particles.173 Subjunctive in condi onal sentences.176 CONTENTS • t Yll PAG E gubjunc# e in relative sentences.*. 173 Subjunctive in intermediate clauses. 183 Subjunctive in general sentences.184 Imperative.185 Infinitive.183 Infinitive in indirect narration.187 Use of the participle in dus . 180 Use of the gerunds.....192 Genitive of the gerund.192 Dative of the gerund..193 Accusative of the gerund.194 Ablative of the gerund.194 CJse of the supines.195 The supine in urn .195 The supine in u .196 The construction of participles.197 CHAPTER VII. PARTICLES. I. Adverbs., ..203 II. Prepositions.207 III. Conjunctions.210 APPENDIX. I. Ellipsis. 213 II. Figures of syntax. 215 III. The Roman Calendar.217 Method of reducing Roman time to our own.219 Method of reducing our time to Roman.220 PROSODY. CHAPTER I. General rules. 1. A vowel before a vowel in Latin words. 2. A vowel before a vowel in Greek words. 8 . Diphthongs and contracted syllables... 4. Position...... 5. Mute and liquid... Special rules. G. Preterites of two syllables. 7. Reduplicating preterites... ,221 ,222 223 223 224 ..224 ..225 Till CONTENTS 8. Supines of two syllables.225 9. Polysyllabic supines...226 10. Derivative words.226 11. Compound words.227 12. Prepositions in composition.227 13. A,E, I, 0 in composition.228 CHAPTER II. INCREMENTS. Increments of nouns. 230 Increments of the first two decl. sing.230 Increments of tbe third decl. sing.231 Plural increments of nouns.234 Increments of verbs.235 CHAPTER III. I. Quantity of penults.237 II. Quantity of final syllables. .239 CHAPTER IV. Versification. Feet. Metre. Verse. .246 Rhythm. Arsis. Thesis.248 Caesura. Scanning. Figures.248 Dactylic metre... 250 Dactylic hexameter...250 Rules for the structure of hexameters.* .251 Dactylic pentameter.254 Rules for the structure of pentameters. 255 lambic metre.255 . Trochaic metre.257 The lyric metres of Horace.257 Index of the odes of Horace.26© Rhyming versification. 261 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 1. The present Work is the fruit of the Author’s thirty years’ experience as a Classical Teacher, in Germany and in America. In this country, he has found the chief obstacles to solid Classical acquirements to be: first, the hasty and consequently superficial study of Grammatical elements, and secondly, the imperfection and deficiencies of Grammatical treatises. On the one hand, the Student is hurried forward to translation, before he has mastered the rudi¬ ments ; on the other, the Grammars that are given to his use, are either beyond his capacitj 7 because they are too learned and phi¬ losophical,—or too extensive, embodying all possible minutiae of words and forms of no real and practical use,—or, again, too short and defective, passing over in silence matters of paramount im¬ portance, such as the rules of gender, the perfects and supines of verbs, and treating, if at all, many questions of Syntax in a very superficial and desultory manner. 2. To present to the friends of Latin Literature a Grammar, as far as possible, free from these inconveniences, it has been our main effort to combine brevity, comprehensiveness, and method. We have discarded, with that view, a number of preliminary remarks, definitions, divisions, and subdivisions, and all matters, in fine, which, belonging to General Grammar, are justly presupposed to be familiar to the Student from a previous study of his own language, or which, if peculiar to the Latin Tongue, may easily be supplied orally by the teacher himself. The present Work thereby gains the advantage, that it adapts itself to any preceding stage of learn¬ ing and method of instruction, and the fresh energies of the be¬ ginner, instead of lingering at the very outset, are at once started into full play. 2 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 3. The declensions, as well as the conjugations, have been placed side by side, in order to produce a stronger and more lasting impression on the eye and mind of the pupil, and to render a reference to them as easy as possible.—To the Paradigms both of the declensions and adjectives, vocabularies have been added which should be carefully committed to memory and recited, at the rate of ten or fifteen words every day. The same practice of learning the Rules of Gender and the Perfects and Supines of Verbs, we most earnestly recommend. Experience teaches how successful this practice is, and how the young Latinist feels en¬ couraged, when in the course of a few weeks, he finds himself, by means of the stock of words thus acquired, capable not only of translating short narratives into his own native Tongue, but of framing by himself simple Latin sentences, without a continual, irksome recourse to the dictionary. Mindful of Seneca’s : Longum est iter per proecepta, breve et efficaoc per exempla ,—we have with un¬ sparing hand collected in the Syntax a great variety of Classical examples, which exhibit each rule in its various shades and lights, and supply the Student not only with exercises for translation, but chiefly with models for imitation. A short example, in heavier type, has been prefixed to every rule of the Syntax, according to Lhomond’s method, so that, when called upon to account for some case, construction, or form, the pupil may, instead of reciting the rule at full length, equivalently express it by merely quoting the Heading. 4. In preparing the Grammar here presented to the public, we have availed ourselves of the labors of the very first Grammarians and Lexicographers of Germany, England, France, and Italy, in¬ corporating with borrowed materials such observations and arrange¬ ments as the experience of so many years has suggested. It is, therefore, not originality that is claimed for the present Work, but utility. No new system has been invented; no new method introduced. The work thus compiled we intend not only for Students actually going through a regular course of Classical studies in Schools and Colleges, but for such also as may deem a private review of the Latin Grammar available. We intend it equally for both the Higher and Lower Classes : for we do not share the opinion of those who require a Latin Primer for begin¬ ners, and a Quarto Grammar for adepts, as a necessary condition of a successful Classical education. We rather think that Gram¬ mar best calculated to insure final success, which provides eqnally INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 3 for all, which goes with the child and the youth, from year to year, from Class to Class, as a dear companion and trusty guide. In this vade mecwn, the more talented pupil will have a treasure from which to store his mind and fit himself for a superior Course, while the less talented pupil .will have a Mentor to clear up his doubts,— and both will be benefited gradually, naturally,—as the constant perusal of the same book will, by strengthening local memory, render its use more agreeable. “ The force of first associations,” wisely remarks B. A. Gould in his Preface to Adam’s Latin Gram¬ mar, “renders it almost impossible to use a different Grammar from that first learned, with the same readiness. The page, the situation on the page, the type, and other circumstances connected with it in the memory, all contribute to facilitate the turning to any rule or observation desired. And no small loss of time is oc¬ casioned by the confusion which results from having learned two or three Grammars of the same language.” 5. In order to prevent an incorrect pronunciation on the part of the learner, several Grammarians on this Continent have thought it, if not necessary, at least expedient, to make use of accents and other signs of Prosody. Indeed, the Author himself has occasionally employed them, though for the most part in the case of such words only as are of less frequent occurrence, e. g., perbrevis, trucido, infldus , etc., or such as, having some derivative in English, may easily mislead the pupil in his accentuation, e. g., confidens, instigo, irrito, suffdco (Engl., confident, instigate, irritate, suffocate), etc.— In general, however, we believe that the best, and perhaps the only means of imparting a correct pronunciation, is the vox viva magisin together with the teacher’s constant, persevering care that every word shall be correctly uttered and, whenever a fault has been committed, that the learner shall repeat the word properly. Where this attention is wanting, all signs and marks will prove, if not utterly useless, at least of very little avail: they will serve only to fatigue the eye, confuse the mind, and impede an easy, fluent dic¬ tion. We appeal to experience for the fact. 6. To many teachers, a regular series of exercises, such as are found in several of the modern Elementary Books, will doubtless seem to be wanting in this Volume. After mature deliberation, the Author has deemed it unadvisable to insert any besides the ex¬ amples illustrating the Rules. And this for several reasons: (1.) not to render the Work too voluminous and costly; (2.) to 4 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. place the different matters of both the Elementary and Syntactical Parts, in close, uninterrupted connection, before the eyes of the Student; and (3) because he is fully convinced that far greater advantage is derived from those exercises, which the teacher him¬ self carefully prepares beforehand and skilfully adapts to his own previous explanations, as well as to the capacity and the advance¬ ment of his scholars, than from those which of late are met with in several so-called First and Second Latin Books.—These Books will, no doubt, be of use in the hands of a skilful master, who is able to change any sentence at will, to adapt the same example now to this, now to that rule, and to include such difficulties, as the state and progress of his pupils may require or permit: but, as Text¬ books, the Author thinks, that, so far from forming solid and thorough Latinists, they are more apt to paralyze the activity of both teacher and pupil. T. Yet, although averse to such books, he is far from being op¬ posed to the writing of exercises ; nay, he would most earnestly recommend them and urge their daily practice. And, indeed, what are lessons, rules, theories, but a preparation for the more important task of composition ? From the very outset, therefore, the pupil should be dibOcted to form Latin sentences by means of the declen¬ sion or declensions he has already mastered, together with a few forms of sum, esse , or of any other verb, either previously explained or dictated, at the time, in the required person, number, tense, and mood. In the General Directions and Cautions (§ 84), both teacher and pupil will find, even before entering on the study of Syntax, ample and more than sufficient matter for a variety of exercises, during the Course of the first year. 8. Two kinds of exercises should every day keep pace together: viz., translating from Latin into English, which, for brevity’s sake, we call Version (written translation), and translating from English into Latin, which we call Theme (written Latin exercises). Which of the two is the more important, we will not decide. One thing is certain, that the Theme shows the real proficiency of a Student, as there is less room for mere guess-work. On the other hand, the Version is the best preparation for the Theme, as it furnishes to the thinking scholar Latin forms, original expressions, which may enable him to imitate successfully the Roman models of History, Poetry, and Eloquence. It has, besides, this unparallelled advan¬ tage, to which wo call the special attention of pupils, parents, and INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 5 directors, in this our commercial age and country, that it is by far the best, almost the only way to learn one’s own language scientifically and radicall}', first, by the knowledge of derivatives, and then, by the endeavour to exhibit in a modern dress the blended strength and beauty of the Original,—an effort, which, to be successful, must be renewed again and again, and which, if con¬ tinued with patient constancy, will far better and sooner than a mere English course of study, lead to literary preeminence. 9. The Author would, moreover, call the attention of every Classical teacher to another kind of exercise, calculated to produce immense fruits in a very short time. This exercise is called Prcelectio (Explanation). It is the teacher’s own. Let him every day read to his pupils ten or twelve lines from one of the best Latin authors, and, having given first a literal translation, make on every leading word all the grammatical, literary, and miscel¬ laneous observations of which it is susceptible, ending his expla¬ nation with a fluent translation in the best English possible ; let him, in fine, require of the students, for the next day, after committing to memory the passage, to give an oral repetition of what he him¬ self has said, with such additional remarks of their own, as re¬ flection or research may have suggested. It is incredible how much this exercise, even alone, can achieve, if properly performed : but when the Prcelectio is daily gone through, and that for several years, together with the Version and the Theme, a thorough knowledge of Latin must be the happy and natural result. The Student, en¬ riched with an abundant stock of Classical words and phrases, and encouraged by the example of his teacher, will soon begin to express confidently and boldly, in Classical diction, his own thoughts and feelings, and free himself from that embarrass¬ ment in speaking Latin which even Scholars, otherwise proficient in the study of ancient authors, are often unable to overcome. 10. Thus do we understand Classical training: thus was it un¬ derstood for centuries. But where the method of frequent^ com¬ position united to a constant and progressive reading of the best Latin authors is wanting, where both teacher and pupils con¬ tent themselves with a cursory, often but oral, perusal of some printed exercises, there results no improving influence on na¬ tional literature, and no solid, no lasting fruit of Classical educa¬ tion can be expected. Though we may be ranked among the laudatores temporis acti of Horace, still we fear not to assert that G INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. fifty years ago Latin was much better and more solidly known than now-a-days, despite the progress and inventions of the age. How often have we met with Students, who, after having spent several years at school, when they applied for admission into College, being questioned concerning their previous studies, boldly answered: “We have read so many books of Cmsar—so many of Virgil—so many Orations of Cicero, etc./ 7 —but who, when more closely examined, not indeed on Philosophy, not on intricate Syntactical questions, but on the very first elements of Grammar, on the conjugations, and even the declensions, were not able to answer, still less to arrange five or six words into a simple, but complete and correct Latin sentence ! 11. This sad experience is well depicted and justly lamented by a man of highest authority in these matters,j* in the following passage : “ De scholis inferioribus quid dicam ? Omne studium in eo positum, ut quam plurima pueri discant, discant autem quam brevissimo tempore et quam minimo labore. Belle sane. Bed ista lam multarvm rerum disciplinarumque varietas, quas summis labris attingunt potius adolescentuli quam hauriunt , illud scilicet efficit, ut sibi quidem multa scire videantur et aliquando semidoc¬ tor um turbam, scientiis ceque ac reipublicce, si qua est alia, perni- ciosissimam augeant; at nihil vere ac solide sciant. Ex omnibus aliquid : in toto nihil. Ut percursis bred tempore humanitatis studiis, celate tenerrimi , ingenio etiamnum rudi, ad gradssima phi- losophice superiorumque scientiarum studia accedant, ex quibus cum emolumenti veri capiant ferme nihil , turn major is libertatis usu capti in vitium proecipites rapiuntur, futuri mox doctores, eerie , ut ienissime dicamus, immaturi. Quod autem methodi usque faciliores excogitentur , id si quid habere videtur commodi, habet certe et illud incommodi non parum , quod primum quidem quae sine labore com - parantur, levissime etiam menlibus adheereant, et bred tempore acquisita bred oblidone deleantur ; dein de, quod quidem gravioris longe damni est , licet fortasse minus a plerisque cogitetur, quod ille deperdatur pverilis institutionis fructus vix non proedpuus, ut a teneris annis ad seriam animi applicationem, et ad laborem non sine vi aliqua sibi illata tolerandum assuescant; quod quantum valeat in omnem deinceps oetatem ad pravos animi motus compescendos, et ad imperandum sibi, quotquot fuere saqnentes homines intellexerunt, ei t Rev. J. Roothaan, S. J. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 7 Spiritus Sanctus docet, vhi ait: Bonum est homini, si portaverit jngum ab adolescentia sua.” 12. To conclude: With a sincere desire of promoting Classical studies in tin’s country, and a hope of having contributed our mite to encourage the youthful scholar in his rugged ascent to literary eminence, this Work is respectfully submitted to the friends of Education. Spring-Hill College, near Mobile, Ala. March 19. 1869. The Author. ELEMENTARY PART. CHAPTER I. Substantives. § 1. In every substantive four things are to be observed : gender , number, case, and declension. The cases are six in each number : the nominative, genitive, dative, accusa¬ tive, vocative, and ablative. The nominative answers to— who or what placed before the finite verb : as, “Paul excels.” Who excels ? Paul.—“ The battle rages.” What rages ? The battle.-— “Paul” and “ The battle” are the nominatives. The genitive answers to the question ivhose ? or, of whom or what? asked in con¬ nection with a noun; as, Caesar’s legions conquered? Who conquered ? The legions. Whose legions? Caesar’s.—“Legions” is the nominative ; “ Caesar’s,” the genitive. The dative answers to the question— to whom or what? as, “A misfortune has happened to me.” What has happened ? A misfortune. To whom ? to me.—“ A misfortune” is the nominative ; “ to me,” the dative. The accusative answers to— ivhom or what placed after a verb transitive ; as, “God rules the world.” Who rules? God. Eules what? the world.—“God” is the nominative ; “ the world,” the accusative. The vocative is the case of direct address ; as, “ My son, fly from the wicked.”— “ My son” is the person addressed, and is, therefore, put in the vocative.” The ablative answers to— when? where? from {with, by) whom or what? as, “The body is hardened by labor.” What is hardened ? The body. By what? by labor.— “ The body” is the nominative; “by labor,” the ablative. § 2.—There are five declensions, distinguished by the ending of the genitive 1 2 3 1 4 1 5 £6 | i | is US ei singular. To the first declension belong all substantives that make the gen. sing, in ce ; to the second belong those that make the gen. sing, in i, and so on. To th Q fifth declension belong those that end in es and make the gen. sing, in ei. GENERAL REMARKS. 1. The voc. is throughout like the nom., except in words in us of the second declen¬ sion, which make the voc. sing, in e. 2 . The dat. and abl. plur. are alike in all declensions. 8 . Neuter nouns occur only in the 2d, 3d, and 4th declensions. They have three cases alike : the nom., acc. and voc., and these, cases in the plural end always in a. 10 SUBSTANTIVES 3. Paradigms of the I. II. III. Rosa (f.) a rose. Slave. (m.) Realm. (n.) Lion. (m.) S. N. ros-a, a rose, serv-us, regnum , leo, Q. ros-se, of a rose, serv-i, regn-i, leon-is, T>. ros-88, to a rose, serv-o, regn-o, leon-i. A, ros-am, a rose, serv-um, regnum, leon-em, V. ros-a, 0 rose ! serv-e, regnum, leo, A. | ros-a, with a rose, serv-o, regn-o. leon-e, P. N. ros-se, roses, serv-i, regna, leon-es, Q. ros-arum, of roses, serv-orum, regn-o rum, leon-um. D. ros-is, to roses, serv-i s, regn-is, leon-ibus, A. ros-as, roses, serv-os, regna, leon-es, V. ros-se, 0 roses ! serv-i, regna. leon-es, A. ros-is. with roses. serv-is. regn-is. leon-ibus. First Declension. § 4.—Nouns of the I. Declension end in a, and are of the feminine gender. serumna, hardship. ala, a wing. alauda, a lark. ancilla, a maid. aqua, water. aquila, an eagle. ara, an altar.-. aranea, a spider. arena, sand. arista, an ear of corn. aula, a hall. aura, a breeze. avia, a grandmother. barba, a beard. ealumnia, slander. campana, a bell. candela, a candle. catena, a chain. causa, a cause. cera, wax. charta, paper. ciconia, a stork. coena, a supper. columba, a dove. corona, a croton. culina, a kitchen. culpa, a fault. cura, care. epistola, a letter. fabula, a fable. fama, fame. femina, a woman. fenestra, a window. fistula, a pipe. formica, an ant. fossa, co ditch. fovea, a pit. Decline together : Barba longa — causa justa—columba timida — gemma pretiosa. Regina pia et benigna—formica sedula et labori- osa—turbo perfida et tumultuosa ,— and the like. galea, a helmet. gallina, a hen. gemma, a jewel. gratia, a favor. gutta, a drop. habena, a rein. hasta, a spear. lierba, an herb. bora, an hour. hostia, a victim. injuria, a wrong. inopia, want. insula, an island. invidia, envy ira, anger. jactura, loss. janua, a door. lachryma, a tear. lana, wool. lima, a file. lingua, the tongue. luna, the moon. macula, a stain. memoria, memory . inensa, a table. mica, a crumb. mora, a delay. musca, afiy. nebula, a mist. ora, a coast. pecunia, money. pagina, a page. pluvia, rain. porta, a gate. pneda, booty. proeella, a storm. pugna, a fight. rana, a frog. regina, a queen. riina, a chink. ripa, a bank. rixa, a quarrel. rota, a wheel. ruga, a wrinkle. sagitta, an arrow. sapientia, ivisdom. sarcina, a burden. scintilla, a spark. semita, a path. sententia, an opinion. silva, a wood. simia, an ape. socordia, sloth. spina, a thorn. spnma ,foam. Stella, a star. superbia, pride. tabula, a board. tegula, a tile. tela, a web. terra, the earth. turba, a croivd. turma, a troop. ulna, an ell. umbra, a shade. unda, a wave. ungula, the hoof, uva, a grape. vacea, a cow. venia, leave. via, a road ,, way. vindicta, vengeance, virga, a rod. vita, life. SUBSTANTIVES 11 Five Latin Declensions. iv v. Head. (n.) Step. (m.) Horn. (n.) (Sing, c., Plur. in.) caput, grad-us, corn-u, di-es, a day, capit-is, grad-us. corn-us, di-ei, of a day, capit-i, grad-ui, corn-u, di-ei, to a day, caput, grad-um, corn-u, di-em, a day, caput, grad-us, corn-u, di-es, 0 day ! capit-e, grad-u, corn-u, di-e, on a day,- capita, grad-us. cornua, di-es, days, capit-um, grad-uum, corn-uum, di-erum, of days, capit-ibus. grad-ibus, corn-ibus, di-ebus, to days, capita, grad-us, cornua, di-es. days, capita, grad-us, cornua, di-es, 0 days! capit-ibus. grad-ibus. corn-ibus. di-ebus, on days. Second Declension. § 5.—Nouns of the II. Declension end in us and er (masc.) and in um (neuter.) acervus, a heap. aculeus, a sting. agnus, a lamb. amicus, a friend. angulus, a corner. animus, the mind. annulus, a ring. annus, a year. asinus, an ass. autumn us, the autumn. avus, a grandfather. campus, a plain. cervus, a stag. cibus /food. clavus, a nail. coquus, a cook. corvus, a raven. cumulus, a heap. cuneus, a wedge. cuniculus, a rabbit. digitus, a finger. dolus, deceit. dominus, a lord. equus, a horse. famulus, a servant. figulus, a potter. fiuvius, a river. focus, a hearth. fumus, smoke. fundus, a farm. gladius, a sword. hsedus, a kid. hamus, a hook. herns, a master. hortus, a garden. humerus, a shoulder. juvencus, a bullock. laqueus, a noose. lectus, a bed. legatua, a legate. ludus, a game. lupus, a wolf. malleus, a hammer. medicus, a physician. mendlcus, a beggar. modius, a bushel. modus, a manner. morbus, a disease. mundus, the world. murus, a wall. nidus, a nest. nodus, a knot. numerus, a number. nuncius, a messenger. ocultis, the eye. populus, a people. porcus, a hog. pugnus, the fist. pullus, a chicken. puteus, a ivell. radius, a ray. ramus, a branch. remus, an oar. rivus, a rivulet. sciurus, a squirrel. somnus, sleep. sonus, a sound. taurus, a bull. tumulus, a hillock. urceus, a pitcher. ursus, a bear. ventus, the wind. vicus, a village. vitulus, a calf. argentum, silver. aurum, gold. auxiliuin, help. helium, war. brachium, an arm. collum, the neck. damnum, loss. donum, a gift. ferrum, iron. folium, a leaf. furtum, theft. gaudium, ingenium, genius. initium, a beginning. lignum, wood. lucrum, gain. membrum, a member, mendacium, a lie. negotium, business. odium, hatred. oppidum, a town. ovum, an egg. periculum, a danger. praemium, a reward. pratum, a meadow, pretium, a price. prcelium, a battle. signum, a sign. somnium, a dream, tectum, a roof. telum, a weapon. venenum, poison. verbum, a word. vinculum, a chain. vinum, wine. vitium, vice. vocabulum, a word. Decline together : Cervus timidus—annulus pretiosus—donum pretiosum—templum magnificum. Puer modestus et verecundus — helium longum et perniciosum ,— and the like. 12 SUBSTANTIVES. Third Declension. § 6. Nouns of the III. Decl. end variously, and gene rally increase in the genitive. In this declension special attention must be paid to the Stem, from which, by the addition of the respective endings, all the cases are formed. The Stem of any substantive or adjective is obtained by dropping the ending of the genitive. (m.) flos, oris, a flower. mos, oris, a custom. ros, oris, dew. pedes, itis, a footman. eques, itis, a horseman. fomes, itis, fuel. gorges, itis, a whirlpool. limes, itis, a limit. trames, itis, a path. homo, inis, a man. turbo, inis, a whirlwind. caupo, onis, an innkeeper. carbo, onis, a coal. crabro, onis, a hornet. latro, onis, a robber. prteco, onis, a herald. prtedo, onis, a robber. pulmo, onis, the lungs. sapo, onis, soap. pavo, onis, a peacock. sermo, onis, discourse. tiro, onis, a beginner. aquilo, onis, the north wind. fra ter, tris, a brother. pater, tris, a father. aer, eris, the air. agger, eris, a mound. anser, eris, a goose. asser, eris, a pole. career, eris, a prison. passer, eris, a sparrow. calor, oris, heat. color, oris, color. clamor, oris, a cry. decor, oris, grace. olor, oris, a swan. dolor, oris, pein. lepor, oris, wit. pastor, oris, a shepherd. pudor, oris, shame. rubor, oris, a blush. stupor, oris, amazement. sudor, oris, sweat. timor, oris, fear. (f. concio, Snis, an assembly. ratio, onis, reason. oratio, onis, a speech. suspicio, onis, mistrust. arundo, inis, a reed. formido, inis, fear. hirundo, inis, a sivallow. valetudo, inis, health. caligo, inis, darkness. fuligo, inis, soot. origo, inis, an origin. rubigo, inis, rust. virgo, inis, a virgin. vorago, inis, a gulf. mater, tris, a mother. mulier, eris, a tooman. lex, legis, a law. vox, vocis, the voice. fax, facis, a torch. pax, pacis, peace. crux, crueis, a cross. lux, lucis, light. cervix, Icis, the neck. radix, Icis, a root. laus, laudis, praise. fraus, fraudis, deceit. salus, utis, safety. virtus, utis, virtue. testas, atis, the summer. aetas, atis, an age. bonitas, tis, goodness. brevitas, tis, brevity. civitas, tis, a state. jucunditas, tis, delight. paupertas, tis , poverty. pietas, tis , piety. probitas, tis, honesty. potestas, tis, power. sanitas, tis, health. satietas, tis, satiety. veritas, tis, truth. ubertas, tis, fertility. voluntas, tis, will. voluptas, tis, pleasure. (n.) funus, eris, a funeral. foedus, eris, a covenant. genus, eris, a kind. latus, eris, the side. munus, eris, a gift. onus, eris, a burden. opus, eris, a work. pondus, eris, a weight. scelus, eris, a crime. sidus, eris, a star. ulcus, eris, an ulcer. vulnus, eris, a wound. agmen, Inis, a troop. acumen, inis, acuteness. carmen, inis, a poem. crimen, inis, a crime. culrnen, inis , a summit. volumen, inis, a volume. gramen, inis, grass. limen, inis, the threshold. lumen, inis, light. flumen, inis, a stream,. fulmen, inis, lightning. nomen, inis, a name. nurnen, inis, the Deity. discrlmen, inis, a danger . specimen, inis, a model ebur, oris, ivory. robur, oris, strength. fulgur, uris, a flash. guttur, uris, the throat. murmur, uris, a noise. lei, fellis, the gall. mel, mellis, honey. corpus, oris, a body. decus, oris, honor. dedecus, oris, disgrace. facinus, oris, a deed. frigus, oris, cold. littus, oris, a shore. pectus, oris, the breast. pecus, oris, cattle. pignus, oris, a pledge. ternpus, oris, time. Decline together : Homo ingeniosus—labor continuus—virtus hero' ica—crimen horrendum. Pastor fidus et intrepidus—lex impia et funesta—opus arduum et periculosum ,— and the like. EXCEPTIONS IN DECLENSION, 13 CHAPTER II. I.—Exceptions in declension. II.—Rules of Gender. III.—Some particulars about Substantives. IV.—Declension of Greek words. I.—Exceptions in Declension. FIRST DECLENSION. § 7. Tire words dea, a goddess; film, a daughter; and occasionally domins, a mistress; anima , the soul; liberta, a freed woman ; serva, a female slave; equa, a mare; mula, a she-mule; and asina, a she-ass, form the Dat. and Abl. plur. in -cibus instead of -is, to distinguish them from the corresponding mascu¬ line forms in -us; as, diis dedbusque. cumjHiis etfdiabus. When this distinction, however, is clear from the context, the regular form in -is is always preferred; e. g., cum ambabus jiliis. SECOND DECLENSION. § 8. Proper names in ius, as Antonins, Gains, Pompeius, and also jfilms, a son, and genius, a tutelar spirit, drop in the Voc. sing, the final -ns of the Nom.; as, 0 Antoni! OCai! 0 Pompei! But the proper name Pius, Greek proper names in ins (from aos), as Arius, Darius, and all common nouns and ad¬ jectives, as nuncius, gladius, impius, egregius, together with the adjectives derived from proper names, as Delius, Gynthius, are regular, and make the Voc. in e; as, 0 Pie! etc. Deus, God, has in the Voc. Deus ; and meus, my, has mi. Hence : 0 mi Deus ! 0 fili mi ! Deus, in the plur. is thus declined: dii, deorum, diis , deos, dii, diis. The genitive plur. in -orum is often contracted in urn, as virum , deum, minimum, modium, sestertium , instead of virorum , deorum, etc. § 9. Words in -er of the second declension make the Voc. sing, like the Nom. They are thus declined: N. puer puer-i N. ager agr-i (jr. puer-i puer-orum G. agr-i agr-orum D. puer-o puer-is D. agr-o agr-is A. puer-um puer-os A. agr-um agr-os V. puer puer-i V. ager agr-i A. puer-o puer-is A. agr-o agr-is Like puer, “a boy”, are declined: Liber, Bacchus; gener , a son-in-law; socer, a father-in-law; vesper, the evening: and liberi, -orum, children. The following drop e before r, and are declined like ager, “ a field :” aper, a wild-boar; arbiter, an umpire; auster . the south-wind ; cancer, a crab; cutter, a knife ; liber, a book; faber, a workman ; magister, a teacher; and minister, a servant. THIRD DECLENSION. § 10. Accusative sing.— In the accusative sing, have im instead of em : 1. securis, an axe ; sitis, thirst ; tucsis, a cough ; vis, violence ; and commonly 14 EXCEPTIONS IN DECLENSION. also febris, a fever; pelvis, a basin; puppis, tlie stern ; restis, a rope; and iur* ris, a tower. 2. Many parisyllables in -is denoting cities and rivers; as, His- palis (Seville), Neapolis, Tiberis, AMs. § 11. Ablative sing. —In the ablative sing, have i instead of e: 1. Those words that have im in the accusative; 2. The names of months, and occasion¬ ally also avis, a bird. classis, a fleet. fastis, a club. civis, a citizen. cl avis, a hey. ignis, fire. navis, a ship. neptis, a granddaughter. supellex, furniture. But restis, a rope, has more commonly reste. § 12. Genitive plur. —In the genitive plur. have ium instead of um: 1. Parisyllables in -es and -is ; as, wipes, wlpium, a fox ; collis, collium, a hill; 2. Monosyllables in s and x impure; as, urbs, urbium, a city; arx, arcium, a cita¬ del ; 3. The words irriber, a shower; linter, a boat; venter, the belly; caro, -mis, flesh; and the monosyllables mas, maris, a male; {faux) faucis, the throat, as, assis, the as. os, ossis, a bone. lis, litis, a quarrel. glis, ris, a dormouse. nix, mvis, snow . nox, noctis, night , and generally, also, mus, muris, a mouse, and fraus,-dis, a cheat. Gov, cordis, the heart, sal, salt, and vas, vadis, a surety, probably had cordium, salium, vadium. — Lar, a tutelar deity, has more frequently larum than larium. Note 1.—The following have um: opes (from ops), wealth; gryps,-phis , a griffin; lynx,-cis, sphynx,-gis, ambages (pi.), evasions; strues, a pile. juvenis, a youth. canis, a dog. vates, a prophet. senex, senis, an old man. panis, a loaf. And generally also apis , a bee; volucris , a bird, and sedes , a seat. Note 2.—Polysyllables in ns and rs, as cliens, infans, cohors, serpens , sapiens , ado- lescens , together with Quiris , itis, and Samnis , itis, and the plural nouns penates, house¬ hold gods, and optimates , the nobles, generally have ium. —But parentes, “ parents,” has more commonly um;palus, udis, a swamp, has um and ium. % 13. Neuters in e, al, and ar (Gen. -dris), have i, ia, ium, that is, they have { in the abl. sing.; ia in the nom., acc., and voc. plur.; and ium in the genitive plural; as, mare, the sea, mari, maria, marium. Thus, rete, a net; sedlle, a seat ; tribunal, a tribunal; vectigal, revenue, tax; calcar, a spur; exemplar, a pattern, etc. FOURTH DECLENSION. § 14. The following words of the fourth declension make the dative and ablative plur. in ubus instead of ibus: aeus, a needle. arcus, a bow. artus, a joint. lacus, a lake. partus, a birth. quercus, an oak. specus, a cavern. tribus, a tribe. pecu, cattle. Note. — Ficus , a fig (also, a fig-tree), \\a?, ficubus ; but the form ficis , of the second declension, is preferable.— Fortus , a harbor, has both ibus and ubus .— Veru , a spit, generally has verubus , and tonitru (better tonitrus , us, or tonitruum,-i ), more com¬ monly -ibus. RULES OF GENDER. 15 IRREGULAR AND COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES. § 15. Special attention must be paid to tlie declension of tlie following words: An ox, a cow. (A) Violence. (f' A house. (Q An oath, (n.) Commonwealth. (f.) S. N. G. D. A. V. A. Bos bovis bovi bovem bos bove vis vim vi domus domus and domi domui domum domus domo jusjurandum jurisjurandi jurijurando jusjurandum jusjurandum jurejurando respublica reipublicse reipublicae rempublicam respublica republica P. N. G. D. A. V. A. boves bourn bubus or bobus boves boves bubus or bobus vires viriurn viribus vires vires viribus domus domuum and -orum domibus domus and -os domus domibus jurajuranda respublicae rerumpublicarum rebuspublicis respublicas respublicie rebuspublicis jurajuranda jurajuranda |3gP Domus is partly of the second and partly of the fourth declension. The gen. domi is used only in the sense of “at home.” Jupiter is thus declined : Jupiter, Jovis, Jovi, Jovem , Jupiter, Jove. Sus , a swine, has in the dat. and abl. plur. subus instead of euibus. II. Rules of Gender. § 16.—Tlie Gender of Latin nouns is determined—first by tlieir signification and secondly by their termination. Rules of Gender in reference to signification. Masculine : The names of men and male beings; of nations, winds, rivers, months, and mountains; as, Mars, Ccesar, JPersa, Consul; boreas, auster , aquilo / Ister , Tiberis , Euphrates; Athos , Eryx. Atlas . EXCEPTIONS. 1. Copice, troops \ exculioe and vigilice, sentinels; custodice, a guard ; operce, laborers, and Amazones , the Amazons, are Feminine. — Auxilia , auxiliary troops, and manci- vium , servitium, a slave, are Neutek. 2. The names of rivers in a , as Allia, Garumna, Matrona , Seqnana, etc., are by modern writers commonly used Fem. ; the ancients, in most cases, used them as Maso. —Styx and Lethe are Fem. 3. The names of months are by the best writers used only as adjectives. 4. The names of mountains, "when the word mons is not added, depend upofc their termination. Thus Ida , AEtna , (Eta, Alpes, are Feminine ; Felion and Soracte, Neutek. lb RULES OF GENDER. Feminine : The names of women and female beings; of countries, islands, towns, trees, and gems; as, Venus, Dido , Phanium; xEgyptus * Delos , Salami s ; Lacedcemon, Tyrus ; cedrus, juniper us. EXCEPTIONS. 1. Among the names of countries, Bosporus, Pontus, Hellespontus, and Isthmus are Masculine. Those in um and plurals in a are Neuter; as, Latium, Bactra .— Among the names of islands, the Egyptian Delta and a few in um are Neuter. 2. The names of cities in i, ovum ; as, Delphi, Veil, etc., together with Tunes , -etis, Hippo, JYarbo, Frusino, and Sulmo (sometimes also Croto, Pessinus, -untis, and SeUnus, -untis), are Masculine. The following are Neuter : a) Those in um and plurals in a, as Tarentum , Sagun - turn, Ilion, Susa, Leuctra, Ecbatuna, Arblla ; b) Those in e and ur, as Reate, Promeste, Tergeste , Anxur, Tibur ; c) The indeclinable names Illiturgi , Asty and some others which are defective, as Ilispal , Gadir.—Argos is indccl. and Neuter in the Singular: its plural Argi, orum, is regular and Masculine. 3. Among the names of trees, and shrubs, oleaster, pinaster, styrax, amarantus , asparagus, calamus, dumus, helleborus, and intubus, are Masculine ; raphanus and rubus, both Masc. and Fem. 4. Among the names of gems, beryllus, carbunculus, opalus, and smaragdue , are Masculine. Common : The names of persons that are common to both sexes; as, hie and hcec adolescens, a young man or woman. Thus : affinis, a relation, artifex, an artist. auctor, an author. augur, a soothsayer. civis, a citizen. comes, a companion. conjux, a consort. consors, a partner. conviva, a guest. custos, a Jceeper. dux, a leader. exul, an exile. heres, an heir liostis, an enemy. in cola, an inhabitant. index, an informer. infans, an infant. interpres, an interpreter. judex, a judge. juvenis, a youth. martyr, a martyr. miles, a soldier. municeps, a burgess. obses, a hostage. par, a mate. parens, a parent. patruelis, a cousin. prses, a surety. prseses, a president. pnesui, a president. princeps, a chief. sacerdos, a priest. satelles, a life-guard. testis, a witness. vates, a prophet, a poet, vindex, an avenger. l-gf” Whenever the female sex is not particularly to be specified, these words aie regularly considered and treated as of the masculine gender. The forms antistes, a priest, and hospes a host, in the sense of “priestess,” “host¬ ess,” are less common than the forms antistita, hospita. Neuter: All indeclinable substantives, as gummi, pascka, sindpi ;— the names of letters and all words and expressions, quoted merely as words, as ultimum vale. RULES OF GENDER. 17 Rules of Gender in reference to termination. FIRST DECLENSION. § 11.—Words in -a of the first declension are feminine ; as, barba longa, vita beata. —But the following are masculine : Adria, tlie Adriatic Sea ; etesice , tlie trade-winds, and all names of men and male beings ; as, Catilina, Sylla, Perm, Scytha, agricola a farmer. nanta, a sailor, perfuga , a deserter. aurlga, a charioteer. collega, colleague, poeta, a'poet, etc. SECOND DECLENSION. § 18.—Words in -us and -er of the second declension are masculine; as, cervus timidus, liber Latinus .— But the following words in -us are feminine: Alvus, tlie belly; coins, a distaff; ficus, a fig; humus, the ground ; vannus, a sieve ;—Greek words, such as atomus, methodus, periodus, synodus, para- grdphus, dialectus, diphthongus ,—and the names of c®untries, towns, and trees ; as, Peloponnesus, Epirus; Ilhodm, Gorinthus ; pinus, populus, sambucus, etc. The following in -us are Neuter : pelagus, the sea ; virus, poison ; and valgus, the crowd. The latter is sometimes masculine, as Me vulgus-. THIRD DECLENSION. Masculine are the words ending in o, or, os, er, and es increasing ; as, leo magnanimus, pavo superbus, amor sincerus,flos caducus, passer contemptus, palmes ( pedmitis ) fecundus, pes {pedis) firmus. EXCEPTIONS. t 1. In 0 .—Fem. : Words in do that do not denote corporeal things; as, actio, lectio, mentio, opinio, regio, religio, etc., and those in do and go, as grando, hail, imago, a picture, etc. ;—but carclo, a hinge; ordo, order; ligo,-onis, a spade ; mar go (also fem), a brink ; harp ago, dnis, a hook, and those in do that denote corporeal things, as titio, a firebrand ; pugio, a dagger, papilio, a butterfly, vespertilio, a bat, and also septentrio, the North, are mas¬ culine. ‘3. In OR.—Fem. : arbor, a tree.—N eut. : ador, spelt; aequor, the sea; cor, ■rdis, the heart, and marrnor, marble. 3. In OS.—Fem. : cos,-tis, a whetstone, and dos,-tis, a dowry.—N eut. : os, oris, the mouth; os, ossis, a bone; and the Greek words chaos, epos, and melos. 1. In ER.—Fem. : lister (rarely masc.), a boat.—N eut. : rer, the spring ; cada- •oer , a corpse; iter, a journey; spinther, eris, a bracelet; tuber, a hump ; uber, a teat, breast, and all the names of plants in er ; as, acer, a maple ; 13 RULES OF GENDER. deer, a chick-pea ; papdver, a poppy ; piper, pepper; siler, a brook-willow siser, a carrot (pi. siseres, m.), and saber, tlie cork-tree. 5. In ES increasing.—F em. : merges, itis, a sbeaf; abies, etis, a fir; eeges, etis, a crop; tegis, etis, a mat; merces, edis, a reward; quies and requies, etis, rest, the plural compedes (4am), fetters ; and generally also ales, itis, a bird, and quadruples, edis, a quadruped.—N eut. : ces, ceris, brass. Feminine are the words ending in as, is, cats, x, s impure, and part- syllables in es / as, cetas aureci , turris cilta, Ictus merit a, fraus impia, nix Candida, radix amara , mors certa , hiems frigida, vulpes astuta. EXCEPTIONS. 1. In AS.—Masc. : as, assis, the as; gig as, antis, a giant; adamas, antis, a diamond; and elephas, antis, an elephant. Mas, maris, a male, and ms, vadis, a surety, are masculine by their signification.—N eut. : the inde¬ clinable fas, nefas, and the word ms, rasis, a vase. 2. In IS. — Masc.: cinis,-eris, ashes ; pulvis,-eris, dust ; cueTomis,-eris, a cucum¬ ber; diSy-ris, a dormouse; lapis, idis, a stone; pollis, (also pollen, n.) -inis, fine flour ; sanguis,-inis, blood, and the following parisyllables : tunnis, a river. axis, an axletrce. callis, afoot-path. canal is, a channel. caul is, a static, coilis, a MU. erinis, the hair. ensis, a sword. fascis ,abundle. finis, an end. foilis, bellows. funis, a rope. fustis, a club. ignis, fire. mensis, a month. or bis, a circle. panis, bread. piscis, a fish. postis, a post. scrobis, a pit. torris, a firebrand, unguis, a claw. vectis, a lever. ' vermis, a worm t together with molans (Abl. molari sc. lapide), a millstone ; natalis (Abl. natal/i sc. die), birth-day, and the plural nouns casses, meshes ; sentes, a thorn-bush ; annates, annals, and pugillares, writing-tablets. The words callis, canalis, scrobis, and also finis and cinis in the singular, are sometimes used as feminines.— Anguis , a snake, and tigris , -idis a tiger, are of either gender.— Cards, a dog, is generally masculine; but in the sense of a dog used in hunt¬ ing. it is sometimes, and when the female sex is to be denoted, always feminine. 8. In X.—Masc. : (a) the Greek words corax, dds, a raven, and thorax, dcis, 3 breastplate(b) the majority of words in ex; as apex, a point. codex, a ledger. eimex, a bug. culex, a gnat. f'rutex, a shrub. grex, gis, a herd. latex, any fluid. pollex, the thumb. pulex, a flea. ram ex, a hernia. sorex, a shrew-mouse. vertex, top, whirlpool. The words rex, a king; pontifex, a high-priest ; carnifex, a hangman; remex,-igis, a rower ; and vervex, ecis, a ram, are masculine by their sig¬ nification.— Imbrex, a shingle; cortex, rind; obex, a holt ; pumex, a pumice-stone; and silex, flint-stone, are oftener masculine than femi¬ nine ; but faex,-cis, dregs; lex,-gis, a law; nex,-ds, death ; ( prex) preces, prayers; car ex, Ids, sheer-grass; forfex, -ids, a pair of scissors ; ilex, ids, a holm-oak ; and supelleX,-lectilis, furniture, are feminine(c) tho following in ix : calix, a cup ; calyx, the bud of a flower; fornix , a vault; phoenix,-iciSy the phoenix; bombyx,-yds, the silk-worm ( bombyx , silk, § £»■ 03 RULES OF GENDER. 19 is fem.); coccyx,-ygis, the cuckoo; and commonly varix, a swollen vein. — Perdix, -ids, a partridge, is of either gender. 4. In S impure.— Masc. : chalybs,-ybis, steel; gryps, -yphis, a griffin ; hydrops, -apis, dropsy; torrens, a torrent; confluens, a confluence, with fons, a sprivg. dens, a tooth. triens, a third. inons, a mountain. bidens, a hoe. quadrans, a fourth. pons, a bridge. rudens, a rope. sextans, a sixth. Bidens , a sheep two years old, is fem.— Adeps, lard, is more commonly masc., and forceps , a pair of pincers, more commonly fem.— Serpens and continens are generally fem., bestia and terra being understood.— Animans , any living being, is of all genders: but in the sense of “a rational being,” it is generally masc., otherwise fem. rather than neuter. 5. In ES.—Commonly masc. : palumbes, a wood-pigeon ; torques (also torquis), a necklace; and vepres, a bramble. Neuter are the words ending in a, e, c, l, n, t , ar, nr, and us: as, wnigma difficile, mare profundum, lac dulce, vectigal injustum, nomen celebre, caput opertum, cadcar argenleum, guttur angusturn, genus prceclarum , corpus mortals. EXCEPTIONS. 1. In L.— Masc. : mugil, a mullet ; sal, salt; and sol, the sun.— Sal, in the sing. is sometimes used as a neuter; but in the plural, it is always masc. 2. In N.— Masc. : lien, the milt; splen, the spleen; ren, the kidneys; lichen, the ring-worm; attdgen, a hazel-hen; pecten,-inis, a comb; delphin, Inis, a dolphin; agon, dnis, a contest; canon, dnis, a rule ; and horizon,-ontis, the horizon;—but aedon, a nightingale; icon, an image ; and sindon, fine linen, are feminine. Paean, Titan, Helicon, daemon, Hymen (-enis), fidieen, t'lblcen, tihicen, and flamen, are masculine by their signification. . In AR. — Par, “ a pair,” is neuter; but par, “ a mate,” “ consort,” is common. . In UR. — Masc. : furfur, bran; turtur, a turtle dove; and. vuliur, a vulture.-— Far. a tliief, is common. 5. In US.— Masc. : tripus and Oedipus,-delis. —Fem.: all polysyllables in -us, (gen. -utis or -udis): as, solus, virtus, servitus, incus,-udis, an anvil.; palm, -udis, a swamp, together with idles,-uris, the earth, and pscus-iidis, a single head of cattle (peats, -oris, n., means cattle collectively, “ a herd”). Lepus,-dris, a hare, and mus, mums, a mouse, are masculine— grus, a crane, and sus, a pig, feminine, when the particular sax is not to be specified. FOURTH DECLENSION. § 20. Words of the fourth declension end in -'its, masculine, and in -u, neuter; as, exercitus llomanus, genu distortum. Thus, adventus, arrival. ccetus, an assembly. conatus, an effort. cruciatus, torture. currus, a chariot. cquitatus, cavalry. exercitus, an army. tluctus, a wave. fructus, fruit. impetus, cm attack. metus, fear. motus, a movement. passus, apace, spiritus, breath. strep,itus, a noise. sumptus, expense . vultus, countenance. gelu, ice; geuu, Jcnee n 20 SOME PARTICULARS ABOUT SUBSTANTIVES But the following in -us aro feminine: acus, a needle. idus (pi.), the Ides. portions, a portico. domus, a house. manus, a hand. quercus, an oak. ficus, a fig. penus, provisions. tribus, a tribe. ffigP Besides penus,-us, there are two other forms of the same signification ; viz., penum,-i , and penus,-oris, both neuter.— Specus, a cavern, is generally masculine; in poetry, it is often used as a feminine, and occasionally oven as a neuter. Anus , an old woman ; nurus, a daughter-in-law ; and socrus , a mother-in-law, aro feminine by their signification. FIFTH DECLENSION. 21. Words of the fifth declension end in - es. and are feminine : as. res proeclara. Thus, acies, tattle array. effigies, an effigy. facies, the face. fides, faith . glacies, ice. ingluvies, gluttony. pernicies, ruin. res, a thing. series, a series. spes, hope. species, an appearance. superficies, surface. durities, hardness. materies, matter. mollities, softness. mundities, neatness. planities, a plain . eegnities, sloth. Exc.— Dies , a day, is common in the singular (fern., chiefiy when a definite day— “a day fixed upon”—is denoted), but always masculine in the plural.— Meridies , mid¬ day, is masculine, and is used only in the singular. III. Some Particulars about Substantives. 22.—Several substantives occur, for the most part, in the plural number only ; as, ounce, a cradle. deliciae, delight. divitice, riches. insidice, snares. mime, threats. nugoe, trifles. nundinal, the market. nuptiae, a wedding. tenebrae, darkness. liberi, children. posteri, descendants. arma, arms. spolia, booty. Alpes (ium), the Alps. ambages, evasions. compedcs, fetters. fauces, the jaws. majores, ancestors. natales, parentage. optimates, the nobles. penates, the penates. preces, prayers. proceres, the chiefs. sordes, filth. moenia, city-ivalls. verbera, lashes. viscera, the bowels, etc. § 23.—Several substantives have in the different from that of the singular ; as, cedes, is, a temple. fortuna, fortune. cedes, ium, a house. fortunce, wealth. plural number a meaning opera, labor. operae, ivorkmen. copia, plenty. copiae, troops. gratia, a favor. gratice, thanks. sal, salt. sales, ivitticisms. finis, an end. littera, a letter. fines, territory, litterce, an epistle. tabula, a board. tabulce, an account-book . § 24.—Several substantives change in the plural either gender, or de¬ clension, or both : as, locus, a place, pi. i and a. frenutn, a bridle, pi. i and a. carbasus,, flax, pi. a,-omm. Pergamus, Troy, pi. a,-orum. Tartarus, hell, pi. a, oruin. ccelum, heaven, pi. 3,-orum. balneum, a bath, pi. ce,arum. epulum,,/ viro, poison. (Frux) frugis, frugi, frugem, fruge, fruit; pi. fruges, complete. (Daps) dapis, i, em, e, food, banquet ; pi. dapes, complete, but no genitive seems to occur. (Ditio) ditionis, i,em, e, dominion. (Internecio) internecionis, i, em, e, carnage, utter destruction. DECLENSION" OE GREEK WORDS, 22 IY. Declension of Greek Words. FIRST DECLENSION. § 27.—Greek words of the first declension end in e (fem.) and in as and es (masc.).—Those that admit of a plural, are declined in that number like Latin nouns. Their declension in the singular is as follows : N. epitom-e fEne-as Atrid-es Anchis-es G. epitom-es JEne-se Atrid-se Ancliis-ae D. epitom -80 iEne-se Atrid-ae Anchis-ae A. epitom-en iEne-am (an) Atrid-en Ancliis-en V. epitom-e iEne-a Atrid-e and a Anchis-e A. epitom-e 2Ene-a Atrid-a and e Anchis-e Notes.— (1.) The acc. of words in as is in prose generally am, in poetry frequently an .—(2.) The voc. and abl. of words in es, end both in e and a : —in the abb, a is the regular ending.—(3.) The gen. plur. of patronymics in es is often contracted, as BEneadum, Dardarndum, for BEneadarum , Dardanidarum, from BEneades, Darda- nides. —(4.) Greek words in e and es often follow the Latin declension; thus we find musiea, grammatica, rhetorica, Persa, sophista, etc., along with, and even in prefer- ence to, musice , grammatics , rhetorice , Perses , sophistes. SECOND DECLENSION. § 28.—Greek words of the second declension end in os (masc. and fem.) and in on (neut.).—They are thus declined : N. Rhod-os (or us) Ili-on (or um) A tli-os Orpli-eus G. Rliod-i Ili-i Ath-o Orph-e'i (or eos) D. Rliod-o Ili-o Ath-o Orpli-eo (or ei) A. Rhod-bn (or um) Ili-on (or um) Ath-on (or 0 ) Orph-eum (or ea) V. Rliod-e Ili-on (or um) Ath-os Orpli-eu A. Rliod-o Ili-o Ath-o Orph-eo Notes. — (I.) Greek words in os (&>?), as Ceos, Cos, Teds, Androgebs, either follow the Greek (Attic) declension, like Athos, or take the Latin forms, as Androgens, i, o, urn, us (not e), o. Atlio in the acc. and abl. sing, sometimes follows the third declension, as Athonem, Athone. —(2.) Proper names in eus, as Orpheus, Perseus, Theseus , make the voc. always in eu . In the gen., dat., and acc. they follow either the second Latin, or third Greek declension.—(3.) Words in on are sometimes contracted in the gen. plur., as Bucolicbn, Georgicbn , for Bucollcorum , Georgicorum. THIRD DECLENSION. lamp- her- poes- Teth- Par- N. G. D. A. V. A. as adis (ados) adi adem (ada) as ade 03 ois oi oem (on) os oe is is (eos) i im (in) i i ys yis (yos) yi (y) ym (yn) y ye (y) is idis (idos) idi [(in) idem (ida), im is (i) ide § 29. — Note 1 . Greek words in o, as echo, Dido, Io, Clio, Clotho, Sappho, have in the genitive, us ( 60 s) in all other cases, 0 .—The Latin forms onis, oni, onem, one u i ire but rarely used. DECLENSION OF GREEK WORDS. op Note 2. The neuters melos , epos, chaos , and cefos (plur. mcfe, cete), are scarcely used in any other case than the norn., acous., and voe. — Cetos, a wliale, is declined also after the second declension, as cetos, ceti, ceto, cetos, cetos, ceto] plur., cete , cetorum , cetis , crfw. Note 3. Argos , the name of a city, is in the sing, an indeclinable neuter, used only in the nom. and ace.—In the plural it is masculine, and is thus declined: Argi, ovum , iSy OSy IS* GENITIVE, ACCUSATIVE, AND VOCATIVE. {Singular) § 30.— Genitive sing. —Greek proper names in es liave in the gen. sing, often i instead of is ; as, Socrati, Aristoteli, JJlixi, Achilli, Pericli, instead of Socratis, Aristotelis, etc.—After the time of Cicero, however, the form is alone was used. Accusative sing. —1. Greek words whose genitive ends in -is- {-os) impure, as lampas, rhetor, Hector, Agamemnon, Cyclops, Babylon, Marathon, etc., and also the three words Tros,-ois , heros r ois, and Minos,-ois, make the accus. sing, in em and a. The ending a is regularly used in aer, aether, and Pan. 2. Greek words in is and ys (Gen. os pure), as poesis, basis, thesis, syrtis, Tethys } Halys, make the accus. sing, both in iin and in. Greek words in is, -idis (Barytons in k, do), as Paris, Agis, Daphnis, Ibis, Iris, Serdpis, Tigris, Zeuxis, etc., have in the accus. sing, both irn {in) and idem {ida), —but more commonly im. Greek words in is, -idis (Oxytons in <'?, 'do), as aegis, pyramis, tyrannis, Chalcis, Colchis, Phocis, etc., have but idem {ida.) 3. Proper names in es, -is, -which follow in Greek the first declension (^r, -bv), as Xerxes, Mithridates, Simonides, Cambyses, AEschines, Euphrates, etc., have in the accus. sing, both em and en. —This is the case also, though much less fre¬ quently, with proper names in es, that follow in Greek the third declension, as Sophocles, Hippocrates, etc. : acc. Sophoclem, more rarely Sophoclen. Thales and Chremes (Gen. is and etis ) have Thalem or Thaletem and Thalen, etc. Vocative sing. —The vocative sing, of Greek words is generally like the nominative.—But proper names in is, ys, em, and as (G. antis), drop the final s of the nominative, as Pari, Thai, Coty, Orpheu, Theseu, Atla, Calcha. Words in is, -idis, however, make the vocative just as often like the nomina¬ tive, as Paris, Thais, Bacchis. Proper names in es, -is, sometimes have e in the vocative, as Socrate, Simonide, Damocle, Sophocle, etc., instead of Socrates, etc. GENITIVE, DATIVE, AND ACCUSATIVE. {Plural) § 31.— Genitive plur. —The genitive plural of Greek words is generally the same as that of Latin words ; but sometimes, especially in titles of books, the Greek ending on {uv) is retained, as epigrammaton, metamorphosedn. Dative plur. — Greek words in -ma have in the dat. and abl. plur. more fre¬ quently is than ibus, as poematis, epigrammatis, etc., instead of poematibus, etc. Accusative plur. —Words that have em and a in the accus. sing., have es and as in the accus. plur.; as, aspidas, heroas, phalangas, Cyclopas, JEthiopas, Arcadas, - Macedonas, — and in Caesar and Tacitus we find even AUobrogas , Lingonas, Vangionas, and others, which are not Greek national names at all. 24 ADJECTIVES, CHAPTER III. Adjectives. Adjectives are divided into three classes; namely, (1.) adjectives of three endings, (2.) adjectives of two endings, and (3.) adjectives of one ending. ADJECTIVES OF THREE ENDINGS. § 82.—Adjectives of three endings end in us, a, urn, and er, a , um. They are in the mascnline declined like serous, in the feminine like roscr, and in the neuter like regnum .—Those in er , a, um , make the vocative like the nominative, and, for the most part, drop e before r. Declension of tonus, “good,” and piger, “lazy.” S.N. G. D. A. V. A. (m.) bon-ns bon-i bon-o bon-um bon-e bon-o bon-a bon-se bon-ae bon-am bon-a bon-a _ (n.) oonum bon-i bon-o bonum bonum bon-o N. G. D. A. V. A. (m.) piger pigri pigro pigrum piger pigro (f.) pigra pigrse pigrse pigram pigra pigra >•> pigrum pigri pigro pigrum pigrum pigro P.N. bon-i bon-se bona N. pigri pigrse pigra G. bon-orum bon-arum bon-orum G. pigrorum pigrarum pigrorum D. bon-is bon-is bon-is D. pigris pigris pigris A. bon-os bon-as bona A. pigros pigras pigra V. bon-i bon-se bona V. pigri pigrse pigra A. bon-is bon-is bon-is A. pigris pigris pigris Words for practice. acerbus, harsh. caducus, fading. dums, hard. acid us, so ur. crocus, blind. ebrius, drunk. acutus, sharp. calidos, warm. egenus, needy. semulus, vying with. call id us, cunning. egregius, remarkable, segrotus, sick. calvus, bald. exiguus, small. sequus, just. Candidas, candid. eximius, excellent. albus, ivhite. earns, dear. externus, outward. altus, high. castus, chaste. facetus, witty. amarus, litter. cautus, cautious. facundus, eloquent. amoenus, pleasant. cavus, holloiv. falsus , false. amplus, large. certus, certain. ferns, savage. angustus, narrow. clarus , famous. fessus, weary. antiquus, ancient. claudus, lame. festlnus, hastening . aprlcus, sunny. crassus, thick. fid us , faithful. aptus, fit. cunctus, all. firmus, yb’w. arctus, narrow. curtus, short fiavus, yellow. as tutus, cunning. curvus, crooked. foedus, ugly. austerus, harsh. decorus, graceful. formosus ,fair. avarus, covetous. densus, thick. frivolus, trifling. avidns, greedy. dignus, worthy. garrulus, prattling . barbarus, savage. disertus, eloquent. gratus, thankf ul. beatus, blessed. diuturnus, lasting. h u m an u s, human. benignus, kind. doctus, learned. bumidus, moist. blandus, flattering. dubius, doubtful. idoneus,^. ADJECTIVES. 25 ignarus, ignorant. molestus, troublesome. severus, severe. ignavus, coviardly. mundus, neat. siccus, dry. improbus, wicked. mutns, dumb. sobrius, sober. incautus, inconsiderate. nimius, too much. strenuus, active. incertus, uncertain. novus, new. stultus, foolish. inclytus, renowned. noxius, hurtful. subitus, sudden. industrius, diligent. nudus, bare. superbus, proud. inf Idas, unfaithful. obscurus, dark. odiosus, hateful. surdus, deaf. invidus, envious. tacitus, silent. invitus, unwilling. oplmus ,fat, rich. tantus, so great. jucundus, pleasant. pallidus, pale. tardus, slow. justus, jms£. periculosus, dangerous. tepidus, lukewarm. lactus , joyful perfldus, treacherous. tumidus, swollen. latus, broad. planus, plain. turbidus, muddy. lentus, slow. plenus,/W/. tutus, safe. longinquus,/ar off. prseditus, endowed. varius, various. longus, long. pravus, wicked. verecundus, bashful . lubricus, slippery. probus, honest. venustus, comely. lucidus, bright. profundus, deep. verus, true. maturus, ripe. pudlcus, chaste. vivus, alive. mirus, wonderful. sanus, sound. viclnus, neighboring. seger, sick. pulcher,yhir. asper, rough. ater, black. ruber, red. lacer, torn. creber , frequent. sacer, sacred. liber, free. impiger, unwearied. sinister, left. miser, wretched. integer, entire. teter ,foul. prosper, prosperous. macer, lean. vafer, crafty. tener, tender. Note.— The adjectives from (Eger to vafer drop the e before r and are declined liko piger.—Asper and the rest, together with the compounds of fero and gero , as opifer , signifer , armiger , laniger , etc., retain the e throughout. Dexter , right, sometimes retains, but oftener rejects the e before r. — Satur , sated, makes satura , saturum ; g. saturi , etc. ADJECTIVES OF TWO ENDINGS. § 33.—Adjectives of two endings end in e,—(in zs for the masc. and fem., in e for the neuter) — They all follow the third declension, but have i 9 ia, ium , that is, they make the abl. sing, in i ; the nom., acc.. and voc. neut. plur. in ia ; and the gen. pi. in ium. Declension of lev is, “ light,” and acer, “ sharp.” S.N. (m.) lev-is (f.) lev-is V.) leve N. (m.) acer (O acris (n.) acre G. lev-is lev-is lev-is G. acris acris acris D. lev-i lev-i lev-i D. acri acri acri A. lev-em lev-em leve A. acrem acrem acre V. lev-i3 lev-is leve Y. acer acris . acre A. lev-i lev-i lev-i A. acri acri acri P. N. lev-es lev-es levia N. acres acres acria G. lev-ium lev-ium lev-ium G. acrium acrium acrium D. lev-ibus lev-ibus lev-ibus D- acri bus acribu3 acribus A. lev-es lev-es levia A. acres acres acria V. lev-es lev-es levia V. acres acres acria A. lev-ibus lev-ibus lev-ibus A. acri bus acribus acribus 26 ADJECTIVES* Words for practice. accllvis, ascending . grandis, great. pinguis, fat. sequalis, equal. gravis, heavy. placabilis, placable. agilis, nimble. hilaris, cheerful. popularis, popular. agrestis, rustic. humilis, loio. procllvis, prone. amabilis, lovely. ignobilis, mean. qualis, of ivliat kind. brevis, short. illustris,/i!mows. regalis, kingly. civil is, civil. imbeeillis, weak. rudis, rough, rude. ccelestis, heavenly. imberbis feardless. salutaris, wholesome. comis, courteous. immanis, huge. segnis, sluggish. credibilis, credible. inanis, void, vain. similis, like. crudelis, cruel. incolumis, safe. solemnis, solemn. debilis, weak. inermis, defenceless. stabiiis, steadfast. decllvis, sloping. infamis, infamous. sterilis, barren. deformis, ugly. insignis, remarkable. suavis, sweet. dissimilis, unlike. insomnis, sleepless. subllmis, lofty. docilis, docile. jugis , perpetual. subtliis, subtle. dulcis, sweet. lenis, gentle. tails, such. exanimis, lifeless. liberalis, liberal. tenuis, thin. exllis, thin, poor. mediocris, middling. terribilis, dreadful. facilis, easy. mirabilis, wonderf til. tristis, sad. fertilis , fertile. mitis, meek. turpis, base. fidelis, [faithful. mobilis, movable. unanimis, unanimous. fiebilis, lamentable. mollis, soft. utilis, useful. fortis, brave. mutabilis, changeable. vilis, worthless. fragilis, brittle. nobilis, noble. viridis, green. gracilis, slender. omnis, all , every. vulgaris, vulgar. alacer, cheerf ul. equester, equestrian. saluber, wholesome. canipester, level. palustcr, marshy. Silvester, woody. celeber, famous. pedestor, on foot. torrester, earthly. celer, swift, quick. p uter, rotten, decaying. volucer, winged. .Note.—T he adjectives in er, is, e (thirteen in number ; viz., acer, alacer, camp ester, etc.), are declined throng bout like lewis, except that in the nom. and voc. sing, they have a distinct form in er for the masculine. Celer retains the e before r, and lias in the gen. plur. celerum instead of celerium .— Salubris , equestris , Celebris f, silvestris, terrestris , and palustris , are sometimes joined to masculine nouns ; as, ann ■us salubris for annus saluber. Thus, locus Celebris, tumul- tus silvesiris, etc. X ADJECTIVES OF ONE ENDING. eA S § 34. Adjectives of one ending end variously and may be joined to substantives of any gender ; as, felix rex, felix regina , felix regnum. They are throughout declined like adjectives of two endings, except that the nominative, accusative, and vocative neut. sing, are the same as the nominative masc. The ablative sing, sometimes ends in e in¬ stead of i. BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRARY CHESTN8T MILL, MASS. ADJECTIVES. 27 Declension of felix, “ happy.” On.) (f.) («•) S. N. felix felix felix Gh felic-is felic-is felic-is D. felic-i felic-i felic-i A. felic-em felic-em felix V. felix felix felix A. felic-i (e) felic-i (e) felic-i (e) P. N. felic-es felic-es felicia a. felic-ium felic-ium felic-ium D. felic-ibus felic-ibus felic-ibus A. felic-es felic-es felicia V. folic-es felic-es felicia A. felic-ibus felic-ibus felic-ibus Words for practice. audax, bold. atrox, cruel. amens, maa. capax, capacious. ferox, ferocious. demons, merciful efficax, effectual. prsecox, premature. demens, senseless. fallax, deceitful. velox, swift. eloquens, eloquent. ferax, fertile. trnx, wild, fierce. frequent. Joquax, talkative. hebes, 8tis, dull. impatiens, impatient. mendax, lying. sons, guilty. impudens, imp/dent. mordax, biting. insons, guiltless. ingens, huge. min ax, threatening. expers, destitute of. insipiens, foolish. pertinax, obstinate. sollers, clever. innoe'ens, guiltless. pervicax, stubborn. concors, agreeing. ncgligens, careless. rapax, rapacious. discors, at variance. opulens, wealthy. sagax, sagacious. excors, silly. prudens, prudent. tenax, tenacious. constans, constant. vqqqws., fresh. vorax, devouring. elegans, elegant. repens, sudden. simplex, simple. petulans, wanton. sapiens, ivise. duplex, double. praestans, excellent. ■ vehemens, vehement. Decline together : Ager ferax—insula fer ux—ingenium fere Terror ingens—belluct ingens—helium ingens. Famulus astutus , piger et mendax—vir prudens, sag ax et eruditus—saxum ingens et immobile—tempus praeteritum , praesens et futurum—ingenium praestans et paene divinum, and the like. Note 1.—The following adjectives of one ending have only e in the abl. sing.: (1.) the compounds of pes, color , and corpus; as, tripes , quadrupes, discolor, versicolor, bicorpor , tricorpor ; (2.) Participles in ns, when used as such, and not as adjectives; (3.) Adjectives in general, when used substantively; as, artifex, an artist; vigil, a watchman; Clemens , Pertinax, Fidelis, Vitalis; and (4.) the adjectives jiivenis, young; senejc, old; along with cselebs, unmarried. pubes ( and -er), adult. pauper, poor. compos, otis, master of. impubcs, beardless. sospes, itis, safe. deses, idis, idle. princeps, ipis, chief. superstes, surviving. Note 2.—The following adjectives of one ending have only um in the genitive plur.: (1.) the compounds in -ceps; as, anceps, ipitis, doubtful; prceceps, headlong; 28 ADJECTIVES. particeps , ipis , partaking; (2.) those that have only <3 in the ablative ; and (3.) the adjec¬ tives arti/ex, skilful; vigil, watchful; along with cornpar, equal. ales, itis, winged. dives, itis, rich. impar, unable. clear, uris, ta7ne. inops, helpless. dispar, unlike. degener, degenerate. supplex, suppliant. Note 3.— Manor, mindful; immemor, forgetful; and uber, plentiful, have i in the idol. sing, and um in the genitive plur.— Par, equal, has pari,paria , parium ; but its compounds have i ( e) ia, um .— Vetus,-eris , old, has veteri (e), vetera, veterum. — Sons , guilty; insons , guiltless; and locuples,etis, rich, have um and ium. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. § 35. There are three degrees of comparison : the positive, the com¬ parative, and the superlative. The positive degree is that which is expressed hy the adjective in its simple form; as, “An elephant is large; a mouse, small; a lion, fierce, active, bold, and strong.” The comparative is that form, which indicates that the quality, denoted by the adjective, exists in one object in a higher or lower degree than in another; as, “ An elephant is smaller than a whale; a mouse, smaller than a rat.” The superlative is that form which indicates that the quality, denoted by the adjective, belongs to an object in a very high (low), or in the highest (lowest) degree; as, “ The wolf is very strong; the tiger, still stronger; and the lion, the strongest of all.” The comparative and superlative, in Latin, are formed by adding -ior d -issimus to the stem. Thus : POSITIVE. COMP. SUPERL. longus, long , long-ior, long-issimus. gravis, heavy , grav-ior, grav-issirnus. felix, happy , felic-ior, felic-issimus. Comparatives end in ior for the masc. and fern., and in ius for the neuter. They are declined like adjectives of two endings; except that they have e {%) in the abl. sing., a in the noin. acc., and voc. neut. plur., and um in the genitive plural. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N. levior levior levins leviores leviores leviora G. levioris levioris levioris leviorum leviorum leviorum D. leviori leviori leviori levioribus levioribus levioribus A. leviorem leviorem levins leviores leviores leviora v. levior levior levins leviores leviores leviora A. leviore (i) leviore (i) leviore (i) levioribus levioribus levioribus Decline together: Puer verecundus, verecundior, verecundissimus—arbor cdta, altior, altissima—aqaila rapax, rapacior, rapacissima—vir sapiens, sapientior, sapientissimus—verbum fallax, fallacies, fallacissimum—vox pulchra, pulchrior, pidcherrima—opus difficile, difficilius, difficiUimum—poeta bonus, melior, optl ADJECTIVES. 29 mus—res mala, pejor, pessima—nomen magnum, majus, maximum—labor parvus, minor, minimus, and the like. Exc. 1.—Adjectives in -er form tlie superlative by adding -rimus to that ending; as, miser, wretched , miser-ior. miser-rimus. celeber, famous, celebr-ior. celeber-rimus. Exc. 2.—The adjectives facilis, difficilis, similis, dissimilis, gracilis, and humilis form the superlative by adding Minus to the stem; as, gracilis, slender , gracil-ior. gracil-limus. humilis, low , liumil-ior. humil-limus. Exc. 3. —Adjectives in - dicus, -ficus, and -volus (from dico,facio, and void), add entior, entissimus to the stem; as, bonevolus, kind. benevol-entior. benevol-entissimus. maledicus, abusive. maledic-entior. maledic-entissimus. IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. § 36.- The following adjectives are wholly irregular in comparison: bonus, good , melior, optimus. malus, bad , pejor, pessimus. magnus, great , major, maximus. parvus, small , minor, minimus. multus, much, plus, plurimus. ADJECTIVES WITH A DOUBLE SUPERLATIVE. exterus, outward, inferus, below, superus, above, posterns, hind, exterior, inferior, superior, posterior, extremus (extimus). infimus and imns. supremus and summus. postremus (postumus). Note. 1.—The comparative of multus has in the sing, two forms only ; viz., plus (nom. and acc. neut.) and pluris, more. But the plural plures is complete; as, nom. and acc. plures, plura (rarely pluria), gen. plurium (better than plurum ), dat. and abl. pluribus. — Oomplures has in the neut. plur. both complura and compluria. Multus and plurimus are in poetry often used in the sense of many, as multa tabula , multa victima, plurima avis , instead of multce tabulce, etc.—The English “a great many” and “ most” are rendered b j plurimi or plerique. Note 2.—The adj. exterus, inferus, superus , and posterns , but rarely occur in the singular, and their nom. sing. masc. is not found at all in good prose.— Dives , rich, nas either divitior , divitissimus , or ditior, ditissimus. — Vetus , old, has vetustior for the comp, and veterrimus or vetustissimus for the superlative.— Providus, cautious, and egenus , needy, either prefix mag is, maxime to the positive, or are supplied by providentior , provident issimus, and eg entior , egentissimus. Note 3.— Nequam , worthless, and frugi , temperate (both indeclinable), have nequior , neguissimus , and frugalior , frugalissimus.—Maturus , ripe, and imbecillis (also imbecillus), weak, have in the superl. cither matvrrimus , imbccillimus , or maturissimus, imbecillissimus. 30 ADJECTIVES. § 3t.—“The following adjectives citerior, citinms, near , close to. ulterior, ultimas, farther , last. interior, intimus, inner , inmost. propior, proximus, nearer , next. want the positive: prior, primus, former , first. ocior, ocissimua, swifter , swiftest. deterior, deterrimus, worse , worst. potior, potlssimus, better , chief. The following adjectives want the bell us, bellissimus, lovely. diversus, diversissimus, different. falsus, falsissimus, false. inclytus, inclytissimus, famous . The following adjectives want the alacer, alacrior, lively. deses, desidior, indolent. diuturnus, diuturnior, lasting. longinquus, longinquior, far off. terminational comparative: invictus, invictissimus, invincible. meritus, meritissimus, deserving. uovus, novissimus, new , last. sheer, sacerrimus, holy , sacred. terminational superlative: proclivis, proclivior, inclined. protervus, protervior, impudent. propinquus, propinquior, near. terribilis, terribilior, dreadful , etc. Note 1. — Juvenis and adolescens , young, and sen ex (G. senis), old, have junior , adolescentior , and senior. Their superlative is supplied by natu minimus , the youngest, and natu maximus , the oldest. Note 2.—Adjectives compounded with joer and jurre, as preealtus , preedives, per- brevis , peridoneus , perjucundus , permagnus , ect., admit of no further comparison.— Prcestans and prceclarus alone have -ior, issimus. Note 8.—Many adjectives do not form the comp, and superb by -for and -issimus, but by prefixing the adverbs magis , more, and maxime , most, to the positive. Such are: a) the adjectives in --ms pure (those in -quus, as t vqmis, iniquus, antiquus, etc. excepted); as, dubins, archills, industrius, noxins, idoneus, necessarius, perspicuus, strenuus ; b) nearly all in was, emus, ulus, alls, ills, drus, andus, endus, and bundus, as, lubricus, modicus, legitimus, credulus, garrulus, sedulus, exitialis, mortalis , principalis, anilis, hostilis, scurrilis, decorus, sonorus, laudandus, expetendus, furibundus, venerabundus ; c) the adjectives albus, almus, caducus, calvus, canus, curvus, ferus, furtivus, gnarus, lacer, mutilus, lassus, mediocris, memor, mirus, merus, mutus, navus, nefastus, par, parilis, dispar, properus, trepidus, rudis, trux, and vagus. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. § 88.—There are four classes of numerals ; viz, Cardinal , Ordinal , Distributive, and Adverbial numerals. The Cardinals answer to the question how many ? —one, two, three . . . They are indeclinable from 4 to 100 inclusive : but the first three and the hundreds up to 1000, can be declined. The Ordinals denote the place any thing bolds in a series; as, the first, second, third .... They are all declined like bonus. The Distributives answ r er to the question how many apiece ? how many at a time f — one apiece, or one at a time .... They are all declined like boni , ee, a, and make the gen. plur. generally in um instead of ovum ; but singudi has always singulorum. The Adverbials answer to the question how many times? —once, twice, thrice. . .. They are all indeclinable. ADJECTIVES o i OX Declension of the first three cardinals: units, one; duo , two; ires, three. and N. G. 1 ). A. A. onus, una, nnnm |-for all genders unum, unam, nnnm uno, una, uno duo, duos duo duormn, diuirum, duomm duobus, duabus, duo bus duos et duo, duas, duo duobus, duabus, duobus tres, tres, tria tribus* \d or genders tres, tres, tria tribus, tribus, tribus No. CARDINAL. ORDINAL. DISTRIBUTIVE. ADVERBIAL. one, two. first, second. one by one. once, twice. 1 unus primus singuli semel 2 duo secundus bim bis 3 tres tertius terni (trini) ter 4 quatuor quart us qua terni quater 5 quinque quintus quini quinquies 6 sex sext.us seni sexies 7 septem septimus septeni septies 8 octo octavus octoni octies 9 novem norms noveni navies 10 decern decimus deni decies 11 undecim undecim us undeni undecies 12 duodecim duodecimos duodeni duodecies 13 tredecim tertius terni tredecies 14 quatuordecim quartos quaterni quatuordecies 15 quindecim quintus - decimus quini J- deni quindecies 10 sedecim sextos seni sedccies 17 septendeeim septimus _ septeni septiesdecies 18 duodeviginti duodevicesimus duodevicern duodevicies 19 uudeviginti undevicesimus unde viceni . undevicies 20 viginti vicesimus viceni vicies 21 viginti unus vicesimus primus viceni singuli vieies semel 22 viginti duo vicesimus secundus viceni bini vices bis 30 triginta tricesirnus triceni tricies 40 quadraginta quadragesimus quadrageni quadragies 50 quinquaginta quinquagesimus quinquageni quinquagies GO sexaginta sexagesimus sexagem sexagies 70 septuaginta septuagesimus septuageni septuagies 80 octoginta octogesimus octogeni octogies 90 nonaginta nonagesimus nonageni nonagies 100 centum centesimus centeni centies ^ 200 duccnti, ae, a ducentesimus doceni ducenties 300 trecenti trecentesimus treceni t re centies 400 quadringenti quadringentesimus quadringeni quadringenties 500 quingenti quingentesimus qumgeni quingenties 600 sexeenti sexcentesimus sexceni sexcenties 700 septingenti septingentesimus septingeni septingenties 800 octingenti octingentesimus octmgeni octingenties 900 nongenti nongentesimus nongeni nongenties 1000 mille millesimus singula millia millies 2000 duo millia bis millesimus bina millia bis millies 3000 tria millia ter millesimus terna millia ter millies Note. 1 .— Arribo , both, is declined like duo, and lias likewise two forms for tlio accus., ainbos and ambo. Note 2 .—From 20 to 100, either the less number precedes with et, or the larger number precedes without et ; e. g,, 23, tres et viginti or viginti tres; tertius et vicesi- mv.i or vicesimus tertius. Above 100, the large number always precedes, either with or without et ; but ei ia never put twice ; c. g., 322, trecenti viginti duo or trecenti ct viginti duo. e 32 pRosroum Note 3.—Instead of sedecim (also sexdecim) and septendecbn, we may also say decern et sex, decern et septern; and instead of tredecies , quatuordecies , quindecics , and seclecies, the forms terdecies, quaterdecies , quinquiesdecies, sexiesclecies , octiesde- cies, noviesdecies, are also used. Note 4. — The two numbers before every ten, viz., IS, 19 ; 28, 29 ; 38, 39, etc., are more commonly expressed by the subtractive forms duode- and unde- ; e. g., 89, im- denonaginta ; 99, undecentum; 58, duodesexaginta. Such forms, however, as nona- ginta novem , nonaginta octo, septuaginta novem , septuaginta octo , and the like, are found also.—Thus we may say (18, 19) decern et octo , dceem et novem along with duodeviginti, undeviginti; but the forms octodecim and novendccim are supported by no authority. Note 5.—The ordinals 21, 22; 31, 32 ; 41, 42, etc., are frequently expressed by ct vicesimus, alter et vicesimus ; unus et tricesimus , alter et tricesimus , instead of _pr£- mws et vicesimus , secundus et vicesimus. But we say correctly vicesimus primus , vi- cesimus secundus , etc. CHAPTER IV. Pronouns. Pronouns arc divided into the following classes : personal, demon¬ strative, relative , interrogative , indefinite, possessive , and correlative pronouns. I. Personal Pronouns. § 39.—There are three personal pronouns : e/ 70 , They aro thus declined : S. N. O. D. A. A. ego, I mei, of me mi lii, to me me, me me, idth me tu, thou tui, of thee tibi, to thee te, thee te, with thee sui, of himself, etc. sibi, to himself, etc. se, himself, etc. se, with himself, etc. P. N. nos, toe vos, you G. nostri (-um), of us vestri (-um), of you sui, of themselves D. nobis, to us vobis, to you sibi, to themselves. A. nos, us vos, you se, themselves A. nobis, with us vobis, with you se, icith themselves Note 1.—To express the English emphatic “ self,” the syllable is (with or with¬ out fpse) annexed to all the cases of the personal pronouns, the genitives plur. and the nominative sing, of tu excepted; as, egojnet or egomet ipse , I myself; tibimet or tibi- frat ipsi; nosmet ipsos ; vobisinet ipsis.— il Thou thyself,” is rendered by tide, or hi ipse, or tutemet. Note 2.—The accusatives me, tc, and sc are sometimes doubled, meme , tetc, sesc .— The vocative of any pronoun, if used at all, is like the nominative.— Respecting tlio difference between nostri, vestri, and nostrum , vest rum , see § 137. PRONOUNS. 33 II. Demonstrative Pronouns. § 40.—The Latin demonstrative pronouns are hie, hcec, hoc — ille, ilia, illud — iste, ista, istud —ea, id, to which may be added the ad- junctive ipse, ipsa, ipsum, “ self.” They are thus declined • 7 “ this” X “he” or “that” S. N. hie haec hoc ille ilia illud G. D. liuj us } Imic ) for all genders ||j| us i for all genders A. hunc hanc hoc ilium illam illud A. hoc liac hoc illo ilia illo P. N. hi has haec illi illse ilia G. horum harum horum illorum ill arum illorum D. his his his illis illis illis A. lios has haec ill os illas ilia A. his his his illis illis illis Note 1.—Like Me are declined the emphatic Mcce , hoscce, hocce, and the interroga¬ tive Mccine, hceccine, hoccine, through all cases, ending in c and sy as, hujusce huncce, Tmce, hasce, huiccine. Note 2.—Like ille is declined the pronoun is£a, this, that.—This pro noun generally refers to the person spoken to and to the things appertaining to him. e. g., iste liber , that book of yours ; negotium istud, that business of yours. It some times implies scorn or contempt: as, quid iste dicit? what does that fellow say \ tuus iste frater , that fine brother of yours. Note 3.—Besides iste, ista, istud and ille, ilia, illud, the early Latin writers used also the forms istic, istcec, istoc or istuc and illic, illcec, illoc or illuc, but only in thu nom. acc., and abl. sing., and in the nom. and acc. neut. plural.—The nettt. isiuc an*) istcec sometimes occur even in Cicero. The familiar expressions eccum, eccam? ellum, ellam! eccos, eccas, eccillum, eccC lam , stand for ecce eum , en ilium, etc. V S. N. G. D. A. A. “ that” is ea id g{ US | f or dll genders. eum earn id eo ea eo “ self.” ipse ipsa ipsum ipsi^ | f° r aU ^nders ipsum ipsam ipsum ipso ipsa ipso P. N. G. D. A. A. ii e«e ea eorum earum eorum iis iis iis eos eas ea iis iis iis ipsi ipsse ips& ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum ipsis ipsis ipsis ipsos ipsas ipsa, ipsis ipsis ipsis Note 4.— The pronouns is, ille, iste, and ipse, when used alone without a substan¬ tive, are translated by he, she, it. Like is is declined the compound idem; eadem, idem, “the same;” but in the ac¬ cusative eundem and eandem are preferable to eumdem, camdem, and in like manner in 2 pronouns. 84 the genit. plur. eorundem, earundem to eorumdem , earvmdem. The nom. plural ei (foi ii) is rare, and eidem (for iidem ) does not occur at all. Also eis and eisdem are not s« common as lis and iisdem. N. Idem eadem Idem G. X). ejusdem ) eidem f for all genders A. eundem eandem Idem A. eodem eadem eodem iidem eorundem iisdem eosdem iisdem ecodem earundem iisdem easdem iisdem eadem eorundem iisdem eadem iisdem Note 5.— The pronoun ipse, when joined to another demonstrative pronoun, is equivalent to the English “ veryas, hoc ipso die , on this very day ; eo ipso tempore, at that very time. III. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. § 41. —The Latin relatives are qui, quce , quod, “who, which,” and quicunque , “ whoever.” They are called relatives, because they gen¬ erally relate to some word going before. The Latin interrogatives are quis, quid f who, what ? and its com¬ pounds quisnam , quidnam f who then, what then? and ecquis, ecquid f is there any one (or any thing) who . . . . ? does any one or any thing ....?' The relative qui and the interrogative quis are thus declined : S. N. Gr. D. A. A. “w7w, which.” qui quae quod ST} f or °^ j ff en ^ ers - quern quam quod quo qua quo “who, what?” quis or qui quae quid or quod cu{ US \ f or 0 en d' ers quern quam quid or quod quo qua quo P. N. G. D. A. A. qui quae quae quorum quarum quorum quibus quibus quibus quos quas quae quibus quibus quibus qui quae quae quorum quarum quorum quibus quibus quibus quos quas quae quibus quibus quibus Note!. —Like the relative qui is declined the compound quicunque,, qucecunque, quodcunque (never quidcunque ), the suffix - cunque being simply added to the differ¬ ent cases. Instead of quibus , quels is sometimes used. Note 2 .—The interrogatives quis, quisnam , and ecquis are declined like the relative qui except tha*t in the nom. sing, they have .two forms for the masculine ; quis, qui; and in the nom. and aecus., two forms for the neuter: quid, quod. The forms quis and quid are used substantively, that is, the}' stand either alone without a substantive, or when they are joined to a substantive, the latter is putin the genitive: e. g., quis est? quis nescit? quisnam vocat ? ecquis hoc intelligit? quid est? quid times? quidnam vides? ecquid and is? quis Uomanorum? quisnam mortal ium ? ecquisphilosophorum? quid periculi? quid prcemii? quidnam scelc- ris ? ecquid commodi ? The forms qui and quod, on the contrary, are used adjeetivcly, that is, tiny are used in connection with a substantive either expressed or understood, and agree with it PKONOUNS. 35 Record ingly ; e. g.., qui rex? qui miles? quinam pner ? ecqui philosophus ? quod ptri¬ ad am ? quod pr osmium? quodnam soelus ? ecquod commodum ? The interrogative qui sometimes stands substantively for quis, especially in indirect questions; e. g., qui scit ? nescimus qui sis; non possum oblioisci qui fuerim, non sentire qui sim - —and quis , vice versa, adjectively for qui, as quis rex ? quis miles ? quis homo? quis hospes ? quis philosophus? but in these expressions the words rex, miles, homo, etc., are to be regarded as placed in apposition to the interrogative quis. Ecquis has in the nom. fern. sing, and in the neuter plural both ecquoe and ecqua. XT. Indefinite Pronouns. § 42. —The following indefinite pronouns are declined like the rela¬ tive qui / but in the neut. sing, they have two forms, one in -quid, used substantively ; the other in -quod , used adjectively ; as, ediquid temqooris, aliquid preemii, and all quod tempus, aliquod preemium. Quidarn, queedam, quoddam or quiddam, a certain one. Quilibet, quselibet, quodlibet or quidlibet, any one you please. Quivis, qusevis, quodvis or quidvis, any one you please. Quispiam, qusepiam, quidpiam or quodpiam, some one. Aliquis, aliqua, aliquid or aliquod, some one, something. Quisque, quBeque, quidque or quodque, every one. Unusquisque, unaquseque, unumquidquo or -quodque, each. Note 1.— Quidarn usually changes m before d into n, as quendam, quandam, quo- rundarn, instead of quemdam, quamdam , etc. Note 2.— Aliquis lias in the nom. fein. sing, and in the nom. and ace. neut. plur. aliqua. It is thus declined : S. N. G. D. A. A aliquis alicui US \ f or aU Orders aliquem aliquo aliqua aliquam aliqua aliquid or -quod aliquid or -quod aliquo P.N. aliqui aliquto aliqua G. aliquorum aliquarum aliquorum D. aliquibus aliquibus aliquibus A. aliquos aliquas ' aliqua aliquibus A. aliquibus aliquibus Aliquis with its derivatives aliquo and aliquando, generally loses the prefix ali, when ti, nisi, ne, nvm, quo, quando , or quanto precedes, ana then in the fem. sing, and the .neut. plur., the form qua is used along with quee ; hence we may say siqua, nequa, numqita, or si qua’,, ne quee, num quae. Note 3.— Unusquisque, each, and quotusquisque , how many ? or how few! ocair in the singular only, and have both parts declined, oblique eases ; the former is thus declined : N. unusquisque unaqusequa G miiusenjiiMque \ foraU ders -L>. unieuique K J A. unumquemque unamquamquo A. unoqnoque unaquaque Note 4.— Quisquam , any one, and quisquis , whosoever, are almost always used sub¬ stantively, and have, therefore, in the neuter regularly quidquarn (or quicquam) and The latter scarcely occurs in the unumquidque or -quodque unumquidque or -quodque unoquoque A 3G PKONOUNS. quidquid (or quicquid).—Quisquctm has neither fem. nor plnr. The double forms quc&quaz. quemquem , quoquo , quibusquibus (from quisquis), are not so frequent as th.036 formed by the suffix -cunque. V. Possessive and Patrial Pronouns. § 43.—The possessive pronouns are formed from the genitive of the personal and are declined entirely like adjectives of three endings. They are as follows : mens, mea, meum, my ( Foe. mctsc. mi) tuus, tua, tuum, thy suus, sua, suum, his, her, its / pi. their noster, nostra, nostrum, our vester, vestra, vestrum, your Patrial pronouns are such as have reference to a person’s country, family, or party. They are three in number ; viz., cujas, -dtis, what countryman ? of what family or party ? nostras , -atis, our countryman, of our family or party. vestras , -dtis, your countryman, of your family or party. The pronouns cujas, nostras , and vestras , are declined like felix. Plur. nom., acc., and voc., nostrates, nostratia; gen., nostratium ; dat. and abb, nostratibus. §44.—Here belong also the so-called pronominals or pronominal adjectives alius, alter, uter, neuter, ullus, and nullus. These adjectives, together with solus and lotus, make the genitive sing, in -ius and the dative in i, for all gen- ders; as, solus, alone, ......... D. soli totus, whole, . Ga totius D. toti alius, another, . G. alius D. alii alter, the one, the other {of two), . . G. alterius D. alteri uter, ichich of the two ? . G. utrius D. utri neuter, neither of the two, .... G. neutrlus D. neutri ullus, any one, . D. ulli nullus, no one, . G. nulllus D. nulli Thus the compounds uterque , each of the two, both ; utervis, nterlibet , utercunque , whichever of the two.— Alteruter , either the one or the other (of two), has in the gen. both aUerutrius and alterius utrlus ; dat. alterutri ; acc. alterutrum ; abl. alterutro. YI. Correlative Pronouns. § 45.—Correlative pronouns are such as express a mutual relation to each other and represent this relation by a corresponding form. tails, such , of such a hind ; qualis, as , of what kind ? tantus, such , so great ; quant us, as great , how great ? tct, so many ; quot, as many , how many t qualiscunque, of whatever kind. talis-qualis, such as. quantuscunque, how great soever. tantus-quantus, as great as. quotcunqne, how many soever. tot quot, as many as. THE VERB. 37 Decline together: Hie fortissimus miles; hcec benigna mater; illustre illucl ac prceclarum facinus.—Ego et doctissimus Me vir ; et ego, et hi, et hie, et laze, et ilia.—Tn ipse et hie infelix f rater meus; hcec el qacelibet alia causa; tu solus nec quisquam alius.—Hie magnanimus rex et demens ilia regina; idem semper vultus eademque frons; ego idem et non alius; vir ille innocentissimus idemque doctissimus, and the like. CHAPTER Y. The Verb. § 46.—Verbs are divided into two main classes,— transitive and in¬ transitive. A transitive verb is a verb which takes an object in the accusative, in answer to whom or what, placed after it; e. g., I praise (praise idiom f —) the scholar ; laudo discipulum. I write (write what f — ) a letter; scribo epistolam. An intransitive verb is a verb which takes either no object at all, as sto, I stand ; sedeo, I sit; curro, I run ; ambulo, I walk ;—or, if it takes one, does not take it in the accusative, but in some other case ; as, obedio, I obey; parco, I spare; faveo, I favor; and several other verbs which, though transitive in English, are intransitive in Latin, because they take their object in the dative. Such verbs, of course, must be learned chiefly by observation and practice, the student in the mean time taking as a general rule, to consider verbs that are transitive in English, as transitive also in Latin. fSgT’ A verb is transitive in English, when the word “ somebody” or “ something” can be placed after it. Thus, to praise , to blame , to see , to learn , to hear , to do , etc., are transitive in English, because we can say, to praise, blame, see, hear, etc., somebody or something. VOICES, MOODS, AND TENSES. § 47.—Voice is a particular mode of inflecting or conjugating verbs. There are two voices, called the active and passive voices. The active voice ends in o; the passive, in or. In the former, the subject is represented as acting; in the latter, as acted upon; as, act., laudo, I praise; pass., laudor, I am praised. Transitive verbs have both the active and passive voices. Intransitive verbs have only the active in o, and they cannot be nsed in the passive, except im¬ personally, that is, only in the 3d singular; as, curritur , itur, venilur, venieba- tur, ventum est, ambulatum est. The moods are four,—the Indicative , the Subjunctive , the Impera¬ tive. , and the Infinitive . The Indicative expresses an action or state as a fact, as something real; as, “ It rains.”—“ lie writes.”—“ They come or asks a question ; as, “ Does it rain ?”— “ Does he write 1”—“ Are they coming?” 38 THE VERB. The Subjunctive expresses an action or state not as a fact, but mer Ay as possible, conditional, doubtful, and contingent; as, they should come.” The Imperative is used in commanding, exhortin thou.”—“ Come and see.”—“ Forgive me.” The Infinitive expresses an action or state indefinitely, without limiting it to number and person ; as, “ To err is human.”—“ To lie is baae.”—“ To forgive is divine.” •‘It may rain.”-— “If tLm< write.”— “If ig, or entreating; as, “Depart § 48.—The tenses are six: the Present , Imperfect , Perfect, Phi- perfect , Future , and Fu.t -Perfect. Pjis. scribo, I ivrite , I am writing , I do write. Imi\ scribebam, I was writing , I wrote, I did write. Prf. scripsi, I wrote, 1 have written. Plp. scripseram, Iliad ivritten. Put. seriham, I shall write. F.-pf. scripsero, I shall have ivritten. The tenses are divided into principal and historical tenses. PRINCIPAL TENSES. Pp.s. scribo, I write. Prf. scripsi, 1 have written. Fut. scribam, I shall write. HISTORICAL TENSES. Imp. scribebam, I was writing. Plp. scripseram, I had written. Prf. scripsi, 1 wrote. Numbers and persons of verbs are the same as in English. GERUNDS, SUPINES, PARTICIPLES. § 49.—Gerunds and Supines represent the idea of the verb in the form of substantives; Participles, in tbe form of adjectives. Gerunds are verbal substantives of the 2d decl., used only in the oblique cases {Gen., Dat., Acc., and Adi.) of the singular number. Supines are verbal substantives of tbe 4tli decl., used in tbe Acc. and AM. singular. Tbe Supine in um has an active meaning; the Supine in u, com¬ monly a passive one. Participles are in form adjectives, but express, at the same time, the differ¬ ent relations of the aetion or state, whether it is still lasting or terminated. - Regular Latin verbs generally have four Participles ;—two in the active, and two in the passive. In the Active: In the Passive : 1. The Part. Present in ns. 1. The Part. Perf. in us. 2. The Part. Future in urus. 2. The Participle in dus. The Part. Pres. act. in ns corresponds to the English Participle in ing; &8, laudans, praising; scrihens, writing. The Part. Fut. act. in urus expresses an intention or a wish to do something ; as, scripturus. one who intends (wishes, is about or going) to write. The Part. Perf. pass, in us corresponds to the English Participle in ed; as, laudatus, praised ; rnoniius, advised. The Participle in dus, —commonly, though improperly, called the Participle Future passive,—does not by itself imply the idea of futurity. A reference to future time may, indeed? be implied, but this arises from the connection rather than from the Participle itself. The Participle in dus expresses in the nomi- THE VERB. 39 native, and occasionally also in the remaining cases, necessity, obligation , or :propriety. Thus, cpistola scribenda means a letter that must be written, not one that will be written. Modern Grammarians often call the Partic. in dus the Gerundive, from its resemblance to the Gerund. The Conjugations. § 50.—There are, in Latin, four conjugations, distinguished by the ending of the Present Infinitive active. 1 2 3 4 -are -ere -ere -ire The principal parts of a verb are its Stem , Infinitive, Perfect , and Supine. The stem of a verb is generally obtained by taking off the ending of the Present Infinitive. Infinitive. Perfect. Supine. 1 . amo, am-are, amavi, am a turn, to love. 2. moueo, mon-ere, monui, monitum, to advise . 3. rego, reg-ere, rexi, rectum, to ride. 4. audio, aud-ire, audivi, auditum, to hear. 51. THE FORMATION OF THE TENSES. From the stem are formed—by adding the proper endings The Present, Imperfect, and Future indic. (Act. and Pass.) The Present and Imperfect subjunctive (Act. and Pass.) The Imperative both Act. and Pass. The gerunds and participles in vs and dus. From the Perfect are formed—by changing the final i into cram, ero, erim, issem, and isse, respectively: The Pluperfect and Future-Perfect indic. Act. The Perfect and Pluperfect subjunctive Act. The Perfect infinitive Active. From the Supine are formed—by changing um into us and urus, respec¬ tively : The participle Perfect Pass, in us. The participle Future Act. in urus. Note.— The Imperfect Subj. may also be formed by adding m for the Active, and r for the Passive,—to the Infinitive Present Active. I he Imperative Active may be formed from the Infinitive Act. —by dropping the ending -re of the Infinitive. The Participle in dus may be formed from the genitive sing, of the Partic. Present Act.—by changing Us into dus. SSTIn parsing any verbal form, let the pupil state (1.) the person, (2.) the num¬ ber, (3.) the mood, (4.) the tense, (5.) the voice, (G.) from what verb, (7.) the mean¬ ing, and (3.) the agreement; e. g., regimini is the second person pi nr. of the Indio. Present pass, from the verb rego , regere, rexi , rectum , “ to rule,” an 1 agrees with. . . . THE VERB 52.—The verb “esse,” to be. INDICATIVE. Sum, lam. es, tliou art. est, he, she, it is. sum us, we are. estis, ye are. sunt, they are. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. sim, lmay be. sis, thou rnayest be. sit, he may be. simus, we may be. sitis, ye may be. sint, they may be. eram, I teas. eras, thou roast. erat, he, she , it was. eramus, roe were. eratis, ye were. erant, they were. IMPERFECT. essem, I might, etc., be. esses, thou mightest be. esset, he might be. essemus, we might be. essetis, ye might be. essent, they might be. fui, I have been. fuisti, thou hast been. fuit, he has been. fuimus, roe have been. fuistis, ye have been, fuerunt, they have been. PERFECT. fuerim, I may fueris, thou rnayest fuerit, he may fuerimus, we may fueritis, ye may fuerint, they may fueram, I had been. fueras, thou hadst been. fuerat, he had been. fueramus, toe had been. fueratis, ye had been. fuerant, they had been. PLUPERFECT. fuissem, I might, etc. fuisses, thou mightst fuisset, he might fuissenuis, toe might fuissetis, ye might fuissent, they might ero, I shall be. eris, thou wilt be. erit, he will be. erimus, we shall be. eritis, ye will be. erunt, they will be. FUTURE. futur¬ es, a, urn futur- h ce, a FUT.-PERFECT. / sim, [shall be. •< sis, thou wilt be. ( sit, he will be. simus, we shall be. sitis, ye will be. sint, they to ill be. fuero, 1 shall fueris, thou wilt fuerit, he will fuerimus, we shall fueritis, ye will fuerint, they ivill ' >- have been. supplied by fuerim cr fuis&em. have been , THE VERB. 41 S. es, be ihou esto, ihou shalt be estOj he shall be IMPERATIVE. P. este, be ye estote, ye shall be sunto, they shall be. INFINITIVE. Pks. esse, to be Pkf. fuiase, to have been Fut. futurus (a, urn) esse, to be about to be. PARTICIPLES. Prs. and Prf., wanting Fut. futurus, a, um, one who is about to be. Note 1 .— The forms forem, fores, foret, and forent, are sometimes used for essem, esses, esset, and essent; and fore often stands in place of futurum esse. Note 2.—The Participle of the Inf. Future has two cases only; viz., the nom. and ace.; as, S. N. futurus, a, um esse I P. N. futuri, ae, a esse A. futurum, am, um esse | A. futuros, as, a esse. Note 3.—Like sum are inflected : absum, I am away from ; adsum , I am present; desum , I am wanting; insum , I am in; intersum, 1 am present at; obsum, I am against or in the way ; prcesum , I preside over, am at the head; prosum, I benefit, am useful; subsum, I am under; supersum, I am left, survive. Prosum, profui, prodesse, inserts d in all forms of sum that begin wuu e, as. prosum pro-d-es pro-d-est prosum us pro-d-estis prosunt pro-d-eram pro-d-eras pro-d-erat pro-d-eram us pro-d-eratis pro-d-erant pro-d-essem pro-d-esses pro-d-esset pro-d-essemus pro-d-essetis pro-d-essent with e pro-d-ero pro-d-eris pro-d-erit pro-d-erimus pro-d-eritis pro-d-erunt. On the verb sum and its compounds. Historia semper erit egregia vita? magistra.—Contentum esse suis rebus maxima? sunt eertissimseque divitise.—Juvenes, ut fuerit industria vestra, ita etiam prsemium vestrum erit. —Multi essent doctiores, si diligentiores fuissent. —Neque timidus esto neque audax.—Quis sim, mihi notum quis futurus sim, mihi ignotum est.Q- Ego sum principium mundi et finis omnium rerum : ego sum trinus et unus, et tamen non sum Deus.—Benefieiorum per omnetn vitam memores estote. —Incertum est num vita nostra beata futura sit. —Qui prodest reipublicte, prodest sibi ipsi.—Ncn sum nescius qua mente tu et prius in me fueris, et nunc sis, et semper futurus sis. —Persa? Graecis infesti erant. —Demosthenis astate multi oratores magni et clari fuerunt, et antea fuerant , nec postea defuerunt. —Suae quisque fortuna? faber erit. —Magno Persarutn exercitui dux peritus defuit. —Incredibile est quanta conscientia? vis sit. — Qualis in alios f ueris, tales ipsi in te erunt. —Ut magistratibus leges, ita populo proesunt magistratus.—Avaritia fons est atque origo multorum malorutn.—Urbs Syracuse maxima et pulcherrima erat omnium Grsecarum urbium.—Proceila? nautif pernicios* sunt. 42 THE VEEB § 53. —Personal endings ACTIVE. I. II. III. IV. I. II. III. IV. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. S. O as at P. am us atis ant S. P. a"ba:n abas a bat abamus abatis abant FUTURE. S. abo ebo am iam abis ebis es ies abit ebit et iet P. a Warns ebimus emus iemus abitis ebitis etis ietis abunt ebant ent ient PERFECT. PLUPERF. FUT.-PERF. PERFECT. PLUPERF. FUT.-PERF (for all conjugations.') (for all conjugations.) S. i eram ero erim issem isti eras eris eris isses it erat erit erit isset P. itnus eram us erimns erimus issemus wanting istis eratis eritis eritis issetis grunt erant erint erint issent. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. eo 0 lO em earn am es is is es eas as et it it et eat at emus imus imus emus earn us amus etis itis itis etis eatis atis ent unt iunt ent eant ant IMPERFECT. IMPERFECT. ebam ebam iebam arem erem erem ebas ebas iebas ares eres eres ebat ebat iebat aret eret eret ebamus ebamus i ebamus aremus erernus eremus ebatis ebatis iebatis aretis eretis eretis ebant ebant iebant arent erent erent iam ias iat iarnus iatis iant irem ires iret iremus iretis irent FUTURE. The Partic. in urus with sim or essem. I. II. III. IV. S. 2. a or ato 3. ato P. 2. ate or atote 3. auto IMPER e or eto eto ete or etote ento ATIVE. e or ito ito ite or itote unto i or Ito Ito Ite or itote iunto Prs. are Pbk. isse Put. urus esse INFIls Sre isse urus esse riTIVE. ere isse urus esse ire isse urus esse Prs. ans Put. urus (a, um) PARTICIPLES. ens | ens urus (a, um) | urus (a, um) iens urus (a, um) THE VERB 43 OF THE REGULAR VERBS. PASSIVE. II. III. IV. I. II. III. IV. i. INDICATIVE. PRESENT. or aris atur am nr amini antur abar abaris abatur abamur abamini abantur abor aberis abitur abimur abimini abuntur eor eris etur cmur emini entur or eris itur iraur imini untur mPERFECT. ebar ebaris ebatur ebarnur ebamini ebantur ebar ebaris ebatur ebarnur ebamini ebantur lor Iris itur Imur imini iuntur iebar i ebaris iebatur iebamur iebamini i ebantur FUTURE. ebor ar iar eberis eris ieris ebitur etur ietur ehimur emur iemur ebimini emini iemini ebuntur entur ientur PERFECT. PLUPERF. FUT.-PERF. PERFECT. PLUPERF. FUT.-PERF (for all conjugations.) (for all conjugations.) Partic. in-t/s Partic. in -vs Partic. in - us Partic. in-«s Partic. in -us with with with with with wanting. sum e r a m e r o sim essem (fui) (fueram) (fuero) (fuerim) (fuissem) SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. er eris etur emur emini entur arer areris aretur aremur aremini arentur ear earis eatur eamur earn ini eantur ar aris atur am nr amini antur IMPERFECT. erer ereris eretur eremur eremini ereutur erer ereris eretur eremur eremini erentur iar iaris iatur iamur iamini iantur irer ireris iretur iremur iremini irentur FUTURE. wanting. I. II. III. IV. S. 2. are or ator 3. ator P. 2. amini 3. antor DIPERA Sre or etor etor emini entor TIVE. ere or itor itor imini untor ire or Itor itor imini iuntor Pas. ari Pkf. us (a, um) esse Put. um iri INFII 6ri us (a, um) esse um iri TITIVE. i us (a, um) esse um iri iri us (a, um) esso um iri Pkf. us ■- andu3 PARTICIPLES, us 1 us endus | endus us iendus 44 THE VERB § 54. -THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. ACT 1 I. n. III. TV. INDICATIVE. l PRESENT. . 1 love, am loving, do love ; Iadvise, rule, hear, am advising, etc., do advise, els. S. Am-o Mon-eo Reg-o Aud-io am-as mon-es reg-is aud-is am-at mon-et reg-it aud-it P. am-amiw mon-emus reg-Imua aud-Imus am-atis mon-etis reg-itis aud-itis am-ant mon-ent reg-unt aud-iunt IMPERFECT. I loved, was loving, did love ; I advised. ruled, heard, was advising, did advise. S. am-abam mon-ebam reg-ebam aud-iebam am-abas mon-ebas. reg-ebas aud-iebaa am-abat mon-ebat reg-ebat aud-iebat P. am-abamus mon-ebamus reg-ebamus aud-iebamus am-abatis mon-ebatis reg-ebatis aud-iebatis am-abant mon-ebant reg-ebant aud-iebant FUTURE. I shall love, advise, rule, hear. S. am-abo mon-ebo reg-am aud-iam am-abis mon-ebi3 reg-es aud-ies am-abit mon-ebit reg-et aud-iet P. am-abimus mon-eblmus reg-emus aud-iemus am-abitis mon-ebitis reg-etis aud-ietia am-abuut mon-ebuut reg-ent aud-ient PERFECT. J loved, have loved ; I advised, have advised. S. amav-i monu-i rex-i audiv-i amav-isti monu-isti rex-isti audiv-isti amav-it monu-it rex-i t audiv-it P. amav-imns monu-imu3 rex-i mu s audiv-i in us amav-istis monu-istis rex-istis audiv-istis amav-erunt monu-erunt rex-erunt audiv-eruut PLUPERFECT. 1 had loved, advised, ruled, heard. S. amav-eram monu-eram rex-eram audiv-eram amav-eras monu-eras rex-eras audiv-eras amav-erat mona-erat rex-erat audiv-erat P. amav-eramus monu-eramus rex-e ramus audiv-e ramus amav-eratis monu-eratis rex-eratis audiv-eratis ainav-erant monu-erant rex-erant audiv-erant FUT.-PERFECT. i I shall have loved, advised, ruled, heard. S. amav-ero monu-ero rex-ero audiv-ero amav-eris monu-eris rex-eris audiv-eris amav-erit monu-erit rex-erit audiv-erit P. amav-erimua monu-crimus rex-erimus audiv-erimus amav-eritis monu-eritis rex-eritis audiv-eritia omaynsrinf monu-erint rex-erint audiv-erint 0 THE VERB. 45 THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. IVE. i. XL III. IV. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. I may love, advise, rule, hear. 6. Am-em Mon-eam Reg-am Aud-iam am-es mon-eas reg-as aud-ias ain-et mon-eat reg-at aud-iat P. am-emus mon-eamus reg-amus aud-iamus am-etis mon-eatis reg-atis aud-iatis am-ent mon-eant reg-ant aud-iant IMPERFECT. I might ( should, would) love, advise, rule, hear . S. am-arem mon-erem reg-erem aud-irem am-ares mon-eres reg-eres aud-ires ain-aret mon-eret reg-eret aud-iret P. am-aremus mon-eremus reg-eremus aud-iremus am-aretis mon-eretis reg-eretis aipd-iretis am-arent mon-erent reg-erent aud-irent FUTURE. - I shall love, advise, rule, hear. £. amatur- I sim monitur- 1 sim rectur- j sim auditur- sim vs, -J sis vs, >sis us, •< sis us, J sis a, urn ( sit a, um ) sit a, um { sit a, um i sit P. amatur- l simus monitur- } simus rectur- j simus auditur- simus i, ■< sitis i, >■ sitis i, > sitis i, « sitis ce, a ( sint ce, a ) sint ce, a ) sint ce, a , sint PERFECT. I may have loved, advised, ruled, heard. S. amav-erim monu-erim rex-erim audiv-erim amav-eris monu-eris rex-eris audiv-eris amav-erit monu-erit rex-erit audiv-erit P. amav-erimus monu-erimus rex-erimus audiv-erimus amav-eritis monu-eritis rex-eritis audiv-eritis amav-erint monu-erint rex-erint audiv-erint PLUPERFECT. I might ( should, would) have loved, advised, ruled, heard. 6. amav-isfiem monu-issem rex-issem audiv-issem amav-isses monu-isses rex-isses audiv-isses amav-isset monu-isset rex-isset audiv-isset P. amav-issemus monu-issemus rex-issemus audiv issemus amav-issetis monu-issetis rex-issetis audiv-issetis amav-issont monu-issent rex-issent audiv-issent FUT.-PERFECT. I shall have loved, advised, ruled, heard. wanting. (generally supplied by the Sub}. Perf. or Pluperfect.) (See § 187.) 46 THE VERB. THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. ACTIVE. 1 1 x. II. III. IV. IMPERATIVE. I ?ot>e CAoit, sTiaft ». ; Ae s7ia7Z 7 ; love ye, ye shall l., they shall l. S. 2. am-a mon-e reg-e aud-i am-ato rnon-eto reg-ito aud-Ito 3. am-ato mon-eto reg-ito aud-ito P. 2, am-ate mon-ete reg-ite aud-ite am-ato to mon-etote reg-itote aud-i tote 8. am-anto mon-ento reg-unto aud-iunto INFINITIYE. to love, to have loved, to be about to love. Prs. am-are mon-ere reg-ere aud-ire Prf. amav-isse monu-isse rex-isse audiv-isse Fut. amaturus esse moniturus esse recturus esse auditurus esse GERUNDS. G. of loving or to love ;D. and A. to love; Ahl. by loving. Gen. am-andi mon-endi reg-endi aud-iendi Dat. am-ando mon-endf) reg-endo aud-iendo Acc. am-andum mon-endum reg eudum aud-iendum Abl. am ando mon-endo reg endo aud-iendo SUPINES. 1. (in order) to love ; 2. to love or to be loved. 1. amatum monitum rectum auditum 2. amatu monitu rectu auditu PARTICIPLES. Prs. loving, advising .... Fut. being about to love, to advise. Prs. am-ans mon-ens reg-ens aud-iens F t jt. amat-urus monit-urus rect-urus audit-urus ' § 55. -NOTES ON THE ACTIVE VOICE. Note 1.—The third person plural of the Indie. Perfect sometimes ends in ere instead of Irunt; as ,fuc.re, amavlre , monuere , rexere , etc., instead of fuerunt, amaverunt , mo- nuerurt , rexerunt , etc. Note 2.—Perfects in cm of the first,, and in evi of the second conjugation, as well as the tenses formed from the Perfect, frequently drop vi and ve before r and 8 ; as, ama - runt, amaram , amarint, for ama-verunt, amaveram , amaverint /— amasti, amassent , amasse, for amavisti , amavissent , amavisse ;—nerunt , delevam , Jlesti, compkssem, for neverunt, deleveram, jlevisti, complevinem. Thus, consuerunt , consuesscm , of the third ionjugation, for consneverunl , consuevissetn. THE YERB. 47 Note 3.— Perfects in ivi , of the third and fourth conjugations, often drop v before *, and sometimes before i ; as, desier unt , audierunt , for desiverunt , audiverunt; —• quasieram , definierat , for qucesiveram , definiverat ;— petierim, audiero , for petiverim , audivero ; more rarely audiit , muniit , petiissem,audiisss, for audivit , munivit , petivis- tem, audivisse. When iw is followed by s, the whole syllable may be dropped ; as, petisli, petis- sem, audisse, abissem , rcdisti , subisse , for petivisti, petivissem, audivisse , etc. Note 4.—X>ic<9, efoico, facio, and/e/'o, with their compounds, have ahh, duc^fer^fac, in the Imperative. § 56.—NOTES ON THE PASSIVE VOICE. Note 1 . —The second person singular of the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, as well as of the Imperfect and Future Indicative, often ends in re instead of ns; as, moneare for monearis ; monerere for monereris ; amabare for amabaris ; amabere for amaberis ; regare for regaris ; regere for regeris , etc. Note 2.—To express more emphatically the completion of an action, the following forms are sometimes used : amatus fuiyhr amatus sum amatus fueram/or amatus eratn amatus fuerim /or amatus sim amatus fuissem/or amatus essem amatus fuisse /or amatus esse. Note 3.—The Participles of the Infinitive Perfect pass, and of the Infinitive Future act.,have two cases only: viz., the nominative and accusative both sing, and plural; as, Sing. N. amatus (a, um) esse Plur. N. amatd (se, a) esse A. amatum (am, um) esse. A. amatos (as, a) esse. Sing. N. amaturus (a, um) esse Plur. N. amaturi (se, a) esse A. amaturum (am, um) esse. A. amaturos (as, a) esse. Note 4. —The Participle in dus , in verbs of the third and fourth conjugations, ends sometimes in undus , instead of endus , especially when i precedes; as, regundus, fad- undus , capiundus , and regularly potiundus. Verbs in -io of the third conjugation. § 57.—Verbs ending in - io , of the third conjug., as capio , cvpio, fodio, fugio, jacio, rapio , etc., retain the i before am and ar ; ebam and ebar ; ens, endus , and endi, through¬ out,—and also before the endings unt, untur , unto, and untor ,—in other words, they retain the i in the Present Subj., in the Imperfect Indie., and in the Future Indie., both active and passive: besides in the participles in ens and dus , in the Gerunds, and also in the third person plur. of the Present Indie, and of the Imperat. both active and passive; as, - Pres. Subj. Fut. Indie. Impf. Indie. ACT. PASS. ACT. PASS. ACT. PASS. cap-i-am cap-i-ar cap-i-am cap-i-ar cap-i-ebam cap-i-ebar cap-i-as cap-i-aris cap-i-es cap-i-eris cap-i-ebas cap-i-ebaris cap-i-at cap-i-atur cap-i-et cap-i-etur cap-i-ebat cap-i-ebatur etc. etc. etc. cap-i-unt and -untur, cap-i-unto and -untor, cap-i-ens and cap-i-endus. 48 THE VERB § 58. -THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. PASS i. ii. hi. IT. X X INDICATIVE. PRESENT. I am loved , advised, ruled, heard. IMPERFECT. I was loved, advised, ruled, heard. s. p. s. p. s. p. am-abor am-aberis (re) am-abitur am-abimur am-abimini ain-abuntur amat- us, • a, um amat- h ■ ce, a amat- us, - a, um amat- h ■ oz, a FUTURE. I shall he loved, advised, ruled, heard. mon-ebor mon-eberis (re) mon-ebitur mon-ebimur mon-ebimini mon-ebuntur reg-ar reg-gris (re) reg-etur reg-emur reg-emini reg-entur PERFECT. I have been loved, advised, ruled, heard. sum xnonit- 1 | sum rect- i ( sum es us, J es us, - es est a, um ( ! est a, um i ( est sumus mo nit- l j sumus rect- i sumus estis *> •< estis i, h estis sunt a, a < ! sunt ce, a i [ sunt PLUPERFECT. I had been loved, advised, ruled, heard. eram eras erat eram us eratis erant ce, a eram eras erat eram us eratis erant rect¬ os, a, um rect- % a r, a eram eras erat eramus eratis erant S. P. FUT.-PERFECT. I shall have been loved, advised, r uled, heard. ero eris erit erimus eritis erunt ( cro mo nit- ( j ero rect- f 1 eris us, J eris us, J ( erit a, um | | erit a, um ( ( erimus monit- | l erimus rect- ( < eritis b eritis i, •< ( erunt ob, a | [erunt « ( X S. Am-or Mon-eor Reg-or Aud-ior am-aris mon-eris reg-eris aud-Iris am-atur mon-etur reg-itur aud-itur P. am-amur mon-emur reg-imur aud-imur am-amini mon-emini reg-imini aud-imini am-antur mon-entur reg-untur aud-iuntur S. am-abar mon-ebar reg-ebar am-abaris (re) mon-ebaris (re) reg-ebaris (re) am-abatur mon-ebatur reg-ebatur P. am-abamur mon-ebamur reg-ebamur am-abamini mon-ebamini reg-ebamini am-abantur mon-ebantur reg-ebantur aud-iebar aud-iebaris (re) aud-iebatur aud-iebamur aud-iebamini aud-iebantur aud-iar aud-ieris (re) aud-ietur aud-iemur aud-iernini aud-ientur audit- us, i sum , es um ( est sumus estis sunt audit- f eram us, -j eras a , um ( erat audit- l eramua i, •< eratis ce , a erant audit- ( ero us, ^ eris a, um l erit audit- ( erimus i , < eritis os, a { erunt THE VERB. 49 THE FOUR REGULAR CONJUGATIONS. IYE. i. n. in. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. I may be loved, advised, ruled, heard. S. Am- er Mon- ear Reg- ar And- iar am- eris (re) mon- earis (re) reg- aris (re) and- iaris (re) am- etur mon- eatur reg- atur aud- iatur P. am- emur mon- eamur reg- amur aud- iamur am- emini mon- eamini reg- amini aud- iamini am- entur mon- eantur reg- antur aud- iantur IMPERFECT. I might (should, would) be loved, advised, ruled, heard. S. am- arer mon- erer reg- Srer aud- irer am- areris (re) mon- ereris (re) reg- ereris (re) aud- ireris (re) am- aretur mon- eretur reg- eretur aud- iretur P. am- aremur mon- eremur reg- eremur aud- iremur am- aremini mon- eremini reg- eremini aud- iremini am- arentur mon- erentur reg- erentur aud- irentur FUTURE. J shall be loved, advised, ruled, heard. Wanting. (See § 186.) B. amat- | sim us, •< sis a, um ( sit P. amat- l simus i, •< sitis as, a ( sint PERFECT. J may have been loved, advised, ruled, heard monit- i ( sim US, H sis a, um i ( sit monit- 1 j simus i, \ sitis os, a | ; sint rect¬ (sim os, < sis a, um ( sit rect- l simus i, ■< sitis ce, a ( sint audit- | 1 sim us, ^ sis a, um ( sit audit- ( simus i, - sitis ce , a i ( sint PLUPERFECT. I might (should, would) have been loved, advised, ruled, heard. S. amat- ( essem us, esses a, um ( esset P. amat- f essemus i, essetis 1 2 pendeo, spondeo, pependi, Bpopondi, pensum, gponsum, to hang, j to engage, j f tondeo, totondi, tonsum, to shear. J I 8 S ardeo, arsi, arsum. to burn. lisereo, hassi, liaesum. to cleave, stick. j ubeo, jussi. jussum, to bid. maneo. mansi, mansum, to remain. mulceo. inulsi. mulsum, to stroke. mnlgeo. mnlsi. mulsum, to milk. rideo, risi. risum, to laugh. suadeo, suasi, Buasum, to advise. tergeof, tersi, tersum. to wipe. augeo. auxi, auctum. to increase. torqueo, torsi, tortum, to twist, torture. indulgeo, indulsi, indultum, to indulge. algeo. alsi. to shiver with cold. fulgeo, fulsi. to flash, shine. turgeo, tursi, to swell. urgeo, ursi. to press, urge. frigeo. (frixi). ——- to be cold. luceo luxi. to shine. lugeo, luxi, to mourn. strideof, stridi. to hiss, creak. * Also tergo and striclo , of the third conjugation.— J Sup., also mistum .— 2 Recenseo review, has recensum and recensitum. — 3 Also do, cire , civi, citum , of the fourth conjugation; hence accitus, summoned; and excitus , called out; but excitus , in tho sense of “ excited.”— 4 The Partic. pransus has an active signification, “ one who haa breakfasted.” THE VERB 57 § 65. -THIRD CONJUGATION. 1. Verts in io, uo, and vo. capio (T), cepi, captum (e). to take. facio 1 , feci. factum, to do, make. jacio (i), jeci. j actum (e), to throw. — lido. — lexi, -lectum, (ad, per ); - but elicio, elicui, elicitum. to draw out. — spicio, — spexi, -spectum, (ad, in, etc.) fbdio. f<3di, fossum, to dig. fugio, fdgi, fugitum. to flee. cupio. cupivi. cupitum, to desire. rapio (i). rapui (i), raptum (e). to snatch. pariof. peperi, partum, to bring forth. quatio, quassum. to shake. — cutio, -cussi, -cussum, (ex, in, etc.) sapio (i). -ui or ivi. to be wise. acuo, acui, acutum. to sharpen. argno, 2 argui. argutum, to convict of. ex uo, exui. exutum, to strip off. induo, indui. indutum. to put on. imbuo, imbui, imbutum, to imbue. minuo, minui, minutum, to lessen. polluo. pollui, pollutum, to defile. luof. lui, - lutum , to atone for. ruof, rui, - rutum , to rush. spuo, spui, sputum, to spit (con). statuo (i), statui (i), statutum (i). to establish. suo, sui, sutum, to sew (con). tribuo, tribui. tributum, to give, allot to. solvo. solvi. solutum. to loosen. volvo, volvi, volutum, to roll. struo, struxi, structum, to build, pile. vivo, vixi. victum, to live. fluo. fluxi. to flow. congruo, congrui. to agree. ingruo, ingrui. to rush into. metuo, metui. to fear. -nuo z , -nui, (ad, re, in). pluo, plui, to rain. sternuo. sternui. to sneeze. 2. Verbs in do and to. a V claudo (n), clausi (u), clausum (u). to shut (in, ex). divido, divisi, divisum, to divide. laedo (i), laesi (i). laesum (I), to hurt. ltido, lusi, lusum. to play. plaudo, 1 plausi. plausum. to clap hands. rado, rasi, rasum, to shave, scrape. 58 THE VERB rodo, rosi, rosum, to gnaw (con). trudo, trusi, trusum, to p ush , thr ust. vado, -vast, -vasum, to go (in, e, per). cado (i), 2 cecidi. casum, to fall. • 02 O csedo (i), cecldi, csesum (I), to cut. pendo, pependi. pensum, to weigh. £ s y O P- © a * tendo 3 , tetendi. tens- or tent-. to stretch. tundo 4 , tutudi, tunsum, to beat. credo, credidi, creditum, to believe. vendo, vendidi, venditnm, to sell. -cendo, -cendi, -censum, (in, ad, sub). cildo. cudi, -< casum , to stamp (ex). edo, edi. esum, to eat (also comestue). mando, mandi, mansum, to chew. scando (e), scandi (e), scansum (e), to climb (con, de). defendo. defendi. defensum. to defend. offendo, oftendi, offensum, to offend. ostendo, ostendi, ostensum, to show. prehendo, prebendi. prebensum. to seize. strido 5 , stridi. to grate. fundo. fudi. fusum. to pour. cedo, cessi, cessum, to yield. findo, fidi, fissum. to split. scindo, scidi, scissum. to cut. frendo. (frendui), fres(s)um, to gnash. meto, messui, messnm, to reap. mitto, misi. missum. to send. pando 6 . pandi, passum, to spread. peto, petivi, petitum, to ash, attack. rudo, rudivi, to bray. sido 7 . sedi, sessum. to sit down. sisto 8 . stiti (obs.), statum, to stop (trans.) sisto, Bteti, etatum, to stop (intr.) sterto, stertui, to snore. verto 9 , verti. versum, to turn. 3. Verbs in bo and po. glubo, (glupsi), -gluptum, to peel. nubo, nupsi. nuptum, to marry. scribo, scripsi, scriptum, to write. carpo (e), carpsi (e). carptum (e), to pluck (ex de). repo, repsi, reptnm, to creep. scalpo. scalpsi. scalptum, to carve. sculpo, sculpsi, scnlptum, to chisel. Berpo, serpsi, serptum, to creep. rumpo, rupi, ruptum, to b' eak, tea/r. bibo, blbi, bibit am, to drink (e-). - cumbo , - cubui, -cubit wn, (de, in, sub). THE VERB strepo, lambo, Ecabo, strepui, -- Iambi, —- scabi, -- 4. Verbs in co, cto, go, and quo. to make a noise, to lick, to scratch. cingo. cinsi. cinctum, to gird. -fllgo 1 , -flixi, -flictum. (ad, in, con). jungo, junxi. junctum. to join. lingo, linxi, linctum, to lick up. mungo, -munxi. -munctum, to No w the nose (©*), plango, planxi, planctum. to bewail. rego (i), rexi. rectum, to rule. pergo. perrexi. perrectum. to go on. surgo, surrexi, surrectum. to rise. sugo. suxi. suctum. to suck. tego, texi. tectum, to cover. tingo, tinxi. tinctum. to dip, dye. -stinguo, -stinxi, -stinctum, (ex, re, dig). lingo, nnxi. unctum, to anoint. traho, traxi. tractum, to draw. velio 2 , vexi. vectum, to carry. dico. dixi. dictum, to say. duco, duxi, ductum. to lead. coquo. coxi, coctum. to cook. fingo, finxi. lictum. to feign. pingo, pinxi, pictum, to paint. stringo, strinxi, strictum, to bind tight. figo, fixi. fixum, to fix. flecto, flexi. flexum, to bend. necto. nexui, ncxum, to bind. pecto. pexi, pexum. to comb. plecto 3 , plecto, ango, ningit, (plexi), anxi, ninxit, (plexum), to twist, to punish, to torment, it snows. parco 4 , peperci, parsum, to spare. pnngo 5 , pupugi, punctum. to sting. tango 6 , tetigi. tactum, to touch pango 7 , pepigi, pactum. to bargain. \ pango, panxi. panctum, to drive in. ( -pingo, -pegi, -pactum., (con, in). ago 8 , egi, actum, to drive, do. cogo, dego, coegi, degi. coactum, to compel, to spend one's time. frango (i). fregi, fractum, to break. lego 9 , legi, lectum, to gather, read. ico 10 . ici. ictum, to strike. vinco, vici. victum, to conquer. linquo, -liqui, -lictum, to leave (de, re). 00 THE VEKB* merge. mersi. mersnm, to dip. spargo (e), sparsi (e), sparsum (e), to scatter (ad, in). tergo, vergo, tersi, tersum, 5. Verbs in lo, mo, no, and bo. to wipe, to incline. como. compsi. comptum. to adorn. demo, dempsi. demptum. to take away promo. prompsi, promptum, to bring out. sumo. sumpsi, sumptum. to take. temno, -tempsi, -temptum, to despise (con). alo, ( -cello, alui, -cellui, al(! )tum. to nourish. (ex, ante); - but (percello. perculi, perculsum. to strike down. colo, colui, cultum, to till, worship. consulo. consului, consultum, to consult. molo. molui, molitum, to grind. occulo. occului, occnltum, to conceal. fremo, fremui, fremitum, to growl, rage. gemo, tremo, gemui, tremui, gemitum, to groan, to tremble. vomo, vomui, vomitum, to vomit. gigno. genui. genitum, to bring forth. pono. posui, positum, to place. cano 1 . cecini. cantum, to sing. curro 2 , fallo 3 , cucurri, fefelli. cursum, to run. to deceive. pello 4 . pepuli. pulsum, to drive. cerno, cerno. crevi, -cretum, to decree (de). to see. lino. levi or livi. litum, to anoint (ob). sino. sivi, situm, to allow (de). sperno, sprevi, spretum, to despise. sterno 5 . stravi. stratum, to spread out (pro). sero, sevi, satum (l). to sow (con, in). sero 6 . serui, - sertum , to join (con, in, de) tero, furo 7 trivi. tritum. to rub (con). to rage. emo (i), emi. emptum, to buy (ex, per). premo ( 1 ), pressi, pressum, to press. gero, gessi. gestum, to carry. uro, ussi, nstum, to burn (con). verro, verri. versum, to sweep. qusero (1), qusesivi (i), qmesltum (i), to seek (ex, in). tollo, sustuli, sublatum, to lift up, kill. vello 8 , psallo, velli, psalli, vulsum. to pluck out. to play on the lyre. / THE VEBB. 61 6. Verbs in so, sco, and xo. \ texo. texui. textum, to weave. depso, depsui, depstum, to knead. pinso 1 . pinsui. pinsum. to pound. viso. visi, visum, to visit (in, re). ji arcesso or arcessivi, arcessitum, | to ser.d far. | accerso 2 , accersivi, accersltum, capesso, capessivi, capessitum, to seize. facesso, facessi, facessitum, to cause. incesso, incessivi, to attack. lacesso, lacessivi, lacessitum, to provoke. cresco, crevi, cretum, to grow. nosco 3 . novi, notum, to become acquainted. pasco. pavi. pastum, to feed. quiesco, qnievi, quietum, to rest. scisco, scivi, scitum. to decree. suesco, suevi. suetum, to be accustomed. disco 4 . didici, to learn. posco, poposci, to demand. compesco. compescui. to restrain. glisco. to blaze up. liisco, fatisco, —t) Part. fut. act., pariturus , luiturus, and ruiturvs.- to gape, to crack open. - 1 ) The compounds with prepositions have -ficio, -ficere, -feci, -fectum; Imper., fee ; and in the passive, feior, fei, fectus sum. But those compounded of cate-, tepe-, frige-, are-, made-, pate-, lake-, assue-, and satis-, follow throughout in the active, facio ; and in the passive, fio (§70 ).—*) Arguiturus is found in Sallust. “Convicted of” is usually expressed by convictus from convincere .— 3 ) Of abnuo, abnuiturus is found. 2.—>) Thus applaudo; but explodo has explosi, explosum .— 3 ) Of the compounds of cado , only incido, occido, and recido, have the Supine, as incasum , occasum , recasum .— *) Extendo and protendo have in the Supine both -sum and -turn • the rest have only -turn .— 4 ) The compounds of tundo have -tudi, -tusum .— 6 ) Also strideo, ere .—®) Expando has expansum and expassum • dispando, only dispansum .—•’) The compounds of si do, as assulo , consido, insido, reside, subsido, have sedi (rarely sidi), sessum .— 8 ) Its com¬ pounds are all intransitive and have -stiti, -stitum, as con-, ad-, de-, in-, ex-, ob-, per-, re-, sub-sisto.— 9 ) Deverto, turn in; preeverto, anticipate; and reverto , turn back, are in the Present, Imperfect, and Future, frequently used as deponents; in the past tenses, the active form is more common.-. 4.—*) Profigo, overthrow, is of the first conjugation and has -avi, -atum .— 2 ) Vehor, vehi, vectus sum, be carried, e. g., curru, navi, equo. * Invehor means “to inveigh against.”— 3 ) Plecto, twist (the primitive of amplector and complecto?'), scarcely ever occurs. Plecto, punish, is commonly used as a passive ( plector ), and has neither Perfect nor Supine.— 4 ) The forms parsi , parcitum, are less common.— 6 ) The com¬ pounds have -punxi, -punctum, as compungo, dispungo, interpuvgo .—«) The compounds of tango have no reduplication, as attingo, attigi , attadum .— 7 ) Pango, in the sense of “to bargain,” is supplied in the Present by paciscor .— 8 ) Thus the compounds abigo, adigo, exigo, redigo, subigo, and transigo. Circvmago and perago retain the stem-vowel a. Prodigo, “squander,” has prodegi without Supine. Arnbigo, “doubt,” and satago, “be busy,” want both the Perfect and Supine.— 9 ) Thus eligo, colligo, deligo. Perlego, prodtgo, and relego , retain the stem-vowel e. Piligo, love; intelligo , understand ; and G 2 THE VERB. negligo, neglect, have - exi , -ectum .— 10 ) loo occurs in the past forms only : ici, iceram y icisse, ictus esse. Of the Present, the third person sing, only is found, the rest being supplied by ferio, -ire. 5. —') Concino has concinui without Supine. The other compounds, accino , prcecino , succino , etc., very rarely occur and generally want both the Perf. and Sup. - .—The compounds sometimes retain, but oftener reject the reduplication.— 3 ) Refello , refute, has refelli without Supine.— 4 ) The compounds drop the reduplication, as repello , repuli , repulsum. —») Thus consterno, bestrew; but consterno , “alarm,” is of the 1st conj. and has consternavi, consternatum. — 6 ) Desero, resero , and dissero , have always - serui , -sertum. — 7 ) in the past tenses, is supplied by the verb insanio. — 8 ) Gon- vello, revello , and divello , have only -velli] but avello and evello have both -velli and -vulsi. 6. —’) Also, pinsi , pinsitum and pistum. — 2 ) The Infin. pass, is sometimes accersiri instead of accersi ; thus' lacessiri for lacessi. — 3 ) Thus ignosco , pardon. But agnosco } cognosco , and recognosco , have -ovi, -itum. Dignosco and internosco have no Supine.— Disciturus is found in Appuleius. INCEPTIVES. § 66.— Inceptive or inchoative verbs are such as denote a becoming, or beginning of the act or condition expressed by the primitive. They end in sco and follow the third conjugation. There are two kinds of inceptives,— verbal and nominal. — Verbal-inceptives are derived from verbs, by adding the syllable -co to the 2d sing, of the Indie. Pres. act.; they generally take the Perf. and Sup. of their primitives.— Nominal-inceptives are derived from nouns, and are, for the most part, without Perfect and Supine. adolesco, adolevi. Verbal-inceptives. adultum, to grow up. coalesco, coalui, coalltum. to grow together. concupisco, concupivi. concupitum, to desire strongly. convalesco, convalui. convalitum. to recover health. exardesco, exarsi, exarsum, to become inflamed. inveterasco, inveteravi, inveteratum, to grow old. obdormisco, obdormivi. obdormitum, to fall asleep. obsolesco, obsolevi. obsoletum, to become obsolete. revivisco. revixi, revictum. to recover life. albesco, ui, to grow ichite. ingemisco, ui, to groan. aresco, ui, to grow dry. intumesco, ui, to swell up. canesco, ui, to become gray. irraucesco v si, to become hoarsQ. conticesco, ui, to become still. languesco, ui, to become weak. contremisco, ub to tremble. liquesco, cui. to melt away. defervesco, bui, to cool down. madesco, * ui, to become wet. delitesco, ui. to lie hid. marcesco, ui, to pine away. effervesco, bui, to boil up. putresco, ui, to moulder. erubesco, ui, to blush. refrigesco, xi, to grow cold. excandcsco, ui, to take fire. resipisco, ui, to become reasonable. exhorresco, ui, to shudder. senesco (con-) ui, to grow old. expallesco, ui, to turn pale: tepesco, ui, to grow tepid. extimeseo, ui, to fear greatly. obstupesco, ui, to become amazed. illucesco, xi, to grow light. perhorresco, ui, to shudder. incalesco, ui, to grow lift. viresco (re-), ui, to become green. THE VERB. 63 Nominal-Incentives. ditesco (dives), to become rich. dulcesco (dulcis), to become sweet. ignesco (ignis), to take fire. ingravesco (gravis), to increase. The following have consanesco (sanus), to be healed. evanesco (vanus), to vanish. innotesco (notus), to become known. maturesco (maturus), to grow ripe. mitesco (mitis), to become mild. mollesco (mollis), to grow soft. pinguesco (pinguis), to grow fat. repuerasco (puer), to become childish. -ui in the Perfect. ohduresco (durns), to grow hard. obmutesco (mutus), to become dumb, obsurdesco (surdus), to become deaf. percrebesco (creber), to spread (intr.). § 6Y.-FOURTH CONJUGATION. Verbs of tbe fourth conjugation have ivi, itwn ; as audio , audivi , auditum . Thus : condio, season. impedio, hinder. punio, punish. custodio, watch. irretio, ensnare. redlmio, croivn. deflnio, define. lenio, calm. scio, know. dormio, sleep. mollio, soften. servio, serve. erudio, instruct. mngio, bellow. sitio, thirst. esurio, be hungry. munio, fortify. sopio, lull asleep. expedio, extricate. nutrio, nourish. stabllio, establish. Jinio, finish. obedio, obey. tinnio, tinkle. gestio, exult. polio, polish. vestio, clothe. The following are irregular: fnlcio, falsi. fultum, to prop. haurio, 1 hausi, liaustum. to draw. sancio, sanxi, sanc(I)tum, to sanction. sarcio. sarsi. sartum. to patch. Bentio, sensi. sensum, to feel. eepio. sepsi, septum, to hedge in. vincio. vinxi. vinctum, to bind. amicio, (-xi, -cui), amictum, to clothe. aperio, aperui. apertum, to open. operio. operui, opertum, to cover. comperio, comperi, compertum, to experience. reperio, reperi. repertum, to find. salio, 2 salui, to spring. sepelio. sepelivi. sepultum, to bury. venio, veni. ventum, to come. J ) Partic. Fut. hausurus and hausturus .— 2 ) Thus desilio. exilio , insilio , prosilio. The Perfect-form -silui is far better than the form -triin. 6ado y in the sense of •' u; fait,” has salitum without a Perfect. THE VERB. 6± § 68.—Deponent Yerbs. 1. Deponents of tlie first conjugation. abominor, abhor. adulorf, flatter. adversor, oppose. cemulor, rival. altercor, quarrel. aquor, fetch water. arbitrorf, think. argumentor, prove. aspernor, despise. assentor, agree, flatter. aucupor, catch birds. anguror, foretell. auspicor, forebode. auxilior, help. aversor, dislike. calumnior, slander. cavillor, ridicule. comitor, accompany. concionor, harangue. eonor, attempt. consilior, advise. conspicor, behold. contemplor, view. convicior, revile. criminorf, accuse. cunctor, delay. dedignor, disdain. deprecor, deprecate. despicor, despise. dignorf, think worthy. dominor, rule. epulor, feast. exsecror, curse. fabricor (- 0 ), form. fabulor, talk. famulor, serve. ferior, keep holiday. lluctuor (- 0 ), fluctuate. frumentor, fetch corn. frustror, disappoint. ftlror, steal. glorior, boast. grassor, to rage. gratificor, gratify. gratulor, congratulate. heluor, gormandize. liortor, exhort. imaginor, imagine. imitor, imitate. imprecor, imprecate. indignor, be indignant. infitior, deny. insector, pursue. insidior, plot. interpreter, expound. jaculor, dart. jocor, jest. laetor, rejoice. lamentor, lament. latrocinor, rob. lenocinor, cajole. lignor, fetch wood. lucror, gain. luctor, v)restle. machinor, devise. medicor, heal. meditor, meditate. mercor, purchase. minor (con-), threaten. miseror, pity. moderor, temper. morigeror, comply. moror, delay. mutuor, borrow. negotior, traffic. nidulor, build a nest. nugor, trifle. nundlnor, trade, buy. obtestor, beseech. oderor, smell out. ominor, forebode. oplnor, think. opitulor, bring aid. otior, be at leisure. pabulor, forage. palor, straggle. patroclnor, patronize. percontor, ask. peregrin or, go abroad. periclitor, attempt. piscor, fish. populor (- 0 ), lay waste pried or, plunder. prsestolor, wait for. precor, pray. proelior, fight. ratiocinor, reason. recordor, remember. refragor, oppose. remuneror, reward. rixor, quarrel. rusticor, rusticate. sciscitor, inquire. scitor, ask, inquire. scrutor (per-), search. sector, follow. solor (con-), comfort. spatior, ivalk about. speculor, spy out. stipulor, stipulate. stomachor, be indignant. suffragor, assent to. suspicor, suspect. tergiversor, shuffle. testificor, attest. testor, bear witness. tricor, play tricks. tristor, be sad. tutor, protect. vagor (e-), wander. vaticlnor, foretell. veneror, venerate. venor, hunt. verecundor, be shy. versor, dwell, be in. vociferor, vociferate. t Adulor, arbitror, criminor, and especially dignor, are used also as pastiivsa. fateor (i), Jlceor, medeor 1 , 2. Deponents of the second conjugation. fassus (e) sum. to acknowledge. licitus sum, to bid on goods . - to heal. THE VERB. 65 inereor meritus sum, to deserve.- misereor. miser(i)tus sum, to pity. polliceor, pollicitus sum, to promise. reor. ratus sum, to think. tueor. tuitus sum. to protect. vereor. veritus sum, to fear. 3. Deponents of tbe tliird conjugation. adipiscor, adeptus sum, to obtain. amplector, amplexus sum, to embrace. comminiscor. commentus sum, to devise. expergiscor, experrectus sum, to become awake. fruorf, fructus or fruitus s., to enjoy. fungor, functus sum, to perform. gradior (e). gressus sum. to proceed. invehor, invectus sum, to inveigh against. irascor, 2 to grow angry . labor, lapsus sum, to fall (e, re). lbquor, locutus sum, to speak (ad, con). moriorf. mortuus sum, to die. nanciscor. na(n)ctus sum, to obtain. nascorf, natus sum, to be born. nltor. nisus or nixus s., to strive, rely upon. obliviscor. oblltus sura, to forget.- paciscor, pactus sum. to make a bargain. pascor, • pastus sum, to feed (intr.). patior (e), passus (e) sum, to suffer (per). proficiscor, profectus sum, to start, travel. quoror, questus sum, to complain. reminiscor, 3 to remember. ringor, to grin. sequor, secutus sum, to follow. ulciscor, ultus sum, to revenge. utor, usus sum, to use (ab). vescor 4 , to eat, feed on. 4. Deponents of tbe fourth conj ugation. assentior. assensus sum, to assent. experior, expertus sum, to try, experience. mentior, mentitus sum, to lie. metior, mensus sum, to measure. opperior. opper(i)tus sum, to wait for. ordior. orsus sum, to begin. orior 5 , ortus sum, to rise ; P. oriturus. Vruiturvs, moriturus , nasciturus .— ') Perf. supplied from medicor. — 2 ) Perf. plied from succenseo. Iratus sum, means simply “ I am angry.”— s ) Perf. supplied from rwordor,—*) Perf, supplied from edo .— # ) The Present Indie, of orior , oriri , follows tha s 66 THE VERB. third conjugation, as trior, oreris (and oriris ), oritur; orimur , orimini , oriuntur. In the Imperfect Subj. we find both orerer and orirer. Thus coorior and exorior ; bul adorior is regular, and follows throughout audior. Exercises on the preceding irregular Perfects and Supines. Selected chiefly from Kiihner.) 1 . Romani multas gentes ac nationes armis domuerunt .—Non dedit beneficium qui invltus profuit.—Nulla pestis liumano generi pluris stetit quam ira.—Dux milites vehementer increpuit .—Augustus carmina Yirgilii cremari vetuit .—Non solum fortuna, sed etiam tua industria te in hoc negotio adjuvit .—Tota urbs vocibus civium de victoria ex liostibus reportata exultantium percrebuit .—Nisi libidines resecueris, frustra beate vivere studebis.—Hostes obsides, quos Csesar imperaverat, dederunt .—Agricolas frumenta desecta in horrea congerunt.—Si fortuna nos adjuverit, splendidam ex hoste victoriam reportabimus.—Dubitan- dum non est quin Hannibal ceteris imperatoribus prudentia multo prcestiterit. - Urbs tota clamore militum personuit. 2 . Deus bonis omnibus mundum implemt. —Cras in horto prcinsuri sumus.— Yelim mihi dicas quis te Grammaticam docuerit. —Gaudeo quod semper mihi meisque studiis favisti. —Did nequit quot pericula, quot miserias, milites in itinere sustinuerint. —Cicero omnes artes a Minerva edoctus est.—Quo magis indulseris dolori, eo intolerabilior erit.—Sicario sicam de manibus extorserunt .— Die mihi quare fieveris.—Spopondistine pro amico? Spopondi. —Dux mitibus verbis excitos militum animos permulsit. —Tu me tot ac tantis auxisti beneficiis, quanta nunquam vel sperare ausus sum.—Yirgilii carmina discipulorum ani¬ mos mirifice permulserunt. —Multa puer sustinuit, sudavit et alsit. —Quis est cui semper arriserit fortuna ?—Quomodo in viro latebit scintilla ingenii, quae iam in puero eluxit f —Multi si tacuissent, famam sapientiae obtinuissent. 3 . Xerxes, cum Graeciam subacturus esset, ingentem exercitum coegit .—Milites ne infantibus quidem pepercerunt .—Ubi victoria cimissa est, nihil refert quot in proelio coesi aut in fuga capti sint.—Male parta male dilabuntur.—Omnia longe iateque telis, armis, cadaveribus constrata erant.—Quare consilium meurn sprevisti ?—Gives belli calamitatibus confecti pacem expoposcerunt .—Cuique nos¬ trum amor vitae est insitus .—Tria bella atrocissima gesta sunt inter Romanos et Carthaginienses.—Alexander tot regum et populorum victor, tandem irae suc- cubuit .—Dediscet animus sero, quod didicerit diu.—Yix credideris quantopere garrulus iste homo me garriendo enecuerit.—Socratis responso sic judices exar- serunt, ut capitis hominem innocentissimum condemnarent.—Explorator ad castra hostium accessit ibique magnam partem diei consumpsit .—Barbari vallo et fossa hiberna cinxerunt. 4. Homines artes innumeras docente natura repererunt .—Omnia superiora damna liac una victoria sarta sunt.—Regis sepulchro haec verba inscripta sunt: Probe vixit, improbos vinxit, hostes vicit .—Septum undique et vestitum vepri- THE VERB. 67 bus et dumetis indagavi sepulchrum.~~Rex rempublicam labefactatam sua virtute fulsit. —Quo quis affluentius voluptates undique hauserit, eo gravius ardentiusque sitiet.—Homines urbes moenibus sepserunt. —Quis est qui nunquam Dei munificentiam senserit ? —Continuis bellis reipublicse opes exhausted sunt.— Vide quibus prsesidiis philosophise septus sim.—Bellum gravissimum Pompeii adventu sublatum ac sepultum est.—Deus oculos membranis tenuissimis vesti- vit et sepsit. —Sene curiam ingrediente surrexerunt omnes capitaque aperuerunt. 5 . Venio meum prsesidium tibi polliciturus. —Si cunctam terrain intuitus eris, de providentia divina non dubitabis.—Quicunque culpas suas fassi erant, veniam impetrarunt.—Cicero prseclare de republica meritus est.—Quis dubitat quin aliquando moriturus sit ?—Cives, cum hostibus pacti, pace fruiti sunt.—Simu- latque experrecti sumus, visa in somnio contemnimus.—Die mihi quo et quando frater tuus profecturus sit.—Plura ad te scribam cum plus otii nactus ero.— Senectutem ut adipiscantur, omnes optant: eandem accusant adepti. —Avida est periculi virtus, et quo tendat, non quid passura sit, cogitat.—Non adeo ini- qua fortuna usi sumus, ut dignitatis nostrse simus obliti. —Dnm urbem oppugn are adorimur, hostes a tergo nos aggressi sunt. 6 . Favemus iis qui eadem quibus ipsi perfuncti sumus, pericula ingrediuntur.— Nihil est virtute amabilius, quam cum adepti eritis, Deo bonisque hominibua cari eritis.—Socrates paulo ante mortem cum amicis de immortalitate animi colloeutus esse dicitur.—Caesar militum virtuti confisus, sine mora hostium exer- citum adortus est.—Ridiculi sunt qui quod ipsi experti non sunt, id docent ceteros.— Coorta saeva tempestate, omnes nautas ingens pavor occupavit.— Unde exorsa est, ibidem terminetur oratio.—Ex decemvirorum injustitia subito exorta est maxima perturbatio.—Solem oriturum cum maxima voluptate spec- tamus.—Multi multas variasque terras emensi, multas same res prodigiosas ementiti sunt.—Huie sententise dubito num multi assensuri sint. IRREGULAR VERBS. § 69.—Irregular verbs are such as in some of their tenses or persons deviate from the ordinary form of regular verbs. They are, besides the verb sum, x Possum (potis sum), potui, posse, to be able {can). Volo, volui, velle, to ivish , to be willing. Nolo (= non volo), nolui, nolle, to be unwilling. Malo (=magis volo), mului, rnalle, to wish rather. Edo, edi, esum, edere, to eat. Eo, ivi, itum, ire, to go. Fero, tuli, latum, ferre, to carry , bring. Fio, factus sum, fieri, to be made, become , happen. 63 THE VERB § to.—IRREGULAR VERBS. PlW. Possum INDICATIVE. Volo Nolo Malo potes vis lion vis mavis potest vult non vult - niavult possumus volumus noluinus malum us potestis vultis non vultis mavultis possnnt volunt nolunt malunt Imp. poteram volebam nolebam malebam Eut. potero volam, es nolam, es malam, es Prf. potui volui liolui malui Plp. potueram volueram nolueram malueram E.-pf. potnero voluero noluero maluero Prs. possim SUBJUNCTIVE. v el ini nolim malim possis velis ndlis hialis possit velit nolit malit possim us vellmus nollmus malim us possitis velitis nolitis malitis possint velint nolint malint Imp. possem veil cm nollem maliem Pp.f. potuerim voluerim lioluerim maluerim Plp. potuissem voluissem noluissem maluissem Sing. Plur. Prs. posse IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. velle noli, Ito nolite, unto nolle mrdle Prf. potuisse voluisse noluisse inaluisse Ptc. potens (adj.) Gkb. - volens volendi, do Edo, edi, esum, edere, to eat. nolens nolendi The verb edo lias, besides its own regular forms, several others resembling tliosa forms of the verb sum, which begin with es; as, INFINITIVE. edere or esse. INDICATIVE. edo edis or es edit or est edimus editis or estis edunt SUBJUNCTIVE. ederem or essem ederes or esses ederet or essent ederemus or essemus ederetis or essetis ederent or essent IMPERATIVE. ede or es edito or esto edito or esto edite or esto editote or estote edunto THE VERB 39 IRREGULAR VERBS. INDICATIVE. Pes. Eo Fero Peror Fio is fers ferris fis it fert fertur fit imus ferimus ferlmur firnus itis fertis l'eritnini fitis eunt ferunt feruntur fiunt Imp. ibam ferebam ferebar fiebam Put. ibo feram, es ferar, eris fiam, es Prf. ivi tuli latus sum factus sum Plp. iveram tuleram latus cram factus eram F.-pf. ivero tulero latus ero factus ero SUBJUNCTIVE. Pbs. earn feram ferar fiam eas feras feraris fias eat ferat feratur fiat earn us feramus feramur fiamus eatis feratis feramini fiatis eant ferant ferantur fiant Imp. ircm ferrem ferrer ficrem Put. iturus sira laturus sim Prf. iverirn tulerim latus sim fiictus sim Plp. ivissem tulissem latus essem factus essem IMPERATIVE. Sing. i, ito fer, ferto ferre, fertor fi ito ferto fcrtor Plur. ite, itote ferte, fertote ferimini fite eunto ferunto feruntor — INFINITIVE. Pbs. ire ferre ferri fieri Prf. ivisse tulisse latus esse factus esse Fut. iturus esse laturus esse latum iri factum iri PARTICIPLES. pRS,. iens, euntis ferens Prf. latus Prf. factus Put. iturus laturus — fer end us — faciendus Ger. and Sup. : eundi , etc.; ferendi, etc.;—5turn, latum, factum, etc. The following 1 compounds of fero require special attention: aufero, abstuli, ablatum, to take away. effero, extuli, elatum, to carry forth. differo, distuli, dilatum, to delay. 5^” Svffero, “ endure,” and differo in the sense of “differ,” have neither Perfect nor Supine. 70 THE VERB. Note 1.—Of the passive of edo, estur sometimes occurs instead of editur, and essetur instead of ederetur .—The compounds corned& and exedo , besides their own regular forms, take likewise those of sum that begin with es ; as, comesse, exesse , for comedere , exedere ; comest , for corn edit, exedit, etc. Note 2.—The verb ) is used as a passive of facio, in the Present, Imper¬ fect, and Future Indie. ; in the Present and Imperf. Subj. ; in the Imperative, and in the Present Infinitive. Such forms as facior, faciuntur, faciatur, faceretur, facie - bantur, and the like, are, therefore, carefully to be avoided. DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 'll.—Defective verbs are such as are used ouly in some particular lenses, numbers, and persons ; as, 1. ocli , I hate ; memini, I remem¬ ber ; novi, I know ; coepi, I begin, and I have begun; 2. aio , I affirm, say yes (opposed to nego) ; inquam , I say: fari (poet.), to speak ; salve, ave, hail, welcome, good-day; and vale, farewell. 1 . INDICATIVE. Prf. odi Pip. oderam F-Pf. odero memini novi meminermn noveram meminero novero coepi coeperam coepero SUEJIJNCTIVE. Prf. Pip. Fut. oderim odissem osurus sim meminerim noverim meminissem novissem coeperim coepissem coepturus sim INFINITIVE. Prf. Fut. odisse osurus esse meminisse novisse coepi sse coepturus esse PARTICIPLES. Prf. Fut. osus (obsol.) osurus coeptus (pass.) coepturus Note 1 . —Odi and memini have in the Perfect the meaning of the Present; in the Pluperfect, the meaning of the Imperfsct; and in the Fut.-Perfect, the moaning of the simple Future. 4 ' THE VERB. 71 This is the case also with novi (the Perfect of nosco, “ I am acquainted”); as, novi, 1 know ; noveram, I knew ; novero , I shall know; novisse , to know. The Partic. notui is used adjeetively.— Novi generally drops vi and ve before r and s, as nosti, norunt, noram, nosse, etc., instead of novisti, noverunt, noveram, novisse. Note 2.— Gcepi means both “I begin” and “I have begun.” The Partic. carptus has always a passive meaning, “begun.”—With an Infinitive pass., cceptus sum is generally used instead of coepi j as, Tyrus oppugnari coepta est , for ccepit; hello premi sunt coepti , for coeperunt ; de repuhlica consuli coepti sumus , for co&pimus. Note 3.—The Imperative of odi and novi is supplied by the Subjunctive; e. g., ns oderis , “ do not hate ;” noverint , “ let them know.” Memini has memento, memen¬ to te, along with the Subjunctive forms memineris and memineritis, “remember,” minerit and meminerint, “ let him (them) remember.” Note 4. —The obsolete osus and its compounds exosus and perosus have an active meaning, “ one who hates or has hated;” hence, osus sum, I have hated. 2 . Prs. ind. Aio, SUB. - Imp. ind. aiebam, ais, aias, aiebas, ait, aiat, aiebat, aiebamus, aiebatis, aiunt. aiant. aiebant. Prs. ind. Inquam, SUB. - Imp. ind. inquiebat, inquis, inquit, inqulmus, inquitis, inquias, inquiat, - inquiatis, Prf. inquisti, inquit. Put. inquies, inquiunt. inquiant. inquiet. Prs. ind. Fatur, fantur. Put. fabor, fabitur. Imper. fare. Injin. fari. partig. (fans) fantis, i, em, e, and fatus. ger. fandi, fando. imper. s. p. Ave,-eto ; Salve (salvebis), -eto ; Vale (valebis),-eto. avete, salvete, valete. inf. avere, salvere, valere. Note 5. —Inquit and ait, “says he” or “said he,” are placed after one or more words of a quotation. The Imperative forms inque a.nd inquito are found in Terence and Plautus. Note 6.— Ain 1 ? “what?” “do you really think so?” is used iustead of aisne , in the same way as Hostin'* and viden ’ are used instead of nostine and videsne. To the defective verbs belong also queeso , queesumus , I (we) beseech ; ausim , ausit, I (he) might venture : faxit, faxint , may he (they) grant; e. g., faxint dii immor- tales • and apage , away, begone. IMPERSONAL VERBS. § Y2. There are two kinds of impersonal verbs ; viz., Impersonals, strictly speaking—and Impersonals, in a wider sense. Impersonals strictly speaking are those of which but the third person singular is used, and which do not admit any nominative either of person or thing. Such are the following six : piget, it grieves. tsedet, it disgusts. poenitet, it repenis . pudet, it shames. miseret, it pities. oportet, it hehoones. Impersonals in a wider sense are those which sometimes admit a nominative of a person or thing (at least that of a neuter pronoun) and consequently may 72 THE VERB. also be used in the third person plural,—or which are used as impersonals only Of this kind are : stat, it is resolved. in a particular meaning. tonat, it thunders. fulminat, it lightens. plait, it rains. ningit, it snows. gelat, it f reezes. grandinut, it hails. lucescit, it dawns. decet, it becomes. dedecet, it is unbecoming. li-bet, it pleases. licet, it is allowed. liquet, it is clear. constat, it is known. praestat, it is better. patet, it is plain. apparet, it appears. refert, it concerns. interest, it concerns. The verbs tonat, fulminat, etc., and a few others that denote the state of the weather, sometimes admit of a personal subject, such as Deus , Jupiter , ccelum. The verbs decet, dedecet, etc., often admit a nominative of a thing, especially that of a neuter pronoun, and may accordingly be used also in the plural; as, modestia pueros decet—parvum parva decent—non omnibus omnia licent. The verbs stat, constat , praestat , etc., along with restat, it remains ; jurat, delectat, it delights; fallit, fugit,prceterit, it escapes ; conducit, convenii, expedit, it suits, is useful; accidit , contwgit, evenit, it happens,—and some more, are used as impersonals in that particular meaning only, being otherwise personal verbs. Most of them, likewise, admit a nominative of a thing, and may accordingly be used in the plural; as, nos multa efjugiunt—talia non omnibus contingunt—non omnia expediant. Contingit is said of good events; accidit, generally, of bad ones ; and evenit, of both good and bad. * § 13. —Impersonal verbs are inflected through all the moods and tenses, in the following manner : pudet, pudebat, puduit, puduerat, pudebit, pudere. pudeat, puderet, puduerit, puduisset, - puduisse. Most of them may in some way be inflected, even through the various persons and numbers of each tense and mood, by adding the accusatives me, te, ilium , nos, vos, illos, or the datives mild, tibi, illi, nobis, vobis, illis, —respectively; thus: pudet me, I am ashamed pudet te, thou art ashamed pudet earn, he is ashamed pudet nos, we are ashamed pudet vos, ye are ashamed pudet eos, they are ashamed licet mihi, lam allowed licet tibi, thou art allowed licet ei, he is allowed licet nobis, we are allowed licet vobis, ye are allowed licet eis, they are allowed. Note 1.—Impersonal verbs, as such, are generally without Imperatives, Gerunds, Supines, and Participles. Of licet, libet, pcenitet, piget, and pudet, however, we have libens, licens , licitus, poenitens, pcenitendus, pigendus, and pudendus. —The place of the Imperative is supplied by the Subjunctive ; c. g., pudeat te or vos , “ be ashamed.” Note 2.—Any intransitive verb, when used passively, becomes impersonal, that is, it admits only of the third person singular. In translating such verbs w r e generally use such a word as one, they, people, we; e. g., itur, they go; curritur , people run ; ambulatum est satis, we have walked enough. Even transitive verbs may be used impersonally in the third person sing, passive ; as, scribitur , they write; bibitur , they drink; pie creditur , it is piously believed; actum est , it is over. § 14.—List of Verbs which are entirely or nearly alike, but differ from one another in conju¬ gation, sense, or pronunciation : PARTICLES, T3 appello, 1. call appello, 3. land colllgo, 1. tie together colllgo, 3. collect COmpello, 1. address compello, 8. force consterno, 1. alarm consterno, 3. bestrew dellgo, 1. tie, hind dellgo, 3. choose dico, 1. dedicate dlco, 3. say edSco, 1. educate educo, 3. lead forth fundo, 1. found fundo, 3. pour out indlco, 1. indicate indlco, 3. proclaim l5go, 1. send lego, 3. read mando, 1. order mando, 3. chew praedico, 1. proclaim prsedlco, 3. foretell relego, 1. send away relego, 3. read over volo, 1. fly volo, velle, he willing concldo, 3. fall down concldo, 3. cut to pieces excido, 3. fall out excido, 3. cut out incldo, 8. fall into incldo, 3. cut into occido, 3. fall, set occido, 3. Mil erelo, 1. carve celo, 1. conceal fugo, 1. pvt to flight fugio, 2>. flee mano, 1. flow maneo, 2. remain permano, 1. flow through permaneo, 2. remain miseror, 1. pity misereor, 2. pity moror, 1. delay morior, 3. die jaceo, 2. lie down jacio, 3. throw pendeo, 2. hang pendo, 3. weigh dellgo, 3. choose dillgo, 3. love Undo, 3. split fido, 3. trust fingo, 3. feign Ago, 3. fix vinco, 3. conquer vincio, 4. hind venio, 4. come veneo, ire, be sold. Veneo, ire, is commonly used in a meaning is “ I go to sale” (venum eo).- passive sense—“ to be sold ;” but- its propei -Of a similar kind are vapulare, u to be beaten,” from vapulo , “ I get a flogging and exulare, “ to be banished,” from exulo, “I am an exile or live in exile.” CHAPTER YI. Particles. I. ADVERBS. § 75.—There are various classes of Adverbs : of place, of manner etc. (time.) aliquando, once eras, to-morrow lieri, yesterday hodie, to-day interdnm, sometimes jam, already minquam, never quotidio, daily semper, always (place.) hie, here illic, ibi, there nusquam, nowhere quo, whither nbi, where ubieunque, wherever ublque, everywhere unde, whence undlque, from all sides viz., adverbs of time, (manner.) fere, almost imprimis, especially otnnino, altogether palam, openly pariter, likewise paulatim, by degrees prsesertirn, chiefly repente, suddenly saltern, at least 74 PAETICLES. § 16.—Adverbs are either primitive or derivative .—Derivative adverbs are mostly derived from adjectives, and admit of the degrees of comparison. They are formed in the following manner : 1. Adjectives in us (er), a, um, generally add e to the stem ; as, ADJECTIVE. longus, liber, pulclier, ADYEBBi long-e, liber-e, pulchr-e COMP. longius, liberius, pulclirius, 8CPERL, longissime, liberrime. puicherrime. 2. Adjectives of the third declension add iter to those ending in ns add er only ; as, the stem but acer, acr-iter, felix, felic-iter, amans, amant-er, acrius, felicius, araantiuSj acer rime. felicissiine. amantissiine. Note 1.— The adjectives durus, firmus, largus, and humanus, add both e and Her to the stem, as dure and duriter / firme and fir miter, etc.— Violentus and fraudulently s have violenter, fraudulenter; luculentus generally has luculenter. Note 2.— In several adjectives in us, the ablative sing, supplies the place of the ad¬ verb; as, continuo , immediately ; crebro, frequently ; /also , falsely ; merito , deservedly: necessario , necessarily ; perpetuo , continually ; raro, rarely ; sedulo] sedulously ; eubito , suddenly ; tuto, safely, etc. Facilis , impunis , and sublimis , have facile , impure , and sublime ; audax , bold, lias audacter • and dificilis has difficile , dfficulter , and dffeiliter. Note 3.—The following adverbs deserve particular notice : bene , well; male , badly ; parum , not enough ; mnltum , much ; seAs, enough ; props, near; Aw, long ; nuper , lately ; secus, otherwise ; and scepe, often. POS. CQMP. 8 UP. P08. COMP. 8UP. bene melius optime parum minus mini me male pejus pessime mul turn plus plurimum {more) magis maxime (sooner) ocius ocissime (worse) deterius deterrime (rather) potius potissimum (e) satis satius nuper nuperrime prope propius proxime seeus secius diu diutius diutisaime siepe ssepius saepissime II. PREPOSITIONS. § 'It.—Some prepositions govern the accusative; others, the abla¬ tive ; and a few govern both the accusative and ablative. PREPOSITIONS GOV. THE ACCUSATIVE. ad, to, unto apud, at, by, with ante, before adversus, ) , . adversum, j a 9 alns cis, ) citra, j c ! rca ’ l around, about circum,) ’ circiter, about on this side contra, against erga, towards extra, beyond, without infra, beneath, below intra, within inter, between, among juxta, next, to ob, on account of penes, in the power of per, through, during PARTICLES. pone, behind post, after prseter, beside, except prope, near by propter, on account of secundum, according to supra, above trans, on the other side versus, toicards ultra, beyond PREPOSITIONS GOV. TFK ABLATIVE a, ab, abs, from, by absque (obsol.), without coram, in presence of cum, with de, down from, concerning e, ex, out of, from prae, before, owing to pro, before, for sine, without tenus, as far as, up to PREPOSITIONS GOVERNING BOTH TIIE ACC. AND ABL. in, in, on, into, towards super, above, concerning sub, under, towards subter, under, beneath Rote 1.— A and e never stand before a vowel or h ; ab stands before vowels, and often, also, before consonants ; ex stands indiscriminately before vowels and conso¬ nants. Abs is used only in the combination abs te, for which, however, a te is used also. Absque is obsolete. Rote 2.—The preposition cum is always annexed to the ablatives me, te, se, nobis , and vobis, and commonly to quo, qua , quibus, and to qui when used for quo • as, rnecum, tecum, secum, nobiscum, etc. Rote 3.—The prepositions ob, post, de, ex, in, cum, and inter, are not unfrequently placed between the substantive and its adjective. Tenus and versus generally follow their cases. E. g., quam ob causam, aliquot post menses, certis de causis, magna ex parte, hac in re, magna cum voluptate, medios inter hostes, coelo tenus, Iiornam versus. Note 4.—Several of the above-mentioned prepositions are sometimes used as ad¬ verbs ; as, ante, before ; post, afterward; contra, on the contrary; prope, almost; circiter, about.—When used adverbially, they, of coarse, govern no case. in and sub. § 78.—In takes 1. The accusative with verbs of motion {whither f), and when tendency toward or against is denoted ; as, eamus in hortum, proficiscor in Galliam, pietas in Deum, amor in patriam, odium in Hannibalem, Ciceronis oratioprima in Catilinam, etc.—2. The ablative in answer to where? when rest in a place is denoted; as, ambulat in horto, cecidit in preelio, fuistine in schola f hoc in fratre tuo laudo, in f amine Istro pons erat. Note 1.—With esse, liaberi, poni, duci, and numerari, in takes the ablative in the sense of “among” as. in bonis civibus {in magnis viris, in optimis scriptoribus) esse, haberi, etc., dolor a multis in maximis malis ducitur. Note 2.—In takes the ablative, also, with verbs of “placing,” as ponere, locare, and collocare ; e. g., pone librum in mensa .—Thus the verbs defig ere, inserere, and inscribere, are frequently construed with in and the ablative ; as, oculos in alicujus vultu defigere, inscribere in basi , etc. Sub. takes 1. The accusative with verbs of motion {whither f), and when the time toward or about which, is denoted ; e. g., venire sub oculos, mittere sub jugum, sub imperium redire, sub vesper am, sub idem tempus ;—2. The ablative in answer to where f when rest in a place is denoted; as, esse sub oculis, sedere sub scamno, esse sub regibus, sub imperio, esse sub dio, “ to be in the open air.” Supek, in the sense of over, above, takes the accusative in answer to where and whither; as, avis volat super aquam, avis nidum construit super aquam .— Iu \ 70 PARTICLES. the sense of concerning, about, it takes the ablative; as , super hoc re ( much better, Jute de re) pluribus ad te scribam. Subter, under, beneath, is rarely used, and in prose with the accusative only. PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. § 79.—Several prepositions when compounded with other words, undergo a change for the sake of euphony. The following cases are of most common oc¬ currence : Ad is assimilated before c,f, g,l,p, r, sand t; as, accedo, affero, aggredior, ah ludo, appono, arrideo, assisto, attingo .—Before q, the d generally changes to c, as acquiro, acquiesco. Per and inter remain unchanged, except in the words pellicio, pejero (per - juro ), and intelligo. Ob is assimilated before c,f, g, and p ; as, occurro, offero, oggannio, oppono. Trans drops the s before s; as, transcribo, transilio, transcendo.—ln trado, traduco, trajicio, and trano, the ns is better omitted, though transdo, transduco, etc., are found also. A stands before m and v ; as amitto, averto ; abbs, before c and t, as abscondo, abstineo. —In all other combinations ab is used.—In the words aufero and aufu- gio, ab is changed into au (av). Com remains unchanged before b, p, and m ; it is assimilated before l, n, and r, —and changes to n before the remaining consonants; as, comburo, compono, committo ; — colligo, connecto, corripio; — concludo, conduco, confero, conjungo, etc.—Before h and vowels the m is dropped, as cohibeo, collareo, coalesco, coerceo. Ex is assimilated before /, as effero, efficio, effugio, effundo. In the words exsequor, exsilium, exsul, exsulo, exspecto, exstinguo, the s is often dropped, as ex- equor, exilium, exid, etc. In changes final n into m before b, p, and m ; as, imbibo, impono, immitto . Before l and r it is assimilated; as, illudo, irruo, irrumpo. Sub is assimilated before c, f, g, p, and r ; as, succurro, suffero, suggero, sup- pono, surripio, though commonly subrideo .—Before sp, the final b is dropped, as suspiro, suspicio, suspecto .—In suscipio, suscito, suspendo, sustineo, and the per¬ fect sustuli, the b has been replaced by the letter s. INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. § 80.— Inseparable prepositions are such as are found only in compo¬ sition ; as, amb, dis , re, and se. Amb (an/ 3 , tertia pars ; %, quinta pars ; |, dues septirnce, i. e. partes; ^|, tredecim undetricesimce ; una et quadraginta centesimal, etc. When the denominator exceeds the numerator only by one, as g 4 1 11 etc., the fractions are expressed by dues, quatuor, seplem, undecim partes, the denominator being understood. Thus, is read: tres sc. partes, i. e., three parts out of four ; ill, is read: decern sc. partes, i. e., ten parts out of eleven, etc. CHAPTER Y PRONOUNS I. Personal and Possessive Pronouns. Cura mea—cura mei § 136.—The genitives of the personal pronouns md t tui, sui , noslri, and vcslri, must not be confounded with the possessives meus, tuns, suus , nosier , and vester. The latter are generally used subjectively; the PRONOUNS, 129 foimer, objectively; that is, the possessive pronouns generally denote the person that does or possesses something; the genitives mei, tui , sui, nostri, and vestri, on the contrary, denote the object, to which an actioD or a state of feeling is directed. Thus, e. g., cur a nostra means our care, i. e., the care which we have of others; cura nostri “ the care of us, i. e., the care which others have of us. amor vester means your love, i. e., the love which you hear to others ; amor vestri “ the love of you, i. e., the love which others bear to you. Memoriam nostri pie inviolateque servate. Ninas vehernenter tua sui memoria delectatur. Lysander magnam reliquit sui famam. Peto a te ne me putes oblivione tui rarius ad te scribere quam solebam. Aviam tuam scito desiderio tui mortuam esse. Amove tui fratrem tuum odisse desinam. Note. —Sometimes, however, the genitive of a personal pronoun takes the place of a possessive, and still oftener does a possessive (especially when joined to injuria) stand in place of the genitive of a personal pronoun. E. g., Neque cuiquam mortalium injurix sux (for sui) parvx videntur. Non sua (for sui) solum ratio habenda est, sed etiam aliorum. Tua (for tui) hxc esi imago,—tarn consimilis est quam potest. Nostii, vestri,—Nostrum, vestrum. § 13?.—The genitives nostri and vestri must be distinguished from the genitives nostrum and vestrum. The forms nostrum, and vestrum are used 1.) in connection with partitives (§ 122,1), in the sense of “among or from among us or youas, “ Who among you is ignorant ?” Quis vestrum ignorat ? and 2.) in connection with the genitive omnium ; as, “our country is the common parent of us all f Patria communis est omnium nostrum parens .—In all other combinations the forms nostri and vestri ought to be used. Domus utriusque nostrum ccdificatur strctiue. Nolo singulos vestrum excitare .— Voluntati vestrum omnium parui. Ad ilia venio quce ud omnium nostrum vitam salutemque pertinent.—Habetis ducem memorem vestri ? oblitum sui. Quando te nostri et reipubliece miserebit ? Note 1 . —With omnium , the possessives are sometimes used instead of the genitives nostrum and vestrum; as, Gog or vests am omnium vicem consulere. Nolite, si in nostro omnium fletu nullam lacrimam aspexistis Milonis, hoc ei minus parcere .—Thus wo may say nostra omnium refert ) or nostrum omnium rgert ; vestra omnium interest, or vestrum omnium interest. 130 PRONOUNS. Note 2. —"Wo must also distinguish the expressions pars nostri and pars vestri from pars nostrum and pars vestrum. The expressions pars nostrum , pars vestrum, signify fome of our or your aggregate number (“ some among us or among you”), while pars nostri , pars vestri , mean a part or portion of our or your individual being or nature. E. g., “ The more noble part of us is the soul;” Nostri pars melior animus est.—Pars tui melior immortalis est. Pars nostri (i. e., nostri “ esse”) est sanguis. Cui propo~ eita sit conservatio sui , necesse est hide partes quoque sui caras esse carioresque quo perfeciiores sint. Mea unius opera. § 138.—As the possessives mens, tuus, suits, noster, vester, supply the place of the genitives of the personal pronouns t mei, tui, sui, nostri , and vestri, any word in apposition to the person implied in a possessive pronoun, is put in the genitive. Genitives of this kind are especially unius, solius (“alone”), and ipsius , ipsorum , ipsarum (“own”). E. g., “ Through my care alone,” i. e., “ Through the care of me alone.” Juravi rempublicam mea unius opera esse salvam. Vestra ipsorum, mater advenit. Meum solius peccatum corrigi non potest. Tuus ipsius frater expectatur. Mea ipsius (or nostra ipsorum ) maxime interest}—Tua prceceptoris quondam mei oratio omnibus probatur. Tuum viri gravis - simi atque eruditissimi judicium* plurimi et feci semper etfaciam .. Vim tuam preesentis exercitusque tui 4 experiri noluerunt. Aves foetus suos libero coelo sueeque ipsorum fducice permittunt. Nonne ei meas preesentis preces profuturas fuisse putas, cui nomen meum absentis honorifuii? Note.— When ipse stands in apposition to a possessive pronoun in a reflective clause, it usually takes the case of the subject; as, “ I am afraid of my own shadow Meam ipse umbram timeo. Tuam ipse umbrarn times: mam ipse umbram timet • nos- tram ipsi umbram timemus ; vestram in si umbram iimetis .— Vestra ipsi virtute* hana fraudem vitastis. Nec hostes modo timebant , sed suosmet ipsi cives. Sometimes, however, the genitive is found, where the case of the subject should be used; as, Suamei ipsorum culpa duces victi sunt, instead of ipsi. Suismet ipsorum viribus iantam molem belli tolerare non possunt, instead of ipsi. II. Demonstrative Pronouns. Hie- -me. § 139.—When hi, and Me refer to persons or things mentioned before, hie generally relates to the nearer, and ille to the more remote. T ) It is my (our) own greatest concern. 2 ) Your speech, once my preceptor, or who were once my p, s ) Thy judgment, a most grave and learned man, or who art so grave and learned a man. 4 ) Your force, who were on the snot, and that of your army. 6 ) Through your own resolution. PBONOUNS. 131 -—Hie , then, answers to the English “ this” or “ the latterand ille , to “ that” or “ the former.”—This order, however, is not always observed. Idem et docenti et discenti debet esse propositum ; ut ille prodesse velit , hie projicere. Gory don et Thyrsis ducebant yreges: hie oves , ille capellas.—Melior tutiorque est certa pax , quam sperata victoria : hat (pax) in tua , ilia (victoria) in deorum maim est. Cato ille Uticensis. § 110. —Ille when referring to some well-known or celebrated person, is commonly rendered into English by u the famous,” “ the well-known;” as, “That famous Cato of Utica.” Thus, Antipater ille Sidonius. Xenophon, Socraticus ille.—Aristides a Themistocle collabefaclus testula ilia exilio decern annorum multatus est. Note —Ille is often in partial concessions placed pleonastically before quidem — sed, , “indeed—but,” or “it is true—but;” e. g., Res geris magnas illas quidem, sed plenas laboris. Morositas Jiabet aliquid excusationis, non illius quidem, justce, sed quae probari posse videatur. Multa scripta sunt inconsiderate ab optimis illis quidem viris , sed non satis eruditis. Vincula et ea sempiterna. § 141. —Is in connection with et , que, atque , is equivalent to the English “ and tliat,”“ and that too;” as, “Imprisonment, and that too perpetual.” Multa preetereo eaque praclara. A te bis litteras et eas quidem perbreves accepi. Equidem expectabam tuas litteras idque cum multis. Crassum cognovi optimis studiis deditum , idque a puero. Unam rem explicabo eamque maximum. Erant in Torquato plurimce litterce , nee ea vulgar es. N ote> —Idem and etipse.—Idem is used in the sense of “also,” “likewise,” “at the same time,” when different things are predicated of the same subject. Et ipse frequently occurs in Livy, Curtins, and later writers, in the sense of “also,” when the same thing is predicated of different subjects. E. g., “A speech sublime and at the same time humorous,” Oratio grandis cademque faceta. Libera quam eandem Proserpinarn vocant.—Quos amamus , eosdem f slices esse cupimus. Cicero orator fuit idemque philosophies. Fuere quidam qui iidem ornate ac graviter (“at once. and_”), iidem versute et subtiliter dicerent .— Vespasiano Titus filius successit , qui et ipse Vespasianus est dictus. Darius cum rind suos videret , mori voluit et ipse. Idem qui, idem ac, and idem atque , are rendered into English by “the same as;” e. g., “ He is the same as he has ever been ;” Idem est qui semper fuit. Feripatetid quondam iidem erant qui Academici . 132 PKONOUNS. Me ipse consoler.—Me ipsum consolor. § 1,42.— Ipse, when joined to a personal pronoun, is either put in the case of the subject, when the subject is contrasted with other sub¬ lets, or in the case of the object (i. e., of the personal pronoun), when the object is contrasted with other objects; as, Me ipse consolor, “ I (and not another) console myself—but Me ipsum consolor, “ I console [whom?) myself (and not another).” De me ipse loquor. Ego me ipse vitupero. Ipse tioi noces. Pro se ipse dixit. Multi sibi ipsi mortem consciscunt.—Ego me ipsum\ vitupero. Tibi ipsi noces. Pro se ipso dixit. Pompeium omnibus, Leniulum mihi ipsi antepono. Note. —When ipse stands in the nominative, it may be placed before or after the pronoun; as, Me ipse or ipse me consolor: but, when it is in any of the oblique cases, it is regularly placed after che pronoun; as, Se ipsos (not ipsos se) omnes natura diligunt. Tibi ipsi (not ipsi ci'oi) noces. Ipse , when joined to a demonstrative, or to words expressing time or number, is equivalent to the English “just,’’ “exactly,” “very;” as, Demosthenes ejus ipsius artis, cui studebat , primam litteram non poterat dicers, lllo ipso die advenii. Atherds decern ipsos diesf ui. Crassus erat triennio ipso minor quam Antonins. Ipsis Fords Februcvriw accidit. III. XIeflexive Pronouns (In simple sentences.) Fauci se norunt.' § 143.—Tho personal pronouns him, her, them, are rendered by sui, sibi, se, when they refer to the nominative in the sentence (in English we use, in this case, generally the forms himself, herself, and themselves);—but by is, ea, id, when they do not refer to that nom¬ inative. E. g., “ Few persons know themselves.” Ccescir civitatem liberum sibi servire coegit. Omnes sibi cari sunt segue ipsos natura diligunt .— Quid eis respondeam, nescio. Quam bonus est Mens! eum semper cole et ama. Note. —When him, her, them, refer to a noun in tbs possessive case, they arc translated by suns in agreement with the noun that governs the said possessive, and the possessive itself is put in the case which the pronoun would otherwise stand; e. g., “ Hannibal’s fellow-citizens expelled him from his country:” Jlannibalern sui does PKOS'OUFS* 133 patria ejecerunt. —“That man’s ambit-toe will min iilru ;** iSu/± hominem perdet ambitio. ■—“ Often the faults of the teacher fall back o:i las own head (— on himself);” S'cepe sua in magistrum vitia redeunt .—“Every one's manners make his fortune (=» to him);” Sui cuique mores fingunt fortunam. Bum officii sui monui. §144.—The possessive pronouns his, her, their, are rendered by suus,, sua , suum, when they refer to the nominative or to any other word of the sentence,—by ejus, eorum, and earum, when they refer to no word of the sentence ; e. g., “I reminded him of his duty.” Alexander moriens annuium suum deaerat Perdiccce. Plurimi homines sua vitia ignorant. Suum Ccesari gladium resiitui. Sua illis nocebit inertia. Sua eum commendat pietas. Constat cunctis nationibus suas esse leges.—JSjus eloquentiam omnes admirantur. De eorum reditu faciam te certiorem. M. Fabio familiarissime utor ; ejus negotium sic velim suscipias, ut si esset res mea. Note. —The pronouns his, her, tneir, before the second of two substantives connected by et, are rendered by ejus , eorum , earum ; but when the substantives are connected by », they are rendered by suus; e. g., “Plato and his scholars,” Plato «t discipuli ejus , or Plato cum discipulis suis. Duces sorumgue milites a rege defecerunt, or duces cum suis militibus a rege defecerunt. (In compound sentences.) Promisir se venturum. § 145.—When in a subordinate clause (§ 86) the personal pronouns him, her, them (that he, that she, that they), and thepossessives his, her, their, refer to the nominative of the leading clause, the former are rendered by sui, sibi, se, and the latter by suus, sua, suum /—but when they do not refer to that nominative, him, her, them, etc. are rendered by is, ea, id, and his, her, t li eir, by ejus, eorum, earum, respectively; as, “ He promised to come” (§ 101, 3). Sperat plerumquc adolescens se diu victurum. Syracusani rogabant ut sibi ignosceretur. Macedones putabant regem suum vinci non posse. Per Themistoclem rex certior factus esc, adversarios cuos in fuga esse ,—- Quando putas eum profecturum esse ? Fquidem eorum causam justissi- mam esse arbitror. Note 1.—To render the pronouns him, her, them, etc., by sui and suus , it is not enough that they merely refer to the nominative of the leading clause; it is, more- 134 PKONOUNS. over, necessary that the subordinate clause express the thoughts or words of the leading subject.—which is generally the case in clauses dependent upon, or containing the Acc. c. Inf, and in those, also, introduced by interrogatives, or by ut {ne) intentional; as, Roscius postulat ut hunc sibi ex animo scrupulum evellatis. Syracusani orabant ut sibi ignosceretur, quod pro beneficiis sibi tributis gratias uondum tgissent. Orator sagaciter investigat quid sui cives cogitent, sentiant, opinentur, expectent. When the subordinate clause does not express the sentiment of the leading subject, but is stated by the writer merely as a remark of his own or of some other person, the demonstrative is must be used ; e. g., Epaminondas fuit etiarn disertvs ut (ut conse¬ cutive) nemo Thebanus ei par essei eloquentia. Diogenes contemnebat divitias quod eum felicem reddere non poterant. 1 Verves Milesios natem poposeit quce prcesidii causa eum 1 Myndum prosequeretur. Gortyhii templum magna cura custodiunt, non turn a ceteris qv.am ab Hannibale ne quid ille inscientibus his tolleret secumque duceret . When the Acc. c. Inf. does not immediately depend on the verb to whose subject the pronoun liis, her, or their, refers, the demonstrative may be used as well as the reflexive ; e. g., Siculi me scspc pollicitum esse dicebant commodis eorum (or sui?) me non defat vrum esse. Note 2. —It Is not necessary that the principal subject be always in the nomina¬ tive: it is often sufficient that it can be conceived as sucn; as, A Ocesare inviior (= Caesar me invitat) sibi ut aim legaius, Magna Antonium spes tenet (= Antonius sperat) rerum se potiiurum. in suspicionem ei venit («= suspicatus est ) aliquid in epistola de se. scriptum esse. Note 3. —When the subordinate clause has a nominative of its own, and an ambi¬ guity is likely to arise whether the reflexive sui or suus refers to the nominative of the principal clause or to that of the subordinate, the reference to the former must be expressed by ipse, and tne reference to the latter by sui or suus ; e. g., “ Narbazanes and Bessus besought Artobazus to plead their cause;” Narbazanes et Eessus Artobazum orabant, ut causam ipsorum tueretur. Jugurtha legatos ad consulem misit qui ipsi liberisqus tit am peterent. Caesar milites suos incusavit, cur de sua (militum) virtute avt de ipsius (Caesaris) diligentia desperarent. When it is evident from the context that reference is made to the nominative of the principal clause, and no ambiguity, therefore, is to be apprehended, the reflexives sui and suus are generally used, though grammatically they refer to the nominative of their own clause; e. g., Cicero Quintum fratrem rogavit ut ad se vemret. Cicero effecerat ut Q. Gurius consilia Catilince sibi proderet. Ariovistus respondit , non sees Gallis, sed Gallos sibi (for ipsi) bellum intulisse. Themistocies necessitate coactus domino navis, qui sit, aperit, multa pollicens, si se (for ipsum) conservasset. Patres conscripti Vgatos in Bithyniam miserunt qui ab rege peterent, ne inimicissimum suum (ipsorum) tecum haberet sibique (ipsisque) traderet. IY. Relative and Indefinite Pronouns. § 146.—The relative qui is frequently used instead of a personal or denominative with et, vero, enim , igitur; e. g., “ Philosophy teaches T ) Quod eum non poterant, expresses the sentiment of the writer; quod eum non possent, would express the sentiment of some other person,—and quod se non possent , the sentiment of Diogenes himself (Compare § 199, IV.). a ) quae se would express the sentiment and intention of Verres himself. PKONOUNS. 135 that the world moves ; and if this is true, we also necessarily move Philosophia docet mundum moveri, quod (et hoc) si verum est , nos quo - que moveamur necesse est .—Thus, Habes me tibi amicissimum , quern (me vero) si irritaveris , habebis inimicissimum. Nihil vretiosius est animi tranquillitate; qua (hac enim) qui caret , eum nec regiae opes quidquam juvant. Multas ad res peruiiles Xenophontis libri sunt; quos (eos igitur) legite, quoeso, studiose. . § 141.—When in English such a clause as they say , it is said , as — says , etc., is inserted parenthetically in a relative sentence, the verb of that clause becomes, in Latin, the leading verb of the relative sentence and is construed with the Acc. c. Inf., that is, the nominative of the relative sentence is put in the accusative, and its finite verb in the Infini¬ tive. E. g., “ Socrates, whom, they say, Apollo himself had declared to be the wisest of mankind, lived at Athens Socrates quern dicunt ab Apolline ipso sapientissimum fuisse judicaturn, Athenis vixit. Thus, Gratiam habeo Simonidi illi quern, primum ferunt artem memoriae protulisse. 1 Crassus quern Lucilius setnel tantv'n risisse refert , 2 Ciceroni fere cequalis fait. Apollonius , cum merceck d-oaeret, eos quos judicabat non posse oratores evadere , dimisitj § 148.—When in a clause that is connected with, or inserted in, a relative sentence, there occurs a demonstrative which refers to the pre¬ ceding relative, in Latin the demonstrative is generally left untranslated, and the relative put in the case in which the demonstrative would other¬ wise be placed. E. g., “ There are persons who, unless you flatter them, will be disgusted.” Sunt quidam quibus nisi blandiaris , tcedio afficiantur. Thus, Historia res prceclarissime gestas tradit quas quum legimus* imitandi cupiditate incendimur. Sunt permulta quae orator nisi a natura haberet* non multum a raagistro adjuvaretur. In hortos me M. Flacci contuli cui quum publicatio bonorumexilium , mors proponeretur* hcec perpeti maluit , quam custodiam mei capitis dimittere. § 149.— Qui in connection with sum and a substantive either in the nominative or ablative, is often used in explanatory clauses instead of pro , in the sense of “ according to,” or “in accordance with.” E. g., f ) who, they say, was the first that taught. 2 ) who, as Lucilius tells us, never laughed but once. 8 ) who in his judgment, or as he judged, were unable. *) by which, when we read them. 5 ) in which an orator, had he them not by nature, would be little aided. 6 ) who, when he was threatened with.... 130 PRONOUNS. “You, being so courteous (or, with your usual courtesy), will take in good part to be advised ; 7? Tu pro tua humanitate {(quae tua est humani- tas , or qua tu es humanitate ) aequo animo te moneri paiieris. — Thus, Spero quae tua prudentia et temperantia est , te jam bene valere. Qua es prudentia , nihil te fugiet , si mcas litteras diligenter legeris. Tu pro tua prudentia (quae tua est prudentia , or qua tu es prudentia *) quia optimum factu sit videbis. Note. —Quod often serves merely the purpose of transition, especially ■when fol¬ lowed by 'si, nisi, utinam. It may then be rendered by nay, now, and, or if then. E. g., Quod si mundum efficere potest concursus otomorum, cur porticum , cur templum , cur domum, cur urbem non potest?—Quod nisi domi civiurn suorum invidia debilitatus esset, Romanos videretur superare potuisse. Quid is sometimes taken in the sense of “whyas, Quid venisii ? Quid ego taceam ? Quidplura? Quid piura disputo ? Quisque, Aliquis, Quisquam, Quotusquisque. § 150.—1. Quisque is always placed immediately (a) after the reflexive pro¬ nouns sui and suus, except bp relative clauses where its position is close to the relative; (b) after superlatives, when universality is expressed; and (c) after ordinal numerals. B. g., Trahit sua quemque voluptas. Suum cuique carum est.—Maxime decet quod est cujusque maxime suum?—Optimus quisque fatetur. Altissima quceque jlumina .— Vix decimus quisque?—Tertio quoque anno ?— Primo quoque tempore . 5 2. Aliquis generally loses the prefix ali after si, nisi, ns, quo, quando, quanto : but when it stands in an antithetical relation to something else, or when it is used emphatically, the prefix ali is retained ; e. g., Timebat Pompeius omnia ne aliquid vos timeretis. Si aliquid de summa gravitate Pompeius, multum de cupiditate Ccesar remisisset. Si aliquid (“ when really something”) dandum est voluptati, senectus modicis conviviis potest delectari. 3. Quisquam and ullus “any” (the former substantively, the latter adjectively), are used in negative sentences only, and in such questions as imply a nega¬ tive,—also after vix and sine, and in comparative clauses. E. g., Beatior sum quam quisquam vestrum. Num quisquam est ceque miser ? Nemo quidquam tale conatur. Vix quemquam invenies qui nesciat, Vix ullum auctorem legit. Sine ullo malejicio iter per provinciam fecerunt. When sine is preceded by non, aliquis is to be used in place of ullus; as, sine ulla spe ; but, non sine aliqua spe, “ not without some hope.” 4. Quotusquisque designates a small number and may be expressed either by “ how many ?” in form of a question, or by “ how few!” in form of an exclama¬ tion ; e. g., Quotusquisque mortalium sorte sua contentus vivit ? T ) you, being so prudent (who lire so prudent, such is your prudence, prudent as you are, or with your usual prudence). 7 -) which is most peculiarly a man’s own. s ) scarcely one in ten, or scarcely every tenth. 4 ) every three years, or every third year. 6 ) as soon as possible. PRONOUNS. 137 Alius A,i ter. § 151.— Alter—alter or unus — alter, “ tbe one—tlie other,” is used of two only; alius — alius or unus — alius, “ one—another,” of more tlian two.— Alii (or quidam, nonnulli )— alii means “ some—others ;” aliud — aliud, “ one thing— another alias — alias, “ at one time—at another,” or “ now—now aliter — aliter, “ in one way- -in another,” or “ so—otherwise ;” E. g., “ The one says yes ; the other, no.” Units {alter) ait, negat alter. Alii ludunt, cantant alii. Divitias alii prce- ponunt, bonam alii mletudinem, alii potentiam, alii honores, multi etiam voluptates. Aliud est iracundum esse, aliud iratum. Aliter cum tyranno vivitur, aliter cum amico. Alias helium inferunt, alias illatum defendant. Aliud loquitur, aliud sentit} Aliter mild videtur, aliter tibi . 2 § 152.— Alius, when joined to a case of its own, or to one of its derivatives {alias; alibi, alio, aliter, aliunde ), forms an abridged proposition, for which in English often two sentences with “ the one—the other,” etc. are used ; e. g., “ One likes this, and another that,” or “different persons like different things.” Aliud aids placet. Alias aliud iisdem de rebus judieamus. 3 Aids alibi placet. 4. Aids aliunde est periculum . 6 Aliter cum cdiis loquitur . 6 Alius alio mittitur , 7 Alius alia de causa (of two, alter altera de causa) vend. Note 1.— Alius atque alius or alius aliusque means “now this, now that,” i. e. differente. g., Res inchoata scape aids atque aids de causis differtur. Milites tram Jlumen aids atque aids locis trajiciebant . Note 2. —In phrases such as “One hand washes the other”—“One wedge drives another”—“ One fear overcomes another,” etc., the English “other” is not translated by alius or alter , but by the repetition of the word with which it is contrasted. Tlie words expressing contrasted ideas are then placed by the side of each other; as, Manus manum lavat. Cuneus cuneum trudit. Timorem timer vincit. Nulla virtu s virtuti contraria est. Cives civibus parcere ceauum est. Ex domo in domum migrant. Hominem homini similiorem non vidi. This juxtaposition is also to be observed in such expressions as alius alio fortior , aliud alio melius , alium alio nequiorem.—Alius alio plus habct virium. Aliud ex alio malum nascitur. Me quotidie aliud ex alio imp edit. Note 3.—The English reciprocal “each other,” “one* another,” k expressed in Latin by alter alteri or alterum , and alius alii or alium : e. g., Alter in aUerwn causam covferunt. Milvo est helium cum carvo: ergo alter alterius ova frangtt or fmr.gunt. J ) or aliud loquitur ac {atque, quam) sentit , he speaks otherwise than La thinks. J ) or aliter mihi videtur ac tibi , I think differently from you. 3 ) At different limes we think differently on the same subject, or at one time we think so, at another other¬ wise. 4 ) Some like to be here, and others elsewhere, or different persons like to be in different places. 5 ) Different persons are threatened from different quarters. °) To one he speaks in this way, to another in another, or to different persons he speaks in a different way. 7 ) One is sent hither, another thither, etc. 133 PRONOUNS. Alter alieri sulvenii. Nec quidqucm secreturn alter ab allero Kabet.—Alius aliutr* increpabant. Alius alii subsidiumfarJ ovj^runt. Instead of alter alterum and alius idi r i%\ we may say also inter se, inter nos, inter vos; as, Inter nospercontamur. Diffltgwm ft Dion inter se (= alter alterum ) time- bant. Aristides et Themistocles ohtrcctanoit inter sc. Furtim inter se aspiciunt. 1 Demosthenes et Isocrates inter se discrepant. Complecti inter se lacrimantes milites cceperunt. —Thus, inter se diligunt, amant, timent , etc. (pIAT se mutuo or se invicem, in such phrases, is Post-classical.) THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN “ ONE.” § 153.—The indefinite pronoun one is variously expressed in Latin, viz., (a) By the Passive; as, “ One lives well everywhere,” Ubique bene xintur .— “When one deviates from justice, ail things become uncertain,” Omnia fiunt incerta, quum a jure discessum est. (b) By the 1 pers. plur. Active, when the speaker includes himself under the unknown subject; as, “What one wishes, one gladly believes,” Quce vohimus , libenter credimus. “There is scarcely one night in which one does not dream,” Nulla fere est nox, qua non somniamus. (c) By the 2d sing. Indie, or Subj., according as a definite or an indefinite person is addressed; as, “ When one yields to sloth, in vain are the gods implored,” JJbi socordice te atque ignamce dederis, nequidquara deos implorobis. Non decet ea docere relle, quce nunquam dicliceris. Deum non vides, tamen ut Deum ex operibus agnoscisd (d) Sometimes, though rarely, by the Present Partic.; as, “ When one is at sea, things that stand, seem to move,” Navigantibus moveri videntur ea quce slant. T ) They look stealthily at one another. a ) One does not see God, yet ho may be recognized as God by .... VEBBS WITH TWO NOMINATIVES?. 189 t CHAPTER VI. THE YEEB. 1, ftov&rnmenl of Verbs. 2. Tenses of Verbs.—3. Moods of Verbs.—4. Gerunds, Supines. Participles. ' I. Government of Verbs. VERBS WITH TWO NOMINATIVES. Ego vocor Robertas. § 154.—Verbs of “being,” “becoming,” and “ seeing,” as sum, I am; exsislo , I exist; fio, evado, I become ; maneo , I remain ; nascor , I am born; videor, I seem; appareo, I appear, etc., and passive verbs signi¬ fying 11 to be named or called,” as dicor , nominor, vocor,. appellor, nun- cupor, salutor ; “to be made or chosen,” as creor, deligor , designor , renuntior, declaror, constituor ; “to be deemed or reckoned,” as ducor, credor, habeor, judicor, exis- timor , numeror, putor, agnoscor, demonstror, deprehendor, take two nominatives, a subject- and a predicate-nominative : the former answer¬ ing to the question who or what placed before the verb, and the latter to the question ivhat placed after the verb ; as, “ I am called Robert.” Nemo repente jit pessimus. Multa somnui verx evadunt. Nemo nascitur dives. Scythce perpetuo invicti mcinserunt.-—Numa rex creatus est. Clodius tribunus plebis est designatus.—Scgtharurn gens anti- quissima semper habita est. jijjc consideremus quos faciunt ii qvd habentur boni. Note 1.—Verbs that are construed with two nominatives, generally agree with tlia subject-nominative, as Allohroges sunt genus agreslc, etc.—But, when the predicate is a noun and stands near the verb, the verb not unfrequently agrees with the predicate- nominative ; as, Hie honos ignominia putanda est. Hen omnis error stultitia dicenda est. Paupertas mihi onus visum est miserum et grove. Gens universa Veneti appellati sunt. Universus hie mundus una civitas communis deorum atque Itominum existimanda est. 140 VERBS GOVERNING THE GENITIVE. Note 2.—When the predicate-nominative admits of two forms, one masculine, the other feminine, the masculine form must be used when the subject-nominative is either masculine or neuter; but the feminine, when the former is feminine; as, Eventus (or tempus ) est optimus stultorum magister. Bistoria est magistra vitce, uuncia (not nuncius) vetustatis. Licentia est corrvptrix (not corrvptor) morum. Bona con- scientia est perpetua (not perpetuus) comes recte faciorum. (Compare § 90, 3.) Note 3.—The predicate-nominative of an adjective is often used in Latin, where in English an adverb, or a noun with a preposition is used. This is especially the case with the verbs vivo, morior , eo , sto , venio , sedeo, jaceo., dormio, and other intransitive verbs, when we wish to express the state or condition of the subject during an action. E. g., “ I live most miserably, or in the greatest misery;” Vivo miserrimus. I)or~ miunt securi. Sapiens nil facit invitus. Nemo fere saltat sobrius. Justus moritur securus. Intrepidus ad me venit. Salvi in BEgyptum pervenerunt. Socrates venenum Icetus ac lubens hausit. Note 4. —In the construction of the Acc. c. Inf. both the subject- and the predicate- nominative are changed into the accusative; as, (Brutus exstitit vindex Roman® libertatis), Constat Brutum exstitisse vindicem Romanov libertatis. Note 5. —The verb habeor , instead of the predicate-nominative, sometimes takes the ablative with pro or loco {in numero ) with the genitive ; as, Audacia pro muro kabetur. Brodigii loco clades habitaest. Helvetii in hostium numero habentur. VERBS GOVERNING THE GENITIVE. Memini vivorum. § 155. —1. Yerbs of remembering and forgetting , as memini , reminiscor , recorder , and obliviscor , govern the genitive of the person or thing which one remembers or forgets; as, “ I remember the living.” Paeri meminerint verecundice. Semper hvjus diei et loci meminero . Dulce est meminisse laborum actorum. Jubes me bona cogitare , oblivisci malorum. Hannibal adkortatus est milites ut reminiscereniur pristince virtutis suce neve mulierum liberumque obliviscerentur. Homo nefarius cum dolore fagitiorum suorum aliquando recordabitur. Note 1.—When the object remembered or forgo t ten is a thing , it is often putin the accusative (especially with recorder ), and when it is expressed by the neuter of an Note 2.— Memini , in the sense of u to remember a.person as acontemporary, as one who has lived in our time,”—always takes the acc. of the person. In the sense of “ to mention” {mentionem facere), it sometimes takes the genitive, but more com¬ monly the ablative with de. E. g., Cinnam memini , vidi Sullam. Utinam , Antoni , VERBS GOVERNING THE GENITIVE. 141 avum tuum meminisses ! Antipater ille Sidonius quern tu probe meministi.—De Jiomine importunissimo ne meminisse quidem nolo. Meministi ipse de exulibus. The ablative of the person with de is found also with recordor, as Petirnus ut de suis liberis recordentur. Note 3. —The verbs of reminding ( moneo, admoneo, commoneo , commonefacio ) are construed aliquem alicujus rei or de aliqua re, that is, the person whom one reminds, is put in the accusative, and the thing of which, either in the genitive or in the ablative with de ; as, Grammaticos ojjicii sui commonemus. Ille te veteris amicitice commonefacit. Oro ut Terentiam de testarnento moneatis .—If the thing is expressed by the neuter of an adjective or adjective pronoun, it is put in the accusative; as, Hoc unum te moneo. Illud me prcedare admones.— |3§p Monere with the genitive of the thing is Post-Augustan. Note 4. —With renit mihi in mentem , the thing that occurs to one’s mind, is com¬ monly put in the genitive, and sometimes in the nominative ; as, Venit mihi Pla- tonis in mentem. Non dubito quin in metu tuorum tibi scelerum veniat in mentem (or tua tibi scelera in mentem veniant). Multa mihi in mentem veniunt. Quid tibi in mentem venit ? Facio te magni. § 156 .— 2 , Verbs of valuing and esteeming, as cestimo , duco, facto, psndo, habeo, puto , taxo, and esse in the sense of “to be worth,” “ to be estimated,” govern the genitive of value, when indefinitely expressed by an adjective; but, when expressed by a substantive, the ablative is used. E. g., “ I esteem thee highly.” Divitice a sapienti viro minimi putanturd Heplicestionem Alexander plurimi fecerat. Si prata et horlulos tanli cestimamus , quanti est cestimanda virtus? Quanti quisque amicos fac'd, tanti fit ab amicis. Mea mihi conscientia pluris est quam omnium sermo. Tanti est exer- citus , quanti imperator? Quanti est sapere I s Note 1.— The genitives of value are : magni , permagni , maximi, — pluris, pLurimi, — parvi , minoris, minimi ,— tanti , quanti, tantidem, quantivis, quantilibet , quanticun- que, and nihili ; but never multi and majoris, in place of which magni and pluris are used respectively.—These genitives are variously rendered in English ; for example, magni, much, greatly, highly, at a high rate, of great importance ; parvi , little, at a low rate, of little importance, etc. To this class belong also the genitives assis,flocci, nauci, pili, teruncii , and pe-nsi , generally with a negative. They are used to denote that a thing is worth nothing, and are equivalent to the English expressions : “ not to be worth a cent, a farthing, a pin,” etc.—“ not to care or give a cent, a farthing, a pin, a straw, a hair, a bulrush, for a thing.” J ) are held very low. 2 ) The value of an army depends on that of the general. *) What a fine thing it is.... 142 VERBS GOVERNING THE GENITIVE. Note 2.— The phrase tanti est , means “ it is worth while,”—or contemptuously with a fillip : “ it is worth so much” or “ I care so much for it;” as, Video quanta tempestas invidiai nobis impendeat : sed est miJii tanti,—dummodo ista privata sit calamitas. Note 3. —Instead of aliquid nihili facere , we find also aliquid pro nihilo habere, ducere , putare • as, Philosophi ca quce plerique vehementer expetunt , pro nihilo ducunt. — With cestimo the ablatives magno. permagno , nihilo, and nonnihilo , sometimes occur, as Istam gloriosam mrtutem non magno cestimo. Arguit me furti. § 151.—3. Yerbs of accusing , convicting, condemning, and acquitting , together with arcesso, ci/o, defero, and postulo , in the sense of “ to sum¬ mon before the court,” “ to prosecute,” govern the genitive of the crime of which one is accused, acquitted, etc.—This genitive depends on the ablative crimine , or nomine (“pretext,” “on account”), which is gen¬ erally understood, and sometimes expressed. E. g., “ He charges me with theft.” Athenienses Socratem impietatis insimulabant. Milticides proditionis est accusatus. Te convinco non solum inhumanitatis , sec? etiam amentice. Nicomedes furti damnatus est. Ducem proditionis absolvunt. Scaur us pecunice a Jugurtha acceptor arcessebatur.—Nomine sceleris conjurationis - que damnati sunt multi. Alcibiades postulabat ne absens invidice crimine accusaretur. Si iniquus es in me judex, condemnabo ego eodem ie crimine. i j - Note 1.—The verbs of accusing and condemning, instead of the genitive, sometimes take the ablative with de ; as, Non committam posthac ut me de epistolarum negligentia accusare possis. Pilius de repetundis M. Servilium postulavit .—Thus we say deferre nomen alienj-us ( UpjgT* deferre alignem is Post-Augustan) de ambitu , de parricidio , de veneficiis , etc.—With accuso and convinco we find even the ablative with in, as Primum me tibi excuso in eo ipso, in quo te accuso. Note 2.—The punishment to which a person is condemned, is commonly ex¬ pressed by the genitive, more rarely by the ablative or the accusative with ad or in: thus, damnare aliquem mortis , mullaz, pccnnice, tripli, quadruple, etc., or morte , multa, pecunia , triplo , quadrvplo,—damnare ad bestias , ad metalla , ad {in) opus publicum, in expensas. 1 E. g.. Nympho condemnalur: quanti? fortasse queeritis '—frumenti ejus omnis quod' in areis esset.—Frusinates tertia parte agri damnati sunt .— Vitia hominum atque fraudes damnis, ignominiis, vinculis, verberibus , exiliis, morte multantur (|gr The verb multare is always construed with the ablative.) When the punishment consists in a definite sum, the ablative is invariably used; e. g., Sex millibus ceris damnatus est .—Capital punishment is expressed both by capitis and capite , as Multi capitis or capite damnati sunt .—The phrase voti or votorum damnari means “ to be adjudged to the fulfilment of a vow,” hence “ to obtain what one wishes.” J ) to pay the expenses. VEPBS GOVERNING THE GENITIVE. 143 Note 3. —The verbs of acquitting (esp. libero ), instead of the genitive of the crime or punishment, take also the ablative; as, Ego me, etsi peccato abaolvo, mpplieio non libero. Thus, absolvere aliqiiem regni suspicione , supplicio; liberare aliquem culpa, suspicione crudelitatis , etc. Note 4.—When the verbs of accusing are not taken in a judicial sense, but merely in the sense of “to find fault with,” or “to blame one for something,” they are usually construed with the accusative of the fault aud the genitive of the person ; e. g., Samnites incusahant injurias Romanov urn. Tribuni plebis nunc fraudem , nunc negligentiam Consulum accusabant. Rharnabazus in epistola lysandri avaritiam verfidiamque accusavit. Est boni regis. § 158.—4. The genitive stands with the verb sum , 1.) when in the predicate a substantive is omitted that has been previously expressed; 2. ) when in the predicate such a word as homo , vir, animal , is omitted; 3. ) when sum is taken in the sense of “ it is a person’s business, office, lot, or property,” where indicium , negotium , proprium , or ojfcium is understood ; as, “ It is the part of a good king.” Captivorum numerus fuit (numerus) mille quingentorum. 1 Persarum classis fuit (classis) ducentarum navium.—Pst (homo) sui juris? Hannibal- turn (puer) novem annorum erat.—Superstilio est (indicium) imbecilli animi. Hoc non est (negotium) mearum virium? Suadcre principi quod oportet, (res or negotium) multi laboris* est. Cujusvis hominis est errare. Fortis et constants animi est non perturbari in adversis. Hcec studia omnium temporum sunt atque locorum? Hlud vestrce dignitatis erat? Hon est mecc virtutis. 1 Fst adolescentis majores natu vereri.—Periculose emitur quod multorum est? Totus Pompeii sum? Procter Capitolium omnia hostium erant? 0 Note 1.—The predicate-genitive with sum is variously expressed in English ; as, it shows , it betrays , it proves ;—it suits , it fits, it becomes ;—it requires, it demands, it is for, e. g. the rich, etc. ; — it is peculiar to, it is incumbent on, it belongs or pertains to ;—any one may, any one is liable to, it is not every one who ; — should, must, ought , use, be leant, etc.—These and similar phrases, when rendered by sum , esse , the young student should always reduce to this simple formula : J ) consisted of or amounted to. 2 ) is at his own disposal—his own master. s ) is beyond my strength. 4 ) is a difficult task. 6 ) are suitable for. B ) your dignity required that. 7 ) it is not consistent with my character. 8 ) what belongs to many. ) I am all Pompey’s—belong wholly, or am wholly devoted, to Pcmpey. 10 ) all was n the power of. VERB? GOVERNING TIIE GENITIVE. 144 “.is (a sign, the part, lot, duty , property ) of....as, (Eng.) Superstition betrays a weak mind. (Lat.) Superstition is (a mark ) of a weak mind. (Eng.) Every man may err, or is liable to err. (Lat.) To err is (the lot ) of every one. (Eng.) A king is bound to protect his subjects. (Lat.) To protect his subjects is (the duty) of a king. Note 2.—When the predicate-genitive expresses a quality and. has an adjective agreeing with it, the ablative is frequently used instead of the genitive (§ 110) ; as, “ Socrates was (a man) of a very mild temper Socrates erat mitissimi ingenii or mitissimo ingenio. In omnibus rebus Cato singulars fuit prudentia et industria. Bono semper animo esto. Agesilausfuit statura humili et corpore exiguo Note 3.—When the person whose part or duty any thing is, is expressed by a per¬ sonal pronoun (“it is incumbent on me, on us, on you,”—“you should,” “you ought”), instead of the genitives of the personal pronouns: mei , tui , sui, nostri, vestri , the neuters of the possessives : m,e.um , tuum , suum , nostrum , and vestrum (sc. nego- iium or ofiicium) are used; as, “ It is for us to commence Nostrum est incipere. Tuum est videre quid agatur. Feci quod meum erat , tu modo fac quod tuum est. Si cvjusquam , certe tuum est nihil prater virtutem in bonis ducere. Meum esse puto quid sentiam ostendere. In like manner, when sum is taken in the sense of “ to belong to,” “to be the prop¬ erty of,” the possessives are used, and made to agree with the subject-nominative in gender, number, and case; e. g., “This book belongs to me;” Hie liber meus est. Hac vestis tua est. Si nos defenditis , vestri; si deseritis , Samnitium erimus .—“I am totally devoted to you—am all yours ;” Totus tuus sum. Note 4.—Instead of stulti est , regis est , Eomanorum est , cvjusvis hominis est , etc., we may say with equal propriety stultum est , regium est , Romanum est , humanvm est , etc.; e. g., Et facere etpati fortia Bomanum est .—But with adjectives of one ending the genitive only ought to be used, as sapientis est , insipientis est , etc. Sometimes, when the predicate-genitive expresses a quality, the nominative may be used as well as the genitive. Thus we can say, Frustra niti extrema dementia or extrema dementia est. Sic agere summa lemtatis or summa levitas est. Nego hoc moris esse Gracorum or hunc rnorem esse Gracorum. Note 5.—The predicate-genitive stands also with puto, liabeo , existimo, and fieri in the sense of “to come to belong to .”—Facio with the genitive ditionis means “ to subdue,” “to bring under one’s dominion,” and is equivalent to: in ditionem or poteslatem redigere. —E. g., Tempori cedere semper sapientis est habitum. Multi super- stitionem imbecilli animi putart. Qua Macedonum erant, populi Romani facta sunt. Tota Asia popidi Romani facta est. Hannibal Italiam sua ditionis fecit. Scipio omnem vram usque ad lbermn jiumen Romana ditionis fecit. Teedet me vitae, § 159.—5. The impersonal verbs poznitet, piget, pudet , tcedet, and miseret , govern the accusative of the person in whom the feeling of THE VERB. 145 shame, grief, etc., exists, and the genitive of the thing which causes the feeling ; as, “ I am weary of life.” Poenitet ( me ), I repent of, Perf. prenituii , Fnt. pemitebit. Piget ( me ), I am vexed at, I regret, Pert', piguit or pig it um est. Pudet (me), I am ashamed of, Pjrf. puduit or puditum est. Tcedet (me), I am tired of, Perf, pertmum est, rarely toeduit. Miseret {me), I pity, Perf. muertftum est, rarely miseruit. life tui miseret. Pudet me tui hominis vanissimi. Miseret te alioru?n f tui nee miseret nec pudet. Nunquam Atticum suscepti negat 'd pertcesmn est. Me civitatis morum piget tcedetque. Mala me fortunes pamiteat , quo.m victories pudecit. Ignavum poenitebit aliquando ignavies sues. Sunt homines quos infamies suce neque pudeat neque teed eat. Rote 1.— When the thing which causes the feeling, is expressed—not by a sub¬ stantive, but by a verb or the neuter of a pronoun, the former is either put in the Inf. or rendered by a clause with quod ; the latter is put in the accusative; as, “ I am sorry for having done this;” Poenitet me hoc fecisse. Piget me plura dicere. Non me tarn diu, vixisse poenitet. Poenitet me quod te offendi. Sapientis est proprium nihil quod po&nitere possit, facer e. Rote 2. — Pudet takes also the genitive (generally without an accusative of the person) in the sense of “to feel ashamed for, or in the sight ofe. g., “ It is scanda¬ lous in the sight of gods and men Pudet deorum hominumqvx . Pudet hvjus legionis, pudet optimi exercitus. Nonne te Tiujustempli, nonurbis, nan dice, non lucis pudet? —The Participle pertcesus often takes the accusative of the tiling, instead of the genitive, as Pertcesus ignaviam suam. Rote 3. —Here are to be noticed the two verbs misereor 2. and miseresco 3., “I pity.’ They are both construed personally, that is, the person who pities, ia put in the nom¬ inative, and with this nominative the verbs themselves agree in number and person ;— but the object which causes the feeling, is put in the genitive: as, Boni homines eiiam pecoris miserentur. Arcadii , queeso, miserescite regis. Miseror 1 . and commiseror 1 ., “I pity,” are transitive and accordingly take the accu¬ sative of the object; as, Agesilaus commiseratus est fortunam Grcecice. Interest omnium. § 1G0.—6. The impersonal verbs interest and refert, “it concerns— matters—is of consequence or importance to,” govern the genitive of the person whose interest or concern any thing is ; ns, “It concerns all.” floe multarum civitatum in Gi'cecia interfuit. Interest red pm blicai juven- tutemprobe institui. Theodori nihil interest , humine an sublimeputrescat, 1 T ) whether he rot on the ground or on high. 10 146 VERBS GOVERNING THE GENITIVE. Civiurti refert legibus obtempevare. Ostendam quantum salutis com¬ munis inter sit duos consules in republica esse. Note 1.—When the person whom any thing concerns, is expressed in English by a personal pronoun, in Latin the possessive forms mea, tua, sua, nostra, and vestra , are used ; as, Interest mea ut te videam. Tua quod nihil refert, percontari desinas. Caesar dicere solebat, non tam sua quam reipublicoe interesse ut salvus esset. Note 2.—How much or how little one is concerned, is expressed either (a) by the genitives tanti, quanti, quanlicunque ; magni, permagni, maximi ; pluris, plurimi; parvi, minoris, minimi (but never multi and majoris );— or (b) by the neuters tantum, quantum, aliquantum ; muUum, plus, plurimum, permultum, infinitum, mirum quan¬ tum ; minus, minimum; nihil, quid, quiddam ;— or (c) by the adverbs tantopere, magno- pere, magis, maxitne, vehemenUf, tam , quam, minime. E. g., Illud mea mag¬ ni (or multum, magnopere) interest ut in officio tuo sis diligentissimus. Quanto- pere (or quanti, quantum) inter sit opprimi Doldbellam, profecto intelligis. Maxime (or maximi, plurimum ) rfiert , quemadmodum quceque res audiatur . Non tam interest quo animo scribatur epistola, quam quo acoipiatur. Note 3. —The thing which concerns, is expressed in Latin, either (a) by the simple Infinitive or the Ace. c. Inf. ; (b) by a subordinate clause with ut, ne, or an interrogative; or (c) by a neuter pronoun, such as hoe, id, illud, quod .— In English, the t hing is commonly expressed bj r a substantive ; as, (Eng.) The price of corn is of great importance to us. (Lat.) It concerns us much what corn sells for. (Eng.) Thy health and diligence concern me much. (Lat) It much concerns me that thou be healthy and diligent. (Eng.) Of what consequence is to you the fall of Troy ? (Lat.) What does it matter you that Troy has fallen? Magni omnium interest leges servari—ut leges serventur—ne leges perfringantur — utrum leges serventur neene. Multum nostra interest quanti frumentum veneat. Quid tua refert Troiam eversam esse? Multum mea interest ut sis sanus et diligens , or te scinum esse et diligentem. Vehementer mea interest quid boni homines de me judicent. Note 4.— When ipse, unus, solus , or a noun, is added in apposition to the posses- Bives mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra, it must be put in the genitive (§ 138), unless the noun he added as a vocative of address. E. g., “ It is my (our, your) own interest Mea ipsius ( nostra, vestra ipsorum) interest .— “It concerns thee alone;” Tua unius or eolius interest. Mea proeceptoris vestri plurimum interest. Nullius magis quam tua, mi Tiro, interesse puta. NoteS. —The object in regard to which or for which a thing is of importance, ’s expressed by the accusative with ad ; as, Equidem ad nostrum laudem non multum video interesse.. Magni ad honorem nostrum interest quam primum ad urbem me venire. Note 6.— Refert, in the best Latin writers, is but rarely used with a genitive of the person. It oftener occurs with the ’possessives mea, tua, sua, etc. ; and most com¬ monly without a genitive or possessive at all. E. g., Quid mea refert ? Illud per¬ magni refem arbitror. Meminero, sed quid meminissc id refert ? THE VERB. 14 T VERBS GOVERNING THE DATIVE. Do vestem pauperi. § 161.—1. The dative may stand with any verb in answer to the ques¬ tion to whom or what? or, for whom or what? that is, for whose ad¬ vantage or disadvantage ? as, “I give a garment to a poor man.” Karras fabulam surdo. Pueri, ne socordice vos atque ignavice tradite. Non scholce, sed vitce discimus. Tibi seris, tibi metis. Avarus aliis divitias par at, non sibi. Non solum nobis divites esse volumus, sed Uberis, pro¬ pin quis, amicis, maximeque reipublicce. Note.—A s the preposition “ to” is often omitted in English, especially after verbs of giving, sending , showing , telling , 'promising , etc., beginners should carefully dis¬ tinguish between the object given, sent, promised, etc., and the person to whom it is given, sent, promised, etc. The former is put in the accusative answering to the question whom or what; the latter, in the dative answering to the question to whom or what? E. g., “Give (to) me this picture;” Da mihi hanc imaginem. —“Show (to) your father that letter;” Ostende patri hanc epistolam. —“ I sent (to) your brother a large sum of money;” Fratri tuo magnam pecuniae summam misi. —“ Tell (to) us some news;” Die nobis aliquid novi. Sunt mihi libri. § 162. — 2. The verb sum in the sense of “to have,” takes the dative of the person who has, and the nominative of the thing which he has.—The verb sum g of course, is to agree with the nominative of the thing, in number and person. E. g., “ I have books.” Est homini cum Deo similitudo. Non semper idem color est foribus. Suus cuique mos est. 1 Nulla potest esse voluptati cum honestate con- junctio. Sunt nauticis corpora ' dura, agricolis manus tritce; agilia sunt membra cursoribus .— Videmus non semper eundem esse eolorem foribus. Note. —We must here notice the phrase est mihi nomen , “ my name is,” or “ I am called,” where the name itself is added either in the dative or nominative, very rarely in the genitive. E. g., Fst mihi nomen Alexandro or Alexander. - -Quodnam est tibi nomen? Marcello or Marcellas.—Erat inter illos juvenis cui cognomenpostea Coriolano fuit. Consoles leges , quibus tabulis duodecim est nomen, in publico proposuerunt. Damaratus duos filios habuit: nomina his Lucumo et Aruns fuere. Like est mihi nomen is construed the passive phrase nomen mihi datum ( indiinm , T ) Every one lias his own way. 148 VERBS GOVERNING THE DATIVE. imposU-um , or factum) est; as, Puero oh inopia Egerio (or Egerius) nomen inditurn est. Fiumini a celeritate Tigri (or Tigris) nornen est inditum .—In the active construction, the proper name stands either in the dative or accusative ; as, Pesipiunt otones qui tibi nomen insano posuere. Puero Ascanium pa-rentes dixere nomen. Amphyction civitati nomen Atkenas or Athenis dealt .—When the name is an adjective taken sub¬ stantively rati ler than areal proper name, the genitive is used also; e. g., Metello cognomen Numidioi inditum fait. Mithridati res gesict Magni cognomen dederunt. Est tibi lionori. § 1 Cm.— 3. The verb sum, in the sense of to serve for, to cause , to give, to bring , to afford, etc., usually takes two datives,—one of the persons to whom any thing serves for, brings, or affords ; and the other of the thing which it serves for brings, or affords; as, “ It does you honor/’ or “ It redounds to your honor.” Eloquentia principibus maximo ornamento est. flare est exitio nauiis. 1 Curate ut et vobis honori et amicis utilitati et reipuhlicce emo- lumento esse possitisd Hoc in tempore nulla eiviias Athemensibus auxilio fuit. Patri non minori fuit adjumento in pcriculis quam solatio in laboribus. Note 1.—The dative of the thing is variously expressed in English : (a) by the nominative with the verb “to be ;” (b) by the objective depending upon such a verb as to serve for, to cause, procure, occasion, bring, give, afford; and (c) by an adjective. E. g., Est solatio, it affords consolation, it is a (source of) consola¬ tion, it is consoling.— Est voluptati , It is a pleasure, it gives or affords pleasure, it is pleasant. Instead of Hoc solatio , argumento, documento est, we may also say Hoc solatium , zrgumenium, documentum est. Note 2.—A double dative—one of the person to whom, and the other of the end or purpose for which—stands often also (a) With do, duco, tribuo, habeo, rerto, and fio, in the sense of “ to impute for or asp “to reckon or regard as;” e. g., vitio vertere , to charge as a crime against ; litdibrio habere, to make a laughing-stock of_; laudi ducere, to reckon as a recommendation ; ignavias tribuere , to attribute as cowardice ; gloria ducere , to regard as a source of glory. — Paupertas probro haberi or fieri ccepit. Quis erit qui hoc tibi vitio vertat ? Vitio mihi dant quod mortem horninis necessarii graviter fero. Id sibi glories duxitA Ampler domus scope ft dedecori domino, si in ea est solitudo. (b) With do, mitto, venio, profciscor, accipio,relivquo, when the purpose of giving, .sending, coming, etc., is expressed in Latin by a substantive; as, “I shall come to aid you,” or “I shall come to your assistance.”— Veniam tibi auxilio. Pausanias Atticis auxilio venit. Goesar quinque cohortes castrispressidio (also ad presidium) reli- quitA Virtus sola neque clono datur ncque accipiturA ') brings ruin upon. 2 ) become an honor to yourselves, a benefit to your friends, and an advantage to_ s ) He thought it glorious for himself. 4 ) as a garrison, or for the protection of the camp. 6 ) is neither bestowed as a present. VERBS GOVERNING THE DATIVE. 149 Note 3.—To this rule are to be referred, also, the phrases est mihi cures, “I care, or am anxious about,” and est mihi cordi, “ I have at heart,” “ it is dear to me.” E. g., “ Every one minds his own gratification Cures est sua cuique voluptas. Est adhuc cures, hominibus fides et ojjicium. Amicos Attico euros esse cognitum est. Id mild non minori cures est quain tibi. 1 Hoc mihi magnopere cordi est. Upgf 3 " With cures the adjectives magnets, niajori , maximes, etc.,—with cordi the adverbs magnopere, magis, maxime, etc., arc commonly used. Studeo Grammatics©. § 164.—4. The dative stands with many intransitive verbs signifying to please, favor, help, profit, trust, and their contraries, — to command, obey, serve , resist, approach, threaten, and be angry with. The principal verbs of this kind are : placeo, displiceo, arrideo, assentior, assentor, blandior, lenocinor, gratificor, palpor, — -faveo, studeo, ignosco, indulgeo, suffragor, invideo, insidior, convicior, insulto, — auxilior, opitulor, patro - cinor, subvenio, succurro, medeor, incommodo, obtrecto, — prosum, obsum, noceo, officio, — credo, fido, confido, diffido, — impero, mcindo, prcecipio ,— obedio, pareo, obsequor, obtempero, morigeror, cedo, dicto audiens sum ,— servio, inservio, ministro, famulor, ancillor, — adversor, refragor, obsto, renitor, repugno, resisto, — propinquo, appropinquo, occurro, obvius sum or fio, obviam eo ( fio, venio), — minor, comminor, impendeo, immineo ,— succenseo, irascor. To these must be added nubo, parco, benedico, male- dico, suadeo, persuadeo, dissuadeo, supplico, satisfacio, respondco, and the impersonals libet, licet, liquet, conducit, convenit, exped.it, accidit, evenit, and contingit. E. g., “I study Grammar.” adminiculor, 1 . to help. adversor, 1. to oppose. ancillor, 1. to serve. appropinquo, 1. to approach. arrideo, 2. to please. assentior, 4. to agree with. assentor, 1. to flatter. auxilior, 1. to help. benedico, 3. to praise. blandior, 4. to flatter. cedo, 3. to yield. comminor, 1. to threaten. confido; 3. to confide in. convicior, 1. to revile. credo, 3. to trust. dicto audiens sum, to obey. diffido, 3. to distrust. displiceo, 2. to displease. dissuadeo, 2. to dissuade. famulor, 1. to serve. faveo, 2. to favor. fido, 3. to trust. gratificor, 1 . to gratify. ignosco, 3. to pardon. immineo, 2. to threaten. impendeo, 2. to threaten. impero, 1. to command. incommodo, 1. to molest. indulgeo, 2. to indulge. inservio, 4. to serve. insidior, 1. to lay snares. insulto, 1. to insult. invideo, 2. to envy. irascor, 3. to be angry. lenocinor, 1 . to wheedle. inaledico, 3. to abuse. mando, 1 . to command. medeor, 2. to heal. ministro, 1 . to serve. minor, 1 . to threaten. morigeror, 1. to gratify. noceo, 2. to hurt. nubo, 3. to marry. obedio, 4. to obey. obsequor, 3. to comply with. obsto, 1. to oppose. obsum, to be against. obtempero, 1 . to obey. obtrecto, 1 . to disparage. obviam eo, to go to meet. obiam venio, to meet. obvius sum, to meet. occurro, 3. to meet. officio, 3. to hinder. *) It is a subject of no less anxiety to mo 150 YERBS GOVERNING THE DATIVE.- opitulor, 1. to help. palpor, 1. to wheedle. parco, 3. to spare. pareo, 2. to obey. putrocihor, 1. to defend. persuadeo, 2. to persuade. ».Jaceo, 2. to please. prtecipio, 3. to command. propinqno, 1 . to approach. prosum, to profit. refragor, 1 . to oppose. renitor, 3. to resist. repugno, 1 . to oppose. resisto, 3. to resist. respondeo, 2. to answer. satisfacio, 3. to satisfy. servio, 4. to serve. studeo, 2. to apply one's self snadeo, 2. to advise. subvenio, 4. to aid. succenseo, 2. to be angry ivith succurro, 3. to succor. suffraeor, 1 . to support. supplico, 1 . to entreat. Mors nulli hominum parcit. Vir probus nemini invidet. Mali bonis obtrectare solent. Festinationi niece brevitatique litterarum ignosce. Vir bonus non incommodat alieri. Cccsari pro te libentissime supplicabof Quis mild jure succenseat ? Non crimini patrocinamur, sed homini. Homines plurimum hominibus et prosunt et obsuntd Dies 3 stultis quo - que mederi solet. Voluq^tas semibus blanditur. Hoc rectene an per- peram fecerim , nondum mild plane liquet. Rote 1.—In the passive construction, the preceding intransitive verbs become impersonal, that is, they are put in the third person singular, retaining the dative which they govern in the active. To this the young student should pay particular attention, as most of them are transitive in English and accordingly admit of a personal passive ; as, Parcitur mihi, lam spared, parcitur tibi, thou art spared, parcitur illi, he is spared, parcitur nobis, we are spared, parcitur vobis, ye are spared, parcitur illis, they are spared. Favetur mihi, lam favored, favetur tibi, thou art favored, favetur illi, he is favored, favetur nobis, ice are favored, favetur vobis, ye are favored, favetur illis, they are favored. Thus, “I am molested,” mihi incommodatur , not ego incommodor. —“You are envied,” vobis invidetur, not vos invidemini. —“ Thou art obeyed,” tibi obtemperatur, not tu obtemperaris. —“ They were abused with impunity,” illis impune maledictum est, not illi impune maledicti sunt. —“I have been persuaded,” i. e., “I am con¬ vinced,” mihi persuasum est , not ego persuasus sum. Rote 2. —The verbs credo , mando, impero, praecipio , minor, suadeo , and respondeo, besides the dative of the person, take sometimes an accusative of the thing; as, “I am threatened {minor, § 92.) with death,” Mortem mihi minantur. —“He spoke in favor of peace,” Suasit pacem sc. civibus. —“ Csesar demanded arms and hostages from the states,” Caesar arma et obsides civitatibus imperavit. As the accusative of the thing, in the passive construction, becomes the nomina¬ tive, these verbs may admit of a personal passive and accordingly be used in the plural, if the nominative be plural ; e. g., “Matters about which advice is asked, are replied to with very little risk;” Quae consuluntur , minimo periculo respondentur. Tota Italia delectus habentur , arma imperantur. Mdduatici quce ( sibi ) imperarentur, facere dixerunt. l ) entreat in thy behdf. 3 ) profit and hurt one another. s ) Time. VERBS GOVERNING- THE DATIVE. 151 Note 3. —When two verbs connected by et, of which one governs the dative, the other the accusative, affect in common the same object, the noun is expressed witr the first verb, and represented with the other by the appropriate case of the demon¬ strate is or ille; as, “The desires of the soul must obey and follow reason Animi appetitus rationi pareant eamque sequantur necesse est. Note 4.— With persuadeo , the thing of which one persuades himself or another, is commonly expressed by a clause,—sometimes by the accusative of an adjective or adjective pronoun in the neuter gender, as hoc , id, Mud, unum , utrumque , mutta, etc.,—and sometimes by the ablative with de, as persuadere alicui de paupertate , dt animi immortalitate , etc. The English “ to envy some one for something” is rendered in Latin either by the dative of the person with the accusative of the thing, as “I envy no man’s honor,” Nulli honorem invideo; incident nobis optimam magistram , naturam,— or, what is more common, the thing is expressed by the dative and the person by the genitive or a possessive pronoun. E. g., Nullius invideo honori. Tlorum laudi invident. Non ego invideo tuis commodis. Note 5. — Insulto is generally construed with the dative, very rarely with the accusative.— Benedico takes the dative in the sense of “to praise ;” the accusative, in the sense of “ to bless.” The former but seldom occurs, the latter is found only in ecclesiastical writers.— Nuibo , “to marry,” (properly) “ to veil,” is said of the bride ; ducere in matrimonium or simply ducere , of the bridegroom. pIP The verbs jubeo, juvo , Icedo , and offendo , are transitive, and accordingly govern the accusative. Annue cceptis. § 165.—5. The dative stands with many verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, de, in, inter, oh, post, proe, sub, and super, provided the signi¬ fication of these prepositions be not lost in composition; as, “ Favor our undertakings. * Of these verbs some are transitive; others, intransitive. addo, 3. to add. affero, to bring. afflgo, 3. to fasten to. adjicio, 3. to add. adjungo, 3. to join. adhibeo, 2. to employ. admoveo, 2. to lead to. alllgo, 1 . to bind. applico, 1 . to apply. antepono, 3. to prefer. comparo, 1 . to compare. The following are transitive : confero, to compare with. conjungo, 3. to join. defero, to confer upon. derogo, 1 . to derogate. detraho, 3. to take off. eripio, 3. to snatch away. immisceo, 2. to mingle with. incldo, 3. to cut into. infero, to bring upon. injicio, 3. to throw into. insero, 3. to insert. inuro, 3. to brand. objicio, 3. to object to offundo, 3. to pour before. oppono, 3. to oppose. posthabeo, 2. to esteevn inferior. postpono, 3. to esteem less. prsefero, to prefer. prteficio, 3. to place over. praepono, 3. to prefer. subjicio, 3. to subject. suppono, 3. to place under. 152 VERBS GOVERNING THE DATIVE. aceedo, 8. to approach. adhgBreo, 2. to stick to. adjaceo, 2. to lie near. alliido, 3. to allude to. annuo, 3. to grant. assideo, 2. to sit near. assurgo, 3. to rise up to. interjaoeo, 2. to lie between, supervivo, 3. to survive. cohsereo, 2. to cohere. intervenio, 4 .to come between, praesuin, to preside. congrno, 3. to accord with, obrepo, 3. to steal upon. intersum, to be present at. consentio, 4. to agree. obstrepo, 3. to annoy. subsum, to be beneath. illacrimo, 1 . to cry over. obversor, 1 . to be before. supersum, to be remaining Senectus nobis obrepit. Leonidas securis Per sis supervenit . JVasus quasi murus oculis interjectus esse 1 videtur. Thebanorum genii plus inest 2 virium quam ingenii. Hannibal proefuit 3 equitatui. Aristides pugnae navali interfuit. Plures cecidissent , ni nox proelio intcrvenisset.* An vero quisquam paruit, quisquam in curiam venienti assurrexit ? The following are intransitive: immbror, 1 . to linger over. indormio, 4. to sleep over. inhsereo, 2. to st^ck to. inbio, 1 . to long for. innaseor, 3. to groio up in. insisto, 3. to insist on. praem.ineo, 2. to excel. prsesideo, 2. to preside. preevaleo, 2. to prevail. succumbo, 3. to succomb. supersto, 1 . to stand upon. supervenio, 4. to come upon. Note 1. —Verbs compounded with ad , con , and in , sometimes repeat these prepo¬ sitions with their respective cases. E. g., Confer nostram longissimam cetatem cum csternitate. Navis adhceret ad scopulum. Dux signa in hostes inf err'd jussit. In omnium animis Dei notitiam impressit ipsa natura. Timotheus ad bellicam laudem doctrines gloriam adjecil. Cunctus senatus ad Ccesarem svpplex accessit. Note 2. — Adjaceo takes sometimes the accusative, but without a preposition; as, Timotheus socios omnes eas gentes adjunxit qiue mare Mud adjacent .—' The accusative without a preposition is found also with accedo , as Hannibal cum quinque navibus Africa/m accessit. Applico is generally construed se ad aliquid , e. g., ad virtutem , ad philosophiamj etc.; very rarely se alicui rei.—Communico , in the Classical prose, is construed ali- ouid cum aliquo, occasionally aliquid. inter se , inter nos , etc. ; in late prose only alicui aliquid,. Obambulo and obequito take the dative, when the meaning is u to walk, ride in front of or towards;” and the accusative, when the meaning is “to v/alk, ride through or over.” Obrepo and obversor, instead of the dative, sometimes take the accusative with a preposition ; as, obrepere in animum , obversari ante oculos. Cui or quern praestolaris ? § 1G6.— 6 . The following verbs take either the dative or the accusa¬ tive : antecedo , ante cello, anteeo , antesto , procedo , prcecello , prceeo , pree - T ) interposed as a wall between_ 3 ) possesses more.... s ) commanded. 4 ) had not interrupted. 6 ) to attack the enemy. Lit., to bear or carry the standards against.... VERBS GOVERNING THE DATIVE. 153 curro, prcesio , prceverto; allatro , ausculto, illudo / adulor, cemulor , medico ?and prcestolor ; as, “For whom are yon waiting?” adulor, 1. to flatter. ausculto, 1. to to. prsesto, 1. to excel. aemulor, 1. to illudo, 8. to ridicule. prcestolor, 1. to for. allatro, 1 . to «£. medicor, 1 . to prseverto, 8. to avoid. Certis rebus certa signa proecurrunt. Ut homo iners hominem diii- gentem pr occur rat, fieri non potest .— Quis horum talium virorum digni* tatiilludat? Carneades oratorum prcecepta illudere solebat .— Tibi ad forum Aurelium prcestolabantur armati . Quem prcestolare , Parmeno , hie ante ostium ? Note.— The verbs compounded with pree and ante, when taken in the sense of “to excell,” together with adulor, cemulor, and allatro, are more commonly construed with the accusative.— Antecedo, preesto , and antecello, however, are used by Cicero with the dative only. Hanc tibi imaginem, or Hac te imagine dono. § 161.—1. The verbs aspergo , inspergo , circumdo , dono, impertio (and -ior), induo, exuo, and intercludo, are construed both alicui rem and aliquem re, that is, they take either the dative of the person with the accusative of the thing, or the accusative of the person with the ablative of the thing ; as, 41 1 present you this picture.” Hosti commeatu?n (or hostem commea.tu ) inter cluser at d Carnem sale (or carni salem) aspergimus. Archiam poetam Tarentini civitate dona- runt. Orationi aspergantur sales. Note 1.— Interdicere, “ to' forbid,” or “ debar from,” is generally construed alicui ?v,and sometimes also, alicui rem. E. g., Ariovistus omni Gallia interdixit Romanis. Male rem gerentibus bonis paternis interdict solet. Plancum sic contemnit lament am si illi aqua et igni interdictum sit. Note 2.— Such expressions as galeam indutus, chlamydem lacerto circumdatus , fer- vum cinctus, and the like, are Greek imitations, met with in poetry. Consulo tibi—Consulo te. § 168.—8. The following verbs take at one time the dative; at another, another case, but in a different signification: J ) intercepted or vRi off.—We also find intercludere aliquem ab aliqua re, e. g., ali¬ quem ab exercitu. 3 54 VERBS GOVERNING THE DATIVE. JEquare aliquid alicui rei or cum aliqua re, e. g., Rannibali PJiilippum, to equalize, to compare witli,— urbem solo, to level or to raze to the ground; aliquem or aliquid, e. g., majores, mo jorum, gloriam, cursum equorum, to equal, attain to; aliquem\ aliqua re, e. g., majores gloria, equitem cursu, to keep up with come up to. Cavere alicui, to provide for, watch over; aliquem or ab aliquo, to avoid, "beware of, guard against; absoh, or with sibi, to he on one’s guard. Considere alicui, to take care of, provide for one’s interests ; aliquem aliquid or de aliqua re, to consult, ask one’s advice; cequi boni or cequi bonique con- sulere (facere), and boni consulere, to take in good part. Convenire aliquem, to visit some one ; conzenit mild, etc., it suits me ; convenit alicui cum aliquo or inter aliquos, e. g., mild tecum, or inter nos convenit , we agree; convenit inter omnes, all agree. Cupere alicui, to favor, wish well to ; aliquid, to wish something. Deficere alicui (very rare), to fail, be wanting; —usually deficere aliquem, as me vox, vires deficiunt, or absoh, vox, tempus, memoria deficit; sol, luna deficit, is eclipsed ; ab aliquo, to forsake, fall off from, revolt against, e. g., a Romanis, a virtute; ab aliquo ad aliquem, to desert to; deficere animo, to "be disheartened, lose courage. lmponere alicui, to cheat, to impose upon; alicui aliquid, to lay something upon some one. Incumbere rei, to lean upon; ad or in rem, e. g., in rempublicam, ad litteras, to apply or devote one’s self to. Manet mihi, it remains for me; manet me, it awaits me, as mors sua quemque manet; manere in sententia, to adhere to. Moderari rei, to check, restrain; rem, to manage, regulate, govern. Petere alicui aliquid, to beg something for another; aliquid ab aliquo, to ask some one for something, or something of some one ; aliquem, to attack, aim at; locum, e. g., Romam, urbem, castra, to go to. Prospicere (providere) alicui, to take care of, provide for; aliquid, to foresee. Queer ere alicui aliquid, e. g., sibi laudem, to seek to gain; aliquem or aliqidd, to seek, look for; ex (ab, de) aliquo aliquid , to question some one about something, e. g., ex me qucesitum est, I was asked; de aliqua re, to inquire into j uridically. Recipere aliquid, to receive something; alicui, to warrant, promise; aliquem domo, tectis, to entertain; in se, to pledge one’s word; se, animum a (ex) pavore, to recover from, collect one’s self; se, or se in locum, e. g., domum, to retreat, return. Ref 'erre alicui aliquid, to bring or carry back; gratiam, to return thanks ; se Romam, return to; pedem, to retreat; rem or de re ad senatum, to lay before. Temperare rei, to check, restrain; sibi ab aliqua re, to abstain from; rem, to manage, regulate; alicui, e. g., hostibus, to refrain from severity towards to spare. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE. 155 Timer e ( metuere ) rei or de re, alicui or de aliquo, to fear for something or for some one ; tibi or tua causa, I am alarmed on thy account; aliquem or aliquid, to fear some one or something; aliquid ab aliquo, to fear some¬ thing from some one. Vacare rei, to devote one’s self to; re or a re, to he free from, to be without. Note.—T he following verbs take, in the same signification, sometimes the dative, and sometimes another case, with or without a preposition : Acquiescere rei, re , and in re, to find pleasure in something. Adscribere aliquem ciritati and in civitatom, to receive some one as a citizen. Assuescere, insuescere rei and (more commonly) re, rarely ad aliquid , to accustom one’s self to. Attendere aliquem or aliquid, more rarely alicui rei ; also attendere animum ad ali¬ quid, to listen to. Desqoerare ran, e. g., rempublicam, to give up; de re or. alicui rei, e. g., sibi,fortunis Buis, to despair of. Txcellere alicui (rarely aliquem) and inter omnes , to excel. Mittere , scribere alicui and ad aliquem, to send, write (to) some one. Occumbere morte and (more commonly) mortem, to fall, to die. Supersedere alicui rei and (more commonly) aliqua re, to omit, desist from. Quid mihi Celsus a git ? § 169.—9. The datives mihi, tibi, sibi, nobis, and vobis, are often used, where the English language has no equivalent expression. They are for the most part redundant, and serve merely for the purpose of indicating familiarity and liveliness of feeling; as, “ What is my friend Celsus doing ?” Quid ait tandem nobis Sannio ? Hie mihi quisquam misericordiam nomine11 1 Epistolam cum a te avide expectarem, ccce tibi nuncius , pueros venisse Roma,. An ille mihi liber,* 'cui m ulie r i inper at ? Quid hoc sibi vult ? 3 Quid hcec sibi dona volunt ?* VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE. Am a Deum. § 170.—1. The accusative stands with all transitive verbs in answer to the question whom or what ? placed after the verb; as, “ Love (love whom ?—) God.” l ) Let here any one talk to me of mercy. 2 ) Or can I think him free-? s ) Wha; does this mean ? <) What is the meaning of.... ? 156 VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE. Oleum et operam perdidi , surdo cecini , lapidem coxi. Obsequium cvnicos , veritas odium parit. Maximum ornamentum amicitice tollit , qui ex ea tollit verecundiam. Fragile corpus animus sempiternus movet. Hcec studia adolescentiam alunt , senectutem oblectant , secundas res ornant , adversis perfugium ac solatium prcebent. Note 1. —Transitive verbs compounded with trans , take two accusatives ; on© depending on the verb, the other upon the preposition. In the passive construction, the former becomes the nominative, the latter remains unchanged.—E. g., “Agesilaus led his forces across the Hellespont Agesilaus copias Hellespontum trajecit. Vbii orabant ut Ccesar exercitum Rhenum transportaret.—Ab Agesilao copiaz Hellespontum trajectce sunt. Pelgaz Rhenum traducti sunt. Thus, Scipio mm classe Pyrenozos monies circumveetus est. Note 2,—Ivfany verbs, which are properly intransitive, are often used as transi¬ tives, and accordingly take an accusative, especially that of a neuter adjective oi adjective pronoun. E. g., Hoc gandeo or lector, I rejoice at this ; illud tibi assentior , 1 agree with you in this point; non possum idem gloriari , I cannot make the same boast; illud non dubito , I do not doubt that; omnes hoc unum student , all are anxious about this one thing; idem (multa alia) peccasti, you have made the same blunder.— Olere vinum , to smell of wine ; redolere antiquitatem , to savor of antiquity ; vox sonat hominem , the voice sounds like that of a man ; anhelwre scelus, crudelitatem , to be panting for, to breathe out; gemere , lugere , lacrimare casum , to grieve at, or mourn over; fastidire preces, mores alienjus, to be disgusted with; festinare mortem , to accelerate; horrere tenebras , crimen ingrati animi , to shudder, be horr-ified at;— indignari vicem suam , erubescere fratres, currere stadium , navigare mare , tertiam vivere aztatem , etc. Note 3.—Several intransitive verbs implying motion, become transitive, when compounded with prepositions governing the accusative, especially with circum, per , preeter , trans , and super , and accordingly take an accusative ; as, transnatare fiumen ; circumvenire hostem ; adire regem , provinciam ; sulbire jugum ; obire mortem ; inire foedus , proelium.—Ea fama forum et urbem pervasit. Nos undigue fata circumstant. Tanais Europam et Asiam mediae interfluit. Note 4.— Some intransitive verbs take an accusative of kindred signification, but mostly in connection with an adjective or adjective pronoun ; as, pugnam pugnan acerrimam / somnium mirum somniare; servire servitutem turqnssimam / jusjurandum jurare verissimum ; vitam vivere miserrimam ; suum gaudium gaudere ; hanc pugnam pugnare; haze vota vovere , etc. Note 5.—Here should also be noticed the verb appellere , “to land” (properly “ to drive towards”). This verb is in the classical prose thus construed: Apellimvs or navem appellimus , “we land.” Pass., Apellimur or nave appellimur e. g. ad Africam , ad Italian , ad Delum , ad Syracusas (more rarely in Africam , etc.). We find also Navis appellitur and ventus ( nauta) navem 'appellit .—Later writers sometimes use appellen instead of appelli with the simple accusative; as, Puteolos nave appulit. Triremix terram appulit. Alexandrina navis Dertosam appulit. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE. 157 Urbem Romani vocat. § 111.—2. Verbs that take in the Passive two nominatives (§ 154), take in the Active two accusatives, one of the object, the other of the predicate,—the former answering to the question whom or what , the latter to the question what placed after the verb; as, “He called the city Rome.”—Such verbs are those signifying “ to call or name,” as dico , nomino , voco , appello, nuncupo , saluto ’ “ to choose or make,” as creo, deligo, designo , renuntio, declaro, constituo, facio, reddo ; “to deem or reckon,” as credo, haheo, judico, arhitror , timo, numero , agnosco , reperio, invenio. Omnes perturbationes animi morbos philosophi appellamt. Ciceronem universus populus Consulem declaravit. Socrates totius mundi se inc.o- lam et civem arbitrabaturS Senatus Antonium hostem judicavit .’ Vehementer errant qui corporis voluptatem summum bonum existimant. Gupiditas et avaritia homines ccecos reddit. Note 1.—The verbs habere, ducere, and putare, are sometimes followed by pro with the ablative, or by loco, (in) numero with the genitive ; as, Quid stultius quam incerta pro certis habere ? Pollionem vetustissimorum familiarium loco habuit .—Thus aliquid pro nihilo putare, aliquem in hostium numero habere, etc. Note 2.—To this rule also belong (a) the verbs hdbeo, accipio , sumo, adjungo , do, tribuo, addo, and accio , in the sense of “ to have,” “to summon,” “ to take or give some one as .... (b) the expressions seprcestare, seprcebere, to prove or show one’s self as ; and (c) the phrase certiorem aliquem facere de aliqua re or alioujus rei, “ to inform some one of_”—E. g., “I shall accompany you Me tibi comitem adjuvgam. Tiberius Druso Sejanum dedit adjutorem. Philippus Aristoielem Alexandro jilio doc¬ tor em accivit.—Bene de me meritis gratum me proebeo. Antistius seprcestitil acerrimum propugnatorem libertatis. Tu me de tuis rebus velim quam familiarissime certiorem facias. Faciam te consilii nostri certiorem. Doceo pueros Crammaticam. g 172.—3. The verbs doceo and edoceo, I teach ; dedoceo, I unteach ; celo, I conceal from ; and those signifying to entreat, demand, and inquire, as oro, rogo, precor / posco , reposco, fiagito; interrogo , and per- ] ) Socrates thought (thought whom ?—) himself (thought himself what ?—) an inhabitant, etc. 2 ) The Senate declared (declared whom ?—) Antony (declared him. what ) an enemy. 15S VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE. coni or, take two accusatives, one of the person, the other of the thing; as, “ I teach the boys Grammar.” Ciceronem Minerva onines artes edocuit. Mon te celavi 'sermonem Ampii. Verves parenles pretiurn pro sepultura liberorum poscebat. Legati Pmnenscs ad Verrem adennt eumque simulacrum Cereris repos - cunt.—Me primum sententiam rogavit. Pusionem quondam Socrates apud Platonem interrogat qucedam geometrica. Note 1.—When these verbs are made passive, the acc. of the person becomes the nominative, but the accusative of the thing is retained ; as, Latinoe Legiones militiam Romanam edoctce snnt. Id ego diu celabar. Primus sententiam rogatus sum. Segetes alimentaque debita dives poscebatur humus. Note 2.—With celare and the verbs of entertaining, demanding, and in¬ quiring, the accusative of the thing is most common, when it is expressed by the neuter of an adjective or adjective pronoun. E. g., “ What do you ask me for ?” Quid me rogas ?—Hoe te vehementer rogo. Nihil aliud vos oro atque obsecro. Ilis (or ad hcec) quce te interrogo responds, llcec te celare nolui. Note 3.—The verbs of demanding, instead of the accusative of the person, fre¬ quently take the ablative with ab. In the passive construction the accusative of the thing is then changed into the nominative.—E. g., Quid studia , quid artes a teflagitent, tu videbis. A me annona jlagitabatur. Nunc a te illud primum rogabo , ne quid invitus mea causa 'facias. Quce deprecatus sum a diis immortalibus ut ea res mihi Populoque Romano bene atque feliciter eveniret , eadem precor ab iisdem diis immortalibus, ut vestrce mentes atque sentential cum Populi Romani voluntate svjfragiisque conscntiant. The ablative of the person with ab stands regularly with peto, exigo, and postulo • as, Athenienses auxilium a Lacedcemoniis petierunt. Quo fcicilius id a te exigam, quod (a te) peto , nihil tibi a me postulanti recusabo. Note 4.—The verbs of inquiring, instead of the accusative of the thing, often take the ablative with de. This is not rarely the case, also, with celo , especially in the Passive.—E. g., Visne ego te vicissim iisdem de rebus Latine interrogem ? Ego ilium de sue regno, ille me de nostra republica percontatus est.—De insidiis celare te nolui. Maximis de rebus afratre celatus sum. Non est profecto de illo veneno celata mater. The verbs qucero and sciscitor , and occasionally also percenter, are construed all- quid ex (ab, de) aliquo ; as, “ Atticus was asked his opinion Sententiam ex Attico sciscitabantur (§ 92). Dion a medicis queasivit quomodo se haberet Dionysius. Qvcesi- vit de Zen one quid f uturum esset. Non qucero abs te quare patrem Sex. Roscius occiderit. Note 5.— Doceo , in the sense of “ to inform,” takes the ablative of the thing with de; as, Sulla de his rebus docetur. De itinere hostium senatum edocet. In the phrases aliquem docere Jidibus, tibiis, armis , supply can'ere and uti respco tively ; as, Docebantur (or discebant) fidibus antiqui , i. e.,fidibus canere. Music a me juvat. § H3.— : 4. The impersonals decet, it becomes; dedccet , it does not become ; j izat, ddectat , it pleases, delights ; fugit , fallit, preeterit , it VERBS GOVERNING THE ABLATIVE. 159 escapes (§ 12), take the accusative of the person whom any thing becomes, delights, escapes,—and the nominative of the thing which becomes, delights, or escapes ; as, “ I delight in music,” or “ Music delights me.” Modestia pueros decet , garrulitas dedecet. Parvuin parva decent. Candida pax homines , trux decet ira /eras. Multum ista me sapiential fama clelectat. Hominem amentem hoc fugit. Qais sst quern nulla res fugiat ? Note 1.—The nominative of the thing is often a verb in the Infinitive, an Acc. otione opus est. Exempla permulta nobis opus sunt, fffon opus est tibi amico , de cujus benevolentia dubites. Ubi rerum tes- timonia adsunt, quid opus est verbis? Atticus quee amicis suis opus fuerant , omnia ex sua re familiari dedit. Note 1.—Whenever the thing needed is put in the ablative, opus est is construed impersonally; but when it is put in the nominative, the verb sum is to agree with it accordingly; as, Mihi libris opus est or mihi libri opus sunt. Quid tibi divitiis opus est, or quid tibi divitiat, opus sunt ? Dux or duce adolescentibus opus est. The nominative of the thing is most frequently used with the neuters of adjectives and adjective pronouns. Note 2.—When the thing needed is expressed by a verb, either the Infinitive the Acc. c. Inf., or ut with the Subj., or the Supine in u, or the ablative of the Perf. 1G0 VERBS GOVERNING THE ABLATIVE. Part, may be used. E. g., Nihil opus est pluribus verbis commemorart. Nunc opus est te animo valere , ut corpore possis. Nunc tibi opus est cuprum ut simules. Quoad scitu opus est. Opus fuit Hirtio conventoP Facto, non consulto , in tali periculo opus est. Abundat divitiis. § 1*75.— 2. The verbs of abounding, wanting , and depriving , such as abundo , redundo, affiuo, scateo ; careo , egeo , indigeo ; orbo, privo , spolio, nudo, fraudo, etc. govern the ablative of the thing, in which one abounds, which one wants, of which one is deprived ; as, “ He abounds in ^iches. ,, Antiochia quondam eruditissimis hominibus affluebat. Quid consiHi offer re potest , qui ipse eget consilio ? Quam paucis, qua parvis rebus eget natura! Miserum est carere consuetudine arnicorum. Respublica multis claris viris est orbata. Democritus oculis se privasse dicitur. Arbores nudantur foliis. Grave est spoliari fortunis. Milites mercede fraudati sunt. Note 1 .—Fgeo is sometimes, an indigeo often, construed with, the genitive; as, Gravitas morbi facit ut medicines, egeamus. Deus nullius rei incliget .—Also with com- pleo and impleo the genitive is sometimes found instead of the ablative.—E. g., Convivium vicinorum quotidie compleo ;—career jam mercatorum completes,—ollam denariorum implere. Note 2.— Pluit , <£ it rains,” is frequently construed with such ablatives as lapidibus , lapide , lade , came , terra , sanguine; e. g., Nuntiatum regi patribusque est , in monte Albano lapidibus pluisse. —But the accusative is found also; as, Sanguinem pluisse Senatui nuntiatum est. Hoc me libera metu. § 116.—3. The verbs of freeing and removing; keeping off \ prevent¬ ing , and desisting , as laxo , libero , solvo , expedio ; moveo , amoveo, demoveo, pello , depello , expello , deturbo , dejicio , ejicio ; arceo, absterreo , deterreo, prohibeo , abslineo, decedo , desisto , etc.—govern the ablative of the thing from which one is freed, removed, or prevented,—either with or without the prepositions e?#, : but when separation from a person is expressed, the preposition ab is regularly used. E. g., u Eree me from this fear.” Te a quartana liberatum gaudeo. Timoleon Dionysium iota Sicilia depulit. Amicitia nullo loco excluditur. Hannibal ex Africa deccdcre coactus est. Helvetii suis sedibus pulsi sunt. Ilostem aditu arcent. J ) to visit, or to speak to. VERBS GOVERNING THE ABLATIVE. 101 Tu, Jupiter, liunc a tuis arts, a vita fortunisque civium arcebis. Fab a Pytkagorcei abstinuerunt. Egredere ex urbe, Catilina, libera rempubli- cam metu. ' Note 1.— Levare, exonerare, and exsolvere , “to free,” and supersedere, “to abstain from,” “ to omit,” take the ablative without preposition ; as, Leva me hoc onere . Caesar prcdio supersedere statuit. Abdicare, “ to resign,” takes either the accusative alone, or the ablative witli the accusative of a personal pronoun ; as, Magistratum (dictaturam , etc.) abdicavit , or Magistrate, (didatura , etc.) 56 abdicavit . Abdico prceturam, or me prcetura. Note 2.—The verbs signifying “to differ” and “to distinguish,” as discerno , secerno , distinguo , differo , discrepo , dissentio , dissideo , cafeto, abhorreo , and also alieno and abalieno , are generally construed with aZ>; as, opinione Pompeius valde abhorruit. The verbs of differing are construed, also, with the dative, though more rarely in prose than in poetry, as s/.&i singuli discrepabant. —With dissentio, dissideo, discrepo , and especially discordo, the ablative with cum is also found. Note 3.—The verbs egredi and excedere , in the sense of “to transgress,” are con¬ strued with the accusative, as excedere modum, fines, etc. Fungor officio. § 111. — 4. The ablative stands with the deponent verbs wfor, fruor, fungor (and their compounds) ; potior, dignor, vescor ; lector , glorior , m'for ; as, “ I discharge my duty.” utor, 3. to potior, 4. to get, obtain , Isetor, 1. to rejoice at, fruor, 3. to enjoy, dignor, 1. to deem worthy, glorior, 1. to 0 /) fungor, 3. to discharge, vescor, 3. to eat, feed on, nitor, 3. to rely upon. Quousque tandem, Catilina , abutere patientia nostra ? Hannibal multis variisque perfunctus laboribus anno acquievit septua.gesimo. Semiramis regno Assyriorum potita est. Numidce lade et ferina came vescebantur. Nulla re turn Icetari soleo quam meorum ojfciorum con- scientia. Tuo consilio et auctoritate nitor. Note 1.— TJtor is often used in the sense of “ to have,” especially when the ablative is accompanied by a noun or an adjective ; as, “ Se8 what an equitable man you will have (find) in me Hie vide quam me sis usurus cequo. Libertas non in eo est ut justo utamur domino , sed ut nullo. Alexander Aristotele usus est prceceptore. Potior is sometimes construed with the genitive, especially the genitive rerum, when it means “ to obtain supreme power.” E. g., Dion totius ejus partis Sicilice potitus est, quee sub Dionysii potentate fuerat. Nemini in opinio nem veniebat, Antonium rerum potiturum. Dignor is used both actively and passively, as dignari aliquem honore and u 162 VERBS GOVERNING THE ABLATIVE. ab aliquo honore, “to deem, or to be deemed worthy of honor.”—Cicero uses it mostly in a passive sense. Glorior and lector are sometimes construed with de, or the accusative of a neuter pronoun (§ 170, 2); as, Lent or de tuo triumpho. Quis de vita misera potest gloriari? Eqiddem idem gloriari posse vellem. TJtrumque Icetor .— Gloriari , “ to glory in,” takes the ablative with in, as In virtute recte gloriamur. Niior takes sometimes the ablative with in; as. In vita Pompeii nitebatur salus civitatis .—In the sense of “to strive after,” it takes the accusative with in or ad; as, Nitimur in vetitum semper cupimusque negata. Optimi cujusque animus maxima ad immortalitatem glorice nititur. Note 2. — To these deponents may also be added the verb metior , “ to measure, judge, estimate by ....as, Annum, soils reditu metimur. Homines queestu ac volup- tate omnia metiuntur (= judicant, ponderant). Fame laboro. § 118.—5. The ablative stands with the verbs ga.udeo, doleo — valech, laboro — fido, con/ido — sto, consto — vivo, floreo, and officio ; as, “I suffer from hunger.” Javenis gaudet equis. 1 Duobus vitiis diversis, avaritid et luxuria, civitas laborat. Britarmi lade et came vivuntd Pericles florebat omni genere virtutis. Conditionibus stare oportet. Plurimum inter eos Bello- vdei et virtute et audoritate et hominum numero valent. 3 Delicto dolere , corredione gaudere 4 nos oportet. Dolere, “to grieve foras, laude aliena, injuriis civitatis, clade accepta .—We also find dolere de {ex) aliqua re .—In the sense of “to lament,” “to deplore,” it takes the accusative, as dolere xicem, casum, injurias, mortem alicujus .—When used in the sense of “to pain,” we say: dens, caput, pes {mild) dolet; dentes, oculi, latera dolent, “I have the tooth-ache,” etc. Valere, “to be strong,” “to have influence,” “to prevail;” as, corpora, pedi- bus, stornaclio, — gratia, opibus, armis, audoritate. Laborare, “ to suffer from,” “ to labor under;” as, morbo, crudelitate domes- tica, odio apud hostes (to be hated), contemptu inter socios ,—and frequently ex aliqua re, as ex pedibus, ex intestinis, ex renibus, ex cere alieno, 5 ex invidia,— also, a re frumentaria, “to be in difficulty about supplies.” Eidere and confidere, “ to trust, confide in,” as alicujus prudentia et consilio, corporis firmitate, natura loci, and the like.—They are also construed with the dative, especially the dative of the thing, more rarely that of the person.-- Biffido always takes the dative. Stare, “to adhere or stand to,” “to keep,” “to persist in,” as promissis, x ) delights in. 3 ) live upon. s ) aro foremost in. *) to rejoice at. 6 ) to be deep in debt. USE OF THE TENSES. 163 foidere, jurejurando, judicio suo, opinione or decreto alicujus; also, in fide .— Stat mihi sententia means “ I am determined.” Gonstare, “ to consist of;” as, tota oratio longioribus membris,brevioribus peri- odis constat; —but it more commonly takes the ablative with ex, as homo ex animo constat et cor pore. Florere, “ to be eminent, renowned, distinguishedas, rerum gestarum gloria, lepore dicendi, ingenii laude, justitice famd, nobilitate discipulorum .—• Florere gratia means “ to be liked.” Afiicere, “ to affect some one with something,” is construed aliquem aliqua re as, afiicere aliquem laude, to praise some one; honore, to honor; gaudio, to gladden; beneficio , to benefit; voluptate, to delight; prcemio, to reward'; poena, to punish; injuria, to injure ; ignominia, to disgrace; dolore, to grieve; exilio, to banish ; cruciatibus, to torment; morte, to kill; sepidtura, to bury;— and passively, ajfici morbo, to fall sick; voluptate, Icetitia, to be delighted; laude, to be praised; admiratione, to be admired, etc. E. g., Stadium tuum curaque de salute mea nova me voluptate affecit. Quid dbsurdius quam res deformes divino honore afiicere?—Gravi oculorum morbo Hannibal afiectus est. Admiratione afificiuntur ii qui anteeunt ceteros virtute. II. Tenses of Yerbs. § 119.—The tenses are divided into principal and historical tenses. Principal: Pres, ago, I do, Perf. egi, I have done, Fut. agam, I shall do. Historical: Impf. agebam, I was doing, Perf. egi, I did, Plop, egeram, I had done. Present and Imperfect. § 180.—The Present represents an action as going on at the time present to the speaker; as, “I am writing,” Scribo .— Omne animal se ipsum diligit. HEgyptum Nilus irrigat. Plato aliter hac de re jwdicai (i. e., in his works). Note 1 . —With jam diu, jam pridem, jam dudum , an action that has been going on for some time and is still going on, is often expressed by the Present, where in English the Perfect is used ; as, “ During so many years I have already been waging war;” Tot jam annos bella gero. Annum jam audis Gratippum. Cupio equidem etjam pridem cupio (and I have long been desiring) Alexandriam reliquarnque SEgyptum vise-re. Note 2. —In rnimated narrative, the Present is often used instead of the Perfect, to represent a past action or event as present. It is then called the historical Present. E. g., Pisidas resistentes Datames invadit , primo impetu pell it , fvgientes persequitur , mulios interficit, castra hostium capit. Ccesar Dumnorigem ad se vocat, 164 USE OF THE TENSES. fratrem adhibet; qvce in eo reprehended , ostendit; qvce ipse intelligat , quee civitas queratur, proponit; monet ut in reliquum tempus omnes suspiciones mtet; pnzterila se condonare dicit , etc. § 181 .—The Imperfect represents a past action or event as continu¬ ing* and contemporary with some other past action (or time), either expressed or to be supplied by the mind. E. g., “ Whilst thou wast playing, I was writing Dum tu ludebas. ego scribebam. Quum scribebam in expectatione erant omnia. Principio rerum imperium penes reges erat. 1 Note 1. —The Im perfect is used, also, to express repeated andcustomary actions; as, An seres Romce publice alebantur in Capitolio. Socrates dicelat or dicere solebat , a Pan- sanias apparatu regio utebatur , epulabatur luxuriose , superbe respondebat , et crudeliter imperabat. Verves simul atque in oppidum quodpiam venerat , immittebantur homines , qui investigabant et perscrutabantur omnia. Note 2.— The Imperfect is invariably used, where in English the compound tense “I was reading,” “ he was playing,” “ they were singing,” etc., is employed; e. g., “ I was accidentally going along the via sacra ^ Ibam forte via sacra .—Sometimes it denotes merely the beginning of an action,—an action intended or attempted, but not carried into full effect. It is then almost equivalent to the past of the active peri¬ phrastic conjugation. E. g., “ Porscna attempted to frighten him;” Porsena eum terrebat. Rum dubitas id me imperantefacere quod jam tva sponte faciebas (or fadurvs eras) ? Piso abire se et cedere urbe testabatur et simul curiam relinquebat (i. e., relinquere tentabat). Note 3.— In the epistolary style, the Imperfect is frequently employed instead of the Present, when the writer speaks ©f actions and events which, though present at the time he writes, are past at the moment the letter is received. He, therefore, in writing, uses the same terms he would employ if he were to arrive himself in place of the letter. E. g., “ This is already the 7th day that we are detained in Corfu Jam septimum diem Corcyrce tenebamur. —“I write you this at midnight;” Hcec ad te scribebam media node. Plabc-s totum reipublicce statum , qui qvidem turn erat cum has litteras dabam. Summa cura expedabam adventum Menandri. quern ad te miseram. Nihil habebam quod soriberem : neque enirn novi quidquam audieram et ad tuas omnes rescripseram pridie. In translating such passages, the Latin Imperfect must be rendered by the English Present, and the Latin Pluperfect by the English Perfect. “ To-day,” in the epistolary style, is often expressed by eo ipso die cum hcec scribe¬ bam ;—“yesterday,” by pridie ejus diei quo hcec scribebam ;—and “to-morrow,” by postridie ejus diei qui erat turn futures cum hcec scribebam. Perfect and Pluperfect. § 182 .—The Perfect Indicative is used both as a principal and an historical tense. J) The time referred to is implied in principio. a ) the Perfect solitus est would represent the habit as a merely historical fact. USE OF THE TENSES. 165 As a principal tense, the Perfect Ind. corresponds to the English Perfect with “have,” and represents an action or event as just com¬ pleted at the present time, or existing to the present in its results. E. g., “He is gone, he has left, he has escaped, he has rushed out;” Abiit, excessit, evasit , erupit. As an historical tense, the Perfect Ind. corresponds to the Past English forms I came , I saw, I wrote, I went , etc., and represents a past action or event absolutely, without reference either to the present time, or to another past action; as, Hannibal Ilispaniam bello subegit. Alexander Baby lone decessit. Note 1.—The historical Perfect goes sometimes with the Imperfect: the former denoting a merely historical fact; the latter, a continuing, customary, or repeated action; as, “ Hortensius used to speak better than he wrot Qp Ilortensius dicebat melius quam serif sit. PEdui se in oppida receperunt murisque se tenebant. In Grcecia musici fioruerunt discebantque (used to learn) id omnes. Ita enim censebat , itaque disseruit (on a particular occasion). Note 2.—The conjunctions vbi , ut , ut primum, simul ac , postquam , and posteaquam, usually go with the Perfect, when two actions are spoken of as following each other in immediate succession. In English, the Pluperfect is then commonly used. E. g., Hannibal ubi Garthaginem rediit , Prcdor est fadus. Hostium exercitus postquam intrasse Romanos vidit saltum , repente cum clamore incautus invadit. —But, when a considerable or definite space of time intervenes, or when actions of repeated occur¬ rence are spoken of, the Pluperfect must be used ; as, Hannibal anno tertio postquam domo profugerat , in Africam venit. Alcibiades simul ac se remiserat , intemperans reperiebatur. Note 3.—The Latin Perfect sometimes implies the meaning of euro or jubeo , “ to order,” or “ to have;” as, Manlius securi jilium percussit (for percuti jussit or per- cutiendum curavit , “ he had him put to death”). Verres ad palum alligavit piratas ( u he had them tied to ....”). Cimon complures pauperes mortuos suo sumptu extulit (== efferri jussit or efferendos curavit). Note 4.—The Perfect (or Imperfect) Indie., both simple and periphrastic, is some¬ times used in hypothetical sentences, instead of the Plupf. Subj. (§ 189, 3), to denote what would have happened, had not some obstacle intervened; as, Deleri totus exercitus potuit (== potuisset ), si f ugientes persecuti vidores esseni. Vincebai (== vi- cisset) paucitas militum , ni Veiens exercitus in verticem collis evasisset. Hannibal nisifugae speciem abeundo timuisset, Galliam repetiturus.fuit or erat (= repetiisset ). § 183.—The Pluperfect represents a past action as completed before another past action; as, Pausanias eodem loco sepultus est, ubi vitam posuerat. Quum in Lyciam venissemus, naves onerarias dominis restituimus. Future and Fut.-Perfect. § 184.—The Future represents an action or event as future in rela¬ tion to the present time of the speaker; as, Dicam si potero Latins [. 166 USE OF THE TENSES. Rursus quum procul abesse nos credes , videbis in tnis castris. Si mik probabis ea quae dices, libenter cissentiard Note.— The English Present after if, when , as long as, or a relative,—is generally- translated by the Future, when the leading clause contains a future tense, an Impera¬ tive, or a Subjunctive used imperatively. E. g., “I shall do it, if I can;” Faciam si potero. —“ I shall be as you wish me to be JJt voles me esse , ita ero.—Naturam si tequemur ducem , nunquam aberrabimus. Qui adipisci veram gloriam volet, furgatur (■—, fungitor) justitiaz officiis. Dum erimus in t err is (as long as we are on earth) per- fecta felicitate nonfruemur. § 185.—The Future-Perfect represents a future action or event as completed at or before the time of some other future action or event; as, “ When I (shall have) come thither, I shall explain the matter to you Quum istuc venero , rem tibi exponam. Cum coenavero, profciscar. Quid si te rogavero, nonne respondebis ? Note 1.—As the English Present is sometimes translated by the Future, so is the English Present (Perfect or Future) translated by the Fut.-Perfect, when the action expressed by the verb of the subordinate clause is completed before the action relat¬ ing to it takes place; as, ‘‘When I come to home, I will write to you what I shall observe Roman cum venero, quce perspexero, scribam ad te. Tit sementem feceris (as you sow), ita metes. A one quum paullum otii nacti ei'imus, uberiores litteo-as expectato. Tit primum librum confecero (as soon as I have finished) ad vos xeniam.— Thus we say : si potuero, si volueods, siplacuerit, si otiuon habuero, etc. But, when a future event depends on some present circumstance or resolution, the Present is used after si, though in connection with a future tense ; e. g., Si vincimus, omnia nobis tuta patebunt. Perficietur belluon si non urgemus obsessos. —Thus, Fac si vis ; defende si potes, and the like. j ! Note 2. —The Future-Perfect is often used, in leading clauses, to denote the rapidity with which a future action will be completed, and to express with emphasis what otherwise would be expressed by the simple Future. E. g., “If you abandon me, I am lost;” Si me deseris, periero. Too invita senes, ego accivero pueros. Si pergis, abiero. Quae fuerit causa , max videro. Recte secusve, alias viderionvs. Non imprudenter feceris, si hoc a me celaods. Qvi Antonium oppresserit, bellum corfecerit. Tolle hanc conditionem (= si banc conditionem tollis), luctum sustuleris , 2 § 186.-—The Future Subjunctive, both in the Active and Passive Voices, has no form of its own. In the Active Yoice, the Future Subj. is generally supplied by the Participle in rus with sim or essem, according as a principal or an his¬ torical tense precedes. 0 The actions spoken of {probabis,- dices, assentiar) are contemplated as contem¬ porary in future time, and, therefore, expressed by the simple Future. 2 ) Do away with this condition, and you will have at once done away with our grief. USE OF THE TENSES. 167 In the Passive Yoice (and, if the verb wants the Supine, also in the Active) the Future Subj. must be expressed by the circumlocution futurum sit ( esset ) with the Pres, or Impf. Subj.; as, Non dubito quin frater tuns brevi rediturns sit; Non dubitabam quin frater tuus brevi rediturus esset. Non dubito quin futurum sit ut ab omnibus lauderis; Non dubitabam quin futurum esset ut ab omnibus laudareris. Non dubito quin futurum sit tu diiigentius discas ; Non dubitabam quin futurum esset ut diiigentius disceres. Note 1.—The Future Subj. Pass, should never be expressed by the Participle in dus with sim (essem ); because the Participle in dus combined with sum, esse , always conveys the idea of necessity, duty, or propriety,—never that of mere futurity. Note 2.—As the circumlocution futurum sit (esset) with the Present or Imperfect Subj. is of very rare occurrence in the Classical writers, and as the idea of futurity admits of so great a variety of expression, it is always advisable to arrange the sen¬ tence in such a manner as to avoid that circumlocution. Thus, for example, instead of saying: Non dubito quin futurum sit ut diiigentius discas , we may say : Haud dubie diiigentius in posterum disces, Spero fore ut in posterum diiigentius discas, Spero te in posterum fore diligentiorem, Non dubito quin diligentior posthac futurus sis, Spero te diligentiorem operam litteris daturum esse, Spero fore ut diiigentius in litterarum studia incumbas, etc. In like manner, instead of saying : Non dubitabam quin futurum esset ut ab omni¬ bus laudareris , we may say: Minimo dubitabam quin omnium laudem assecuturus esses, Persuasum mihi erat fore ut ab omnibus laudareris, Haud dubium mihi erat quin in ore omnium futurus esses, Certum habebam te ab omnibus laudatum iri, Nihil dubitabam quin omnes te laudaturi essent, Probe sciebam fore ut ab omnibus laude afficereris, etc. § 187.—The Future-Perfect Subj. has, like the simple Future Subj., no form of its own. The Fut.-Perfect Subjunctive, both Active and Passive, is generally supplied by the Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, especially when a future tense occurs in the same sentence.—When no future occurs, it is supplied either by the simple Perfect or Pluperf. Subj., or (more rarely) by the circumlocution futurum sit (esset) ut with the Perf. or Pluperf. Subj. — E. g., Liscus ait (aiebat) se non dubitare quin si Helvetios 168 USE OF THE TENSES. super arint (superassent) Romani , AEduis sint (essent) libertatem erep - turi. Thus, Act.: Oraculum can % (cecinit) eum qni ncdum Gordii solvent (solvisset) tota Asia regnzturum esse . Pass. : Oraculum canit (cecinit) eum a quo nodus Gordii solutus sit (esset) tota Asia regnaturum esse. Non dubito quin perendie hac ipsa hora frater tuns redierit. Non dubitabam quin postridie ea ipsa hora frater tuus rediisset. or , Fore arbitror ut perendie hac ipsa hora frater tuus redierit. Fore arbitrabar ut postridie ea ipsa hora frater tuus rediisset. (More rarely) Non dubito quin futurum sit ut eras hac ipsa hora frater redierit. Non dubitabam quin futurum esset ut postridie ea ipsa h. rediisset. jUggr* When the subordinate clause expresses what one would have done, or what would have been done, if some obstacle had not intervened, the Fut.-Perf. Subj. Active is supplied by the Participle in -rus with fuerim , and the Fut.-Perf. Subj. Passive by the Participle in - us , with essem. —E. g., Pollio Asinius non dubitat quin Caesar , si diutius vixisset , suos rescripturus et correc- turus commentarios fuerit ; or, by the Ace. c. Inf.: Pollio Asinius Caisarern existimat suos rescripturum et corredurum commentarios fuisse, si diutius vixisset. Non dubito quin si Saguntinis impigre Romani tulissent opem, totum in TTispaniam bellum aver sum esset! or, by the Acc. c. Inf.: Si Saguntinis impigre Romani tulissent opem, futurum fuisse arbitror , ut totum in Ilispaniam bellum averteretur. Or the Sequence of Tenses. § 188. —General rule : A principal tense must be followed by a principal tense, and an historical tense must be followed by an historical tense. Principal tenses: Pres. I ask Perf. I have asked Fut. I shall ask Os doing, j { has done, £ (will do. Qumo (agat, Quaisivi ’$ < egerit , Queer am ^ ( acturus sit. Historical tenses: Impf. I was asking ® ( did, was doing, Perf. I asked H - < had done, Plup. 1 had asked Is (would do. Queer ebam ( ageret , Quasivi ’§ •< egisset, Qucesiveram ^ (acturus esset. INDICATIVE MOOD. 169 Note 1 .— The historical Present is followed by the Imperf. and Plupf. as well as by the Present and Perfect; as, Caesar legatos mittit qui nuntiarent (or nuntient). Verves eos certicres facit quid opus esset (or sit). Argilius Pausanice aperit quid ex litter is comperissei (or comp ever if). Note 2.—The ut consecutive after an historical tense, is often (especially in Nepos) followed by the Perfect Subj., instead of the Imperfect; as, Adeo excellebat Aristides abstinentia ut unuspost hominum memoriam cognomine Justus sit appellatus. Factum est ut plus quam colleger Miltiades valuer it. Xerxes adeo angusto mari conjiixit ut ejus multitude navium explicari nonpotuerit. Note 3.—When a subordinate clause expresses a general truth or a result which extends to the present time of the speaker, its verb is put in the Present (or Perfect), whatever may be the tense of the preceding verb. E. g., Prajanus rempub- licam ita administravit ut omnibusprincipibus merito preferaturA Ardebat Hortensius cupiditate dicendi sic ut in nullo unquam jlagrantius studium viderim. Atticus fecit ut vere dictum videatur: Sui cuique moves fingunt fortunam. Antiocho pacem petenti ad priores conditiones nihil additum , Africano praedicante neque Romanis si vincantur animos minui, neque si vine ant) secundis rebus insolescere. Note 4. —The Imperfect Subjunctive is sometimes used where we might expect the Present. This is the case (a) after the English Perfect with “ have,” when the action expressed by the Perfect can be conceived in its progress and duration; as, “ I have for a long time doubted (conceived in its duration, •= I was doubting) if it would not be better;” Dm dubitavi an melius esset. Quoniam quae subsidia Tiaberes et habere posses , exposui, nunc de magnitudine petitionis dicam j (b) after Perfect Infinitives that depend on a preceding present or future tense, and are equivalent to the Perfect Indie, with “ have ;” as, “ I think to have said enough (= that I have said enough) why this war is necessary ..... ;” Satis mihi multa verba fecisse videor quare esset hoc bellum genere ipso necessarium , magnitudine periculosum. Free dare mihi videris posuisse ante oculos quid dicere oporteret eum qui orator esset futurus. —The Present Subj., in such instances, would indeed not be incorrect; but it would be contrary to the usage of the best writers. III. Moods of Yerbs. INDICATIVE. § 189. — The Indicative represents an action or state as something real and certain,—as a fact; e. g. ; Deus est ceternus. Virtus est sum- mum bonum. i) The Present preferatur means that Trajan was preferred to all other rulers up to the time of the writer, whereas the Imperfect would mean that he was preferred only to his contemporaries. i) 2 ) Here the Imperfects vincerentur and vincerent would not be wrong, but the Presents vincantur and vincant more clearly show' that equanimity was one of the leading features of the Roman character, not only on the present occasion, but at all times and under all circumstances. I 170 INDICATIVE MOOD. The Indicative is sometimes used in Latin, where in English the potential mood is employed. This is the case: 1. With the expressions par, fas, cequum, justum, consentarieum, long urn, immensum, infinitum, satius, cequius, melius, utilius, etc, est or erat ,— when we wish to express that something would he (or have been) just, reasonable, easy, difficult, etc. The Imperfect of the English Potential is then generally rendered by the Present Indicative, and the English Pluperfect by the Imper¬ fect or Perfect Indicative. E. g., “It would lead too far.... Longum est ennmerare omnia prcelia.~ (i There would be no end. ... Infinitum est ad omnia respondere.— ( ‘ How easy would it have been for me... . Quam facile mihi erat, orbis imperium occupare Romanis militibus. Longe utilius fuit angustias aditus vaUdo occupare prcesidio . Erat infinitum bene de me meritos omnes numerare. 2. With the verbs possum, licet, convenit, oportet, debeo, and necesse est, when it is intimated that something might, could, or should have taken place. The Imperfect Indie, of these verbs is used when we wish to express that some¬ thing ought to have been done and that the time for doing it is not yet passed,-—that it may still be done: the Perfect Ind., when we wish to express, that something should have been done, but that the time for doing it is already passed. E. g., “You ought to have been put to death long ago Ad mortem te duci jam pridem oportebat. Contumeliis eum onerasti, quern patris loco colere debebas. Deleri totus exercitus potuit, si fugientes persecuti victores essent. Volumnia debuit in te ojficiosior esse, et id ipsum, quod fecit, potuit facere dili- gentius. Aut non suscipi bellum oportuit, aut geri pro dignitate Populi Romani. — Thus in the Periphrastic conjugation : Quodsi On. Pompeius prim - tus esset hoc tempore, tamen erat mittendus. 1 Qui si hoc tempore non diem suum obiisset, paucis post annis tamen ei moriendum fuit. 3. In the conclusion of hypothetical sentences when we wish to express what would have happened, had not some obstacle intervened. E. g., Perieram (— periissem), nisi accurrisses. Labebar (= lapsus essem) longius, nisi me retinuisses. Mazceus si iranseuntibus flumen Macedonibus supervenisset, hand dubie oppressurus fuit (— oppressisset) incompositos. Populus Romanus, Caesar e et Pompeio trucidatis, in statum pristince libertatis redierat, nisi aut Pompeius liberos , aut Caesar hceredem reliquisset. 4. After relative pronouns and adverbs that are either doubled or have the suffix -cunque, as quisquis, quotquot, utut, ubiubi, quicunque, qualiscunque, quan- tuscunque, utcunque, and also after sire—sice. E. g., Quidquid id est (‘whatever it may be’) timeo Danaos et dona ferentes. Sapiens ubicunque est (‘ wherever he may be’) beatus est. Totum hoc leve est qualecunque est. Utcunque sese res habet, tua est culpa. Sice tacebis sive loquere, mihi perinde est. Sice rerum id est sive falsum (‘ be it true or false’), mihi quidem ita nuntiatum est .— 2gj§P In these and similar instances, however, later writers frequently use the In¬ dicative. *) he would have been the person to be sent. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 171 5. After the adverbs prope and pane, when we wish to express that an eyent was on the point of taking place; as, “I bad almost forgotten.... Prope oblitus sum quod maxime scrihendum erat. Prutum non minus amo quam tu : pome dixi, quam te. Pons Sublicius iter pane hostibus dedit, ni unus xir fuisset. Note. —The Present Indie, of possum stands frequently for possem ; as, Possum persequi mult a, sed ea ipsa qua dixi, sentio fuisse longiora. Possum sexcenta decreta proper re .—But also : Plurima quidem proferre possemus, sed modus adhibendus est. SUBJUNCTIVE. § 190.—The Subjunctive represents a state or action—not as a fact, but as a mere conception of the mind, as something possible, conditional, or doubtful. The English language commonly expresses the nature of the Latin Subjunctive by the auxiliaries may, can , shall, might, could , should, and would. —Thus, when I say, F'rater tuus , etsi doctissimus sit (‘though he may be’), multa tamen se nescire fatebitur ,—I represent your brother’s being learned, not as a fact, but as a mere possibility: but, when I say, Frater tuus, etsi doctissimus est (‘though he is’), multa tamen se nescire fatetur his being learned is represented as a fact—as a reality. Note.— When the English may, can, might, could , etc., are not used as auxiliaries, hut as principal verbs, they must be translated by licet, possum, nolo, debeo, or oportet , respectively. E. g., “You may go,” Tibi abire licet. —“ I might have gone,” Mihi abire licuit. —“ He could not have come sooner,” Aon potuit citius venire. “You ought to have done that,” Te oportuit hoc facere. —“It could not have been done better,” Melius fieri non potuit. The English Perfect Inf. after the forms might, could, and ought, is generally trans¬ lated by the Present Infin., unless an action is to be represented as completed at or before some specified time ; as, “ At that time it ought to have been already done,” Turn jam factum esse (te id fecisse) oportuit. SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. Feream si mention § 191.—The Subjunctive (especially the Subj. Present) is used in independent sentences, to express a modest assertion, a wish, a supposi¬ tion, a concession, a deliberative question, an exhortation, an assurance or protest; as, “ May I perish, if I lie.” Nemo sapiens Mud tibi concedat. * 1 Feras puterrd quibus ex raptu alimenta sunt , meliores quo iracundiores; sed patientiam laudaverim >) No wise man probably will concede. a ) I feel inclined to think—but I confess, I admire. 172 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. bourn et equorum .— Valeant cives mei, voleant, incolumes, y?o* rentes, sint beati , stei hccc pr cedar a. —aSW dicat 1 nunc aliquis. Rones’ 1 me quid sit Reus.—Rixerit Epicurus . 3 Sit scelestus, sit f ur ; at est bonus imperator .— Quis non timeat omnia providentem et animadver- tentem Reum ? Valerius quotidie cantabai: erat enim scenicus ; quid facered aliud ?—Imitemur nostros Brutos , Camillos, Curios, Fabri- cios y amemus patriam, pareamus senatui, consulamus bonis. N< te 1.—A modest assertion, or a deliberative question, is often expressed by the Subj. Perfect rather than the Present; as, “ Who would grant you this?” “Who would doubt?” “By your leave I would say,” etc., Quis tibi hoc concesserit? Quis dubitaverit ? Pace or venia tua dixerim. Baud facile concesserim , dixerim, crediderim. Forsitan aliquis dixerit. Crediderit forte quispiam. Hoc sine ulla dubitatione confir- maverim. Voluptati qui se dederit , vix earn virum dixerim. Libenter bis accesserim* qui .... etc. Note 2. —The English indefinite expressions “One (or, you) might have said, seen, thought,” are generally rendered by the Imperfect Subj. diceres , xideres , putares , etc.; as, Hostcs lentos modo , modo pavidos animadverteres. Pedites mcesti , crederes victos, in castra redeunt. Covfectoprcdio , turn vero cerneres , quanta audacia fuisset in exercitu Catilinos. Note 3. —A wish conceived as possible—which, we know, can or will be realized, is expressed by the Subj. Pres, or Perf.: but a wish conceived as impossible—which, we know, cannot or will not be realized, by the Subj. Imperf. or Pluperf. ; e. g., (Of things represented as possible.) Utinam veniat! Would that he may come ! Utinam venerit! Would that be may have come l (Of things represented as impossible.) Utinam veniret! Would to God he might come ! Utinam venisset! Would to God he had come ! Nolim id factum esse* Nollem id factum esse? Quam velim mihi ignoscat / Quam vellem mihi ignosceret! Utinam hoc verum sit/, Utinam hoc verum esset! Utinam ealuti nostraz consulere possimus! Vellem adesse posset Pancetius ! Utinam , Patres Conscripti , Calendis Sextilibus adessepotuissem ! § 192. — In forms of protestation and swearing, tlie formula ita [sic) with the Subjunctive (“as true as”) is followed by ut with the Indicative, J ) I suppose some one now to say. 2 ) Supposing you ask me. s ) Granting that E. could have said. 4 ) what could (should) he have done else? 6 ) I feel inclined to accede readily. B ) I could wish it not to have happened (= I hope it has not hap¬ pened). T ) I could wish it had not happened. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 173 when a simple assertion is made,—with the Subjunctive, when a wish is expressed. E. g., “As true as I live, I shudder....” Ita vivam ut toto corpora perhorresco. “As true as I wish to he happy, there is nothing....” Ita sim felix, ut nihil est prceclarius virtute .—“As true as I wish that God may help me, so truly do I wish you_” Ita me Deus adjuvet (or ita deos mild velira propitios) ut diutissime vivas. “ As true as I wish to see all my desires accom¬ plished, I should like....” Tecum esse, ita mild omnia quae opto contingant, ut vehementer velim. Sometimes ita with the Subjunctive is thrown in parenthetically without ut; as, Scape, ita me dii juvent, te auctorem consiliorum meorum desidero. Sollicitat, ita vivam, me tua, mi Tiro, valetudo. jj£gP A negative protest is always,—a negative wish or concession generally, expressed by ne; as, Ne sim salvvs (ne vivam), si aliter scribo ac sentio. TJtinam ne (more rarely non) iibi in mentem venisset. Ne cequaveritis Hannibaii Philippum, Pyrrho certe azquabitis. 1 Subjunctive after Particles. Tacet quasi nesciat. § 193.—The Subjunctive is used after the particles 0 si (poet.), utinam, would that! ut, even if, although ; ne, although not; quasi, tamquam, velut, ac si, velut si, tamquam si, perinde ( ceque, non secus) ac si, as if: licet, although; quamlibet, quantumvis, how much soever; rnoclo, dummodo, if but, provided that; m.odo ne, dummodo ne, dumne, provided that not; and after nedum , much less, still less^ when followed by a verb. E. g., “He is silent, as if he were ignorant.” Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas. Ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est. Quod turpe est, id quantumvis occultetur, tamen honestum nullo modo fieri potest. Quid ego his testibus utor, quasi res dubia aut obscura sit ? Multi omnia recta et honesta negligunt, dum¬ modo potentiam consequantur. Vix cum aspicit, nedum amet. QUAMQUAM AND QUAMVIS. § 194.— Quamquam, “ although,” “ however much,” is in the Classical prose regularly construed with the Indicative,—and quamvis , “ although,” “ how¬ ever much,” with the Subjunctive. Poets and later prose writers, however, construe quamquam generally with the Subjunctive, and quamvis with the Indicative .—Quamquam with the Subj. occurs even in some passages of Cicero. Quamvis, when taken adverbially, in the sense of “ howsoever,” has no influence upon the mood of the verb; as, “ I shall be content with ever so small a corner of Italy,” Quamvis parvis Italiae latebris contentus ero. Etsi, tametsi, and etiamsi, “ although,” take the Indie, when an action or a state is represented as a reality, as a fact,—and the Subj., when it is repre sented as merely possible. >) Granting that you cannot consider Ph. equal to IT., yet you will surely.... 174 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. ANTEQUAM AND PRIUSQUAM, § 195.—1. With antequam and priusquam the Present Indie, is used, when an action or event is represented as certain and near at hand; the Present Snhj., when an event is represented not as a fact, hut merely as one that may possibly occur—hence its special use in general, indefinite sentences in which it is stated, what usually happens or should happen, before a certain event takes place. E. g., Priusquam de ceteris respondeo, de amicitia pauca dicam. Dabc operam ut istuc veniam antequam plane ex animo tuo effluo. Si quemquam nactus eris qui perferat litteras , des antequam discedimus.—Priusquam incipias, consulto opus est. Tempestas minatur (‘ usually threatens’) antequam surgat ; crepant cedificia, antequam corruant. In omnibus negotiis, priusquam aggre- diare , adhibenda est prmparatio diligens. It must be remembered, however, that the Present Subj. is not unfrequently used even where things are represented as certain and near at hand; as, De quo priusquam scribanms (instead of scribimus ), lime prcecipienda videntur. Antequam de republica dicam (instead of dico), exponam breviter consilium prof ectionis mem. 2. In simple narration, antequam and priusquam are construed either with the Indie. Perfect, or the Subj. Imperf. and Pluperf.;—with the Indie. Perfect, when mere priority of one action or event before another is expressed (in this case ante and prius are commonly used emphatically), and with the Subj. Imperf. and Pluperf., when between the preceding and subsequent actions there is some closer connection than that of mere priority, when, for instance, one actiQn is declared to be necessary or proper to precede the other, or when a purpose or design is implied. E. g., Hmc omnia ante facta sunt quam Verres Itdliam attigit. 1 Non prius inde discessit quam totam insulam dexicit. 2 —Dies obrepsit hostibus priusquam agger cm extruxissent. Ducentis annis antequam Romam caperent, in Itdliam Galli transcenderunt. —In the following passage of Nepos the Subjunctive seems to be exceptionable: Hcec pugna facta est prius quam Aristides poena liberaretur. |jggp“ Here must also be mentioned the use of the Subjunctive with or without ut , after antequam , priusquam , citius quam , and potius quam , in the sense of “ sooner than,” or “rather than,” with the Infinitive; as, Cur non in prodio cecidisti potius quam (or quam ut) in potestatem inimici venires ? DUM, DO NEC, QUOAD. § 19G.—1. Dum , donee, and quoad, in the sense of “ as long as.” are com¬ monly construed wuth the Indicative {donee, in this sense, is found only in poetry and late prose); as, Cato quoad vixit, xirtutum laude crexit. Lace- deemoniorum gens fortis fuit dum Lycurgi leges xigebant. Donee eris felix multos numerabis amicos. ] ) 2 ) If, in these two sentences, ‘ Verres’s coming to Italy’ and ‘the conquest of the island’ were to be represented as events that had been intended, the Subjunc¬ tive would be necessary —priusquam attingeret or attigisset and priusquam devicisset. SUBJUNCTIVE MOO'D. 175 2 Dum , donee, and quoad, in the sense of “ until/’ take either the Indicative or Subjunctive:—the Indie, (mostly the Perf. Ind.), when an action or event is represented as a fact, and when they merely mark the time up to which the action or state denoted by the principal verb is to be continued, no purpose or design whatsoever being implied; the Subj. (mostly the Pres., Impf., and Plupf.), when an event is conceived as merely possible, or when an intention or purpose is implied. E. g., Milo adfuit quoad Senatus dismissus eat. Epmni- nondas ferrum in corpore retinuit quoad renuntiatum eat ricisse Bceotios (had the arrival of the victorious tidings been intended, the Subj. renuntiaretur or renuntiatum esset, would have been used).— Pulsabam dum ostium aperiretur (the opening of the door being intended). Iratis subtrahendi aunt ii, in quos impetum conantur facere, dum se ipsi colligant (the intention being implied that they may recover themselves). Note. — Donee , in the sense of “ until,” frequently occurs in Livy and the poets, but very rarely in Cicero and Caesar.—Tacitus uses it with the Subjunctive, even where t simple fact is expressed. Dum , in the sense of “ until,” takes in Cicero generally, in Caesar exclusively, tho Subjunctive.—In the sense of “ whilst” it is usually construed with the Indie. Present, even when the principal verb is a past tense. E. g., Dum haze geruntur, Cazsari nuntiatum est. Dum ea Romani par ant, jam Saguntum oppvgnabatur ;—but the Imperfect and Perfect are found also; as, Dum haze in Apulia gerebantur , Samnites urbem non tenuerunt, Quaz divina res dum conficiebatur , qinzsivit a me pater , etc. QUUM. §197.— Quum either denotes the cause, or expresses the time of an action. In the former case it is called quum causale; in the latter, quum temporale. 1. Quum causale, “ since,” “ as,” and when taken in the sense of quamvis, “though,” “although,” “wdiereas,” always takes the Subjunctive; as, Quce cum ita sint, quid est quod timeas ? Quum Athenas tamquam ad mercaturam bonarum artium sis profectus, inanem redire turpissimum est. Phocion fuit perpetuo pauper, quum ditissimus esse posset. 2. Quum temporale, “when,” generally takes the Subjunctive Impf. and Pluperf., and the Indicative of the remaining tenses; as, Antigonus quum adversus Seleucum pugnaret, in prcelio occisus est. Alexander cum interemisset Clitum, nix a se manus abstinuit.—Qui non propulsat injuriam a suis quum potest, injuste facit. Jam ver appetebat, 1 quum Hannibal ex hibernis movit. Ager quum multos annos quievit , 2 uberiores efferre fructus solet. Sapiens non ejulabit, quum doloribus torquebitur. Note 1.— Quum temporale takes the Indie. Impf. and Pluperf. in the following cases: (a) the Indie. Imperf., when simultaneous actions or events are expressed, the English “ when” being then equivalent to tvhile. In this case, interim or interea is usually added to quum. E. g., Ccedebatur virgis in medio foro Messanai eivis J ) The spring was drawing on. 2 ) when it has lain fallow. 176 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Roman,us quum interim nulla vox istius miseri inter dolorem crepitumque plagarvm audiebatur nisi hcec: Civis Romanus sum ;—(b) the Indie. Pluperf., when actions of repeated occurrence are spoken of. E. g., Verves quum (whenever) ad aliquod oppi- d/um venerat , lectica usque in cubiculum deferebatur. Quum ver esse coeperat, dabat se labori atque itineribus ;—(c) the Indie, both Imperf. and Pluperf., whenever quum describes time in a very marked manner, being then equivalent to turn quum or eo d tempore quum . E. g., Nuper quum te jam adventare arbitralamur, repente abs te in mensem Quintilium rejecti sumus. Credo turn quum Sicilia Jiorebat opibus et copiis , viagna artificia fuisse in ea insula. Note 2. — Quum sometimes takes both the Indie, and Subj. in the same sentence, • when in one clause it simply marks the time, while in another the passage assumes the character of an historical narrative. E. g., An turn eratis consules quum cunctus ordo reclamabat , quum _ cupere vos diceretis , etc. Note 3 .—Quum takes the Indicative, also, when it stands for ex eo tempore quo, “ since as, Multi anni sunt quum Fabius diligitur a me propter summam humanita- tem et observantiam. Fere triennium est quum virtuti nuntium remisisti. When quum stands for quod, after gaudeo , gratulor , etc. it takes the same mood which quod would take itself; as, “I congratulate you on your influence with Dolabella,” Gratulor quum tantum vales apud Dolabeilam. Gratias tibi ago quum tantum litterce, mere apud te potuerunt. Pr declare fads quum liorum virorum memoriam tenes (in retaining the recollection of ....). SUBJUNCTIVE IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. § 198.—There are four kinds of hypothetical,or conditional,sentences : m Si hoc dicis, erras. 1. Where both the condition and conclusion are considered as facts, and hence as certain. In this kind of conditional sentences the Indica¬ tive is used in both clauses. E. g., “ If you say this, you err.” ; Si hoc dixisti, errasti. Si hoc dices, errabis. Stomachabatur senex , si quid asperius dixeram. Si turbidas res sapienter ferebas (as you really did), tranquilliora Icete feres. Nisi quid me etesice morabuntur (as, I hope, will not be the case) celeriter vos videbo. Note.—I nstead of the Indicative, the Imperative, or the Subjunctive taken impera¬ tively, may stand in the conclusion; e. g., Si abire volunt , abeant. Si dormis , expergiscere ; si stas, ingredere; si ingreaeris , curve ; si curds, advola. Si hoc diceres, errares. 2. Where it is affirmed that something would take, or would have taken place under a certain condition,—but did not, because the condition was not fulfilled. Iu this kind of. conditional sentences, the Subj. Irnpf. or Pluperf. stands in both clauses. E. g., “ If you said this, you would err.” SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 177 Sic hoc dixisses, errasses . Si tu Me esses, aliter sentires. Plura scriberem, si possem. Si tacuisses, philosophies mansisses. Si cavere sibi potuisset, viveret. Si ita natura paratum esset ut ea dormienies agerent, quee somniarent, alliffandi omnes essent qui cubitum irent. Note. —The best writers sometimes use in conditional sentences the Imperfect where the Pluperfect should be employed; as. Mortals tarn religiosa jura majores nosti'i tribuerunt , quod non fecissent profecto, si nihil ad eos p er liner e arbitrarentur , instead of arbit 'rati essent. Nam tu igitur eum, si turn esses, temerarium civem aut crudelemputares ? instead of fuisses and putasses. Si hoc dicas, errabis. 3. Where the condition is represented as a mere supposition, the realization of which, however, is regarded as possible, and even expected. The clause with si ( nisi ) takes then the Subj. Present or Perfect; the conclusion, being represented as certain, the Indicative (commonly Future) or the Imperative. E. g., “If you say this (as maybe the case), you will err.” Si quid habeam, dabo. Si abire velinl (as possibly they may wish), abeant. Sapiens non dubitat, si ita melius sit, de vita migrare. Si hoc dicas, erres. 4. Where both the condition and the conclusion are represented as a mere supposition, without determining whether the thing supposed be real or not real, possible or impossible. In this case the Subj. Pres, or Perf. stands in both clauses. E. g., “ Jf you should say this, you would err.” Tu si hie sis, aliter sentias. 1 Tu si hie fueris, aliter senseris. Si tantum eum prudentem dicam, minus quam debeam, proedicem. Si roges me," 1 quid aut quale sit Pens, nihil fortasse respondeam. Si gladium quis 3 apud te Sana mente deposuerit, repetat insaniens: reddere peccatum sit, ojjicium non reddere. Note. —In animated or oratorical style, sometimes even the impossible is repre¬ sented as possible, and accordingly expressed by the Subj. Present; as, Hcec si p atria tecum, Catilina , loquatur , nonne impetrare debeat, etiamsi vim adhibere non possit t Si existat liodie ab inferis Lycurgus, gaudeat. *) If you were here (supposing, for a moment, you were here), you would think differently. 3 ) If you were now to ask me. s ) Supposing som® one.... 173 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. SUBJUNCTIVE IN RELATIVE SENTENCES. Dignus est qui diligatur. § 199.—The Subjunctive is used in relative sentences in the following cases : I. When the relative stands for ut with a personal or demonstrative pronoun, as ut ego, ut tu, ut ille , through all the cases, genders, and numbers; or for ut with a possessive pronoun, as cujus for ut mens, ut tuus y quorum for ut nosier, ut vester. E. g., “He is worthy to be loved,” Lat., He is worthy who (— that he) should be loved. The relative has this force: (a) After the adj. dignus, indignus, aptus, and idoneus ; (b) After tarn, tantus, tails, is or ille (for tails), ejusmodi / (c) When it follows a comparative with quam • (d) When it introduces a purpose or design. Vol-uptas non est digna ad quam (ut ad earn) sapiens respiciat. 1 Digni sunt parentes quorum (ut eorum) jussa prompte et alacriter exequamur. Vir probus dignus est cui (ut ei) fidem habeamus. Nonne hoc indig - nissimum est, vos idoneos habitos , per quorum (ut per vestras) sententias et jusjurandum id assequantur, quod antea ipsi scelere et ferro assequi consueverunt ? Ea est Romana gens quae (ut ea) victa quiescere nesciat. Non ii sumus quibus (ut nobis) nihil verum esse videatur. Natura homini rationem dedit qua (ut ea) regerentur animi appetitus . Populus Romanus tribunes plebis creavit per quos (ut per eos) contra senatum et consules tutus esse posset. Note 1.—After the expressions non ego is sum qui, non tu is es qui, etc., the person of the verb following is determined—not by the pronoun is, but by the preceding subject-nominatives ego, tu, etc.; as, Eon ego is sum qui tot ac tantis reipublicae mails non movear. Tu non is es qui re nulla nisi jure civili delecteris (but we would say : quern res nulla nisi jus civile deledet). Noli oblivisci te eum esse qui aliis consueris prcecipere. Note 2.— The demonstratives is, ille, tails, ejusmodi, are not always expressed, but must often be supplied before qui with the Subjunctive; as, Die aliquid quod (= ali- quid tale ut id) ad rem pertineat. En miles quern (= talis ut eum) nulla pericula terreant. Multi vulnerati etiam quos vires sanguisque desererent, ut intra vallum hos- tium caderent, nitebantur. Nihil agis, nihil moliris, nihil cogitas quod (= nihil tale ut id) ego non modo non audiam, sed etiam videam planeque sentiam. Quam longe videtur a carcere atque a vinculis abesse debere qui seipsum jam dignum custodia judicavei'it ? This is generally the case, also, after unus and solus ; as, Solus es Caesar in quo (= tu solus talis es ut in te) nitalur civitatis salus. Voluptas est sola quee nos alliciat suapte natura. i) that a wise man should care for it. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 179 Note 3. —Special attention must be .paid to those clauses that are introduced by qui after a comparative with quam following. In English, such sentences are com¬ monly expressed in quite a different manner, as can easily be seen from the following examples: “The loss of honor and faith is too great to be estimated,” Famaz et fidei damna majora sunt quam quae (= ut ea) cestimari possint. —“ The Greeks felled trees too large and too branchy for the soldier to carry along with his armor,” Greed et majores et magis ramosas arbores cazdebant quam quas (= ut eas) ferre cum armis miles posset. To translate such sentences into Latin, change the English positive with “ too” into the comparative with than who , than whose, than whom, than ichich —accordingly, and the Infinitive into the potential mood with can, may, might, could. —When the Infinitive is preceded by “for” with an objective case, omit the sign “for” and make the objective the nominative to the following verb. Thus, (Eng.) Your benefits are too great to be repaid. (Lat.) Your benefits are greater than which can be repaid. (Eng.) The burden is too heavy for the boy to carry. (Lat.) The burden is heavier than which the boy can carry. (Eng.) I am too great for fortune to do me harm. (Lat.) I am greater than to whom fortune can do harm. Beneficia tua majora sunt quam quaz (ut ea) referri possint. Onus gravius est quam quod (ut id) puer portare possit. Major sum quam cui (ut mild) fortuna nocere possit. TJvaz pendent altius quam quas (ut eas) vulpes attingat or possit attingere. Note 4. —Not only relative pronouns, but also relative adverbs require the Subj., when they stand for ut with a demonstrative, as quo for ut eo, unde for ut inde, ubi for ut ibi. E. g., Nihil tarn alte natura constituit quo (= ut eo) virtus non possit eniti. Artaxerxes Lampsacum urbem Themistocli donarat , unde (== ut inde) vinum sumeret. Note 5.—Here is to be noticed, also, the use of the Subjunctive in restrictive clauses, that is, in clauses which limit in some way a preceding general statement. E. g., Antonins omnium oratorum, quos viderim (‘ at least of those I was able to see’), longe eloquentissimus fuit. liefertm sunt Catonis orationes, quas quidem (‘ those at least which’) aut invenerim aut legerim, et verbis et rebus illustribus. Aristides unus, quod quidem audierimus, cognomine Justus est appellatus. Thus : Quod sciam, “ as far as I know quod ivtelligam , “ as far as I understand quod salva fide possim, “ as far as I can with good conscience quod sine molestia tua fiat, “ as far as can be done without inconveniencing you.” But limitations with quantum generally take the Indicative, as quantum scio, quantum memini , quantum inteUigo, quantum in me est , etc.,—unless the Subjunctive be necessary for some other reason. Me caecum qui hasc ante non viderim! II. When the relative stands for quum ego, quum tu , quum Me, etc., that is, when the relative introduces the ground or reason of what is going before; as, “ 0 blind man that I am for not having seen this before.” (Why blind?—because I have not seen_). 180 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 0 fortunate adolescens qui (quum tu) turn virtutis Homerum prceconem inveneris. 0 magna vis veritatis , quce facile se ipsa defendat. Caninius fait mirifica vigilantia 1 qui (quum is) suo toto consulatu somnum non wider it. Quid ego te invitem a quo (quum a te) jam sciam esse prcemis- sos qui tibi praes tolar entur ? Note 1.— Qui, when introducing a cause or reason, is often strengthened by the addition of quippe, utpote, or ut; as, Mihi quidem tribunorum plebis potestas pestifera videtur, quippe quce (quum ea) in seditione ct ad seditionem nata sit. Convivia cum patre non inibat, quippe qui ne in oppidum quidem nisi perraro veniret. Note 2.—The relative qui stands sometimes for quamvis (si, dummodo ) ego, tu, etc., and then, too, requires the Subjunctive. E. g., Multi etiamnv.no credunt Chaldceis quorum (quamvis eorum) prcedicta quotidie eventis refellantur. Ego qui (quamvis ego) sero Grcecas litteras attigissem , tamen complures dies Athenis commoratus sum. An mihi quidquam potest esse molestum, quod (si id or dummodo id) tibi gratum sit ? Note 3.—When qui is used in its pure, relative sense, without implying any acces¬ sory idea of purpose, cause, reason, concession, supposition, or condition, it takes the Indicative. Hence we may say: Nihil in mails duco quod (nothing which) est a Deo constitutum, as well as Nihil in mails duco quod (provided it be) sit a Deo con- stitutum. Quid a me petis qui (of me who) nihil habeo, and Quid a mepetis qui (since I) nihil habeam? Nihil bonum est quod (nothing which) hominem non facit meliorem , and Nihil bonum est quod (if it does not) hominem nonfaciat meliorem. Sunt qui dicant. III. After the general and indefinite expressions sunt , non desunt , reperiun tur, existunt, exoriuntur ;—quis est? quid est? ecquis or num- quis est ? an quisquam est ? quotusquisque est ? quot sunt ?—nego esse quemquam , nec est, nee ullus est; nemo, nullus , nihil est, vix est , vix ullus est , vix decimus quisque est. After these expressions such a word as is, talis, ejusmodi , must be supplied before the relative, the qui being equivalent to ut with a demonstrative. E. g., “ There are some (or, there are persons) who say.” Sunt qui vel mundi opifeem sapientissimum reprehendere audeant. J ) To understand this and several other passages from Cicero, a short historical remark may not be unnecessary.—The Consul C. Fab. Maximus had died on the very day when his term of office was to end. This was a few hours after midnight, the last day of December, ab U. C. 709.—Csesar, professing to be a scrupulous observer of ancient customs, immediately appointed Caninius to be Consul for the deceased till the next regular election, i. e., till six o’clock in the evening of the same day. Cicero, fond of a joke, made this ephemeral Magistracy the subject of many a pointed remark. “Quick, quick,” said he to his friends, “let us lose no time, but make haste to pay our compliments to our new Consul, for fear he may already be gone out of office, before we arrive at his house.”—This gives the key to the example quoted. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 181 Nihil est quod tarn miseros facial qaam impietas et scelus. Quis est qui non oderit libidinosam et protervam adolescentiam ? Quotusquisque est cui sapientia omnibus omnium divitiis prazponenda videatur ? Nemo est orator qui se Demosthenis similem (or qui Demosthenis Simms') esse nolit. Note 1.—When two future events are described as simultaneous, the relative qui, after the foregoing indefinite expressions, is construed with the Subj. Piesent. E. g., “There will always be some who will say, 1 ’ Semper erunt qui dicant, \enient legiones quce neque me inultum neque te impunitum patiantur. Quamdiu quisquam erit qui te defendere audeat , rives. Note 2.—When the nominative to sunt , /{ there are,” is distinct and definite, qui takes the Indicative; as, Sunt bestiee quondam in quibus inest aliquid simile virtutis , ut in leonibus , ut in canibus , ut in equis. But, when the nominative is general and indefinite, as quidam , nonnulli , pauci , multi , plures , etc., both the Indie, and Subj. are used ;—the former, when we wish simply to state a fact, as Sunt quidam e nostris qui hoc negant (equivalent to the simple statement: Quidam e nostris hoc negant ) ; the latter, when we wish at the same time to intimate a certain qualification of the subject, as Sunt quidam e nostris (i. e., tales , ejusmodi , tarn stulti , etc.) qui negent. When sunt has no nominative expressed at all, the Subjunctive with qui is so com¬ mon in the Classical prose that the Indicative must be regarded as an exception. Note 3.— We must here notice, also, the phrases est ( non est, nihil tst , quid est ) quod , cur , or quare , and non habeo (nihil habeo, quid habes ) quod , “there is reason,” “there is no reason,” “what reason is there?” followed by the Infinitive. E. g., “ Thou hast reason to rejoice,” Est quod gaudeas (= est aliquid propter quod, = est aliquid tale ut propter id).—“ We have no reason to fear,” Nihil est quod ti- meamus. —“ I have no reason to be ashamed,” Non est quod me pudeat. — Quid est quod (or cur) festines? Nihil habeo quod incusem senectutem. Quid habes quod me reprehendas ? From the phrase habeo quod, “ I have no reason we must distinguish the phrase Non habeo quid, which is an indirect question ; as, “ I do not know what to say,” Non habeo quid dicam. Non habebat quid responderet. Be pueris quid agam , non habeo. Socrates accusatus est quod corrumperet juventutem. IV. When the relative clause expresses the sentiment or words— not of the speaker or writer, but of some other person either spoken of in the sentence or to be supplied from the context. By “ a relative clause” is here meant any clause introduced by a relative pronoun, adverb, or conjunction, such as qui , quo , qua , quod , quonidm , etc.— E. g., “ Socrates was accused of corrupting the youth.” J ) because (as it was alleged by his accusers, the Athenians) he corrupted thQ youth. 182 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Diogenes contemnebat divitias quod se felicem reddere non possent. 1 JVoc- tu ambulabat in publico Themistocles quod somnum capere non posset * Noricis adversus Romanos dabant animos Alpes et nives , quo bellum non posset accedere . 8 Aristides nonne ob earn causam expulsus est patria quod prceter modum justus esset Deum invocabant cujus ad solemne venissentf Gyges ceneum equum animadvertit cujus in lateribus fores essent . 6 Multa scope dicit de laude et gloria , quce sola sit 7 digna tot laborum merces. Pcetus omnes libros quos frater suus reliquisset , 8 mild donavit. Note 1.—In the preceding find similar sentences, the Indicative (in the subor¬ dinate clauses) would not be incorrect; but it would mean that the writer w T as con¬ vinced of the truth of his assertion, which conviction the Subjunctive does not imply. Note 2.— Quod and quia, when joined to a negative ( non quod , non eo quod, non ideo quod), regularly take the Subjunctive, because the clause introduced by non quod, non quia, etc., does not state the true reason; as, Pugiles in jactandis ccestibus inge- miscunt non quod doleant, sed quia profundenda voce omne corpus intenditur. Mojores nostri in dominum de servo queen noluerunt , non quia non posset verum inveniri, sed quia videbatur indignum esse, Observe the real reason introduced by sed quod, sed quia, with the Indicative. Note 3.—Sometimes the speaker or writer states his own sentiment in such a man¬ ner as though it were the sentiment of another person, and accordingly expresses it by the Subjunctive; e. g., Caesar graviter yEduos incusat quod tarn necessario tempore ab Us non sublevetur. Caesar quotidie JEduos frumentum quod publice essent polliciti , jlagitabat. Note 4.—The expressions “because he thought,” “because he said,” are frequently rendered by the Subjunctive ( quod crederet, quod putaret, quod diceret ), where we might expect the Indicative, and where,—not the verbs credo, puto, dico, but the Infinitive dependent on these verbs, ought to be expressed by the Subjunctive ; e. g., Quurn exisset de castris, rediit paulo post, quod se oblitum nescio quid diceret, instead of quod nescio quid oblitus esset. J ) because (as he [Diogenes] said) they could not .JSIT’ If the writer of this sentence were to allege the substance of the relative clause as his own opinion, he would have said quod eum felicem reddere non poterant, and the Indicative would render him responsible for the truth of his allegation. If the relative clause were to express the sentiment neither of Diogenes, nor of the writer, but of some other person, the text would run thus: quod eum felicem reddere non possent. Comp. § 145, 1. a ) because (as it was alleged by Themistocles himself, or by some other person) he could not sleep. 3 ) whether (as they [the Norici] thought) war could not.... 4 ) because (as the Athenians pretended) he was.... 6 ) to whose solemnity (as it was alleged by themselves) they had come, =■ cujus ad solemne se venisse dixeruni. B ) in each side of which there was a door (as he [Gyges] observed, or pretended to have observed). 7 ) which (according to him, or as he asserts) is the only reward.... quam solam dicit esse dignam mercedem , etc. *) which as he said, his brother.... =— quos fratrem suum sibi reliquisse dicebat. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 183 Quacuuque incederent, impugnabantur. Y. When in a narrative, after relative pronouns and adverbs, actions of repeated occurrence are spoken of. The verb of the leading sentence is then usually the Imperfect Indie., whereas that of the relative clause is the Imperf. or Pluperf. Subj.—E. g., “ In whatever direction they marched, they were attacked.” Quemcunque lictor jussu consults prehendisset , tribunus mitti (i. e., liberaTi) jubebat. Si quis rem malitiosius gessisset , dedecus existimabant. Socrates quam se cunque in partem dedisset , omnium facile fuit princeps , Semper habiti sunt (habebantur) fortissimi , qui summam imperii potirem- tur. Hortensius quae secum commentatus esset , ea sine scripto verbis eisdem reddebat quibus cogitasset. Sccevola simul atque luceret , faciebat omnibus sui conveniendi potestatem. Note.— In such propositions, however, the Indicative is not less frequently used in the subordinate clause than the Subjunctive, and the Indicative would be even necessary, if a distinct, particular case were spoken of. SUBJUNCTIVE IN INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES. I5P” By intermediate clauses are meant those subordinate clauses which are con¬ nected with, or inserted in, other dependent propositions. Rex imperat ut quae bello opus sint parentur. § 200.—The Subjunctive is used in intermediate clauses, when they express the thoughts or words of the person spoken of, and form an integral part either of the statement implied in the Acc. c. Inf., or of the purpose, request, or command, expressed by the subjunctive clause ; as, “The king orders that those things that are necessary for war, be prepared.” Aristoteles ait bestiolas quasdam nasci quee unum diem vivant. Temere, multi credunt eum qui orationem bonorum imitetur , etiam facta imita- turum. Socrates dicere solebat omnes in eo quod scirent, satis esse elo- quentes.—Pietas erga Deum postulat ut nihil ab eo expetatur quod sit inhonestum atque injustum. Omnis virtus facit ut eos diligamus quibus ipsa inesse videatur. Note 1 . —When such intermediate clauses do not express the thoughts or words of the person spoken of, nor form an integral part either of the statement implied in the Acc. c. Inf., or of the purpose, request, or command, expressed by the subjunctive clause, they must be regarded as merely explanatory remarks of the speaker or writer, and as such be expressed by the Indicative. 181 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Eor the sake of explanation let us take the following 1 sentences: (a) Dixit mihi in somnis Scipio, omnem terram quam incolamus, parvam quondam insulam esse mari circumfusam. —In this example the words spoken by Scipio, were: Omnis terra quam incolitis parva qucedam insula est mari circumfusa. . The relative clause quam incolitis, forming a part of this statement, is therefore expressed by the Subjunctive. Had Seipio simply said : Tei'ra parva qucedam insula est mari circum- fusa, then the relative clause, being not included in this statement, would, as a merely explanatory remark of the narrator, be expressed by the Indicative, and the whole proposition would run thus: Dixit mihi in somnis Scipio , terram quam inco- limus, parvam quondam insulam esse mari circumfusam. (b) Hannibal Scipionem prcestantem virum esse credebat quod adversus se dux electus esset. —Here the subordinate clause quod adversus se dux electus esset, forms an integral part of Hannibal’s thought (which was : Scipio vir prcestans est quod adversus me dux est electus'), and is, therefore, expressed by the Subjunctive. Had Hannibal’s thought been simply: Scipio vir prcestans est , the subordinate clause, being a merely explanatory remark of the writer, would have been expressed by the Indicative: quod adversus eum dux electus erat. (c) Sempronius rogat ut Virgilii opera, quae nuper a patre dono accepi, sibi quam- primum transmittam. —In this proposition the Indicative accepi shows that the relative clause is but an explanatory remark of the writer, and not a part of Sempronius’s request, which was simply this: Mitte mihi quamprimum Virgilii opera. —Had the request been: Hitte mihi quampidmum Virgilii opera quae nuper a patre dono accepisti the relative clause, forming an integral part of this request, would then have been expressed by the Subjunctive: quce nuper acceperim. Note 2. —When the inserted clause is a mere circumlocution (as, iiqui audiunt for auditores; ii qui prcesunt for magistratus, duces , or proof ecti ; ii quijudicant for judi- ces ; ii qui post nos futuri sunt for posteri; ea quae Hannibal gesserat for Hannibalis res gestae ; ea quae sciunt homines for res cognitoe ; ea quce ignorant for res incognitos, etc.), it commonly matters little whether such a clause be considered as a part of the sen¬ tence to which it belongs, or as a merely explanatory remark of the writer or speaker. We are, therefore, at liberty to use either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. E. g., Tune putas eos qui oratorem audiunt (or audiant) ita semper effici, ut orator velit ? Sic habitote magistratibus Usque qui prcesint (or prcesunt) rempublicam contineri. Eloquendi vis ejjicit ut ea quce ignorant (or ignorent) homines, discere et ea quce sciunt (or sciant) alios docere possint. SUBJUNCTIVE IN GENERAL SENTENCES. Tamdiu discenduin est quamdiu vivas. § 201.—The Subjunctive (especially the 2d pers. sing.) is used in general sentences in which no definite subject is spoken of. The Eng¬ lish language, in this case, frequently uses the indefinite pronoun “ one” (French, on ; German, man). E. g., “ One must learn, as long as he is alive.” Non decet ea vituperare quce non intelligas. Stultum est ea docere velle quce nunquam didicer is. ' Nulla est excusatio peccati si amici causa peccaveris. Memoria minuitur nisi cam exerceas aut si sis natura tardior. Stultum est timere quod vitare non goossis wwciuawr IMPERATIVE MOOD. 185 IMPERATIVE. Vale, amice ! 202. — The Imperative has two forms : the present (scribe, scribite) and the future ( scribito, scribitote , scribunto). — Thus, Valetudinem tuam cura diligenter. Si quid in te peccavi, ignosce .— Quum valetudini tuce consulueris , turn consulito navigationi. Servus mens liber esto. Judices ne prcemium capiunto neve 1 danto. Regio imperio duo sunto iique Consules appellantor. Note 1.—The future form is chiefly used by rulers and lawgivers,—in contracts and wills, and, in general, when a command or request is expressed with reference to future time. Note 2.— Scio and memini , habeo in the sense of “to know,” and sum in the con¬ cessive phrase “be it so,” admit of the future form only; as scito, scitote ; memento, mernentote ; sic habeto or habetote ; esto or verum esto. E. g., Dolabella tuo nihil mihi scito esse jucundius. Sic habeto non te esse mortalem, sed corpus hoc. Note 8.—The English imperative form “let us,” as a request or advice, is ren¬ dered in Latin by the 1st pers. plur. of the Pres. Subj.; as, “ Let us rise,” Surgamus. —Imitemur nostros Camillos, Fabricios • amemus patriam, pareamus Senatui. Memi- nerimus nos esse mortales. When “let” is equivalent to “ allow or permit,” it is expressed by sino, patior, or permitto , with either the Subj., or the Acc. c. Inf.; e. g., “Let us go,” Sinite abeamus, or Sinite nos abire. —“Let him write,” Sine scribat. —“ Let me come to you,” Sine ad le veniam , or Sine me ( patiaris me, permitte mihi) ad te venire. § 203.—The Imperative is either affirmative or negative, according as something is commanded or forbidden. 1. Instead of the affirmative Imperative we may use : (a) The Subj. Present; as, “Let him come,” Veniat. —“Let them go,” Abeant. — “ Let your attitude, gait, etc., be decorous,” Status, incessus , vultus , oculi , teneant decorum. (b) Cura, fac, velim, with the Subjunctive (see §95. Note 8.); as, “Keep up good spirits and good hope,” Magnum fac animum habeas et bonam spem. Cura ut quam primum venias. Valetudinem tuam velim cures diligentissime. Nolim me jocari putcs. (c) The Indicative Future; as, Si quid acciderit novi, facies ut sciam. Tu et ad omnia rescribes et quando te expectem, facies me certiorem. 2. Instead of the negative, or prohibitive, Imperative we may use: (a) The Subjunctive with ne ; as, Puer telum ne habeat. Quod dubitas, ne feceris. Ne cui hoc dixeris. Ne dubitaris mittere. (The 2d pers. sing, of the Subj. Per¬ fect, in the sense of the Present, is quite common.) l ) With the Imperative render “ not” by ne, —and “ nor,” by neve (not neque). 186 INFINITIVE MOOD. (b) Cave and fac ne with the Subjunctive; as, Cave hoc facias. Cave dixeris. Cave existimes me abjecisse curam reipublicce. Fac ne quid aliud cures nisi ut convalescas. (c) Noli with the Infinitive; as, Noliputare. Noli agere confuse. Nolite timere. (d) The Indicative Future with non ; as, Tu non cessabis, for ne cessa. INFINITIVE. § 204.—The Infinitive is used either subjectively or objectively:— subjectively, when it stands as the nominative to the verb, as Erran humanum est ; parcere victis honestum est ;— objectively, when it stands as the accusative to the verb, as Sequi signet , ordines servare didicerunt; ferre laborem consuetudo docet. Note 1 .— The Infinitive is used objectively, especially after such verbs as volo , nolo , malo, cupio, opto, studeo ; propono, decerno, statuo, constituo ; possum, qveo, nequeo‘ soleo, assuesco, consuesco ; conor, nitor, tento, contendo ; festino, maturo, propero • audeo, debeo; ccepi, incipio, pergo, perseve.ro, desino, cesso ; cogo, doceo, disco , scio, nescio , memini, obliviscor, and others which do not express a complete idea by themselves. Note 2.—When the Infinitive of sum or of one of those verbs that are construed with two nominatives (§ 154), is accompanied by a predicate-noun or adjective, the latter is put either in the nominative or accusative. (a) The predicate noun or adjective is put in the nominative, when the Infinitive is used objectively, that is, when the Infinitive is the accusative to the verb. E. g., Didici esse prudens. Malo bonus esse quam dives. Audeamus esse bond et sapientes. Desine tandem mild molestus esse. Perge esse bonus et diligens. Grcecia eloquentia princeps esse voluit. (b) The predicate noun or adjective is put in the accusative, when the Infinitive is used subjectively, that is, when the Infinitive is the nominative to the verb. E. g., Non cidvis datum est esse prudentem. Prcestat bonum esse quam divitem. Memorem esse acceptorum beneficiorum, grati animi est. Contentum esse suis rebus, maximee suni certissimceque divitice. Note 3.—With an Infinitive pass., the forms coeptus sum and desitus sum are gen¬ erally used instead of ccepi and clesii (§ 71, 2); but the active forms are found also.— E. g., Vasa fictilia, serpentibus repleta, in naves conjici ccepta sunt. Contemni ccepti erant a fmitimis populis .— Veteres orationes a plerisque legi sunt desitce. Hie est Papirius, qui primus Papirius est vocari desitus. Desitum est videri quidquam in socios iniquum , cum extitisset in cives tarda crudelitas. Note 4.—In animated narrative and in descriptions the Infinitive Present is often used instead of the Indie. Perfect or Imperf., to represent past events as going on before our eyes. This is what is called the historical Infinitive. E.g.,“The man began to hesitate, to look away, to color;” Hcerere homo, aversari, rubere. Hit judex ridere, stomachari patronus. Postquam in cedes irruperunt, diversi regem quaerere, dormientes alios, alios occursantes interjicere, scrutari loca abdita, clausa ef'ringere, strepitu et tumultu omnia miscere .—And the Poet: Nos pavidi trepidare metu crinemque flagrantem Excutere et sanctos restinguere fontibus ignem. INFINITIVE MOOD. 187 ; THE INFINITIVE IN INDIRECT NARRATION § 205.—Narration is either direct or indirect. Direct Narration is the way of stating the words of another precisely as they were uttered ; e. g., He said : “I will come,” Indirect Narration is the way of stating the words of another indi¬ rectly, that is, dependent on a verb sentiendi or declarandi; e. g., “ He said that he would come.” (Dir.) He said: “ I can scarcely bel'eve what you tell me.” (Ind.) He said that he could scarcely believe what I told him. Dicit se venturum si possit. § 206.—In indirect Narration, (a) Principal sentences are expressed by the Acc. c. Infinitive ; (b) Subordinate clauses are expressed by the Subjunctive. E. g., (Dir.) Veniam si possum (or potero). (Ind.) Dicit se venturum si possit. (Dir.) Placet mihi quod facis. (Ind.) Dixit placere sibi quod facerem, or faciam (Note 5, b). (Dir.) Dabo tibi si vis. (Ind.) Dixit se mihi daturum si vellem, or velim (Note 5, b). Note 1.—Clauses introduced by nam, enim, igitur, ideo, propterea , qui-ppe, videlicet, sed , verum, autem, quidem , and relative clauses in which the relative is equivalent to et with a demonstrative, are regarded as principal sentences and accordingly ex¬ pressed by the Acc. c. Inf. E. g., Themistocles apud Lacedcemonios liberrime prqfessus est, Athenienses suo consilio Deos patrios muris sepsisse ; nam illorum urbem ut pro- pugnaculum oppositam esse barbaris, avud quam (et apud earn) jam bis classes regias fecisse naufragium. Note 2 .—Questions of the 1st and Sd persons, which in direct Narration are expressed by the Indicative, are in indirect Narration generally expressed by the Acc. c. Inf. ; but questions addressed to the 2d person, and also Imperatives and requests, are expressed by the Subjunctive. E. g., (Ihr.) [Words of the populace.] Quid vivimus? quid in parts- ewi'um censemur, si quod duorum hominum virtutepar turn est, id obtinere universi nm possuntf- (Ind.) Plebs /remit, quid se vivere? quid in pavte civium etnseri, si quod duorum 'hominum virtute part-um sit, id universi obtinere non possintt (Dir.) [Words of the general.] Omnia perdita sunt. Nonne hostem mdetis undique. irruentem ? quid spei vobis reliquum est, avt quid ego auxilii ferre pos&um ? Ipsi vobis consulate, fuga salutem petite. (Ind.) Haic fere militibus dux: omniq\ esse perdita—rionns hpstem viderent 18S INFINITIVE MOOD. que irruentem t quid ipsis spei reliquum esse , aut quid se auxilii ferre posse ? ipsi sibt consulerent, fuga salutem pete rent. Questions of the 1st and 3d persons, which in direct Narration are expressed by the Subjunctive, in indirect Narration either retain the same mood, or are rendered by the Ace. c. Inf. ; E. g., (Dir.) "What (said he) shall I do ? Quidfaciam? (Ind.) Quid (inquit) faceret ? or quid se facturum ? (Dir.) Who (said lie) will persuade himself? Quis sibi persuadeot? (Ind.) Quis sibi persuaderet? or quem sibi persuasurum ? Note 8.—The verb, or participle on which the Infinitive or Subjunctive depends, is often omitted in indirect Narration ; as, Legatos ad Ccesarem mittunt (dicentes), sese parat.os esse portas aperire. Procumbunt Gallis ad pedes Bituriges (obsecrarites), ne pulcherrimam prope totius Gallice urbem suis manibus succendere cogerentur. Note 4. —When a subordinate clause does not make part of the words or thoughts of the person spoken of, but is thrown in as an explanatory remark of the writer him- Belf, the Indicative is used (Compare § 200, 1).—E. g., Themistocles certiorem regem fecit , id agi ut pons quem idle in Eellesponto fecerat , dissolveretur. JJisseruit Ccesar non quidem ea sibi ignara quas de Silano vulgabantur , sed non ex rumore statuendum. Note 5.—In indirect Narration, the Present and Perfect Subj. are often used, where the general rule would require the Imperfect and Pluperfect. This is the case: (a) When the clause expresses a general truth, i. e., when that which is said, holds good at all times and in all places; as, (Dir.) Pauci eo quod habent, contenti sunt. (Ind.) Zeno dicebat paucos eo quod habeant, contentos esse. (Dir.) Invitus feci quod quereris : nemo enim vult eum offendere a quo beneficia accepit. (Ind.) Ajfirmabat se invitumfecisse quod quererer. JSeminem adeo insipientem esse ut eum offendere velit a quo beneficia acceperit. (b) After the Present and Future Infin., when they depend on a past tense, and after the Perfect Infin.,whatever be then the tense of the leading verb, provided the Present and Perfect stand in direct Narration.—Ctesar, in case (b), generally uses the Present and Perfect Subj.; Cicero and Livy, on the contrary, use the Imperfect and Pluperfect. E. g., (Direct.) Intelligo ) I agat. Intellexi > quid •< egerit. Intelligam ) (acturus sit. (I n direct.) quid ageret or agat. " quid egissel or egerit. quid acturus asset or sit, A 'Dicebat Dixit Dixerat se intelligere, or se intcllecturum After nny) tense > of Dico ; se intelloxisse USE OF THE PARTICIPLE IN -DUS. 180 THE PARTICIPLE IN -DUS. § 201.—The Participle in dus, or as it is often called, the Gerundive, it. a verbal adjective of three endings, expressing in the nominative (and, in the construction of the Acc. c. Inf., in the accusative also) necessity , duty , or conveniency; as, liber legendus, a book worth read¬ ing—a book to be read—a book which must be, or ought to be read. In the remaining cases, the Participle in dus often seems to change its meaning, but it only appears to do so; as, Consilium epistolce scribendce, an intention of writing a letter (=* an intention with respect to a letter to-be-written). Idoneus ferendis oneribus, fit for carrying burdens (= fit for burdens to-be-carried). Vinculum ad connectendas amicitias , a bond for forming friendships (== a bond for friendships to-be-formed). Note. —The Participle in dus does not convey by itself the idea of futurity, but simply denotes necessity. Thus, e. g., epistola scribenda means a letter that must be written, and not one that will be written.—A reference to future time may indeed be implied, but this arises from the connection rather than from the Participle itself, as in the following sentences: Missus erat ad naves comparandas. Avi capita magis capior 1 quam capiendo,. Ego censeo Carthaginem esse delendam , etc. § 208.—The Participle in dus is expressed in English' by such words and phrases, as must , ought , should , to be bound , to be obliged , it is necessary , it is e. g. to be done* it has to be done , etc. When these and similar expressions remain untranslated in Latin, their value must be given by the Participle in dus. Thus, the sentence : “ It is necessary for all to practise virtue, ,J can be rendered Omnes virtutem colere debent , Omnes virtutem colant oportet, Virtus ab omnibus colatur necesse est, or, by omitting debeo, oportet , necesse est, and changing the verb colo into the Participle in dus with sum: Virtus omnibus colenda est. Note. —In the use of the Participle in dus let the pupil attend to the following directions: (1.) Change the verb connected with must, ought, or any other word implying necessity, into the Participle in dus with sum j J) A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 2 ) When it is followed by the Inf. pass., is equivalent to it may or it can , do not render it by the Partic. in dus , but translate it by possum; e. g., “This passage is to be found in the first book’’=• this r-assage may or can be found, etc. 190 USE OF TEE PARTICIPLE IN -DUS. (2.) See whether this verb be transitive or intransitive (§ 46), and if transitive, Whether its object be expressed or not; (3.) See whether the Agent be expressed, that is, the person by whom anything is to be done,—who has to do, or is bound to do any thing. HggT* To find the object and the Agent, simply ask these two questions; 1. What must be e. g. loved, praised, given, sent, etc.? 2. Who must love, praise, give, send, etc. ? The answer to the first question is the object; that to the second, the Agent. Deus amandus est. § 209.—When the verb is transitive and its object expressed, the object is put in the nominative and the Participle in dus with sum, made to agree with it accordingly; as, “ God deserves to be loved,” or “ God is to be loved.” Summa pietati laus tribuenda est. Qucerilur sitne prceponenda. divitiis gloria '? Suo quceque tempore facienda sunt.—Senes venerandos esse quis neget? Tibi persuadeas velim virtutem vel in hosts esse laudandam. Omnem memoriam discordiarum oblivione sempiterna delendam esse censeo.. Note. —When the object of a verb transitive is a whole clause, or when no object is expressed at all, the Participle in dus with sum is construed impersonally. E. g., “It will always be necessary to learn,” Semper discendum erit. Modo legendum est, modo scribendum.—Confitendum est omne animal esse mortale. Videndum est non modo quid’ quisque loguatur , sed etiam quid quisque sentiat. Promissis stand um est. § 210.—When the verb is intransitive, the Participle in dus with sum, is construed impersonally, and when any case depends on the verb, it must be retained in Latin, whatever be the case employed in English; as, “ Promises must be kept,” or “ It is necessary to keep one’s promises.” Moriendum certe erit. Quceris ex me, quemadmodum sit cum amicis vivendum. Si in alterutro peccandum est, malo videri nimis timidus quam parum prudens.—Non est obliviscendum reipublicce. Ilosti victo parcendum est. Audiendi non sunt qui graviter irascendum {esse) inimicis putant „ Tempore et occasions utendum est. Note 1. —The impersonal construction sometimes occurs even with transitive verbs, but only in ante- and post-classical writers; o. g., jEternas pcenas in morte iimendum est; mihi hac node agendum est vigilias , etc., instead of AEternae in morte poeruB timet idee sunt; mihi hac node agendee sunt vigilice. —Whoever aspires to purity of language, should carefully avoid this unclassical form; nor should any one allege USE OF THE PARTICIPLE IN’ -DUS. 191 in his favor tin, two isolated passages in which even Cicero employs it, once with the verb ingredior: Via quam (according to others, qua) nobis quoque ingrediendum est,— and another time, in some fragment, with the verb obliviscor : Obliviscendum nobis putatis matrurn in liberos scelera t —In Cicero, such forms of expression are exceptions that must be respected, but not imitated. Note 2.— The verbs utor, fruor , fuvgor , and potior , though they govern the abla¬ tive, are often in the Participle in dus construed like transitive verbs ; as, Non paranda nobis solum , sed etiam fruenda est sapientia. Omnia bona ei utendci ac possidenda tradiderat. Etiam senibns discendum est. § 211.—The Agent is put in the dative, and when there is already another dative, in the ablative with ab ; as, “Even old men have to learn.” Sua c.uique sors ferenda est. Tria videnda sunt oratori, quid dicat, quo quidque loco, et quomodo. Quis est qui nesciat sibi quandoque moriendum esse ? Juveni parandum, seni utendum est.—Aguntur Iona multorum civium, quibus est a vobis consulendum. Non tibi a me, sed a te mihi ratio reddenda est. Note 1.—The datives mihi , tibi , nobis , and vobis , are commonly left out in Latin, (a) when no particular person is meant, but people in general; (b) when “we” and “ you” are joined to verbs that govern the dative, and (c) when the person meant can easily be supplied from the context. E. g., “ Sooner or later we shall have to die,” Serins ocius moriendum erit. Non cuivis komini credendum est. Discendum (tibi) est ut possis docere. Edendum (nobis) est , ut possimus vivere. Note 2.—With the verbs do, trado , tribuo ; concedo, permitto ; accipio , suscipio; mitto , appono, relinquo, and others of a similar meaning, the purpose for which any thing is given, sent, received, etc., is expressed passively hy the Partic. in dus, which is to agree in gender, number, and case, with the object given, sent, received. E. g., “I send you this book to read,” Mitto tibi hunc librum legendum. Demus nos philosophies, excolendos. Bex Harpago Oyrum infantem occidendum tradidit. Lentulus totam ltaliam vastandam diripiendamque Catilince attribuit. Datames nrbes tuendas (the defence of) suis tradidit. Diomedon Epaminondampecunia corrumpendum (under¬ took to bribe) suscepit. Hoec porcis comedenda relinquimus. Natura mnlieri domestica negotia curanda (intrusted the care of) tradidit. This use of the Participle in dus often, also, occurs with loco, “ to give some¬ thing in contract,” i. e., to contract for having a thing done; conduco, “to con¬ tract for doing a thing, and euro , in the sense of “ to cause or order a thing to be done,” or “to have it done.” E. g., Redemptor columnam Jovis faciendum con- duxerat. 1 Mummius maximorum artificum tabidas ac statuas in ltaliam portandas locavit? Conon muros a Lysandro dirutos reficiendos curavit. J ) The contractor had undertaken to erect.... 2 ) contracted for having. brought to Italy, or gave the transportation of .... in contract, or contracted for tho freight of .... to Italy. 192 USE OF THE GERUNDS. GERUNDS. § 212.—Tlie Gerund is nothing else than the neuter of the Participle in dus .—Gerunds govern the case of their verbs, hut are used only in the oblique cases, that is, in the Gen., Dat., Acc., and Abl. singular. General remark. —When any Gerund is followed by an object-accusative, the object is generally put in the case of the Gerund; the Gerund itself is changed into the Participle in dus, and the latter made to agree with the object in gender, number, and case. Ars scribendi. § 213. The Genitive of the Gerund is used: (a) after certain sub¬ stantives, such as ars, causa , consilium, consuetudo , cupiditas , facultas , libido, metus, modus , occasio, potestas, ratio, scientia, spes, studium, timor , vis, voluntas , etc., when the question what , asked in connection with any of these substantives is answered by a verb; as, “The art ( what art ?—) of writing —(b) after those adjectives which govern a geni¬ tive, as avidus, cupidus, studiosus, certus, ignarus, nescius, peritus, im- peritus , etc., when they belong to a verb, as “Desirous {of what? —) of learning,” cupidus discendi; “ Skilled {in what ? —) in swimming,” peritus natandi; and (c) after causa and gratia, “ for the sake of.” Sapientia est ars bene vivendi. Optime peccatum evitat qui occasiones fugit peccamdi. Titus Augustus equitandi peritissimus fuit. Avari homines non solum libidine augendi cruciantur, sed etiam metu amittendi. Qui darn canes venandi gratia comparantur. AVith an object-accusative.— Quis ignorat Gallos usque ad hanc diem retinere illam immanem ac barbaram consuetudinem hominum immolan - dorum (immolandi homines) ? Timotheus civitatis regendce (regendi civitatem) peritissimus fuit. Note 1.—The change of the Gerund into the Partic. in dus is not allowed, (a) when the object-accusative is the neuter of an adjective or adjective pronoun, such as hoc, id, illud, ea , vera, multa, etc. Accordingly we ought to say: Cupiditas have vet ilia videndi ; ars vera et falsa dijudicandi, and the like ; and not, Cupiditas horum videndorum ; ars verorum et falsorum dijudicandorum, because from these constructions we would not know whether things or persons are meant; (b) when the object-accusative does not depend on the Gerund, but on a preposition understood ; as, Cupidus sum profi- ciscendi Romam, not Romce proficiscendce; (c) when the too frequent repetition of the same termination would produce an uncouth, monotonous sound, as in the following sentence : Romanos splendidorum et magnificorum majorum templorum ac deorum simulacrorum sanctissimorum videndorum desiderium tenebat. How much better USE OF THE GEEUNDS. 193 thus : Romanos splendida et magnijlca majorum templa ac deorum simulacra sanciissima videndi desiderium tenebat. Note 2.— When the accompanying object-accusative is one of the personal pro¬ nouns me, te, se, nos , or vos , the pronoun is generally put in the case of the Gerund ( mei , tui, sui, nostri, vestri) , but the Gerund itself is left unchanged, though the pronoun be plural or of the feminine gender. E. g., Legati sui purgandi causa vene- runt. Vestri salutandi et confirmandi gratia adveni. Note 8.— Tempus est , “there is a time for,” “to have leisure for,” is followed by the genitive of the Gerund; as, “There is a time for speaking and a time for being silent,” Est tempus loquendi et tempus tacendi. Gerte tibi tempus est paululum fdc com - morandi. —But when tempus est is equivalent to tempestivum est , “ it is now high time to,” the Infinitive should be used. E. g., Expergiscere, Mar cede, tempus est surgere. Tempus est hujus libri finem facer e. Tempus est jam majora conari. Note 4.— Such forms as exemplorum eligendi potestas , Gic. ; agrorum condonandi facultas, Cic.; eorum adipiscendi causa , Cic. ; licentia diripiendi pomorum, Suet.; rejiciendi amplius quam trium judicum potestas, Cic., and the like, though found in the best writers, are irregularities which are difficult to be accounted for, and which should not be imitated in good prose. In like manner, expressions such as cantare peritus, cupidus attingere, cedere nescius, avidus committere pugnam, etc., being purely poetical, ought to be avoided in prose. Utilis arando. § 214.—The Dative of the Gerund is used: (a) after adjectives denoting fitness and usefulness, as par, impar, noxius, aptus, idoneus , utilis, inutilis, etc., e. g., “ Good for ploughing;”—(b) after certain verbs and expressions denoting a purpose or design, such as studere , operam dare , intentum esse, tempus insumere or impend ere, sufficere, prceesse, satis esse, and esse in the sense of “ to I/e able,” “ to serve or.” Charta emporetica inutilis est scribendo. Magius solvendo non erat. Non omnis debitor est solvendo. Aqua nitrosa utilis est bibendo. Rubens ferrum non est habile tundendo. With an object-accusative. —Sunt nonnulli acuendis puerorum ingeniis (acuendo ingenia) non inutiles lusus. Consul placandis diis 1 (placando deos) dat operam. Non sum oneri ferendo (ferendo onus). Omnem laborem meum hominum periculis sublcvandis (sublevando pericula) imp&rtiam . Roniana juventus revocandis in urbem regibus (revocando reges) studebat. Note 1.— Utilis, inutilis, aptus, idoneus, sufficere, and satis esse, instead of the dative of the Gerund, often take the accusative with ad ; as, Bene sentire recieque facets ') is engaged in appeasing the gods. 194 USE OP THE GEKUNDS. satis est ad bene beateque vivendum. Palpebrez aptissimce sunt ad claudendas pupillas el ad aperiendas. Note 2. — Esse, in the sense of “ to serve for,” “ to tend to,” is sometimes construed with the genitive of the Gerund; as, Beegium imperium initio conse? , vandce libertatis atque augendce reipublicoe fuerat. Hoec prodendi imperii Bomani, tradendce Hannibali victories sunt Inter coenandum. § 215.—The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with preposi tions, especially ad and inter; as, “While dining,” or “ during dinner.” Non solum ad discendum propensi sumus , verum etiam ad docendum. Ut ad cur sum equus, ad arandum bos, sic ad intelligendum et agendum homo natus est. Mores puerorum se inter ludendum simplicius detegunt. With an object-accusative.— Homo multa habet instfumenta ad adipiscendam sapientiam (ad adipiscendum sapientiam). Ferrum ad colendos agros (ad colendum agros) necessarium est. Ad connectendas amicitias (ad connectendum amicitias) tenacissimum vinculum est morum similitudo. Note 1.—With verbs denoting a purpose, later writers frequently use the dative of the Gerund, where in the Classical period the accusative with ad, or a clause with ut would have been employed; as, Multi canes propellendis kominum ac ferarum injuriis comparantur. Tiberius fir mandee valetudini in Campaniam concessit. Note 2. —The phrase interest inter, “there is a difference between,” is followed by the Infinitive, when the difference exists between two actions; as, Multum interest inter legere et intelligere. Pkilosophus Pyrrho dixit nihil interesse inter optime valere et gravissime cegrotare. Errando discimus. § 216.—The Ablative of the Gerund is used (a) without a preposi¬ tion, as an ablative of the instrument; and (b) with the prepositions a , de, ex, and in, when the questions from what and in what are answered by a verb. E. g., “ By erring we learn.” Fabius a cunctando Cunctator est appcllatus. Frovidentia ex provi- dendo est appellata. Adhibenda est in jocando moderatio. Nihil agendo homines male agere discunt. Aristotelem non deterruit a scribendo amplitudo Platonis. Ego vapulando, ille verberando usque ambo defessi sumus. With an object-accusative.— Omnis loquendi elegantia augetur legendis oratoribus et poetis (legendo oratores et poetas). In voluptate spernenda (in spernendo voluptatem) virtus vel maxime cernitur. Multi in equis parandis (in parando equos) adhibent curam, in am ids deligendis (in deligendo amicos) neghgentes sunt. USE OF THE SUPINES. 195 Note. —The change of the ablative of the Gerund into the Partic. in dus , always takes place when the ablative depends on a preposition, and nearly always, when the Gerund is used as an ablative of the instrument. Though the verbs utor, fruor , fungor , and potior, govern the ablative, yet in the gerundial construction they are often considered and treated as transitives ; as, Qui aliquid tribuit voluptati , diligenter ei tenendus est ejus fruendm (for ea fruendi) modus. —Thus, spes urbis potiundoe ,* fidu&ia regni Persarum potiundi ; oculus probe offedits ad suum munus fungendum ; expetuntur divitiaz ad perfruendas voluptates , etc. SUPINES. § 217. —The Supines are, in form, nothing else than cases of verbal substan¬ tives of the fourth declension. There are two Supines, one in um, the other in u : the former has an active— the latter, generally a passive signification. The Supine in um, moreover, governs the case of its verb, that is, it takes the same case as the verb, from which it is formed. Eo ambulatum. § 218.—The Supine in um stands with verbs denoting or imply¬ ing motion, such as ire, proficisci, contendere, venire, mittere, trajicere, etc.,—and expresses the purpose or end of the motion; as, “ I go to walk.” Tkemistocles Argos habitatum concessit. Laced cemonii Agesilaum bellatum miserunt in Asiam. Totius fere Gallice legati ad, Ccesarem gratulatum convenerunt. Ccelius, cum coenatus cubitum cum duobus adolescentibus filiis isset, inventus est mane jugulatus. Hannibal patriam defensum ex Italia Carthaginem revocatus est. Philippus, cum spectatum ludos iret, juxta theatrum occisus est. Note 1.—Verbs of hastening, as festinare , properare , maturare , though they express motion, are generally construed with the Infinitive; as, Scipio oppugnare urbem festinavit. Quin hue ad vos venire propero ? Exercitum jlumen transducere maturavit. Note 2.—When the purpose of going, coming, sending, etc., is passive, instead of the Supine in um , either the Participle in dus , or a passive clause with ut must be used. E. g., “Youth is sent to school to be instructed Juventus in scholam mittitur erudienda , or ut erudiatur. Multi Bomanorum Jilios suos Athenas miserunt erudiendos , or ut erudirentur. Note 8.—The verb eo with the Supine is, in general, equivalent to velle with the Infinitive, and corresponds to the English “ I intend—wish—am about—am going to.” Sometimes, especially in dependent clauses, it is used as a circumlocution, in¬ stead of a simple verb.—E. g., Our te is perditum ? Fuere eives qui sc remque vublicam 196 USE OF THE SUPINES. perditum irent. Qui paucis sceleratis par cunt, bonos omnes perditum eunt, i. q., per- dunt. ' Obtestatus est filium ne pertinacia sua gentem universam perditum iret , i. q., perderet. Note 4. —It must be remembered that the Supine in um is of comparatively rare occurrence, and that the best Latin writers, in its place, generally employ one of the following constructions: (a) ut or qui with the Subj. Pres, or Imperf.; (b) the geni¬ tive of the Gerund with causa or gratia ; (c) the accusative of the Gorund with ad ; or lastly (d) the Participle in urus , which is to agree in gender, number, and case, with the person that has to perform the action denoted by the Latin subordinate verb. E. g., “ The Yeientes sent ambassadors to Eomo to sue for peace;” Yeienies oratores pacem petitum Eomam miserunt , or (a) ut or qui pacem peterent , (b) pacem petendi (pacis petendae) causa or gratia , (c) ad petendum pacem (ad pacem petendam), (d) pacem petituros. Mirabile visu. § 219.—Toe Supine m u stands (a) with the substantives fas , nefas , and opus; (b) mill the adjectives facilis , difficiUs, gratus , jucundus , injucundus / suavis } dulcis , acerbus ; mollis , durus ; turpis , honestus ; dignus , indignus ; utilis , jnemorabilis , mirabilis, incredibilis ,—when the question “ in what respect ?”* asked in connection with any of these ad¬ jectives is answered by a verb; as, “A thing wonderful (in what respect ?—) to behold, or to be beheld.” Videtis nefas esse dictu miseram fuisse Fabii senectutem. Quod opti¬ mum factu videbitur , facies. De apibus multa narrantur nolatu dignis- sima. TJva primo est peracerba gustatu, deinde maturata dulcescit. Difficile dictu est quantopere conciliet animos hominum comitas affabilitas- que sermonis. Note. — The Supine in u , like that in um , is of rare occurrence. Those actually in use are principally the following: auditu , cognitu , dictu, factu, intdlectu, inventu, memoratu, visu. Instead of the Supine in u after facilis, dificilis, and jucundus, Latin writers prefer the following constructions: (a) The Infinitive ; as, Facile est justam causam defendere. Non facile est invenire (aliquem), qui quod sciat ipse, non iradai alteri. (b) The Passive,—the adjectives facilis, difficilis, etc., being then changed into ad¬ verbs ; as, Justa causa facile defenditur. Ea sunt animadvertenda peccata maxime , quae difficillime praccaventur . (c) The Gerund with ad ; as, Justa causa facilis est ad defendendum . Eo cibo uten- dum est qui sit facillimus ad concoquendum. Orator verbis ad audiendum jucundis utatur. (d) A verbal substantivo ; as, Justce causae facilis est defensio. Virtutum ac vitiorum facilis est distinctio. Natura Lei difficiles explicatus habet. (e) Sometimes the Participle Present ; as, Justa causa dfendenti facillima est. Decemviri colloquentibus difficiles erant, i. e., erant aditu difficiles. THE CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES, 197 THE CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. § 220.—Participles, like Gerunds and Supines, govern the case of their verbs ; as, scribens epistolam , parcens hosti , furti accusatus , regem aditurus , liberalitate utens. To make use of the Participial construction, it is necessary that there be in English two sentences or clauses,—a principal and a subordinate. Subordinate clauses (see § 86) are either complete or abridged;— complete , when the conjunction is expressed; abridged , when it is not expressed. E. g. } (Complete.) When shame is lost, all virtue is lost. (Abridged.) Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. § 221.—The rules to be observed' in the construction of Participles, are as follow: I. See whether in the principal sentence there be a pronoun referring to some substantive in the subordinate clause. If so, put the pronoun in the place of the substantive and the substantive in the place of the pronoun. Thus, While Cato was dining, it was announced to him. It was announced to Cato, while he was dining. After Caesar had defeated the Gauls, he pursued them. Ctesar pursued the Gauls, after he had defeated them. When the enemy had taken the city, they pillaged it. The enemy pillaged the city, after they had taken it. Note 1.—When the Participial construction is to take place in a sentence contain¬ ing a verbal noun, the latter must first be changed into a subordinate clause, either complete or abridged; as, 5 * During the reign (regno) of Augustus, Christ was born. Augustus reigning, or while Augustus was reigning, etc. At the approach ( appropinquo ) of spring, the swallows return. Spring approaching, or when spring approaches, etc. After the fall ( c&pio ) of Troy, Alneas came into Italy. Troy being taken, or after Troy had been taken, etc. Note 2. —When two clauses are connected by “and,” the former usually is made the subordinate, by changing its verb into the present or the past Participle, according as the actions or events expressed by the two clauses are simultaneous or not ; as, Alexander took the cup and said to the physician. Alexander taking the cup, said to the physician. 198 THE CONSTRUCTION OP PARTICIPLES, Ambassadors came and sued for peace. Ambassadors came suing for peace. The wolf seized the lamb and tore it into pieces. The wolf having seized the lamb, tore it into pieces. II. Leave oat the conjunction, and change the verb of the subc dinate clause into its corresponding Participle. (1.) To the Present and Imperfect Act. (and also to the simple Future Act., when there is another Future tense in the principal clause), the Participle Present in ns corresponds. (2.) To the Perfect, Pluperfect, and Fut.-Perfect Active, and to any tense of the Passive, the Participle Perfect in us corresponds. E. g., When spring comes ( appropinguans ), the swallows return. His strength failing ( dejiciens ), he fell on the ground. While Augustus was reigning ( regnans ), Christ was bom. If you will do this (_ faciens ), you shall be safe. When you have lost {perditus) heaven, you have lost all. Having crossed ( trajectus ) the river, we attacked the enemy. When thou art rebuked {reprehensus) , do not reply. Henry blushed, when he was praised ( laudatus ). Shame being lost ( sublatus ), all virtue is lost. Troy having been destroyed ( eversus ), ASneas came to Italy. Note 1.—Instead of the Participle Present, the Participle Perfect is not unfrequeutly used when the verb is deponent; as, Forgetting ( oblitvs ) me, think of you and your children. Fearing ( verities ) Alexander’s wrath, Darius sued for peace. Note 2.—When the subordinate clause contains the Perfect, Pluperfect, or Fut.- Perfect Active, the clause must first be changed into the Passive, unless the verb be deponent, in which case the English active clause is left unchanged. E. g., Having crossed ( trajicio ) the river, we attacked the enemy. The river having been crossed ( trajecius ), v/e attacked, etc. Scipio burnt the city, after he had plundered it (diripio). Scipio burnt the city, after it had been plundered ( direptus ). Having crossed ( transgressus, ) the river, we encamped. Csesar having addressed ( allocutus ) his army, ordered, etc. fegP The Perfect Participle of certain deponents (see § 59, note) has besides the active signification also a passive. This Perf. Participle, however, should never bo used in a passive sense in the construction of the ablative absolute. Forms like partito exercitu , partita classe , partite copiis , depopulate agris , etc., in which the Participles par* THE CONSTRUCTION OE PARTICIPLES 199 titus and depopulates are used in $. passive sense, must be looked upon as exceptions not to be imitated. Note 3. —When the subordinate clause expresses a wish or a being about to do something, its verb is changed into the Panieiplo in urns ;—but when it is intimated that a thing is to be done, into the Participle in dtis ; as, When the storks are to migrate (jnigruterus), they all assemble. The camel lies down, when it is to be !adon {amrandus). III. See whether the nominative of the subordinate clause refer to gome word in the principal, or not. (a) When it does, the nominative of the subordinate clause (in this case always a pronoun) is left untranslated in Latin, and the Participle made to agree in gender, number, and case, with the word in the prin¬ cipal sentence, to which the nominative of the subordinate clause refers. Thus, Whilst he read, I fixed my eyes upon his countenance. Oculos in vultum legentis intendi. I met your brother, as he was going home. Fratri tuo domum redeunti obviam f actus sum. When I think of this, it appears wonderful to me. Cogitanti mi/ii hac de re mirum videtur. Having crossed the river, we fortified the camp. Amnem transgressi castra munivimus. (b) When the nominative of the subordinate clause does not refer to any word of the principal sentence, the ablative absolute is used, that is, the nominative of the subordinate clause is put in the ablative, and the Participle made to agree with it in gender, number, and case; thus, If nature opposes, you will strive in vain. Natura repugnante frustra niteris. When spring approaches, the swallows return. Vere appropinquante hirundmes redeunt. Shame being lost, all virtue is lost. Fudore sublato omnis virtus tollitur. Having crossed the river, we attacked the enemy. Flumine trajecto kostem aggresei sumus. Caninio consule seito neminem prandisse , nihil eo consule mail factum esse. 1 Curio ad focum sedenti magnum auri pondus Samnltes attulerunt. J ) See Note 3, p. 200,—and also foot-note to the example: Caninius fuit mirifica vigilantia, etc., § 109, II. 200 THE CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES, Regina apum nonnisi migraturo agmine procedit. Id CarlhaginiT'l delatum (“ and/ 7 ) publice comprobatum est. Perditis rebus omnibus ipsa virius se sustentare potest. Risus interdum ita repente erumpit ut eum cupientes (“though,” “even if”) tenere nequeamus. Coesar omnium remotis equis cohortatus suos proelium commisit. Defundo Traja.no JElius Hadrianus creatus est princeps. Maximas virtutes jicere o nines necesse est , voluptate dominante. Darius Charidemum,, maxime utilia suadentem (“though”), abstrahijussit ad capitate supplicium. Notes on the Participial Construction. Note 1.—The English phrases by me, by thee, by him, by us, etc., which arise from the change of the active voice into the passive, are in the Participial construction left untranslated; as, After Alex, had subdued India, he returned to Babylon. A. returned to B., after India had been subdued [by him]. Alexander India subacta JBabylonem rediit. Note 2. —When a verb wants the corresponding Participle, the Participial con¬ struction cannot be used. Thus we may say : Ccesare adveniente, “Caesar arriving,” ox “ at Caesar’s arrival;” but we cannot say: Ccesare advento, “Caesar having arrived,” or “ after Caesar’s arrival,” because advenio, being intransitive, does not admit of a personal passive. Instead of Goisare advento, w r e must therefore say: cum Ccesar advenisset. —For the same reason we cannot say: Alexandro decesso, “after Alexander’s death,”— Sylla fdutus a multis, “ Sylla being favored by many,”— Socrates qucesitus, “ Socrates being asked,”— Cato egregie impositus a Milone, “ Cato being most beauti¬ fully deceived by Milo,” etc., but we must say : cum Alexander decessisset • cum Sylla plurimi faverent / cum ex Socrate queereretur or queesitum esset; cum Catoni egregie imposuisset Milo. Note 8.—When sum, esse, is the verb of the subordinate clause, it is left out (there being no Present or Perfect Participle of sum). In this case the Predicate noun ox adjective supplies the place of the Participle. E. g., “ When the skies are serene, it seldom thunders,” Cedo sereno raro tonat. Cicerone consule, under C.’s consulship, lit., C. being consul. Ilerode rege, in the reign of Herod, lit., Herod being king. Te auctore, by thy suggestion, lit., thou being the adviser. dhobis invitis , in spile of us, lit., we being unwilling. Scipione duce, under Scipio’s command, lit., Sc. being the leader. Me inscio , without my knowledge, lit., I being ignorant of. Hannibale vivo, in II.’s lifetime, lit., II. being alive. Teste Polybio, according to the testimony of P., lit., P. being voucher. Deo teste, in God’s presence, lit., God being witness. Note 4.—The particles velut, quasi, and tamquam, “ as if,” are always,— etsi, licet quamquam, and quamvis, sometimes, retained in the Participial construction. E. g., “You live as if you were to live forever;” Vivitis tamquam semper victuri. Antiochus securus admodum de hello Romano erat, tamquam non tvansituris in Asiam Romanis .— Caesarem milites, quamvis recusantem, ultro in Africam sunt secuti. Ccesar decumanos adire non cunctatus est , quamquam deterrentibus amicis. THE CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. 201 Note 5.— When the connective “and” is followed by “would,” the verb following is frequently rendered by the Participle in urus. E. g., Librum misi exigenti tibi, missurus (‘ and I would have sent it’) esti non exegisses. Red it tnihi quantum maxime potuit, daturus amplius (‘ and he would have given, still more’) si potuisset. Jure, interfedum Glitum Macedones decernunt, scpulturd quoque prohibitum, ni rex humari jussisset.—{ HggT This use of the Partic. in urus belongs chiefly to the writers of the silver age.) Note 6.— When of two subordinate clauses connected by “and,” one only admits of the Participial construction, the connective “and” may be omitted, but the introductory conjunction as, since, when, etc., must be expressed in the clause which does not admit of the construction. E. g., “ As there was an irritation on both sides and the people had become emboldened, the senate dared, etc.” Irritati» utriusque partis animis, quumplebi animus accessisset , patres ausi sunt , etc. When both clauses admit of the Participial construction, the connective et is some¬ times expressed and sometimes omitted. It should always be omitted, when one of the two Participles is an ablative absolute, the other not; as, “ The Carthaginians killed Eegulus after they had cut off his eyelids and tied him to the scaffold,” Car- thaginienses Regulum resectis palpebris illigaium in machina necaverunt. —When both Participles are ablatives absolute, et may be expressed or omitted ; as, “ Xerxes, hav¬ ing bridged the Hellespont and tunnelled Mount Athos, marched across the sea,” Xerxes IMlesponio j undo (et) Athone perfosso , mare ambulavit. Note 7. —The prepositions before, after, till, from, on account of, when placed before a verbal noun, are expressed by ante, post, ad, ob, propter , de, respec¬ tively, with the Partic. Perfect, when an action or event already completed is spoken of^—and with the Partic. in dus, when an action is conceived as yet to be performed. E. g., “Before (after) the birth of Christ,” Ante {post) Christum ndturn. “ From the building of Rome,” Ab urbe condita.—Scipio propter Africam domitam Africanus est appellatus. Helium Tarentinum ob violates (‘ on account of an insult offered to’) legatos Romanorum ortum est. Regulus de permutandis captivis Romam missus est. The preposition “after,” before a verbal noun, is more commonly rendered by the simple Participle; as, “ After the expulsion of the kings,” Regibus exactis, though also post reges exados. Note 8.—The English “ without” before a participial noun is variously rendered into Latin: (a) By a Participle with non, nemo , nullus, nihil. E. g., “ Without fixing any day,” Nulla preestituta die ; “ Without paying any regard to,” Nulla habita ratione .— Quam multa non expedata (without being expected) eveniunt! Athenienses non rogati (without being asked) auxilium ferebant. Id etiam me tacente (without my telling you) intelliges. Me non sentiente, — nullo salutato (without my knowing, without saluting anybody) abiit. Lacrimce cadwnz nolentibus nobis (without our willing it). Compressi tuos nefarios conatus, nullo tumultu publice condtato. Multorum te oculi et aures non sentientem speeulabuntur atque custodient. (b) By quin with the Subjunctive, when the preceding sentence is negative ; as, Timoleontem mater nunquam aspexit quin eu?n fratricidam impiumque compeilartt (without calling him). When after a negative sentence, “without” is equivalent to “unless,” it is ex¬ pressed by nisi with either the Subjunctive or the participial construction. E. g., Nunquam accurate eleganterque Latine scribes nisi perlectis (without having read) opti - mis scriptoribus, or nisi perlegeris optimos scriptores. Caesar exercitum nunquam pet insidiosa itinera duxit, nisi perspeculatus (without having previously examined) locorum situs. 202 THE CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES. (c) By adjectives,—especially negative adjectives with the prefix in, as inscius invitus, insomnis , iniquus, etc. E. g., “He does nothing without consulting me,” Nihil agit me inconsulio .—“ Without our knowing,” Nobis insciis .—“ Without having finished,” Infecto labore .—“ To spend the night without being able to sleep,” Noctem insomnem ducere .—“ Without violating one’s conscience,” Salva Jide .—“ Without complaining,” AEquo (Tiaud iniquo) animo. d) Sometimes by a substantive, an adverb, or a conjunction ; as, “ Without hesi¬ tating,” Sine ulla dubitatione .—“Without suspecting any thing,” Sine ulla suspicione .— “Without fearing,” Sine metu , or confidenter .—“Without shedding tears,” Sine lacri- mis or siccis oculis .—“Without thinking, reflecting,” Imprudenter, temere.—“Multi poetas admirantur nee tamen intelligunt ^without understanding them ).—Malim esse vir bonus nee videri (without seeming one), quam videri nee esse (without being so).— Quidam litteris (ita) se tradunt ut nihil possint ex his ad communem afferre usum (with¬ out being able to produce ....). Note 9.—The verbs volo, nolo , malo , cupio, and oportet , are often construed with the Partic. Perfect, instead of the Infinitive, in order to express the thing which one has in view, as already completed. E. g., lllud te admonitum volo. Omnes rempublicam defensam conservatamque volumus. Vobis omnibus me excusatum volo. Miser est qui patriam exstinctam cupit. Note 10.— Habeo , with the Perfect Partic. of verbs denoting knowledge, etc., is sometimes used instead of the simple Perfect of these verbs; as , lllud cognitum {perspectum, perceptum, comprehensum, exploratum, statutum, constitutum , deliberatum) habeo, instead of lllud cognovi, perspexi , comprehends, etc.—E. g., Gompertum habeo (= bene scio), milites, verba virtutem non addere. Caesar perjidiam AEduorum per- spectam habebat. Siculi ad meam jidem, quam habent spectatam jam et diu cognitam, confugiunt. An quisquam potest probare quod perceptum , quod comprehensum, quod cognitum non habet ? Similar constructions are : urbem obsessam tenere , pecunias collocatas habere , domitas habere libidines, etc. Note 11.—The Perfect Participle of verbs sentiendi and declarandi (§ 101) sometimes stands by itself in the ablative absolute, the clause following being considered as the subject of the Participle. Ablatives of this kind are: audito, cognito , comperto , explorato, nuntiato, edncto, and a few more. E. g., Alexander audito (instead of cum audivisset) Barium appropinquare cum exercitu , obviarn ire constituit. Hannibal cog¬ nito (instead of cum cognovisset) insidias sibi parari, fuga salutem qucesivit .—Even the ablative neut. of adjectives sometimes supplies the place of an ablative absolute ; e. g., Multi adnantes navibus , incerio prce tenebris (quum incertum esset ) quid petercnt aut vitarent, foede interierunt. Note 12.—In the construction of the ablative absolute, two Participles belonging to the same subject-ablative, are to be avoided. Thus we may say: Quum Pom - peius Strabo, de coelo tactus , mortuus esset, etc.,—or, Quum Regulus, prrelic capi-us, Carthaginem esset abductus, etc.,—but we should say neither: Pompeio de cfoio iacto mot'tuo, nor Regulo proslio capto Carthaginem abducio. r ARTICLES. 203 CHAPTER YIL PARTICLES. 1. Adverbs.—2. Prepositions.—3. Conjunctions. I. Adverbs. GOVERNMENT OF ADVERBS. Satis eloquentiae, sapiential parum. § 222.—Adverbs of quantity govern the genitive. Such are, sat, satis, enough; parum, too little; abunde, affatim, abundantly; nimis, too much; as, “Enough (of) eloquence, but too little wisdom.” Affatim est hominum, quibus negotii nihil est. Caesar dicebat, se potentice gloriceque abunde adepturn. Nimis insidiarum adhibent. Multis in locis parum virium veritas habet. In isto juvene animi satis, auctoritatis parum est. Sat habet fautorum semper, qui recte facit. Note 1.—Here is to be noticed the phrase quoad (== quantum) ejus fieri potest or quoad ejus facere possum, “as far as this is possible, ”or “as far as I can,-’—where the genitive ejus refers to the preceding clause. E. g., Quoad ejus fieri potest, prcesentias tv as desiderium meo labore minuitur. Ta velim non intermittas, quoad ejus facere poteris, scribere ad me. Note 2.—The adverbs of place, ubi, ubinam, ubique, ubicunque, usquam, nusquam, unde, hie, hue , eo , quo , quoquo , aliqvo, quocunque, are often, for the sake of emphasis, construed with the genitives gentium, terrarum, lo corum ; as, “Where on earth (or in the world) are we ? Ubinam gentium sumus?—Quo terrarum abiit? Vir bonus, ubicunque terrarum erit, diligetur. Quo gentium aufugiam, nescio. Rhodum aut aliquo terrarum, migrandum est. Quairis quod nusquam est gentium. Abes longe gen~ tivm, “you are greatly mistaken.” —Minime gentium, “by no means.” in the phrases postea loci, ‘ afterwards interta loci, ‘in the mean time;’ adhuc b's.rvm, ‘ until now,' the genitive seems to be superfluous. —Ilic loci, hoc loci, eo (or ioti'-m) loci, and quo loci, stand sometimes for hoc loco, eo loco, and quo loco. The adverbs hue , eo, quo, in the sense of “ to this degree,” are construed with other genitives also; as, Eo insolentice furorisque processit. Vide quo amentia progressus sis. Eo miseriarum pervenimus. Huccine rerum (• to that state of things’) venimus ? Note 3.— Pridie and postridie take both the genitive and accusative; as, Pridie {postridie) ejus diei. Pridie ( postridie ) Calendas or Calendarmn. Pridie insidiarum . Postridie nvptias. Pridie Nonas Junias litter as tuas accept. 204 PARTICLES. The adverbs propius and proxime take commonly the accusative ; as, Officium meum esse putavi exercitum habere quam proxime hostem: —sometimes the dative, too ; as, Quam proxime potest hostium s&stris castra communit. pT- The interjections en and ecce , Lo ! behold ! are usually construed with the nominative; as, “Here I am,” En ego! En nova rixa! Ecce litter ex turn! Ecce Homo !—Ecce is used, in poetry only, with the accusative of a pronoun ; as, Ecce me! Eccum adest , “behold, there he is!”— Eccum quern queerebam! Thus the forms eccam , eccillum, eccillam, eccos, etc. With V(B and hei , the dative is used ; as, Vce victis ! Hei mihi! Heu and pro (proh ) take both the accusative and vocative ; the accusative, in ex¬ clamations of wonder or grief; the vocative, in direct address; as, Heu memiserum! cur senatum cogor , quem laudavi semper, reprehendere?—Proh deum hominumquefideml —Heu pietas , heuprisca fides ! Pro sancte Jupiter ! Pro dii immortales ! Particulars about the Use of Adverbs. § 223.—1. Distinction, between plus, magis, amplius, and potius. Plus, “ more,” is used in respect of quantity, measure, value; as, Apud me argumenta plus quam testes valent. Vos et decern numero, et, quod plus est, Romani estis. Tantum et plus etiam mihi debet. Quam molestum est uno digito plus 1 habere! Magis, “ more,” is the comparative of action or quality,—it shows that a quality exists in a higher degree; as, Nemo fuit magis sexerus nee magis eon - tinens. Noe magis est xerisimile.—Magis xirtute quam dolo contendunt. Nee me mecs miseries magis exeruciant quam tuce. pf” Plus, in general, is used where in the positive multum would stand ; and magis, where vaide .—In certain connections it is indifferent whether we use plus or magis • as, aliquem plus or magis amare, diligere. Amplius, “ more,” “ longer,” “ further,” is used of extent in time and num¬ ber;—it denotes addition without comparison; as, Amplius sunt sex menses. Milites amplius horis quatuor fortissime pugnaverunt. Duo haud amplius milliapeditum urbem ingressi sunt. Quid xis amplius? Potius, “more,” “rather,” “sooner,” denotes choice between two objects or actions. {Magis attributes only a higher degree to one of the objects compared, whereas potius actually prefers it.) E. g., Perpessus est omnia potius quam conseios indicaret. Nee xero imperia expetenda , etc potius non accipienda inter dum. 2. The adverb qui is often used instead of quomodo; as, Nos Deum, nisi sempiternum, intelligere qui possumus ? Deus falli qui potest ? Qui potest esse in ejusmodi trunco (“ blockhead”) scipientia ? 3. Fortasse and forsitan (poet, forsan) signify “ perhaps.”— Forte means “ by chance,” “ accidentally:” but, when preceded by ne, si, nisi, num, it also acquires the meaning of “perhaps.” E. g., Si quis xestrum, judices, forte i) a finger too much. PARTICLES. 205 miratur.—Forsitan is generally used in sentences the nature of which requires the Subjunctive; e. g., Forsitan aliquis dioat. 4. JSTec vero, nec enim, nec tamen, or neque vero, neque enim, neque tamen , are frequently used at the beginning of a sentence instead of non vero, non enim, non tamen. E. g., Menti nihil est tarn inimicum quam voluptas: nee enim libidine dominants temperantice locus est. Alcibiades magnam amicitiam sibi cum quibusdam regibus Thracice pepererat: neque tamen a caritate patrice poiidt recedere. 5. As nec {neque) non often stands for et non, so Latin writers frequently use nec ullus for et nullus, nec quisquam “ et nemo, nec quidquam “ et nihil, nec unquam “ et nun quam, nec usquam “ et nusquam; as, K Many pretend to know every thing, and yet know nothing,” Multi omnia se simulant scire, nec quidquam sciunt. Impedit consilium voluptas, nec ullum cum virtute habet commercium. Horae cedunt et dies et menses et anni, nec prceteritum tempus unquam revertitur. G. In translating “ I don’t know whether,” “ I am not sure that,” by haud scio {nescio, dubito) an, if there is a “ not,” omit it in Latin : if these is no “ not,” put in non. Also translate “ anybody” by nemo, “ any” by nullus, “ any thing” by nihil, “ at any time or ever” by nunquam, and “ anywhere” by nusquam .—-Such is the practice of Cicero and his contemporaries. (Com¬ pare § 107, 2.)—E. g., “I don’t know whether I should not prefer Thrasybulus to all,” Dubito an Thrasybulum primum omnium ponamd —“ I am not sure that there is any happier man,” Haud scio an nullus sit beatior vir . l 2 —“ I don’t know whether, wisdom excepted, any thing better than friendship has been given by the gods to man,” Haud scio an excepta sapientia nihil melius amicitid homini sit a diis datum. 7. The English “ I say (will, order) that none, that no, that nothing, that never,”—is generally expressed in Latin by nego {nolo, veto) with quisquam, quidquam, ullus, unquam. E. g., Negavit se unquam (for dixit se nunquam) talia vidisse. Vetuit quidquam (for jussit nihil) per fraudem fieri. Stoici negant quidquam (for dicunt nihil) esse bonum nisi quod honestum sit. When the verbs nego, nolo, veto, are followed by a second clause, the latter is introduced by neque, when it is negative, and by et {que, atque), when it is affirmative. E. g., Illi vero obsides daturos se negabant neque (and that they would not) portas Consult prceclusuros. Plerique negant Ccesarem in conditions mansurum postulataque 3 (and that) hcec ab eo interposita esse, quo minus quod opus esset ad helium, a nobis parareiur. 8. Two negatives in the same sentence. are equivalent to an affirmation. l ) Or, I am inclined to prefer Th. to all. 2 ) Or, I am inclined to think that there ia no happier man, or There is perhaps (probably, most likely) no happier man. 8 ) the same as dicuntquepostulata luec , etc. 206 PARTICLES. Thus non ignoro, non nescio, non sum inscius, non me fugit, non me prceterit % are equivalent to probe scio ; non minimum, to multum ; non imperitissimus, to valde peritus ; non inferior, to par or superior ; non possum non, to cogor or clebeo; nee non, to et; ne non, to ut; neque vero non, to et vero ; neque tamen non, to et tamen, etc. E. g., Corporis dignitas non minimum commenaat. Id indigne ferebant, neque tamen non patiebantur. Qui mortem in malis ponit, non potest earn non timere. Non potest non beatissimus esse, cui nihil deest. Neque vero non (and in truth) fuit apertum, si Conon non fuisset, Agesilaum Asiam Taurotenus regifuisse erepturum. When a negative is followed by ne-quidem, neque-neque, nee-nee, or neve- neve, the first negative is not destroyed, but ne-quidem is then equivalent to vel (“even”) and neque-neque to aut-aut. E. g., Nunquam te ne minima quidem in re offendi, “ I never offended you even in the least.”— Urbes sine hominum ceetu non potuissent nee cedificari nee frequentari. Nihil est illo milii nee carius nee jueundius. Ccesar negat neque honestius neque tutius quidquam mihi esse (= dicit nihil mihi esse neque ....) quam cib omni contentione abesse. fcjyf” Ne non , ne nullus , ne nemo , after the Imperative vide , “ consider,” must be rendered by “ whether,” or “ that not—that no one.” E. g., Credere omnia quae dicuntur vide ne non sit necesse ; “ Consider whether it be necessary to believe every thing,” i. e., “ remember that it is not necessary, etc.”— Vide ne nulla sit divinatio ; “ Consider whether such a science exists at all.” 9. The particle non, placed before nemo, nullus, nihil, nunquam, renders the affirmation indefinite and incomplete; but placed after them, definite and complete. Thus, non nemo means non nulli “ non nihil “ non nunquam “ some one, some, something, sometimes ; nemo non means nullus non “ nihil non “ nunquam non “ every one, every one, every thing, always ; as, Nemo non benignus est sui judex. Nulli non ad nocendum satis virium est. Hannibal non nihil temporis tribuit litteris. Athenienses Alcibiadem nihil non efficere posse ducebant. Nunquam non honorificentissime eum appellabat. When nihil non, nunquam non, nusquam non, have an Infinitive inserted between them, they retain their negative meaning, and are equivalent to an indefinite affirmation ; as, Nihil agere animus non potest, “ cannot do nothing,” i. e., must do something.— Ubi sunt mortui aut quern locum incolunt? Si enim sunt, nusquam esse non possunt, “ they cannot be nowhere,” i. e., they must be somewhere. 10. Tantum quod, in the Classical language, means “just,” “just then,” “ hardly,” “ scarcely;” and tantum quod non, “ only that not,” “ nothing is wanting but.” E. g., Tantum quod exArpinati veneram, cum mihi a te litteree rcdditai sunt. Tantum quod hominem non nominat, “ he almost mentions him by name.” Tantum non, in Livy, and in the later prose writers, often occurs in the sense of “ almost,” “ very nearly;” as, Nuntii afferebant tantum non (only not) jam captam Lacedeemonem esse. Videt Romanos tantum non jam circumveniri a dextro cornu. PARTICLES. 207 11 Enumerations are usually made by means of the numeral adverbs primum, deinde, turn, denique, or postremo ; as, Primum mihi videtur de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, turn de imperatore deligendo esse dicendum. Primum docent Stoici esse deos, deinde qucdes sint, turn mundum ab his ad- ministrari, postremo considere eos rebus humanis. II. Prepositions. § 224.—The fundamental signification of each preposition has been already given § 17. This signification, however, in various passages suffers various modifications, with which the pupil should be duly ac¬ quainted, in order to comprehend more fully the sense of such passages. The more important of these modifications are exhibited in the fol¬ lowing paragraphs: Prepositions with the Accusative. § 225.—AD, 1) “ near,” “ at ” “ close bye. g., pugna ad Carinas , ad Trebiam , ad Trasimenum ; urbs sita ad mare ; liabet hortos ad Tiberim, ad portas urbis; negotium habere ad portum (= in portu) ;—2) “ to,” “ toward,” “ till;” e. g., ad meridiem spedans ; ad lucem , ad vesperam , towards daybreak, evening; ad mvltam noctem , till late at night; ad summam senectutem tragoedias fecit; ad Alpes (as far as) processerat ;— S) “about,” “nearly” (of numerals); e. g., annos ad quadraginta natus ; ad quin- gentos captisunt ; and adverbially in the sense of circiter : occisis ad hominum millibus octo ; —4) “in comparison with;” e. g., nihil ad Persium ; nihil ad hunc hominem ; terra ad universi codi complexum quasi pundi instar obtinet; —5) “at,” “on” (of a fixed time) ; e. g., prcesto esse ad horam destinatam , ad diem constitutam ; ad diem solvere , “ to pay on the day fixed upon ;”—6) “ according to,” “ after;” ad voluntatem loqui, non ad veritatem ; ad speciem or similitudinem alicujus rei; ad modum , ad nor- mam , ad exemplum , ad nutum; —7) “in respect of,” “ as to ;” e. g., homo ad labores belli impiger , ad consilia prudens. Phrases : Ad tempus , “ for some time ;” as, perturbatio animi plerumque brevis est et ad tempus; ad praesens , for the moment ; ad extremum , ad ultimum , at last, at length; ad unum omnes , all to a man, even to the very last man ; ad verbum , word for word, literally; ad nummum convenit , it agrees to a cent; omnia ad assem perdidit , to the last cent or farthing.—QgiP Translate “ at most” by summum , not by ad summum .) APED, 1) “by,” “ close by,” “ near,” “ with ;” e. g., Apud PEgos flumen Atheni - enses victi sunt; horam et amplius apud me fait; apud me nihil valet hominum opinio ; avud matrem rede est , things go well with the mother; rectissime sunt apud te omnia ;—- 2) “in presence of,” “ before ;” e. g., apud judices. apudpraetorem, apud senatum verba facere; —3) “in the house of,” “in the works or writings of;” e. g., Fuisiiapud Leccam ilia node ; JVeptolemus apud Lycomedem educatus est; apud Xenophontem Cyrus negat ; apud Ciceronem legimus. CIRCA, CIRCUM, “ around ;” as, urbes circa Capuam; multos canes circum or circa se habebat; terra circum axem se convert it. —Mittere aliquem circum ami cos , circum. vie.nos, circum insulas, etc., means, “to send somebody around to one's friends, neighbors, to the surrounding isles.—O ikca is used also of time, in the sense of “ about,” 208 PARTICLES. “toward;” e. g., postero die circa eandem horam ; circa meridiem; circa Nonas .—In the sense of “ concerning, it occurs only in the later prose ; as, varia dream h&e opinio / Tiberius circa deos negligentior fuit. CIRCITER, “ about,” occurs with the accusative of time ; as, circiter horam octz- vam ; dreiter Calendas Septembres. —Circiter is more commonly used as an adverb, as, diebus circiter quindecim ; ex ornni copia circiter pars quarta armis erat instructa. CIS, CITRA, “ on this side” (opp. to trans and ultra ).—Cis is generally used of rivers and mountains ; as, cis Rhenum, cis Taurum montem: Citra, also of other places; as, dtra Rubiconem / is locus est citra leucddem .—In later'writers citra fre¬ quently occurs in the sense of sine; as, citra invidiam nominare ; plus usus sine doc- trina , quam citra usum doctrina valet. CONTRA, 1) “against” (always in a hostile sense); as, contra leges, contra natu- ram ; Beiges olim contra Pop alum Romanum conjurarunt ;—2) “ over against,” “op¬ posite;” as, Insulae, Britannia! unum latus est contra Galliam. — Contra , adv., like contrario , means “ on the contrary.” mggT* Econtra is not Latin. JUXTA, “ beside,” “ close by;” as , juxta murum ; sepultus estjuxta viam Appiam, —Sometimes it means “next to,” “ immediately after” (of rank and estimation); e. g., apud qvos juxta divinas religiones fides humana colitur .—In the sense of secun¬ dum, “ according to,” juxta is unelassical ; hence, juxta Platonem, juxta Taciturn , juxta proeceptum Themistoclis, and similar expressions, should be avoided. Juxta, taken adverbially, means “ equally,” “ in like manner ;” as, litteris Greeds juxta atque Latinis eruditus ; juxta boni malique obtruncati sunt. OB, “ an account of;” as, ob hoc ipsum, for this very reason ; ob commodum suvm dixit .—It sometimes occurs in the sense of ante; as, non mihi mors , non exilium ob oculos versantur. PER, 1) “through,” “throughout,” “all along,” “all over;” as, erant duo itinera, unum per Sequanos, alteram per provinciam ; hospitaliter per domos invitati, i. e., from house to house, in or throughout all the houses ; milites fuga per proximas civitates dissipati; per agros vagari; religiones per manus traditce, from hand to hand;— 2) “ during;” e. g., lusdnia per totam noctem cantat; per quatuor annos abfuit; per quietem, per somnum, per idem tempus; —3) “through,” i. e., by the means of (of persons); as, per te salvus sum ,* injurias per vos ulcisci statuerunt; per me hoc didici, by myself;—4) “ on account of,” in such phrases as per cetatem, per invaletvdinem, per morbum gravem non potuit proelio interesse ; per me licet, as far as I am con¬ cerned, as to me ;—5) “ by,” in adjurations and exclamations; as, jurare per Jovem deosque penates ; per deos atque homines te oro ; per deos immortalesf |3gr Per is often used to express the manner in which a thing is done; as, per ludum ac jocum, by play and joke; per litteras, by letter; per scelus, criminally; per injuriam, unjustly; per insaniam, in a fit of madness ; per vices , by turns; per iram , in anger; per ordinem , in order: per speciem or similitudincm, under the cloak or color of.... POST, “after,” “behind,” “since;” c. g., post meridiem , post tres annos: post principia, behind the first line ; post me erat urbs, ante me silva ; post hominum me- moriam, within the recollection of; post natos homines , since the creation, or lrom time immemorial. PRiETER, 1) “besides,” i. e., together with, not to mention; as, proeter audorila- tem etiam vires ad coercendum habet 2) “ besides,” “ except;” as, preeter se neminem amat; nee hominis quid quam in eo erat preeter figuram et speciem ; —3) “contrary PARTICLES. 209 to,” “against;” as, prater spent, prater consuetudinem, prater opinionem, prater naturam, prater modum, beyond measure;—4) “before,” “along” (implying the idea of passing by); as, serviprater oculos Lollii poculaferebant; —5) “ before” (with the idea of distinction); as, prater alios, prater omnes; Aristides prater ceteros Justus est appellatus. PROPE, “near,” propius, proxime ; as, prope urbem, proxime pontem, propius mon- tem. (Propius and proxime take also the dative.) —Prope is sometimes followed by the ablative with ab; e. g., Tam prope a muris hostem habemus. PROPTER, “on account of,” “owing to;” as, mors propter brevitatem vita nun- quam longe abest. It is used also in the sense of prope, “ near ;” as, duo filii propter patrem cubantes ; propter rivum ambulaverunt. SECUNDUM, 1) “according to,” “in conformity with;” as, secundum arbitrium tuum, secundum Platonem ; secundum naturam vivere ,*—2) “along;” as, legiones secundumjlumen duxit ad urbem Gergoviam ; secundum mare iter facer e ; —3) “ alter,” “immediately after,” “next to;” as, secundum comitia; vulnus secundum aurem ; secundum Deum homines Tiominibus maxime utiles esse possunt j secundum te nihil mihi amicius salitudine ; —4) “in favor of;” as, secundum te (to thy advantage) decrevit f mulia secundum causam nostram disputavit. Prepositions with, the Ablative. 5 226.—AB, 1) “ from;” as, a prima atate, a principio , ab infantia, a pueritia or a puero; ingenuis artibus a pueris dediti sumus ; ab adolescentia or ab adolescentulo ; ab ortu et occasu solis; a froute et a tergo, in front and in the rear ; a dextro ( sinistra) cornu • a radicibus, a fundamento ;—2) “ from,” “ against;” as, se defendere a frig ore, a calore, ab hostibus ; custodiunt templum ab Hannibale ; —3) “as to,” “with regard to;” e. g., mediocriter a dodrina instructus ; ab equitatu firmus ; a matre tibi cognatus sum, on the mother’s side;—4) “ next to,” “ immediately after ;” as, proximus a rege ; con- festim a cana, a funere , a prcdio ; —5) “ in consequence of,” “ out of,” “ from;” as, a spe, ab ira, ab eadem animi fiducia ; —6) denoting an office; as, alicui esse a manu, an amanuensis ; ab epistolis, a secretory ; a rationibus, a keeper of accounts ; a pedibus , a footman, servant;— 7) denoting the followers of a school; as, a Platone, ab Aristotde , a Socrate (sc. pro/ecti). Interire ab aliquo is ■= occidi ab aliquo; as, interiit a paucis, he fell by the hands of a few; facere, sentire, stare ab aliquo = to side with some one, to be of his party. DE, 1) “from,” “down from,” “from among,” “ out of;” e. g., de tecto caderc; extorquere sicam de manibus ; homo de plebe ; unus de multis ; de meo, de tuo, de alieno, de publico (sc. sumptu), at my (thy, etc.) expense;—2) “just after” (of time) ; as, statim de prandio , statim de auctione; de node, at night; de tertia vigilia ; de die, in broad daylight; navigare de (‘in’) mense Decembri ; —3) “after,” “according to;” as, de more; de suorum sententia / de consilio meo ; de Dionysio sum admiratus, as regards, as for, or concerning;—4) “about,” “on,” “respecting;” as, cogitare, loqui, scribere de aliquare • —5) sometimes in the sense of ab or ex; as, hocpuer de patre meo audivi. Phrases: De industria , purposely; de integro , afresh; de improviso, unawares; nosse aliquem de facie, by his appearance ; expedare , differre diem de die, or diem ex die (but not de die in diem), to be waiting, to put off day after day. EX, 1) “ from,” “ out of;” o. g., ex Italia redierunt; ex equo pvgnare or colloquy. 210 PARTICLES. scribere ex itinere, on the road ; ex fug a, during flight; ex omni parte , from all parts; ex superiors loco dicere ; ex aliquo audire , scire; pendere ex arbors', —2) “from,” “ ever since,” “ directly after;” as, ex illo die or tempore j ex consulatu (ex dictatura) in Gallium profectus / diem ex die , from day to day, or day after day ;—3) “ out of,” “from among;” as, unus ex multis, unus eplebe ; —4) “according to,” “in accordance with ;” as, ex testamento, ex lege , ex consuetudine , ex senatus-consuUo or auctoritate ; vivere e natura; —5) “from,” “on account of” (denoting cause); as, laborare ex capite, ex oculis , e renibus, e pedibus / perire ex vulneribus ; e via languere ; ex lassi- tudine dormire. Phrases: Est e re mea , e re tua, e re nostra, e republica, it is for my good or advan¬ tage, etc. ; ex animo , heartily, sincerely ; ex sententia or voluntate, according to one’s wish ; ex composite, according to agreement; ex parte, partly ; ex aequo, with equal right or advantage ; ex adverso, e regione, opposite ; e longinquo, from afar; ex propin- quo, close by; e contrario , on the contrary; ex tempore , this instant, forthwith; e ves- tigio, on the spot; ex usu, useful. PRfiE, 1) “before,” with fero (also ago) and a pronoun, as pugionem pros se tulit, he held before him; pros se agere gregem, armentum; —2) “in comparison with,” “ above or more than ;” e. g., prcc se omnes contemnit; omnes pros illo parvi futuros existimo ; Athena pros ceteris urbibus Gracias floruere ;—3) “through,” “on account of” (of preventive causes) ; e. g., pra dolore loqui non potuit; solem pros sagittarum mul - titudine non videbitis .—The phrase pros se ferre often signifies “ to show,” “ dis¬ play ;” as, speciem boni viri pra se ferre ; animum album pros se ftrre. PRO, 1) “before,” “in front of,” “close by;” e. g., pro vallo, pro castris, pro oppido , pro templo; also “ in,” “upon,” “from,” as pro tribunali edicere, pro suggestu pronuntiare, pro rostris dicere or laudare ; —2) “in proportion to,” “according to,” “in conformity with;” as, pro multitudine hominum ; pr odium atrox pro numero pugnantium; pro magnitudine periculi; pro tua liumanitate, prudentia , sapiential agere pro viribus ox pro virili parte, according to one’s power or capacity: pro tempore , pro temporibus, pro re or pro re nata, according to circumstances or emergencies ; pro portione, in proportion ; pro rataportione or pro rata parte, in certain proportions, proportionally ; pro mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra parte, for my part, etc. ; pro se quis- que, every one for his part; pro eo ut, pro eo ac, according as, e. g.,pro eo ac debui , according to my duty;—3) “for,” i. e., instead of, just as much as ; e. g., alicui esse pro patre, to act as a father; esse or se gerere pro cive ; habere aliquid pro certo, ali- quem pro amico, to consider as ; unus Plato est mihi pro centum millibus /—4) “ for,” i. e., for the benefit of; c. g., pugnare pro patria , pro libertate; verba facere pro aliquo . For the prepositions IN and SUB, sec § 78. III. Conjunctions. § 221.—Whatever was deemed essential to be known with regard to the signification, division, and use of the conjunctions, has been already stated either in the Elementary or in the Syntactical part of the » Grammar. The following additional remarks, however, will not fail to be useful to the student. 1. The conjunctions ac and atque are generally used in the sense of “ as” or “ than,” after ceque, juxta, pariter, perinde, pro eo, similiter , totidem, aliter , PARTICLES. 211 contra, sccus, alius , contrarius, similis, talis; as, Felicitate taa ceque gaudeo an tu ipse. Mon perinde atque ego putaram , res evenerat. Pro eo tibi ac merer is, gratiam referent. Gam totidem navibus atque erat profectus, Athenas rediit. Mon aliter loquor ac sentio. Omnia fere contra ac speravi, evenerant. Tuam salutem non secus ac meam tueor. Aliud mihi ac tibi videtur. Similis Borneo pavor erat ac fuit bello Gallico. Hannibalem in suspicionem adduxerunt tarn - quam alia atque antea sentire. 2. The conjunction et sometimes stands for etiam; e. g., Mon errasti, mater , nam et Me Alexander est Adjuvare nos possunt non tantum ii qui sunt , sed et qui fuerunt. 3. Etsi and quamquam (although) are sometimes used in absolute sentences in the sense of “ yet/’ to correct a preceding statement; e. g., Quamquam quid loquor f “ Yet, why do I speak ?”— Do pamas temeritatis mece : etsi quce fuit ilia temeritas f 4. Autem is sometimes used in the sense of quid ego dico ? to correct an ex¬ pression just made use of; as, Intelligis quam meum sit scire et curare quid in republica fiat; fiat autem ? immo vero quid futurum sit. Ferendus tibi in hoc error meus, ferendus autem f immo vero etiam adjuvandus. 5. The disjunctives aut, vel (ve), and sive (seu) are thus distinguished : AUT stands when things and expressions are so opposed to each other that if one is, the other is not; e. g., Hie vincendum aut moriendum, milites, est. Quidquid enuntiatur, aut verum est aut falsum. Audendum est aliquid uni- versis aut omnia singulis patienda.—Aut stands also in the restrictive sense of “ at least,” to connect something less important with something more im¬ portant ; e. g., Eripe mihi hunc dolorem aut minue saltern. Profecto cuncti aut magna pars Siccensium fidem mutavissent. YEL is the Imperative from veils, as fer from ferre. It means “ if you please,” and implies that it is indifferent which of several things takes place. Vel, for the most part, distinguishes only single words, more rarely whole clauses ; and when it does so, it implies not diametrical opposition, but only a slight distinction ; e. g., Gallia vel Britannia bellum infer et (i. e., one or the other, no matter which).— Vel imperatore vel milite me utimini (i. e., use me in any capacity you like). —Proceres vel corrumpere vel corrigere mores civitatis possunt (i. e., they can do which they please).— Here vel ad odium, vel ad miseri- cordiam, vel omnino (or in general) ad animos judicum movendos utilissima sunt. Non sentiunt viri fortes in acie vulnera, vel si sentiunt, se mori malunt .— Vel is often used in the sense of “ or rather,” to correct a preceding expression; as Peteres vel potius rogares. Stupor cm hominis vel dicam pecudis videte. Valde me diligit, vel ut ejMpaTUidoTEpov dicam, valde me amat. YE (abridged from vel) unites single words; as, ter quaterve ; plus minusve. Ea esse dico qua cerni tangive possunt (i. e., either of the two will suffice.) SIVE (sew) generally denote synonymes and expresses the equivalence 212 PARTICLES. of words or clauses; e. g., Pallas she Minerva ; Mars she Mavors ; Danubius live Ister. She—she {sen — sen) is commonly used when the English “ either— or” is the same as “ he it .... or he it,” “ be it that .... or that;” e. g., lllo loco libentissime soleo uti she quid mecum ipse cogito, she aliquid scribo aut lego. SETT is common in poetry and late prose. Cicero uses it only in combina¬ tion vrith potius; as. Regie seu potius tyrannice. 0 fortunatum hominem qui ejusmodi nuntios seu potius pegasos Jiabet! 6. Nisi, after negatives and after questions implying a negative, is often used in the sense of “ except” or “ than,” instead of prater or praterquam; e. g., Nihil arbitramur expedire nisi (or praterquam) quod rectum honestumque sit. Quid est pietas nisi (or prceterquam) voluntas grata in parentes f Quern unquam senatus chem nisi (or prater) one nationibus extern commendavit ?— When no negative precedes, praterquam only or prater can stand; as, Prada omnis praterquam hominum eaptorum (or prater homines captos) militi concessa est. The English “ except that” is expressed indiscriminately by nisi quod and praterquam quod, even where no negative precedes. But when a purpose is implied, nisi ut must be used ; e. g., Mihi omnia eum eo sunt communia nisi quod (or praterquam quod) in pliilosophia veliementer ab eo dissentio. Nihil aliud ex hac re quaro nisi ut intelligas. After nihil aliud,—nisi as well as quam may follow, with this difference, however, that nihil aliud nisi means “ nothing more than,” and nihil aliud quam, “ nothing else than ;” e. g., Bellum ita suscipiatur ut nihil aliud nisi pax quasita videatur. Nihil aliud onolitus est quam ut omnes chitates in sua temret potestate. APPENDIX 1. Ellipsis.—2. Figures of Syntax.—3. The Roman Calendar. I. Ellipsis. § 228 .—Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words which are essential to the grammatical construction of sentences, but which can be readily inferred from the context. The following words are frequently omitted: Nouns. 1. JEdes or templum ; e. g., Ventum erat ad Vesta. Senatus habitus est ad Apollinis. 2. Aqua, as calida, frigida ; e. g., Ex labore sudanti frigida potio perni- ciosissima est. 3. Caro, as agnina, bubula, canina, ferina, porcina; e. g., Poem a Dario canina vesci prohibebantur. 4. Castra, as cestiva, hiberna, stativa ; e. g., Tres legiones ex hibernis educit. 5. Febris, as tertiana, quartana; e. g., Modo audivi quartanam a te dis- cessisse. 6. Homo ; e. g., Boni sunt rari .—Thus amicus, civis, miles, when they stand with a possessive pronoun ; as, Cognovi ex meorum omnium litteris. Hanni- balem sui ejecerunt. Ccesar suos misit. Insequentes nostros, ne longius prose- querentur, Sulla revocavit. 7. Locus and manus; e. g., Non habeo quo confugiam. JJbi ad Diana veneris, ito ad dextram. 8. Partes, in such phrases as alicui primas dare, concedere, deferre ; e. g., Amoris erga me tibi primas defero, “ I give you the first place among those who love me.” 9. Proedium, as Tusculanum, Pompeianum; e. g., Miraris quod me Laur rentinum meum tantopere delectet. 214 APPENDIX. 10. Verba; e. g., We multa, ne plum, quid plum, sc. verba dicam.—We multis (sc. verbis utar), Diogenes emitur.—Quid multa? sic mihi persuasi non posse esse animum mortalem. 11. Via; e. g., Xerxes, qua sex mensibus iter fecerat, eddem minus diebus triginta in Asiam reversus est. Verbs. § 229.—1. Dico, inquit, respondeo, in quoting a person’s words or opinion, and facio, in expressing our own opinion; e. g., Turn ille. Hie ego.—Gcepius olim: non omnibus dormio. Rede ille (fecit); melius hi (fecerunt). Nihil per vim unquam Clodius, omnia per vim Milo (sc. fecit). 2. Facio, fio, after nihil aliud quam, quid aliud quam, nihil preeterquam; e. g., “ They do nothing but laugh,” or “ they are merely laughing;” Nihil aliud quam rident.—Tissaphernes nihil aliud quam bellum comparavit. Per biduum nihil aliud quam steterunt parati ad pugnandum. Ilia node nihil (sc. fiebat) preeterquam vigilatum est. INT This form of expression is found in Livy, Nepos, Curtius, etc.; but it does not occur in Cicero. 3. Oro, precor, obsecro, in adjurations ; as, Prop era,, per deos ; scis enim quan¬ tum sit in celeritate. Per ego vos deos patrios, vindicate db ultimo dedecore nomen gentemque Persarum. 4. Pertinere, “ to concern e. g.. Quid hoc ad me ? Quidl ad te ? Quorsus hoc ? “ What is that for ?” —Rede an secus, nihil ad nos. Zaleucus sive fuit sive non fuit, nihil ad rem. Quid ad Geesarem, quid agat nostra Germania? 5. Quod sometimes stands (especially in letters) for quod attinet ad id quod, “ with regard to,” “ as regards the fact that;” e. g., “ With regard to what you write about your coming to see me, I wish you to remain there ;” Quod scribis te si velim, ad me venturam: ego vero te istic esse volo. Quod mihi de nostro statu gratularis : minime miramur te tuo opere Icetari. Quod scribis te velle scire qui sit reipublicce status : summa dissensio est. Quod scire vis, qua quisque in te fide sit et voluntate, difficile didu est de singulis. 6. Scito, scitote, or (in indirect Narration) sciat, sciret ,—especially after quod in the sense of quod attinet ad id quod ; e. g., Quod mihi Pompeiam uxorem tuam commendas, (scito) cum Sura nostro statim, tuis litteris ledis, loculus sum. Legationi Gcesaris Ariovistus respond'd: quod sibi Gcesar denuntiaret, se JEclu- orum injurias non neglecturum, (sciret) neminem securn sine sua perride contendisse. 7. Quid ? quod —frequently occurs instead of quid dicam de eo quod,, and may be rendered by “ nay,” “ nay even,” “ moreovere. g., Quid, quod salus soci¬ orum in periculum vocatur ? Orpheus in animum meum scepe incurrit: quid, quod earum rerum, quae nunquam omnino fiuerunt, neque esse potuerunt, ui Scyllae, ut Chimcerce, preesto est imago. 8. An Infinitive is often to be supplied in indirect Narration after relatives, where the verb, if it were repeated, would be put either in the Indicative oi / / ' - • :* > . - \ APPENDIX. 215. Subjunctive, according as the writer wished to express liis own sentiment or that of another ; e. g., Fateor me in ea parte fuisse qua te, or qua tu fuisti. Fatetur se in ea parte fuisse qua me, or qua ipse fuerim. Gamanos ejusdem conditionis, cujus Gapuam, esse placuit, or cujus Capua esset. Particles. § 230.—1. The conjunction ut is sometimes omitted, when a clause precedes with ne; e.g.,Patres Conscripti legatos in Bythiniam miserunt, qui ab rage peterent ne inimicissimum suum secum haheret sibique dederet. Monere ccepit Forum ne ultima experiri perseveraret dederetque se victori .—The conjunction et, que , or atque, may in such passages be rendered by “ but.” 2. In the formula non modo non — sed ne-quidem (or sed vix), the second non is sometimes expressed, and sometimes omitted. Non is expressed, when each clause of the sentence has its own finite verb, or when the finite verb stands in the first, in case there should, be but one, common to both. E. g., Fgo tibi non modo non irascor, sed ne reprehendo, quidem factum tuum. Ille non modo non prseerat ulli negotio, sed etiam ne intererat quidem.—Horum summorum imperatorum non modo res gestas non antepono meis, sed ne fortunam quidem ipsam. Id non modo re prohibere non licet, sed ne verbis quidem vituperare. Non is omitted, when the sentence has but one finite verb, expressed in the second clause.—In English, either the first clause is introduced by “not only not,” and the second by “ but not even” “ but scarcely—or the order of the clauses is inverted, and then the former introduced by “not even,” the latter by “ much less.” E. g., Vir bonus non modo face-re, sed ne cogitare quidquam audebit, quod non honestum sit. Assentatio non modo amico, sed 7ie libero quidem digna est. Tales homines non modo sine cura quiescere, sed ne spirare quidem sine metu possunt. Gamillorum, Fdbriciorum, Curiorum virtutes non solum in moribus nostris, sed vix jam in libris reperiuntur. II. Figures of Syntax. § 231.—Syntactical Figures are certain deviations from the or¬ dinary connection and arrangement of words. They are by various Grammarians variously divided and subdivided. The author, for the sake of reference, has preferred to present, them here alphabetically arranged. 1. Anacolttthon, when the latter part of a sentence does not correspond in construction with the former; as, Bum hcec ita fierent, rex Juba, cogniiis Ccesaris difficultatibus copiarumque paucitate, non est visum, dari spatium com valescendi. JJnum hoc certe videor mihi verissime posse dicere turn quum haberet respublica Luscinos —(thus far, indirect: what follows, direct) et turn quum erani Gatones,—tamen hujuscemodi res commissa nemini est. 2. Anastromie is an inversion of the natural order of words; as, Fgo si 216 APPENDIX. potero, faciam vobis satis. Atheniensibus exhaustis prater arma ei naves, nihil erat super.—Transtra per et remos. Spem metumque inter. 3. Asyndeton is tlie omission of connectives; as, Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit. Ostentas patientiam famis, frigoris, inopice omnium rerum. Equidem non deero: monebo, prcedicam, denuntiabo, testabor semper Deos hominesque quid sentiam. Ex cupiditatibus odium, dissidia, discor dice, seditiones, bella nascuntur. 4. Enallage is a change of words, or a substitution of one gender, number, case, person, tense, mood, or voice, of the same word for another; as, Populus late rex, for regnans. Romanus proelio victor, for Romani victores. Hostis habet muros, for hostes habent muros. Nostrum istud vivere triste, for vita nostra. Omnia Giceronis patent Trebiano, for omnia mea tibi patent. Rem vides quo- modo se hdbeat, for vides quomodo se res habeat. Nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit, for nosti quam tardus Marcellus sit. 5. Evocatio is a figure by which a verb in the first or second person, is joined to a noun or pronoun of the third person ; as, Quisque suos patimur manes. Hannibal peto pacem qui neque peterem nisi utilem crederem. 6. Hellenism, or Grecism, is the use of Greek forms and constructions ; as, Pallada, Gyclopas, for Palladem, Cyclopes. Opaca locorum, for opaca loca. Os humerosque JDeo similis, for ore humerisque. Desine querelarum, for a querelis. Dignus amari, for qui ametur. Ibit frenare cohortes, for frenatum. 7. Hendiadys is the expression of one idea by two substantives connected by et (que ), where one of the substantives stands in place of an adjective or a genitive; e. g., Pateris libamus et auro, for pateris aureis. Ex tenebris et car cere procedere, for e tenebroso car cere. Jactari cestu et febri, for cestu febris. Redimitus foribus coronisque, for coronis e floribus factis. Devinctus necessitudine ac vetustate, for vetusta necessitudine. Veteranos eoloniamque deducere, for coloniam veteranorum. Aliquid prodere ad memoriam pos- teritcdemque, for ad memoriam posteritatis. Alicui inferre vim et manus, for violentas manus. 8. Hypallage is an interchange of constructions, and a transferring of attri¬ butes from their proper subjects to others. E. g., Dare classibus Austros, for classes Austris. Vina qua cadis onerarat Acestes, for quibus cados. Eontium gelidce perennitates, for fontium gelidorum perennitates. 9. Hysteron proteron is reversing the natural order of the sense, by pla¬ cing (of two ideas) that first which should be last; as, Valet atque vivit, for vivit atque valet. Moriamur et in 'media arma ruamus. Incendere ac diripere urbes. 10. Periphrasis or Circumlocution is a circuitous mode of expression; as, Teneri fcetus ovium, for agrii. Non estate confectis, non mulieribus, non inf an¬ tibus pepercit, for nemini pepercit. Omnes memoriam consulatus tui, mores, faciem, denique ac nomen detestantur, for te. Quis sibi persuadeat esse aliquem humana specie etfigura, qui tantum immanitate bestias vicerit, ut, propter quos APPENDIX. 217 Juinc suavissimam lucem aspexerit, eos indignissime luce privarit, for quis credat esse hominem qui parentes suos occidere possit f 11. Pleonasm is using a greater number of words than is necessary to ex press the meaning; Erant omnino itinera duo quibus itineribus domo exire pos- sent. Somnum ego hao nocte oculis non vidi meis. Sic ore locuta est. Tuus dolor humanus est is quidem, sed tamen moderandus. 12. Polysyndeton is a redundancy of connectives ; as, Post hunc maximum habere vim arbitrantur Apollinem, et Mart era, et Jovem, et Minervam. Una Eurusque Notusque ruunt, creberque procellis Africus . Ex cupiditatibus odium, et dissidia, et discordice, et seditiones , et bella nascuntur. 13. Synchysis is a confused and intricate arrangement of words; as, Saxa vocant Itali mediis quce in fluctibus aras, for quce saxa in mediis fluctibus Itali vocant aras. Pcene macros arsit dum turdos versat in igni, for pcene arsit dum macros turdos, etc. Non erit melius, inquit, nisi de quo consulimus, vocem misisse, for melius erit, non misisse vocem, nisi de quo consulimus . 14. Synesis or construdio ad sensum, when the construction refers to the sense rather than to the precise nature of the words; as, Latium Capuaque agro multati sunt. Ubi illic est scelus (where is that scoundrel) qui me per- didit ? Incitabant Gatilinam corrupti civitatis mores quos luxuria atque avaritia vexdbant (== mores civium quos, etc.). 15. Tmesis, or Diacope, is the separating of a compound word by the inter¬ position of another word ; as, Septem subjecta trioni gens, for septentrioni. Quale id cunque est. Altera pars per mihi brevis videtur. Thais maximo te orabat opere, ut eras redires. 16. Zeugma is the uniting of two substantives to a verb, which is applicable only to one of them; as, Jugurtha, pacem an helium gerens periculosior esset, in incerto habebatur (here gerens is applicable to bellum only, because pacem gerere is not said). Magonem alii naufragio, alii a servis interfectum scriptum reliquerunt (we say naufragio perire, but not naufragio interfci). III. The Roman Calendar. § 232.—The Romans did not reckon the days of the month in an uninterrupted series, as we do, from the first to the last. They dis¬ tinguished in every month three principal days: the Calendar, Nonce, and Idus ,—from which they counted backward. The Calendee were always the first day of the month; the Nonce fell on the 5th, and the Idus on the 13th, except in March, May, July, and October, in which the Nonce fell on the 1th, and the Idus on the 15th.— The day preceding the Calendee , Nonce , and Idus, was called priclie (i. e., pridie ante ) Calendas , Nonas , Idus. 218 APPENDIX CO • March May, July, January, August, April, June Seotember, " .. . - " 1 1 Febr. has 28 davs October December November (in leap-years 29). o (31 days). (31 days). (30 days). 1. Calendis. Calendis. Calendis. Calendis. 2. VI. ] IV. ante IV - ante IV. ante 3. V. ante III. Nonas. III. Nonas. III. Nonas. 4. IY. > Nonas. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. 5. III. j Non is. Nonis. Nonis. 6. Pridie Nonas. VIII. i VIII.) * VIII.) 7. Nonis. VII. vi/. VII. 8. VIII.] VI. ante VI. ante VI. ante Idus. 9. VII. V. Idus. V. Idus. V. 10. VI. ■ ante IV. IV. IV. 11. V. Idus. III. J III. J III. J 12. IV. Pridie Idus. Pridie Idus. Pridie Plus. 13. III. J Idibus. Idibus. Idibus. 14. Pridie Idus. XIX. > XVIII. ) XVI.) 15. Idibus. XVIII. XVII. XV. 16. XVII. •s XVII. XVI. XIV. 17. XVI. XVI. rH XV. r-j 4-3 XIII. Co 18. XV. XV. '+2 XIV. o XII. ■sbs 19. XIV. -j-j r ~i XIV. o r * r-* XIII. g D XI. 20. XIII. i—< s XIII. o r“t XII. 4-3 'hfi X. Co 21. XII. o r~[ , XII. -4-2 XI. 1 o & IX. ^£3 £ 22. XI. 4h XI. v • 1—1 f js X. § © VIII. J3 23. 24. 25. X. IX. VIII. O H « o £3 ^ £ jO •"O X. IX. VIII. § b £3 ;=; £ £ *<> IX. VIII. VII. 1 v VII. VI. V. £ 26. VII. VII. VI. £ IV. 27. VI. VI. V. III. j 28. V. V. IV. Pridie Calendas 29. IV. IV. III. Martias. SO. III. III. - Cl. Pridie Calend. Pridie Calend. Pridie Calend. (of the month (of the month (of tb e month following). following). following). Note 1.—The names of the months are sometimes used substantively as pridie Nonas Februarii. —The best writers, however, use them as adjectives, and make them agree with Calendse, Nona , and Idus ; as, Pridie Nonas Februarias. Calendis Sextilibus veni Syracusas. Ecce Calendis Janiis mutata omnia! Pridie Nonas Juntas litteras tuas accept. Ea mente discessi ut adessem Calendis Januariis. Before the time of the emperors, the month of July was called Quintilis , and the month of August, Sextilis. Notk 2. —In leap years ( anni intercalares ) the month of February had one day more ; but this intercalary day, instead of being added at, the end of the month, as it APPENDIX. 219 s the custom in modern times, was inserted after the 23d of February, so that the 24th of Febr. was reckoned double, and was for this reason called dies bisextus (bis sextus ), whence the leap year itself received the name annus bisextus or bisextilis. Construction of time according to the Roman Calendar § 238.—1. On what day? —The question when? or on what day? is an¬ swered by the ablative when the day is one of the three principal days of the month; as, Calendis, Nonis, Idibus. —The day immediately preceding the Calendar, Nonce, and Idas, is expressed by pridie with the accusative, and sometimes, though more rarely, with the genitive ; as, pridie Calendas, pridie Nonas, pridie Idus, pridie Galendarum. The remaining days are expressed either (a) by the ablative : as, “ He died on the 30th of Dec. Obiit die tertio ante Calendas Januarias, and abridged, without die and ante: Obiit tertio Calendas Januarias (obiit III. Cal. Jan.);—or (b) by ante diem with the accusative; as, obiit ante diem tertium Calendas Januarias (obiit a. d. III. Cal. Jan.). (jggjp The formula ante diem with the accusative, difficult as it is to be explained grammatically, was almost exclusively used by Cicero and Livy. The '■'‘ante diem ” was treated as an indeclinable substantive to which, like to other substantives, various prepositions were prefixed: but, whatever the preposition prefixed might be, ad, in, ab , or ex, it was invariably followed by the accusative. 2. By what day? —The question by or for what day? is answered by the accusative with in, ad, usque ad; as, Capuam venire jusd sumus ad Nonas Februarias (by the 5th of Febr.),— ad pridie Idus Februarias (by the 12th of Febr.),— ad ante diem sextum Calendas Martias (ad a. d. VI. Cal. Mart., by the 24th of Febr.). Nos in Formiano esse volumus usque ad pridie Nonas Martias (by the Gth of March). Consul comitia in ante diem tertium Nonas textiles (in a. d. III. Non. Sext., “ he fixed the elections by an edict for the 3d of August) edixit. 3. From what day? —The question from what day? is answered by the ablative with ab or ex; as, Ludi Antii futuri sunt a IV. ad pridie Nonas Maias (from the 4tli to the 6th of May). De Quinto fratre nuntii nobis tristes venerant ex ante diem Nonas Junias (= ex or a Nonis Juniis) usque ad pridie Calendas Septembres (from the 5th of June to the 31st of August). Note.— The next day after the Cal., Nonce, and Idus , may be expressed also by postridie ; as, Postridie Calendas Maias, the 2d of May ; postridie Nonas Martias, the 8th of March ; postridie Idus Decembres, the 14th of December. Method of reducing Roman time to our own. § 234.—1. To reduce the Calendar, add 2 to the number of days of the preceding month: from the sum subtract the given date, and the remainder will give you our date. Thus, 220 APPENDIX. XII. Cal. Febr. VIII. Cal. Mart. XIII. Cal. Jun. XVI. Cal. Dec. Jan. has 31 days; Febr. lias 28 days ; May has 31 days ; Nov. has 30 days ; 31 + 2 = 33 ; 33 —12 = 21st of Jan. 28 + 2 = 30 ; 80 - 8 = 22d of Febr. 31 + 2 = 33; 33 —13 = 20th of May. 80 + 2 = 32; 82-16 = 16th of Nov. 2. To reduce the Nonce and Idus, add 1 to the number of the day on which the Nonce or Idus fall: from the sum subtract the given date, and the remainder will give you our date. Thus, III. Non. Sept. Non. on the 5th ; VI. Non. Oct. Non. on the 7th; VII. Idas Febr. Idus on the 13th ; VII. Idus Jul. Idus on the 15th ; 5 + 1= 6; 6 — 3 = 3d of Sept. 7 + 1*3 8; 8-6 = 2d of Oct. 13 + 1 = 14; 14 — 7 = 7th of Febr. 15 + 1 = 16; 16 -7 = 9th of Jul. Method of reducing our time to Homan. » § 235. —1. If the given date is between the Calendce and Nonce , add 1 to the day of the Nonce. ; if between the Nonce and Idus, add 1 to the day of the Idus : from the sum subtract the date given, and the remainder will be the Roman date. Thus, February 3d. Non. on the 5th; 5 + 1= 6; 6— 3 = III. Non. Febr. July 2d. Non. on the 7th; 7 + 1= 8; 8— 2 = VI. Non. Jul. October 10th. Idus on the 15th ; 15 + 1 = 16; 16—10 = VI. Idus Oct. December 9th. Idus on the 13th ; 13+1 = 14; 14— 9 = V. Idus Dec. 2. If the given date is between the Idus and the Calendce of the month following, add 2 to the number of days in the month: from the sum subtract the date given, and the remainder will be the number of the Calendce of the next month. Thus, February 19th. Febr. has 28 days ; April 25th. Apr. has 30 days; August 18th. Aug. has 31 days; November 23d. Nov. has 30 days ; 28 + 2=30 ; 30-T9c=XI. Cal. Mart. 80 + 2=32; 32—25=VII. Cal. Maias, 31 + 2=33; 33—18=XV. Cal. Sept. 30 + 2=32 ; 32 — 28=IX. Cal. Dec. 3. If the date is the day on which the Calendce , Nonce , or Idus fall, it is called Caendce , Nonce , or Iclus , respectively: if it is the day before, it is called pridie Calendas (always of the month following), or pridie Nonas, pridie Idus (both of the same month).—Thus the 31st of Dec., is called pridie Calendas Januarias\ the 6th of October, pridie Nonas Octobres y the 14th of March, pridie Idas Martias . PROSODY. CHAPTER I. § 236. —Prosody treats of the length, or quantity, of syllables and the laws of Versification. A syllable, with respect to its quantity, is either short (^), long (-), or common (^). A syllable is said to be common, when it may be used short or long, at the option of the poet. General Rules. A YOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER VOWEL. (Ia Latin words.) Vocalem breviant alia subeunte Latini. Produc, ni sequitur r, fio et nomina quintrn, 1 Quae geminos casus e longo assumit in ei; Verum e corripiunt fideique, spei que, reique. Ius commune est vati: producito alius ; Altenus brevia. JPompei et talia produc. Eheu produces semper, variabitur Uhe. % 237.—Rule 1. A vowel before another vowel, a diphthong, or an h, is short; as, Feus, pice, nihil. Stat medio virtus : medium tenuere beati. Quam felix puer est, virtus in quo anteit annos. Mar. Exc. 1. Fio has the i long in all its forms, except those in which the second vowel is followed by r ; as, fiunt, fiebam, flam ; —but fieri, flerem, etc. Omnia jam fient, fieri quae posse negabam. Ovid. J ) Read : Produc, ni sequitur Rho,fio , etc. 222 PROSODY. Exc. 2. Tlie genitive and dative sing, of the fifth declension have the e long "before i; as, diei, speciei. But e is short in spU, and commonly, also, in m and fidei. Exc. 3. Genitives in ins have the i long in prose, but common in poetry ; as, umus, soUus, totius. —The genitive cdius, however, is always long, and alterlus always short. Xnvidus alterlus marcescit rebus opimis. Hor. Exc. 4. Cams, Pompeius, Vulteius (also Cajus, Pompejus, Vultejus), and the like, have the a and e before i long. Yoc. 0 Cdi, Pompei, Vultei. —In ohe and Diana, the first syllable is common ; in eheu it is long. A VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER VOWEL. (In Greek -words.) Nomina Grsecorum certa sine lege vagantur: Quasdara etenim brevibus, veluti symphonia , gaudent. At quaedam longis, ceu clia , chorea , Thalia , Darius , Cythereci , der, elegia, platea, Atqne alia. At choream breviat plateamque poeta. Solvit et in geminas, veluti Cythereia , longam. § 238.—Rule 2. Words of Greek origin generally retain their original quan¬ tity. Accordingly a) The first vowel is short in SimMs, Deucalion, Pigmalion, idea, sophia, philosophla, theologia, etymologia, and others in ia, which, however, are pro¬ nounced by many with the accent on the penult. 1 [[ggP In Academia the penult ought to be regarded as long. b) The first vowel is long in Agesilcius, Archddus, Menddus, Laertes, Ldome- don, Lycdon, Troas, Trains, Io, Amphion, Arion, Ixion, Orion, Pandion, and, in general, in those words that are written in Greek with a diphthong (ei); as, JEneas, Cythereci, Galatea, Medea, Odeum, gyuaceum, Clio, Arius, Basilius, Iphigenia, Alexandria, Antiochia, Sdeucia, braxium. and also in adjectives in eus, formed from Greek proper names, as Cythereus. Pythagoreus, Pelopeus, Phoebeus, giganteus, etc. c) The first vowel is common in Malea, Nereis, Dcedaleus, and a few more.— Chorea and platea (from ^opelct and rr XareTa sc. 66op) have the e long in prose, but common in poetry, as chorea, platea. J ) Idea , Andreas , sophia , philosoplda , symphonia , evphonia , etymologia , theologia , orthographia, prosodia, categoria , homilia , Lucia , Archias , Ananias, et alia, quamvis vocalem ante vocalem corripiant, tamen acuta penultima amultis viris doctis, more Grcecorum, in soluta oratione pronunciantur: Idea, Andreas, Sophia , etc.—Contra, in comcedia, trageedia, Urania, ecclesia, et similibus, quse pariter vocalem ante vocalem eorripiunt, antepenultima acuta potius Latine efferri placuit. F. Alvarez. PROSODY. 223 Sit Medea ferox invictaque, flebilis Ino, Perfidus Ixion, Io vaga, tristis Orestes. Hot. Note 1 . —The long vowels e and I, when arising from ti, are sometimes resolved into two syllables; as, Gytherlia , elegeia , Pelopeius , instead of Gythereelegia , Pelopeus. Note 2. —Greek genitives and accusatives in eos and ea, from nominatives in eus, have the penult generally short,—but sometimes, also, long; as, Idomeneos , Mome¬ nta , Ilionea. DIPHTHONGS AND CONTRACTED SYLLABLES. Omnis diphthongus contractaque syllaba longa est. Proe rape prsepositam vocali, dicque praeiislus. § 239.—Rule 3. Every diphthong and every contracted syllable is long ; as, praeda, rnoeror, laudo,—cdgo for coago, mdlo for mcigis volo, junior for juvenior, fleram for jleveram. Jam coeluin terramque meo sine numine, venti, Miscere et tantas audetis toll ere moles? Quos ego .... Sed motos praestat componere fluctus. Virg. Exc. Pf(B before a vowel in composition is short, as praealtus, praeeunt, praeiens, praeustus. POSITION. Yocalis longa est si consona bina sequatur, Ant duplex, aut i vocalibus interjectnm. Quadrijugus rapitur, bijugus conjungitur illi. § 240.—Rule 4. A vowel before two consonants, or before x, z, j, is long by position ; as, terra, rixa, gdza, major. Pluribus intentus minor est ad singula sensus. Conscia mens recti famfe mendacia ridet. Ovid. Dat veniam corvis, vexat censura columbas. A vowel is long by position, also, when a word ends in a consonant, and the word following begins with a consonant: as, Sit Medea ferox; at pius JEneas. Exc. The compounds of jugum have the i before j short; as, bijugus, trl jug us, quadrijugus. 224 PROSODY. MUTE AND LIQUID Contrahit orator, variant in carmine vates, Si mutam liquidamque simui brevis una prseibit: At mutam et liquidam quoties ab origine longa Prtecedit, producta manet, ceu mdtris , aratrum. Utraque vocalem si consona juncta sequentem Non ferit, anteiens brevis est, velut obruo, nnnquam. § 241.—Rule 5. A short vowel before a mute and liquid is common in poetry, but always short in prose; as, volucris, latebra, tenebrce; in prose always volucris, latebra, tenebras. Et primo similis volucri; mox vera volucris. Ovid. Nox tenebras profert: Plicebus f'ugat inde tenebras. Ovid. Note 1. —That a vowel before a mute and liquid be common in poetry, three things are necessary : viz., a) That the vowel be short by nature, as in tenebrce, integri, lugubris: for, when the vowel is long by nature, as in mdtris, macro, salubris, it always remains long, in prose and poetry. 1 b) That the mute precede the liquid, as in pcttris, dgros, Cyclops ; otherwise the vowel would be long by position, as in partis, Argos. c) That both the mute and liquid belong to the same syllable, as in a-trox, lu-gu-bris, pha-re-tra; otherwise the preceding vowel would again be long by position, as in ab-luo, ob-ruo, sub-levo. Note 2.—The rule concerning mute and liquid applies only to the liquids l and r. —A mute followed by m or n in Latin words, makes the preceding vowel long by position, as in dgmen, dgnus, lignum, regnurn, ignavus. This, however, is not always the case in words of Greek origin, as cygnus, Tecmessa. Special Rules. PRETERITES OF TWO SYLLABLES. Prseterita assumunt jM’imam dissyllaba longam : Sto, do, scindo, fero, rapiunt bibo, findo, priores. Absciclit , a.bscidit, modulatur utrumque poeta. § 242.—Rule G. Preterites of two syllables have the first syllable long; as, veni, vidi, vici. q Whether a vowel be short or long by nature, must be ascertained from the ex¬ amples of the poets, or from the 4t Gradus ad Paniassum PROSODY. 225 O Corydon, Cory don, quse te dementia cepit ? Virg. Multa tulit fecitque puer, sndavit et alsit. Hor. Exc. Tlie following have the first syllable short: steti, dedi, soldi, tali, bibi, fidi, from sto, do, scindo, fero, bibo, findo. ([pfsp Abscidi from ccedo is long; but abscidi from scindo, short. REDUPLICATING PRETERITES. Prseteritum geminans primam breviabit utramque, TJt pario, pepbri: vetet id nisi consona bina. § 243.—Rale 7. Reduplicating preterites have both the first and second syllables short, unless position prevent it. Thus, didici, pepuli, tetigi. Tityre, te patulae cecini sub tegmine fagi. Virg. Quod pueri didicere, senes dediscere nolunt. Hor.. Exc. Cado, to fall, has ceoidi; ccedo, to cut, cecidi. —In cucurri, mdmordi, peperci, tdtondi, and the like, the second is long by position. Obstupuere animi gelidusque per ima cucurrit Ossa tremor. Virg. SUPINES OF TWO SYLLABLES. Cuncta supina volunt primam dissyllaba longam : At reor et cieo, sero et ire, siwoque linoquQ, Do, queo, et orta ruo, breviabunt rite priores. § 244.—Rule 8. Supines of two syllables have the first syllable long; as, visum, lusum, moium. Hue ipsi potum venient per prata juvenci. Virg. In patulos lusum pergamus, Tityre, campos. Exc. The following have the first syllable short: rdtum, satum, datum, litum, itum, quitum, situm, from reor, sero, do, lino, eo, queo, sino. Note 1. —Duo has ruitum, whence rulturus; but the compounds have rutum, as dirutum, erutum, obrutum.—Gitum from cieo, 2. has the first syllable short, but citum from do, 4. has the same syllable long ; hence we find concitus and concitus, excitus and excitus. Note 2.— Stdtum from sto, 1. is long, whence stdturus, constdturus, obstdturus, preestdturus ; but stdtum from sisto, 3. is short, whence status (both noun and adj.), stdtio, stdtua, stdtuo, stdtura, stdbilis, stabulum, stdtim. 226 PROSODY. POLYSYLLABIC SUPINES. Utum atumquQ tralmut polysyllaba cuncta supina. De vi preeterito semper proclucitur itum. Cetera corripies in itum qumcunque supina. 245.—Rule 9. Polysyllabic supines in utum, atum, and eium, liave the penultima long ; as, solutum, argutum, indutum, amdtum, deletum. Spectatum adinissi risum tencatis amici. Hot. Polysyllabic supines in itum, from preterites in hi, likewise have the penultima long; as, cupivi, cupitum ; pethi, petitum; qucesivi, qucesitum; condivi, conditum ;—but those in itum, from preterites not in hi, have the penultima short; as, sonui, sonitum; monui, rnomtum ; tacui, taciturn; con - didi, conditum. Recenseo has rcccnsui, recensitum and recensum. DEKIVATIVE WORDS. Derivata patris naturam verba sequuntur. Mobilis et forties, Idterna ac regula , sedes , Quamquam orta e brevibus, gaudent producere primam. Corripiuntur arista , vadum, sopor , atque lucerna , . Nata licet longis : usus te plura docebit. § 246.—Rule 10. Derivatives follow the quantity of their primitives: as, patcrnus from pater; mdternus from mater; salubris from salutis ; sanguineus from sanguinis ; judicium from judicis ; consilium from consulo ; pimio from poena; ctrnor, amicus, amicitia, dmabilis, from dmo; judex, judico, judicium, injuria, from jus, juris ; leg ere, legerem, legebam, from lego ; leg cram, legerim, legerunt, legisse, from legi. Sic volo, sic j ubeo ; sit pro ratione voluntas. Ter. Perge pati patiens, pariet patientia palmam. Esc. The following derivatives deviate from the quantity of their primi¬ tives : rex (regis), regina, regius, regula, from rego ; laterna from. lateo sedes from sedeo humanus from homo tegula u tego susplcio u suspicor mobilis “ moveo fomes << foveo macero u macer secius “ secus, etc. arista from, areo sopor from sopio sagax from sagio odium a odi dux, due is “ d uco molestus “ moles lucerna a luceo vadum a vado quater “ quatuor, etc. PROSODY. 227 Ex bello reduces iterumne ad bella reduces ? Turn cornix plena pluviam vocat improba voce. Virg. The i is short in fidcs and perfidus, but long in fido, confldo, duff Ido fid us, and infidus. COMPOUND WORDS. Legem simplicium retinent composta suorum, Vocalem licet aut diphthongum syllaba mutet. Dejero sed juro dafc pejeroagiQ ; innuba, nubo, Pronubaque ; atque hilum, nihilum ; dat semisdpitus Sopio ; fatidicus fratresque a clico creantur. Participate ambitum ab itum inter longa repone. § 247.—Rule 11. Compounds generally retain the quantity of tlieir simples, though the stem vowel or diphthong be changed in composition ; as, avus, proavus; nepos, pronepos ; cavus, concdvus ; brevis, perbrevis; htor, abutor ; nitor, enitor ; solor, consolor; ratus, irritus; satus, insitus; cado, occido (“to set”); caedo, occido (“to kill”); laedo, illido; quaero, inquiro; claudo, recludo; audio, obedio; fauces, suffoco; trux caedo, trucido. Conticuere omnes intentique ora tenebant. Virg. Insequitur clamorque virum stridorque rudentum. Virg. (psgp Particular attention should be paid to the following compounds: exhdlat, conddmat, depraved, emdnat, delibat , constipat, derived, evitat, investlgat, instigat, irrltat, compotat, deplorat, elabdrat, enodat, immutat, indurat, refutat, comparet, apparet, adrid&t, adrepit, affligit, command;—exdr at, compdrat, endtat, irrigat, alVtgat, devorat, comprdbcd, computed, recubat, adjdcet, permdnet, impedit, effddit, expolit, erudit. Exc. The following compounds change the long vowel of their simples into a short one : dejero, pejero, from juro; innuba, pronuba, from nubo; a.gmtum, cognXtum , from notum; nihilum from hilum; semisopitus from sopio; and causidicus, fatidicus, veridicus, from dico. Connubium has the syllable nu generally short. —Ambitus (a participle) is long ; but ambitus (a noun), and ambitio, ambitiosus, are short. So also oblitus from dbliviscor; but oblitus from oblino. PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. Longa a, de, e, se, di , prseter dirimo atque disertus. Sit re breve ; at rdfert , a res, producito semper. Corripe pro Graecum, produces rite Latinum. Contrahe qu & fundus, f agio, neqotiscpxQ neposepaQ, Vtfeshis, fari, fateor, fanumqnQ crearunt. 228 PROSODY. Iiisce profecto acldes, pariterque procella , prolervus , Atque propago genus ; propago protrahe vitis. Corripe ctb et reliquas, obstet nisi consona bina; Quae sunt ad vel in, oh, per, sub, super, ante que, circum. § 248.—Rule 12. The prepositions a, de, e, se, di, are long in composition as, dmitto, deduco, erumpo, sepono, dvmitto. But di is short in dirimo and diserius. Tergora diripiunt costis et viscera nudant. Virg. Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas. Ovid. Re is short by nature; as, refero, revoco, redux. But re is long in the im¬ personal verb refert, and whenever it is followed by two consonants or a j; as, resto, rescribo, respondeo, rejicio, rejectus. —Before mute and liquid re becomes common; as, reflecto, recludo, reprimo, refringo. Ingemuit, et duplices tendens ad sidera palmas, Talia voce refert: 0 terque quaterque beati! Virg . Nec refert dominos illic famulosne requiras ; Tota domus duo sunt: idem parentque jubentque. Ovid- Pro, in composition, is short in Greek words, but long in Latin; as, Pro- pontis, Prometheus, pro logus, — proveho, promitto, propono. Exc. Pro is short in procella, prSfari, profano, prfifanus, projiteor, prdficiscor, profecto, prdfestus, prdfugus, prdfugio, prdfundo, prdfundus, pronepos , and pro- neptis. —In propago (noun and verb) and propino, pro is common. Ab, ad, in, ob, per, sub, super, ante, and circum, are short in composition, unless they be long by position; as, dbhinc, ddhuc, ddoro, bieo, perimo, subigo , superaddo, antecello, circumeo, —but dbduco, ddmitto, antesto, circumdo. Quin adeas vatem, precibusque oracula poscas. Virg. Nec frustra signorum obitus speculamur et ortus. Virg. 5£ir In deamo, deeram, deesse, dehisco, seorsim, proinde, prdhibeo, — de, se, and pro, are short by Rule 1. A, E, I, 0, IN COMPOSITION. Procluc A semper composti parte priore: At simul E, simul I, crebro breviare memento. JVequidquam produc, nequando , venefica, nequam, Nequaquam, nequis sociosque, videlicet addes. Idem masculeum produc et siquis, ibidem , PROSODY. 229 Scilicet et blgce, tiblcen , ublque , quadrigae , JBlmus , tantldem , quldaon , et composta cfo’e*. Compositi 0 breviant Grseci: Samdthracia testis ; Sed Minotaurus pariterque geometra longum est. O Latium variat, producere namque alioquin , Et quandoque ; at quandoquidem breviare solemus. § 249.—Rule 18. A at the end of the first part of a compound is long; E, generally short; as, trdno, trdduco, trddo ; — neque, nequeo, nefas, nefandus, nefarius, trecenti, and the compounds of facto and fio, as calc- {made-, rube-, stupe-, ti'eme-, tume-, and commonly also pate-, putre-, tepe-, and lique-) facio. Credebant hoc grande nefas et morte piandum. Jar. Exc. A is short in quasi: E is long in neve, nedum, nemo {ne homo), nequis, nequitia, nequam , nequaquam, nequidquam, nequanclo, videlicet, renefica, sede- cim, and semestris. I and Y at the end of the first part of compounds are generally short; as, bipes, bleeps, triceps; utlque, undique, siquidem; cornicen, fidicen, lyricen, tubicen; carnivorus, dulclsonus, igmvomus, mortiferus, sacrilegus, omnipotens, ratlcinor, signlfico ; Eurypylus, Polydorus ;—but Polyxena and Polycletus. Myrtea silva subest bicoloribus obsita baccis. Ovid. Exc. 1 is long in the masculine idem (neut. idem), slquis, ibidem, ubique, utrobique, utrique, plerique, bigee, quadrigae, scilicet, ilicet, bimus, trimus, quad- rimus, tantldem, quantlvis, quantlcunque, tiblcen, lucrlfacio, and the com¬ pounds of dies, as biduum, triduum, pridie, postridie, meridies, quotldie. In ubivis, ubilibet, ubicunque, and ubinarn, the i is common. O at the end of the first part of compounds is sometimes long, as in edidquin, ceteroquin , quandoque, quominus, introduco, retro versus ,—and some¬ times short, as in the particle qudque, quanddquidem, lid die, duddeni. Indignor, quandoque bonus dormitat Homer us. Hor. Note. —In words of Greek origin the o is long where it is written in Greek with CO, as in lagopus, geometra, Minotaurus ,—and short where it is written with o, as in phildsophus, Aredpagus, Oarpbpliorus, Argdnauta, Samdthracia. In Micdstratus, Philoxenus, and the like, the o is long by position : in chiro- graphus, Hippocrene, it is common on account of mute and liquid. U at the end of the first part of compounds is short; as, Trojugena, quad- rapes .—But it is long in Jupiter, judex, judicium ; and common in quadruples ; locuples. 230 PROSODY. CHAPTER II. Increments. The word Increment, in Prosody, means an increase of syllables. There are two kinds of increments: viz., the increment of nouns and the increment of verbs. I. The Increment of Nouns. § 250.—A noun is said to increase when in any of its cases, it has more syllables than in the nominative singular; as, pax, pads; sermo , sermonis. The number of increments in nouns is equal to the number of its additional syllables. If a word has but one increment, it is the penult; if it has two in¬ crements, the antepenult is called the first, and the penult the second increment ; and if it has three, the syllable before the antepenult is called the first, the antepenult the second, and the penult the third increment. The last syllable of a word, be it a noun or a verb, is never re¬ garded as an increment. INCREMENTS OF THE FIRST TWO DECLENSIONS SING. Casibus obliquis vix creseit prima : secunda Corripit incrementa ; tamen producit Iberi. § 251.—The first declension has no increment, except among the poets, in the old genitive form in a'i, where the a is long; as, auldi, aqudi, pictdi, instead of aulai, aqua, pictce. The increments of the second declension sing, are short; as, mr, mri; miser, viiseri; satur, saturi .—Bat I her and Geltiber have Iberi and Geltiberi. Ite domum saturae, venit Hesperus, ite capelloe. Virg. PROSODY. 231 INCREMENTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION SING. A. Nominis A erescens, quod flectit tertia, longum est. Mascula corripies al et ar fiuita; simulque Par cum compositis, hepar cum haccare , nectar , Cum vade mas et anas , queis junge laremque jubarqne. A quoque et as Grsecum breve postulat incrementum S quoque finitum, si consona ponitur ante ; Et dropax , anthrax , Atrax cum s mi lace, climax. His Atacem, panacem , colacem , styracemque facemqne, Atque abacem , coracem , pliilacem compostaque necte. § 252.—Tlie increment A of the 3d declension sing, is long ; as, pax, pacts, Ajax, Ajdcis; Syphax, Syphdcis; calcar, calcdris; vectigal, vectigdlis. Rex erat iEneas nobis, quo justior alter Nec pietate fuit, nec bello major et armis. Virg. Exc. The increment A is short : 1. ) In masculine proper names in al and ar; as, Hannibal, Hannibdlis; Caesar, Gcesdris. 2. ) In par, parts, and its compounds compar, dispar, and impar; also in sal, salts; vas, cadis; mas, marts; anas, anatis; hepctr, hepdtis; lar, jubar, bac- car, and nectar. Dixit et in caelum paribus se sustulit alis, Ingentemcjue fuga secuit sub nubibus arcum. Virg. 3. ) In Greek words in a and as; as, thema, themdtis ; lampas, lampddis; Pallas, Pallddis. Scribimus indocti doctique poemata passim. Hor. 4. ) In words in s with a consonant before it; as, trabs, trabis ; Arabs, Ard- bis; —and also in the words fax, climax, abax, Atax, colax, corax, dropax, pan- ax, anthrax, Atrax, smilax, styrax, and Arctophylax. Jamque faces et saxa volant, furor arma ministrat. Virg. Vela damns vastumque cava trabe currimus eequor. Virg. E. E erescens numero breviabit tertia primo : Verum protrahitur genitivus in cnis, /Jerque, 232 PROSODY. Ver, halex , locuples , hceres, merccscyio, g^Vsque, Zc;r, vervex, ha.lec, seps, plebs, rex: insuper adde El peregrinum : er et es Grsecum, oethere et acre demptis. § 253.—The increment E of the 3d declension sing, is short; as, grex, gregis; nex, necis ; pes, pedis ; teres, teretis ; Geres, Cereris ; iter, itineris. Salve sancte parens, iterum salvete recepti Nequidquam cineres, animseque umbrseque paternae! Virg. Exc. The increment E is long: 1. ) In Iber, lberis, and in words that make the genitive in enis; as, ren, renis; Siren, Sirenis ; attagen, attcigenis. But hymen makes hymenis. 2. ) In the words mr, locuples, hceres, merces, quies, lex, rex, plebs, vervex, seps, and halec. Quidquid delirant reges, plectuntur Achivi. Hor. 3. ) In foreign names in el; as, Daniel, elis; Baphael, elis; Israel, elis. 4. ) In Greek words in es and er; as, magnes, magnetis; tapes, tapetis; crater, crateris ; soter, soteris. —But aether and aer increase short, as cetheris, aeris. I. Corripiet pariet crescens I tertia primo In mimero : at Graecum patrium prodncit in inis , Gryps , vibex , Nesis, lis , Dis, glis , addito Samnis. Ix produc : breviato histrix cum for nice, varix, Coxendix , choenix que, Cilix, natrix que casque ; Adde et Eryx et onyx , nix p>que sa&qae Jilix que, Sardonychis , calycis, lands: sit Bebrycis anceps, Sed brevibus junges, in gis cum patrius exit. Mastix , mastigis ; coccyx , cocci]gis amabit. § 254.—The increment I of the 3d declension sing, is short; as, stips, stipis, remex, rcmigis; iter, itineris; anceps, andpitis; chalybs, chalfbis; chlamys cMamydis. Gutta cavat lapidem non vi, sed ssepe cadendo. Odd. Flumina jam lactis, jam flumina nectaris ibant, Flavaque de viridi stillabant ilice mella. Odd. Exc. The increment I is long : 1.) In genitives in inis and ynis from words of Greek origin ; as, delphin,del~ pliinis; Phorcyn, Phorcynis; Salamis, Salamlnis. PROSODY. 233 2. ) In the words gryps, gryphis ; Bis, Dltis; lis, litis; glis, gliris; vibex viblcis; Nesis, Nesldis; Bamnis, Samnitis, and Quids, Quirltis. Noctes atque dies patet atri janua Dltis. Virg. 3. ) In words in ix; as , felix, felicis ; bombyx, bombycis; perdix, perdlcis, pernix, lets; coturnix, Ids .—But the following in ix increase short: nix, nicis, Phryx, Phrygis ; strix,igis; Styx,ygis; Japyx,ygis ; Onyx,ychis; Sardonyx, ychis, together with pix, calix, larix, natrix, salix, varix, Gilix, phoenix, coxendix, Eryx, filix, fornix, histrix, and the proper names Ambiorix, Biturix, Vercingo- toj'ix, and the like. 0. O crescens numero producimus usque priore. 0 parvum in Graecis brevia, producito magnum. Corripitur genitivus oris , quern neutra dedere : Os, oris , mediique gradus sed protrahe casus, Ut melius. Brevibus dantur memor, immemor , arbor , Et lepus et novg compositum, bos , compos et impos: Adde his Cappadocem , Allobrogem , cum prcecoce, scrobs , ops: Verum produces Gercops , hydropsopxQ, Cyclopsque. § 255.—The increment 0 of the 3d declension sing, is long ; as, sol, solis, dos, dotis; vox, vocis ; lepor, leporis ; nepos, nepotis. Gaudia principium nostri sunt saepe doloris. In silvis lepores, in verbis quaere lepores. Exc. The increment 0 is short: 1. ) In the words memor, immemor, arbor , lepus, bos, compos, and impos; in the compounds of novg, as tripus, polypus, Qddipus; —also in Cappadox, Allobrox, prcecox, and in words in s with a consonant before it, as scrobs, ops, inops, JEthiops, Gecrops, and Bolops. —But Cyclops, Gercops, and hydrops increase long: Gyclopis, Gercopis, hydropis. Strata jacent passim sua quaque sub arbore poma. Virg. 2. ) In genitives in oris from words of the neuter gender; as, pecus, oris. decus, dris; ebur, dris; marmor, dris. —But os, oris, and all comparatives in crease long; as, melior, melioris. Tempora labuntur tacitisque senescimus annis. Ovid. Video meliora proboque: Deteriora sequor. Ovid. Sic oculos, sic ille man us, sic ora ferebat. Virg. 3. ) In Greek proper names in or; as, Actor, Castor, Hector, Nestor, am; rhetor. 231 PROSODY 4. ) In words of Greek origin in wr, ovog ; as, canon, aedon, Iason, sindon, Amazon, Philemon: —but those in cov, covog, increase long ; as, agon, Cimon, Gonon, Dion, Solon, Laco, Plato, Zeno, Hiero, and also Pros, heros, and Minos (gen., ois). —In Orion and JEgoion, the increment o is common. 5. ) In Gentile names in ones, as Maceddnes, Saxunes, Lingdnes, Teutones, Vascdncs, Vangiones-.— But the following are long: Eburones, Burgundidnes, Suessiones, and Vettones.—Brittones has the o common. u. TJ brevia incrementa feret: sed casus in udis, Uris et utis, ab us recto producitur, et fur , Lux, fnix ; sed brevis inter casque pecusque Ligusqne, % 256.—The increment U of the 3d declension sing, is short; as, dux, dads ; crux, crucix ; mix, nucis ; redux, reducis. Si canimus silvas, silvae sint Consule dignse. Yirg. Lumina volvit obitque triici procul omnia visu. Yirg. Esc. The increment U is long : 1. ) In genitives in udis, uris, and utis, from nominatives in us ; as, palus, udis; incus, udis ; tellus, uris ; nidus, utis. —But pccus, Ligus, and intercus, increase short: pecudis, Liguris, inter cutis. Terra viros urbesque gerit silvasque ferasque Fluminaque et nymphas et cetera numina ruris. Odd. 2. ) In the words fur, f uris ; lux, lads ; Pollux, ucis; and ( frux) frugis. Quid domini facient, audent cum talia fures ? Yirg. PLURAL INCREMENTS OF NOUNS. § 251.—A plural increment exists in the genitive and dative plural, when either of these cases contains more svllables than the ablative singular; as, musd , musarum j servo, servorum j pede, ped'ibus ; re , rsrunij rebus. Pluralis casus, si crescit, protrahet A, E, Atque 0 ; corripies I, TJ ; verum excipe bubus. § 258.—The plural increments A, E, and 0, are long; I and IT, short; as, qudrum, hdrum; rerum, rebus; hbrum, quorum: nnibus, tribus; tribubus, lacubus .—pT Bubus (for bovibus) is long. Et jam summa procul villarum culmina fumal ', Majoresque cadunt altis 6e mcntibus umbrae. Yirg. PROSODY. 235 II. The Increment of Yerbs. § 259.—A verb is said to increase when in any of its parts, it has more syllables than in the 2d pers. sing, of the Present Indie. Active. The number of increments in verbs is equal to the number of its additional syllables: the last syllable, however, as has already been observed, is never regarded as an increment. In determining the increments of deponent verbs, an active voice may be supposed. Thus, for example, the increments of reor, tueor, nitor, and. molior, are regulated by the supposed standards res, tues, nitis, and molis : r * Nihil opus est, dixit, certamine, Romulus, ullo : Magna tides avium est, | experiamur aves. Odd. Die, age, die aliquam quae te mutaverit iram: Nam nisi justa tua est, | justa querela mea est. Odd. 3. Those pentameters are reckoned the best which end with a dissyllable, especially with a dissyllabic noun, pronoun, or verb, such as aqua, ddlor, sdnus, deus, manu, domo, caput, — mild, meo, tuo, — e-rat, eris, vides, poles, refert, dedi, tidi, and the like. 4. Elisions should take place as rarely as possible, especially in the second hemistich, and never in the last dactyl, except in the case of est , when it ends the verse, and is preceded by a dissyllable, as in the foregoing line: “Nam nisi justa tua est, justa querela mea est.” Iambic Metre. § 289.—The Iambic Metre, so called from the iambus, of which it was originally composed, consists either of 4, 6, or 8 feet, and is accord¬ ingly either Iambus dimeter, Iambus trimeter, or Iambus tetrameter In the odd places—that is, in the first, third, and fifth feet—there may be an iambus, a tribrach, spondee, dactyl, or anapmst; in the even places—that is, in the second and fourth feet—the long syllable of the iambus is sometimes resolved into two short ones, and thus the tribrach obtained admission.—At the end of the verse, a pyrrhic may be used instead of an iambus. jppp Horace did not use this kind of metre, except in combination with verses of a different kind. 256 PROSODY. 1. Iambic dimeter acatalectic. (First metre or dipod.) (Second metre or dipod.) . 1. 2. 8. 4. 'w' -— W - 'w' V ' - ' - - v-/ - '—✓ v— / ^ - - ^ V v-/ - Several of tlie sublime bymns in the public service of the Catholic Church are composed in this metre. The following lines form the commencement of two of those beautiful hymns : Salutis humanae sator, JESU, voluptas cordium, Orbis redempti conditor Et casta lux amantium, etc. Vexilla regis prodeunt, Fulget crucis mysterium, Qua vita mortem pertulit Et morte vitam protulit, etc. 2. Iambic trimeter acatalectic. (First metre or dipod.) (Second metre or dipod.) (Third metre or dipod.) 1. 2. 3 . 4. 5. 6. - w - 'w' - w v _' •- \«/ ^ - Vw' — Vw/ - W w - BSa-|tus !l-|le, qui | prociil | nego-|tns; Ut pris-[ca gens | morta-|lium, Pater-[na ru-|ra bo-jbiis ex-|ercet | sins, Solu-|tus om-|ni foe-|nore, etc. Hor. The Iambic trimeter is often called the u senarius” from the number of feet of ■which the line is composed. When a line consists entirely of Iambusses, it is called a pure Iambic line; but when other feet, besides the iambus, enter into it, a mixed Iambic. By prefixing one metre to the common iambic trimeter, the latter is changed into the Iambic tetrameter or “ octonariusf' which species of verse was used especially by the Latin comic writers. PROSODY. 257 Trochaic Metre. § 290.—The Trochaic Metre, so called from the trochee, its principal foot, is generally composed of either four or eight feet. In the odd places, it admits a tribrach ; but in the seventh foot, a trochee only. In the even places, besides the tribrach, the spondee also, the dactyl, and anapaest are admitted. The most common trochaic verse is the octonarian or tetrameter catalectic. It has tlie ccesural pause uniformly after the fourth foot, and is from its grave and sonorous character admirably adapted for hymns. Trochaic tetrameter catalectic. 1. 2. o 4. 5. 6. 7. GO - Vw' Vw/ - - - Vw/ - 'w' V - - W V-/ V-/ - Vw/ 'w' - - V-/ w - Pange | lingua | glori-|osi || laure-[am cer-[tami-|nis, Et su-|per cru-[cis tro-|phseo || die tri-|umphum | nobi-|lem, Quali-jter Re-idemptor | orbis ]| immo-|latus | vice-|rit. 8. Aug. Trochaic dimeter catalectic. § 291.—The Trochaic dimeter catalectic, which some prosodians con¬ sider and scan as an lambic dimeter acephalous, admits in the second place the spondee, dactyl, and anapaest. But Horace, in the few lines he left us of this metre, uniformly employed the trochee. The Lyric Metres of Horace. § 292.—A poem which contains one kind of verse only, is called carmen monocolon ; a poem which contains two kinds, dicdlon; and a poem which contains three kinds, tricolon. When in a poem, after the second verse, the first returns, it is called distrophon ; when after the third, iristrophon ; when after the fourth, tetrastrophon. The several verses which occur before the first line returns, are called a stanza or strophe. 258 PROSODY, § 293.—1. ALCAIC (carmen tricolon tetrastrtiphon). The Alcaic strophe con¬ sists of four lines. The first two are greater Alcaics, so called from the poet Alcaeus. The third is an iambic dimeter hypermeter, and the fourth a Minor Alcaic. 2. SAPPHIC (carmen dicolon tetrastrophon). The Sapphic strophe consists of three Sapphic verses, invented by the poetess Sappho, and one Adonic. 3. ASCLEPIADIC (carmen monocolon ). The Asclepiadic Metre consists one verse, invented by the poet Asclepiades. of 4. ASCLEPIADIC-GLYCONIC (carmen dicolon tetrastrophon). This metre consists of three Asclepiadic lines and one Glyconic, invented by the poet Glyco . 5. ASCLEPIADIC-PHERECRATIC-GLYCONIC (carmen tricolon tetrastro - phon). It consists of two Asclepiadics, one Pherecratic, so called from the poet JSherecrates , and one Glyconic. — - V - - — | -- 1 — 1 - —' — | PROSODY. 259 C. GLYCONIC-ASCLEPIADIC {carmen diculon distrdphon). This metre consists of two verses—the first, a Glyconic; the second, an Asclepiaaic. 7. IAMBIC TRIMETER {carmen monocolon). See § 289.—2. 8. One IAMBIC TRIMETER and one IAMBIC DIMETER {carmen dicolon distrdphon). See § 289.—2 and 1. 9. One IAMBIC DIMETER acephalous and one IAMBIC TRIMETER aca- talectic {carmen dicolon distrdphon). 10. CHORIAMBIC PENTAMETER {carmen monocolon). This line is made up of a spondee, three clioriambi, and an iambus. 11. One CHORIAMBIC DIMETER and one CHORIAMBIC TETRA¬ METER {carmen diculon distrdphon). |W° In the first foot of the second verse, Horace generally uses a second epitrit (— ^ —-) instead of a choriambus. 12. One HEXAMETER and one DACTYLIC TETRAMETER a posterior [carmen diculon distrdphon). The dactylic tetrameter a posteriore consists of the last four feet of the hexameter. 260 PROSODY. 13. One HEXAMETER and one DACTYLIC TRIMETER catalectic ( carmen dicolon distrdphon). The dactylic trimeter consists of the last three feet of the hexameter. 14. One HEXAMETER and one LIMBIC TRIMETER ( carmen dicolon dis¬ trdphon). See §§ 285 and 289.-2. 15. One HEXAMETER and one IAMBICO-DACTYLIC (carmen dicolon dis¬ trdphon). 16. One ARCHILOCHIAN HEPTAMETER and one IAMBIC TRIMETER catalectic ( carmen dicolon distrdphon). The Archilochian heptameter is made up of a dactylic tetrameter a priori,—that is, of the first four feet of the hexa¬ meter, of which the fourth is always a dactyl,—and of a pure trochaic dimeter brachy catalectic. 294.—Index to the Odes of Horace, (From the Paris edition) containing the first words of each, with reference to the synopsis of the Horatian metres, as exhibited in § 293. iEli, vetusto ....... AEquam memento .. Altera jam teritur.. Angustam, amici... At, 0 deorum. Bacchum in rmiotis Beatus ille. Ccelo snpinas. Coelo tonantem. Cur me querelis.... Delicta majorum... Descende ccelo. Dianam tenerae. Diffugere nives .... Dive, quem proles.. Divis orte bonis.... 1 1 14 1 8 1 8 1 1 1 1 1 5 13 2 4 Donarem pateras .... Eheu fugaces. Est milii nonum .... Et tbure et fidibus .. Exegi monumentum. Faune, Nympharum. Festo quid potius die Herculis ritu. Horrida tempestas .. Ibis Liburnis. Icci, beatis. Ille et nefasto. Impios parrse. Inclusam Danseen ... Intaetis opulentior .. Integer vitse. 8 1 2 6 8 2 6 2 15 8 1 1 2 4 6 2 PROSODY. 261 Jam pauca aratro. 1 Jam satis terris. 2 Jam veris comites. 4 Justnm et tenacem. 1 Laudabunt alii. 12 Lupis et agnis. 8 Lydia, die, per omnes. 11 Maecenas atavis.*. 8 Mala soluta. 8 Martiis cselebs. 2 Mercuri facunde. 2 Mercuri, nam te. 2 Montium custos. 2 Motum ex Metello. 1 Musis amicus. 1 Natia in usum. 1 Ne forte credas. 1 Nobs longa ferae. 4 Non ebur neque. 9 Non semper imbres. 1 Non usitata. 1 Nullam, Vare. 10 Null us argento. 2 Nunc est bibendum. 1 0 diva, gratum. 1 O fons Bandusiae. 5 O matre pulchra. 1 0 nata mecum. 1 O navis, referent. 5 0 saepe mecum. l O Venus, regina. 2 Odi profan um. 1 Otiumdivos... 2 Parcus dcoruin. 1 Parentis olim. 8 Pastor quum traheret. 4 Persicos odi. 2 Phoebe, silvarumque. 2 Phoebus volentem. 1 Pindarum quisquis. 2 Poscimur : si quid. 2 Quae cura patrum. 1 Qualem ministrum. 1 Quando repostum. 8 Quantum distet. 6 Quem tu, Melpomene. 6 Quern virum. 2 Quid bellicosus. 1 Quid dedicatum. 1 Quid immerentes. 8 Quis desiderio. 4 Quo me, Bacche. 6 Quo, quo scelesti. 8 Eectius vives. 2 Scriberis Vario. 4 Septimi, Gades. 2 Sic te diva. 6 Solvitur acris hiems. 16 Te maris et terreo. 12 Tu ne qusesieris.. 10 Tyrrhena regum. 1 Vclox amcenum. 1 Vides, ut alta. 1 Vilepotabis. 2 Rhyming Versification. § 295.—Towards the middle of the fifth century a new political order compelled the Latin races to admit into their language a great many words, borrowed from the conquerors. The pronunciation was altered, little attention paid to prosody, and the meters, which result from a skilful combination of long and short syllables, seemed to have lost their power. Then sprang up a new poetical system, not grounded, as that of the ancients, on the quantity, but on the number of syllables: the harmonious blending of sounds became the chief object of poetry, and, at a still later period, symmetry called forth the modern rhyme. Fart of the a Jesu dulcis memorial and the whole of the “Dies irce ”■—two sacred songs that have acquired a well-deserved celebrity, are subjoined as examples of rhyming versification. The easy flow and sweetness of the former make us almost forget Anacreon ; while the short, majestic lines of the latter so powerfully impress the mind, that they can scarcely be matched by the sublimest numbers of Horace. 262 PROSODY. JESU DULCIS MEMORIA. (Attributed to St. Bernard.) Jesu dulcis memoria, Dans vera cordis gaudia, Sed super mel et omnia Ejus dulcis praesentia. Nil canitur suavius, Nil auditur jucundius, Nil cogitatur dulcius, Quam Jesus Dei Alius. O Jesu, spes poenitentibus, Quam pius es petentibus, Quam bonus te quaerentibus, Sed quid invenientibus ? Nec lingua valet dicere, Nec littera exprimere, Expertus potest credere, Quid sit Jesum diligere. Jesu rex admirabilis Et triumphator nobilis, Dulcedo ineffabilis, Totus desiderabilis. Quando cor nostrum visita?, Tunc lucet ei veritas, Mundi vilescit vanitas Et intus fervet charitas. Jesu, decus Angelicum, In aure dulce canticum, In ore mel mirificum, In corde nectar ccelicum. Qui te gustant, esuriunt; Qui bibuut, adhuc sitiunt; Desiderare nesciunt, Nisi Jesum, quern diligunt. 0 Jesu mi dulcissime, Spes suspirantis animae, Te quaerant piae lacrimae Te clamor mentis intimae. PROSODY. Quocunque loco fuero, Mecum Jesum desidero : Quam laetus cum inveuero, Quam felix cum tenuero ! Jesum omnes agnoscite, Amorem ejus poscite; Jesum ardenter quserite, Quserendo inardescite. Te nostra, Jesu, vox sonet, Nostri te mores exprimant, Te corda nostra diligant, Et nunc et in perpetuum. Amen DIES irse. (Immortalized by Mozart’s Requiem.) Dies iroe, dies ilia Sol vet saeclum in favilla, Teste David cum Sibylla. Quantus tremor est futurus, Quando Judex est venturus, Cuncta stricte discussurus! Tuba mirum spargens sonum Per sepulchra regionum, Coget omnes ante thronum. Mors stupebit et natura, Cum resurget creatura, Judicanti responsura. Liber scriptus proferetur, In quo totum continetur, Unde mundus judicetur. Judex ergo cum sedebit, Quidquid latet, apparebit: Nil inultum remanebit. Qufd sum miser tunc dicturus* Quern patronum rogaturus, Cum vix justus sit seeurus ? PROSODY. 264- Rex tremendse majestatis, Qui salvandos salvas gratis, Salve me, fons pietatis. Recordare, Jesu pie, Quod sum causa turn vise, Ne me perdas ilia die. Qumrens me sedisti lassus, Redemisti crncem passus: Tantus labor non sit cassus. Juste judex ultionis, Donum fac remissionis, Ante diem rationis. Ingemisco, tamquam reus, Culpa rubet vultus mens; Supplicanti parce, Deus. Qui Mariam absolvisti, Et latronem exaudisti, Mihi quoque spem dedisti. Preces mem non sunt dignm; Sed tu bonus fac benigne, Ee perenni cremer igue. Inter oves locum prsesta, Et ab lioedis me sequestra, Statuens in parte dextra. Coufutatis maledictis, Elammis acribus addictis, Yoca me cum benedictis. Oro snpplex et acclinis, Cor contritum quasi cinis, Gere curam mei fmis. Lacrimosa dies ilia, Qua resurget ex favilla, Judicandus homo reus. Huic ergo parce, Deus: Pie Jesu Domine, Dona eis requiem. Amen. READING LESSONS DIALOGUES. 1. Or God. Pater. Filins. P. Quid putas, fill mi, si consideras hose prata, bos Sores, Las arbores; si conspicis fruges in agris, pisoes in aquis, aves in aere, solem in coelo: num Ltec omnia casu fortuito orta sunt? F. Hoc credere non possum. P. IJnde igitur omnia habent originem ? F. A Deo qui conditor est om¬ nium rerum. P. Recte, fili mi! Deus auctor est cceli, solis, lunre, et siderum; ignis, aeris, aquse et terras; hominum, bestiarum, quadrupedum, avium, piscium, ceterarumque animantium; plantarum, frutieum, et arbo- rum; marium et fluminum ; montium ac vallium ; lapidum et metallorum. Unde igitur nosti, Deum esse? F. Ex innumeris ejus operibus. 2. Or rising. Vivianus. Paulus. V. Ileus, Leus, Paule, expergiscere ! tempus est surgere. Audisne ? P. Non audio. V. Ubi ergo Labes aures? P. In lecto. V. Hoc video. Sed quid facis adhuc in lecto? P. Quid faciam?—dormio. V. Dormis? et lo'queris tamen mecum. P. Saltern volo dormire. V. Nunc autem non est tempus dormiendi, sed surgendi. P. Quota Lora est? V. Septima. P. Quan- do tu surrexisti e lecto? V. Jam ante duas Loras. P. Num sorores jam surrexerunt? V. Jam pridem. P. Sed Ludovicus certe adbuc jacetin lecto. V. Eri •as. Quum expergefacerem eum, statim reliquit nidum stmm. P. Mox igitur surgam. II 3. Or icriting. Leonardus. Henricus. L. Quid agis, Henrice? H. Scribo, ut vides. L. Quid scribis? H. Versus quos prseceptor dictavit. L. Ostende, qusoso, scripturam. H. Aspice. L. Videris mibi nimis festinanter scripsisse. II. Scribo interdum melius. 266 READING LESSONS. L. Our igitur nunc tarn male scribis ? H. Desunt mibi bene scribendi adju menta. L. Quasnam? II. Bona cbarta, bonnm atramentum, bona penna. IIa3C enim charta, ut vides, mi sere diffundit litteras ; atramentum est aquo- surn et pallidum; penna mollis et male parata. L. Cur ista omnia non mature providisti ? H. Pecunia mibi deerat et nunc etiam deest. L. Tibi aliquid pecunim commodabo, ut meliorem chartam resque ceteras tibi emero possis. H. Benevolentiam tuam gratus agnosco. 4. On ink. Julius. Augustus. J. Habesne bonum atramentum, amice? A. Ilabeo. J. Visne mibi dare aliquantulum ? A. Eho ! non babes? J. Equidem habeo, sed eo non pos¬ sum scribere. A. Cur non ? J. Quia nimis spissum est. A. Porrige vasculum tuum; ego tibi infundam. J. Ecce, infunde. Yah, quam liqui- dum est! Sed admodum decolor esse videtur. A. Satis nigrum evadet, modo bene miscueris. J. Feci, et probe miscui. A. Nunc fac periculum et scribe aliquid. J. Dicta milii sententiam aliquam. A. Grsecam mavis, an Latin am, an Anglicam? J. Dicta Latinam. A. Scribe: Experientia est optima rerum magistra. J. Scrips). A. Nunc expecta dum scriptura bene desiccata sit. Jam vide quam nigra sit. J. Sic est. A. Ergo experientia tua magistra fait. 5. On letter-writing. Daniel. Philippas. I). Quid legis, Philippe? P. Epistolarn. D. Quis scripsit? P. Prater meus. D. IJnde? P. Parisiis. P. Quo die? P. Die Mercurii. P. Quando accepisti? P. Hac ipsa bora. P. Quis attulit? P. Nescio. P. Nescis? Quis tibi earn dedit? P. Auriga quidam misit mibi e deversorio. P. Quid tibi scripsit frater ? P. Longum est enarrare omnia, necdum totam perlegi: litteras ipsas tibi ostendam post prandium. P. Id mibi pergratum erit. Quando rescribes? P. Fortasse perendie. P. Turn saluta eum meonomine. Nosti enim quantopere eum semper amaverim. P. Hoc probe scio. P. Ergo epistolarn mecum communicabis ? P. Ut promisi. 6. On repetition. Fredericus. Carolus. F. Quid agis, Carole? C. Repeto pensum besternum. F. Tenesne memo- ria? C. Propemodum. Et tu num recitare poteris? F. Yereor ut possim. C. Yisne repetamus^na ? F. Libentissime. Sed quomodo rem instituemus? C. x\udiamus alter alterum. F. Cur autem repetimus hodie quae pridie didicimus ? C. Quia prseceptor nos sic facere jubet? F. Td satis scio ; sed cur jubet? C. Ut memoriam exerceamus; nam quo diligentius pensum repetimus, eo melius tenemus. Incipe igitur et recita. F. Atqui tuum est ootius incipere. 0. Quid ita? F. Quia me invitasti. G. Iucipiam igitur. Tu vero attente audi ut moneas si quid peccaverim. HEADING LESSONS. 267 7. On playing. Conradus. Godofredus. Otto. C. Veni, Godofrede ! veni Otto ! venite ambo ! G. Quo tandem ? G. In aream; preceptor enim nos jussit ludere. 0. Quid hie narrat? G. Quod certissimum est et quod ipsi a ceteris commilitonibus mox audietis. G. Lu- dant sane alii, quantum voluerint: ego non ludam. 0. Nec mibi animus est ludendi. C. Quare autem ? G. Malo repetere lectiones meas quam ludendo tempus perdere. G. Num hoc est tempus perdere, si corpus exercemus ad valetudinem conservandam? 0. Tu corpus exerce: ego vero describam quse prseceptor dictavit. C. Ohe ! quam morosos babeo condiscipulos! G. Sibi quisque serit, sibi metit. G. At preeceptor nos ludere jusssit. 0. Mentiris! Debebas dicere enm permisisse ut ludamus, non autem jus- sisse. Nemo enim ad ludum cogitur. G. Yalete, ego ludam. 8. Funny talk. Andreas. Mauritius. Rudolplius. A. Salve, mi Mauriti! M. Gratias ago, mi Andrea! Quid afters? A . Meipsum. M. Sic rem baud magni pretii hue attulisti. A. Atqui magno constiti patri ineo. IT. Credo pluris quam quisquam te sestimet. A. Sed Rudolpbus estnedomi? M. Nescio. Pulsa fores ejus et videbis. A. Ileus! Rudolpbe, num domi es? R. Non sum. A. Rnpudens! non ego audio te loquentem ? R. Immo tu es impudens. Nuper ancillte vestrse credidi, te non esse domi, cum tamen esses; et tu non credis mihi ipsi. A. iEquum dicis; par pari retulisti. R. Equidem, utnon omnibus dormio, ita non omnibus sum domi. Nunc vero adsum. A. Sed tu mihi videris cochlese vitam agere. R. Quid ita? A. Quia perpetuo domi latitas, nec unquam prorepis. R. Foris mihi nihil est negotii. A. At serenum caelum nuncinvitat ad deambulandum. R. Verum est. Si ergo deambulare lubet, per horulam te comitabor; nam toto hoc mense pedem porta non extuli. Vocabo Mauritium ut una nobiscum eat. A. Placet. Sic enim jucundior erit deambulatio. 9. The sluggard. M ax i rn i 1 i a n u s. G u i li el in u s. M. Hodie te conventum volebam, Guilielme; sed negabaris esse domi. G. Non omnino mentiti sunt. Tibi quidem non eram, sed mihi turn eram maxime. M. Quid isthoc senigmatis est ? G. Dormiebam. M. Quid ais ? atqui jam prseterierat octava, quum sol hoc mense oriatur ante quartam. G. Per me quidem soli liberum est oriri vel media nocte, modo mihi liceat ad satietatem usque dormire. Nullus enim somnus suavior est quam post exor- tum solem. M. Qua tandem hora soles e lecto surgere ? G. Inter quartam et nonam. M. Satis amplum spatium! Yix unquam vidi hominem te magis prodigum. G. At mihi parsimonia potius videtur; interim enim neo candelas absumo, nec vestes detero. M. Prsepostera sane parsimonia. Aliter sentiebat ille philosophus qui rogatus quid esset pretiosissinjum, re^ spondit, tempus. 268 READING LESSONS. 10. Continued. G. Sed dulce est dormire. M. Quid potest esse dulce nihil sentient!? Yerum reputa, qussso, quantum eruditionis tibi parare possis quatuor illia horis quas somno intempestivo perdere soles. Nosti proverbium : Aurora musis arnica. Nunquam enim alacrior est animus hominis quam matutino tempore, nec unqnam feliciores in litterarum studiis progressus facere pos~ sumus. Quid suspiras, Guilielme? G. Yera profecto prsedicas et vix a lacrimis mibi temperare possum quum cogito quantam feeerim jacturam. M. In id igitur incumbe ut futuro tempori parcas; nec nimio te dedas somno. Septem enim boras dormisse adulto homini, bene valenti, sufficit. G. Vereor ut possim; nam consuetudo est altera natura, ac difficillimum est ea relinquere, quibus din assuevimus. M. Initio quidem, sed earn moles- tiam brevi tempore vinces, et turn tibi ipse sero licet gratulaberis mihique gratias ages qui monuerim. 11. Invitation to dinner . Gustavus. Stephanas. G. Salve multum, jucundissime Stepbane ! 8. Salve et ipse, bumanissime Gustave! Quid agis? G. Ego nonnihil babeo quod tibi succenseam. 8. Quid ita ? quid admisi sceleris ? G. Quod me plane negligis meque tarn raro revisis. 8. Yerum boc non mea culpa accidit. Dabis veniam occu- pationibus meis per quas mibi non licet te quoties cupio revisere. G. Ita demum tibi ignoscam, si hodie apud me coenes. S. Haud iniquas pacis leges prsescribis, Gustave. Libentissime veniam. G. At cave me deluseris. 8. llac in re non fallam. Sed heus tu! cave quidquam paraveris prater .quotidiana. G. Cavebo et satis frugali coena te excipiam. At tu vide, omnes curas tuns et quidquid bilaritati official, domi relinquas. 8. Ita fiet, Explicabimus frontem nosque jucunditati dabimus. Numquid aliud vis? G. Fac ad quintam boram adsis. 8. Adero. Interea vale.. 12. On hunting. Paulus. Theophilus. Vivianus. Ludovicus. Bernardos. P. Trabit sua quernque voluptas: mibi placet venatio. T. Placet etiasi mibi; sed ubi canes, ubi venabula, ubi casses ? P. Yaleant apri, ursi, cervi, et vulpes! nos insidiabimur cuniculis. V. At ego laqueos injiciam locustis. T. Ego ran as captabo. B. Ego papiliones venabor. T. Difficile est sectari volautia. B. Difficile, sed pulcbrum ; nisi pulcbrius esse ducis sectari lura- bricos aut cocbleas, quia carent alis. L. Equidem malo insidiari piscibus; est mihi bamus elegans. B. Sed unde parabis escam ? L. Lumbricorum ubivis magna est copia. B. Sed plerique pisces delicatioris et elegantioris sunt palati quam ut esca tarn vulgari capiantur. T. Tu vide, Ludovice, possisne imponere piscibus; ego ranis facessam negotium. L. Quomodo ? ueti? T. Non; sed arcu. L. Novum piscandi genus. T. At non injucun- dum. Yidebis et fatebere. V. Quid, si eertemus nucibus? P. Nuces BEADING LESSONS. 269 pueris relinquamus; nos grandiores snmus. V. Et tamen nihil adhuc aliud quam pneri sumns. P. Sed quibus decorum est ludere nucibus, iisdem non indecorum est equitare in arundine longa. V. Tu igitur prroscribito lusus genus; sequar quocunque vocaveris. P. Et ego futurus sum omnium hora- rum homo. 13. The traveller. Ferdinandus. Eugenius. P. Salve, mi Eugeni 1 E. Tu quoque salve, mi Ferdinande! F. Quomodo vales ex tarn diuturno itinere? E. Optime, ut vides. F. Vehementer gaudeo te rediisse incolumem. Ubinam fuisti tot annis? quas terras pera- grasti. E. In Anglia fui, in Gallia et Italia. F. Quasnam Italise urbes vidisti? E. Imprimis commoratus sum Genuse, Florentine, Yenetiis, Nea- poli, et Romse. Postea Bononiam vidi, Patavium, et Mediolanum; in sin¬ gulis autem hisce urbibus tantum aliquot menses commoratus sum. P. Quid autem novi vidisti in tot locis celeberrimis ? E. Fere omnia mihi nova vide- bantur; sed longum est omnia enarrare. F. Die saltern quomodo urbs nostra tibi visa sit post tarn longam absentiam? E. Omnia mutata sunt. Quam repente res hominum mutantur! Yix decern annos abfueram, et non secus omnia admirabar ac somnians ille Epimenides, cum esset expergefactus. 14. Continued . F. Qunenam ista est fabula ? E. Narrant historici de Epimenide quodam Cretensi, qui deambulandi gratia solus urbe egressus, quum subita pluvia compellente in quandam speluncam iugressus obdormisset, nescio quot annos perpetuos somnum continuant. F. Quid narras? Isthoc est men- tiri! Sed perge, quseso. E. Epimenides igitur somno solutus e spelunca prodit, circumspicit, mutata videt omnia, silvas, flumina, ripas, arbores, agros. Accedit ad urbem ; percontatur, manet illic aliquamdiu, neque novit quemquam, neque a quopiam agnoscitnr. Alius hominum cultus, mutatus sermo, diversi mores. Nec miror hoc Epimenidi post tot annorum spatium evenisse, quum mihi idem propemodum evenerit qui nonnisi paucos annos abfuerim. F. Jam te diutius detinere nolim; alio tempore multa mihi narrabis. Yale, Eugeni carissime! E. Yale. 15. A promenade. Pater. Filins. P. Paululum deambulaturus sum et tu me comitaberis, fili mil F. Quo- nam ibimus, pater carissime ? P. In agros. Segetem lustrabimus. F. Qua vero via? hacne lata, an ilia semita? P. Per semitam ibimus; nam heec lata via nondum satis sicca est. F. Yerum ista semita angusta est et lu- brica. P. Noli timere. Simulac post illam maceriam venerimus, lat.ior fiet atque expedition F. 0 quam serenum et mite ccelum! P. Audisne alau- dam canentem? F. Audio, sed non video. P. Alauda magis auribus perci- pitur quam oculis. Sed hie sursum tollo vultum, et earn videbis. F. Jana 27x0 READING LESSONS. video. Puncti instar est; adeo pusilla apparet. P. Nunc pervenimus ad collem, mi fili! ex quo immensa panditur planities. Ascendamus igitur. F. O prasclarum prospectum! P. Hie urbem nostram vides et fluvium flexuosis anfractibus labentem, ad dexteram campos patentissimos, ad sinis- tram montes silvis vestitos, et vineas amoenissimas. 16. Continued. F. Istic ovium gregem conspicio. Ubi est opilio? P. Illic sub arbore consedit. F. Nuliine ei canes sunt? P. Nonne eos vides prope opilionem cubantes? F. Timeo ne me mordeant. P. Non est quod timeas; non te bedent, Sed illuc verte oculos. Yidesne cervum ramosis ornatum corni- bus ? F. Quam prsestanti est forma! Hie leporem video currentem. Quos ille saltus fac'd! P. Est animal timidissimum. F. Sed quis ille vir est, viridi indutus veste ? P. Venator est. F. Habet secum duo canes vena- ticos. P. Hi semper venatorem sequuntur, cum sint ad venandum neces- sarii. F. Video bominem pauperem, nobis appropinquantem. Nos allocu- turus videtur esse. Ibo ei obviam, ut si forte ope nostra egeat, preces ejus prseveniam. P. Bene facis, fili mi, ito! F. Non erat mendicus, sed viator, qui me, ut viam sibi monstrarem, rogabat. P. Monstrastine brevissimam? F. Monstravi, ut aberrare non possit. P. Sed jam redeamus, satis jam ambulatum est. Eamus per banc silvulam ; hac via citius domum venie- mus. F. Visne praecedam ? P. Praecede. . 17. Missed lessons. Theodoras. Augustus. A. Hodiene demum rure rediisti ? T. Hodie, paulo ante prandium A. Atqui dixeras te modo biduum ibi mansurum. T. Ita fore sperabam et pater sic prsedixerat. A. Quid igitur obstitit, quominus citius redieris ? T. Mater me detinuit. A. Cur te tam diu retinuit? T. Ut ipsam rede- untem comitarer. A. Quid vero agebas interea? T. Colligebam fructus cum rusticis nostris. A. Quos fructus ? T. Quasi ignoti tibi sint fructus serotini: pira, mala, juglandes, castanese. A. Jucundum sane negotium ! Sed interim quinque aut sex scholarum fructus tibi periit. T. Hoc valda doleo : sed omnibus viribus enltar ut damnum quodammodo resarciam. A. Quid facies? T. Describam omnia quam diligentissime. A. Sed non omnia satis intelliges. T. Turn tu mihi aderis et explicationem prseceptoris mecum communicabis. A. Quanto priestitisset, ipsum audire magistrum! T. Multo sane prsestitisset; sed cum boc mihi non contigerit, nec mea culpa factum sit, non habeo quod me accusem. A. Eecte dicis. Sed frater nos vocat ad ccenam. T. Intremus igitur. / READING LESSONS. 271 15 . Carolus. Eugenius. G. Audi amice! E. Quid vis? G. Yisne mecurn ire in liortum princi- pis ? E. Quid illic aspectu jucundum videbimus ? G. Varias et pulchras arbores, herbarum et florum miram varietatein, amcenissimas ambulationes, fontes salientes plurimasque statuas. E. Cceli serenitas nos invltat, et tem- pns vacat. Paululum modo expecta, dam vestem mutaverim. Jam para- tus sum. Num hortus longe hinc abest? G. Non admodum longe. Nun- quamne in eo fuisti? E. Nunquam. C. Ecce porta! Intremus! E. Pr®i, ego sequar. G. Yidesne ambulationem pulcherrimam? hie ad dex- tram taxorum duplicem seriem ? E. Et bos statu®, quam artificiose sculpt® sunt! Continued. E. Ubi autem est fons saliens? G. Mox videbis. E. Jam video. Yah, quam alte aquas ejaculatur! C. IJic xystus est, in quo, cum pluit, inainbu- lant, lie imbre madescant. E. Queen am sunt hoe arbores, in cistis ligneis posit®? C. Sunt citri et ficus. Ambulemus paulisper in hoc pomario. E. O locum amoenissimum ! quot areol®, pulcherrimis floribus cons-t®! G. Illic topiarii filiolus florum fasciculum colligit. Ilium, credo, tibi offeret. E. Ego vero sorori me® feram. Gratissimum id ipsi futurum scio. G. Sed munusculum aliquod puerulo dandum est. E. Sane! ejusmodi dona gratis accipere turpe esset. G. Nullus est sensus, qui hie non aliqua voluptate atfleiatur. Qu® colorum varietas! qui cantus avium! quam grati odores! Et quid mollius liac ipsa aura, qu® salutari spiritu corpus refrigerat et vires reficit. Non solum corpus, sed etiam animus noster exhilaratur hujusmodi amoenitatibus. E. Yerum est, quod dicis. Sed fructus isti me coen® com- monefaciunt. Invitatus sum a Sempronio. G. Redeamus igitur. 16 . Gustavus. Ferdinandus. G. Audisne ventum veliementer flantem? F. Audio. G. Nonne melius nobiscum ageretur, si omnis ventus et tristis ilia hiems a terris nostris abes- set? ZdNonestita; ist® res valde utiles sunt. G. Cuinamrei? F. Yenti purgant aerem vaporibus minus salubribus et ne pestiferis impleatur vapori- bus, impediunt. G. Audio. Sed quid hiems prodest? F. Terr® aliisque rebus vires reddit, quas per ®statem amiserunt. Nonne arbores, si perpetuo solis calore crescere et fructus ferre cogerentur, brevi tempore interirent ? G. Unde autem fit, ut hieme terra gelu concrescat etflumina glacie induren- tur ? F. Hiberno tempore radii solis obliquius feruntur ad earn terr® par¬ tem, ubi hiems est, ideoque longe minorem vim habent calefaciendi. Hue accedit quod per hiemem noctes longiores sunt, dies autem breviores. Continued. G. Attamen satius foret, si perpetuo vere frueremur. F. Erras. Yer perpetuum tibi et mihi omnibusque tandem t®dio foret. G. Hoc vix credi- 272 HEADING LESSONS. derim. F. Omnis voluptas rernm varietate nititur. Ees quamvis pulober* rima et jucundissima tandem tgedio fit, si ea perpetno utimur. Cogita quam suavis sit sanitas corporis iis, qtii gravi morbo iaborarimt, et quam parvi sestimetur ab iis qui nun quam segrotarunt. G. Quid autem dicis de tonitri- bus? Nonne optandum esset, ut nunquam fulmina, nun quam tonitrua nos terrerent? F. Etiam fulmina et tonitrua sunt necessaria; terrain enim fer- tilioreiu reddunt noxiosque vapores consumunt. Deus etiam ea qua) terri- bilia nobis videntur, commodi nostri causa fecit. G. Non stulte loqueris. Video Deum res omnes sapientissime instituisse. 17 . Julius. Augustus. J. Quid facis, Auguste? Cave tibi, obsecro. A. Quid mibi cavebo? J. Ne in morbum incidas tua ipsius culpa. A. Qua ex causa? J. Ex nimia lusus intemperantia. A. Unde adparet periculum? J. Quia totus testuas, totus suclore mades. A. Eecte et in tempore admones; profecto non sen- tiebam. J. Desiste, si me audis. A. Libentissime tibi morem gero. Quis enim respuat tarn fidele consilium ? J. Deterge faciem et vesti te celeriter, ne subitum frigus contrabas. Omnis enim subita mutatio periculosa est. A. Habeo tibi gratiam, Juli, ram vere morbis sum obnoxius. J. Tanto magis debes cave re. A. Istud probe scio, et parens uterque me monet sib- pissime. Sed quid again ? natura proni sumus in nostram perniciem. J. O mi Auguste! non est voluptati scrviendum, sed temperantia valetudini con- sulendum. Jam satis bene indutus es. Nunc suadeo ut domum redeas. A. Yale, suavissime Juli, monitor amicissiine! READING LESSONS. 273 NARRATIVES AND ANECDOTES. 1. Sutor quidara corvmn instituerat, ut Augustum his verbis salutaret: Aye, Caesar, victor, imperator! Quoties autem corvus hanc salutationem reeitare nolaerat, sutor indignabundus dixerat: Oleum et operam perdidi. Tandem avem obtulit Augusto. Qui cum audiret corvi salutationem : Satis, inquit, domi salutatorum talium habeo. Turn corvus addidit: Oleum et operam perdidi. Risit Augustus, emique avem jussit, quanti nullam adhuc emerat. 2 . Marcus Piso, orator Romanus, ne interpellaretur, servis prseceperat, ut ad interrogata tantum responderent, nee quidquam prseterea dicerent. Evenit ut Clodium qui turn magistratum gerebat, ad coenam invitari juberet. Hora coenoe instabat; aderant ceteri conyivm omnes; solus expectabatur Clodius. Piso servum, qui convivas vocare solebat, aliquoties emisit ut videret, num veniret. Vesperascente jam ccelo, quum adventus ejus desperaretur, Piso servo: Die, inquit, num forte non invitasti Clodium ?—Invitavi, respondit ille.—Cur ergo nonvenit?—Quia venturum se negavit. Turn Piso: Cur id non statim dixisti?—Quia id non sum abs te interrogate. 3 . Puer quidam, cui interdictum erat ne quid cibi inter ccenandura peteret, quum se prsetermissum videret, nonnihil salis posuit in orbe. Interrogatus quare id faceret: Hoc, inquit, sale aspergam carnem quam accepturus sum. 4 . Quum medious celeberrimus omnes artis sum vias ad levandum Frederici Seeundi, Borussise regis, morti jam vicini, morbum frustra teutasset, atquo hie vultu indignanti et impatienti ex ipso queesisset: Tune jam multis iter ad inferos maturasti? ille, qui regem breviter et acute sibi responderi velle probe intelligeret: Non tarn multis, quam tu, rex.—Atqueboc ei responsum non displicuisse vultu turn prodidisse dicitur. 5 . Hugo Grotius, quum esset inimicorum macliinis in custodiam conjecfcus, identidem arcam librorum, sibi ab uxore missam in carcerem, recepit. Iloa libros quum perlegisset, in eadem area repositos ad uxorem referri jussit, quse earn novis libris onustam ad Grotium remittere solebat. Tandem uxor consilium cepit, hac ratione mariti ex custodia liberandi. Suasit ei ut se ipsum in hac area componi pateretur. Obsequutus est Grotius, et custc- dum diligentiam, quippe qui libros more consueto e career© efferri puta* rent, fefellit. 274 READING LESSONS. 6. Demosthenes cmd the judges. Demosthenes causam orans qoum judiees parum attentos videret: Paul* lisper, inquit, aures mihi prsebete; rem vohis novam et jucundam narrabo, Quum aures arrexissent: Juvenis, inquit, quispiam asinum conduxerat, quo Athenis Megaram profecturus uteretur. Iu itinere quum sol ureret, neque esset umbraculum, deposuit ciitellas et sub asino consedit, cujus umbra tegeretur. Id vero agaso vetabat, clamans, asinum locatum esse, non um- bram asini. Alter quum contra contenderet, tandem in jus ambulant. Ilsec locutus Demosthenes, ubi honlines arrectis auribus auscultantes vidit, abiit. Turn relocates a judicibus rogatusque ut reliquam fabulam enarraret: Quid, inquit, de asini umbra libet audire ? causam hominis de vita pericli- tantis non audietis? 7. The silly critic. Sunt qui vel mundi opificem sapientissimum reprehendere audeant. Quum quidam cucurbitam grandiorem tenuiin caule humi jacentem videret: Hem I inquit, non in caule tenui, sed in alta quercu ego earn suspendissem. Abire deinde, et sub quercu aliqua obdormiscere. Qui quum dormiret, ventus glandes innumeras a quercu decutere, quarum aliqua nasum hominis vehe- mentius tetigit. Expergefactus ille quum sanguinem e naso profluentem cerneret: Quid, inquit, si hmc cucurbita fuisset, vix equidem viverem amplius. Deum profecto sentio sapientissime atque optime mundum dis- posuisse. 8. Remarkable sayings. Thales interrogates, hominumne facta Deum fallerent, ne cogitata quidem y respondit.—Idem rogatus quid maxime commune esset hominibus, Sq)es, re- spondit; hanc enim illi quoque habent qui nihil hdbent aliud. —Socrates in pompa quum magna vis auri argentique ferretur: Quam multa non desidero , inquit.—Epictetus interrogatus quis esset dives? Oui, inquit, satis est , quod habet. —Rutilius Rufus, homo justissimus, quum amici cujusdam injustis precibus resisteret isque indignabundus dixisset: Quid ergo amicitia tua mihi prodest, si quod rogo, non facis? Immo , inquit, quid mihi tua , si propter te aliquid inhoneste facturus sum f 9. The boaster put to the trial. Homo quidam reversus in patriam, unde aliquot abfuerat annos, ubique gloriabatur jactabatque prasclara sua facinora. Inter alia narrabat in insula Rhodo saliendo se vicisse optimos in hac exercitatione artifices. Ostendebat etiam spatii longitudinem, quam prseter se nemo potuisset saltu superaro, cujus saltus testes se habere universos Rhodios dicebat. Turn unus ex ad- stantibus : Ileus tu, inquit, si vera narras, nihil opus est istis testibus. Hio Rhodum esse puta, hie salta. 10. Funny stories. Geminorum frater alter mortuus erat. Quidam igitur obvius vivo : Time, inquit, mortuus es an frater tuns ? Yir qui! am nob ilia in littore maris ambulabat. Occurrit liomo importu- READING LESSONS. 275 mis ejusque latus percutiens: Non ego, in quit, cuilibet fatuo decedere soleo. At ego soleo, inquit alter et decessit. Vir quidam verberibus castigavit servum maxime ob pigritiam. Cur me percutis, liic clamare coepit, nihil enim feci. Atqui propter hoc ipsum, re¬ sponds herus, te percutio, quod nihil fecisti. 11 . Quidam flumen trajecturus, equo insidens navem conscendit. Quum quis causam percontaretur: Festino, inquit. Homo quidam stolidus audiverat corvos arnplius ducentos annos vivere. Hoc igitur, verumne esset, exploraturus, pullum corvinum in cavea inclusum alere coepit. Puer quidam passeres in arbore conspicatus, clanculum subrepsit et linteo substrato arborem quassavit, passeres excepturus. 12 . Ag&so quidam, quum asinis suis identidem numeratis sensisset unum nu- mero abesse, iratus accusare vicinos furti coepit, oblitus, se illi asino insidere, quern amissum arbitrabatur. Stolidus stolido obviam factus: Audivi, inquit, te mortuum esse.—At me vivum adhuc et spirantem vides, respondit alter. Verum, inquit ille; sed qui mihi hoc dixit, te fide dignior est. Hominem jocosum stolidus quidam interrogavit: Cur, quseso, inquit, sol qui occidentem versus occidere solet, semper tamen ab oriente resurgit? Respondit alter, solem eadem semper via recurrere post occasum, sed cerni non posse redeuntem, obstante scilicet noctis caligine. 13 . Grsecus quidam Augusto e Palatio descendenti, honorificum aliquod epi- gramma porrigere solebat spe prsemii. Id quum saepe frustra fecisset, Au¬ gustus eum deterriturus breve epigramma sua manu exaratum Graeculo ad- venienti obviam misit. Ille, dum legeret, laudabat, et turn voce, turn vultu gestuque mirabatur. Deinde ad sellam accessit qua Caesar ferebatur, pau- cosque ex crumena denarios protraxit, quos Caesari daret, dixitque, se plus daturum fuisse, si plus habuisset. Omnes risere; Caesar autem dispensato- rem vocari et Graeco satis magnam pecuniae summam numerari jussit. 14 . Lysimachus inter duces Alexandri illustri genere, sed longe magis virtute quam genere clarus erat. Cum Alexander Callisthenem pliilosophum mise- randum in modum omnibus membris truncasset et msuper cum cane in cavea inclusum circumferri jussisset, Lysimachus, qui philosophum audire atque ex ejus ore virtutis et sapientiae prsecepta percipere solltus erat, vene- num ei dedit remedium calamitatum. Quod adeo aegre tulit Alexander, ut Lysimachum leoni objici juborot. Sed quum leo impetum fecisset in eum, 276 BEADING LESSONS. Lysimachus manum araiculo involutam in os leonis immersit arreptaqne lingua feram exaniinavit. Quod quum nuntiatum regi esset, admiratio irsa successit, carioremque Lysimachum babuit propter tantam constantiam. 15 . Ad P. Scipionem Africanum visendum, cum in villa prope Liternum versaretur, plures prsedonum duces eodem tempore forte convenerant. Quos cum Scipio ad vim faciendam venisse putaret, prsesidia domesticorum disposuit omnique modo domum defendere statuit. Praedones, hoc viso, arm a statim abjecerunt januaeque appropinquantes clara voce exclamarunt se non vitae ejus hostcs, sed virtutis admiratores venisse; conspectum et congressum tanti viri quasi coeleste aliquod beneficimn se expetere: proinde securus spectandum se praeberet. Turn Scipio januas reserari ac praedones intromitti jussit. Qui quum januam tamquam aram aliquam aut delubrum venerati essent, cupide Scipionis dextram comprehenderunt atque osculati sunt. Mox positis ante vestibulum donis, quae deorum numini consecrari solebant, Iteti, quod Scipionem videre contigisset, ad nave3 suas recesserunfc. Tanta bujus viri admiratio etiam apud abjectissimos fuit homines. 16 . Antisthenes discipulos hortabatur ut sedulo operam darent sapientiae. Pauci obtemperabant. Itaque indignatus dimisit omnes. Inter hos Dio¬ genes erat. Qui quum magna discendi cupiditate incensus ad Antisthenem ventitare pergeret nec discedere vellet, Antisthenes tandem minatus est se caput ejus percussurum esse baculo quern manu gestare solebat. Non re- cessit Diogenes, sed animo obstinato: Percute, inquit, si ita placet. Ego tibi caput praebebo, neque tam durum fustem invenies, quo me a tuis dispu- tationibus abigas. Antisthenes tarn cupidum doctrinae discipulum admisit eumque maxime adamavit. 17 . Athenis olim fuit vir quidam, nomine Timon, qui in universum hominum genus odium conceperat. Is aliquando prodiit in concionem. Quod cum praster consuetudinem faceret, magna omnium expectatio fuit, quidnam afferret. Turn ille e suggestu, in quern ascend erat: Athenienses, inquit, est mihi ficus quaedam, e qua jam multi sponte se suspenderunt. Quoniam autem in area ilia aedes exstructurus sum, priusquam ficum caedo, monere vos volui, ut si quis de suspendio cogitet, quam maxime properet. 18 . Fuerunt olim duo pictore3 celeberrimi, quorum alter Zeuxis, Parrhasius alter appellatus est. Hi aliquando de arte certabant. Zeuxis uvas pinxerat atque sic erat iinitatus naturae veritatem, ut aves ad tabu!am advolarcnt, quasi verae essent uvae. Turn Parrhasius tabulam attulit, in qua linteum pinxerat. Zeuxis decQptus pictum linteum verum habuit, sub quo pictura READING LESSONS. 277 occultaretur. Qiram igitur diutius morari videretur Parrliasins, Zeuxis flagitabat ut tandem linteum removeret ostenderetque picturam. Turn vero quum intellexisset errorem, palmam Parrhasio detulit ingenuo pudore, quo- niam ipse aves fefellisset, Parrliasins autem ipsum artificem. 19 . Diogenes interroganti cuidam, quanam ratione posset optime ulcisci inimicum : Si te ipsum, in quit, probum et honestum virum prsestiteris.— Cum Grseci, qui Asiam incolebant, Persarum regem ex more Magnum ap- pellarent, Agesilaus: Num, inquit, ille me major est, si non est justior et temperantior ?—P. Scipio dicere solebat, nunquam se minus otiosnm esse, quam quum otiosus, nec minus solum, quam quum solus esset. Magnifica vero vox et magno viro ac sapiente digna!—Solon, Atbeniensium legislator, cum interrogaretur, cur nullum supplicium constituisset in eum qui paren- tem necasset: Quia neminem, inquit, hoc facturum esse puto.—Diogenes lucernam accensam circumferens clarissima luce in foro ambulabat, quse- renti similis. Rogantibus quid ageret ? Hominem, inquit, quasro. 20 . Marcus Cato puer in domo avunculi sui, Drusi, tribuni plebis, educabatur. Apud quern cum socii de civitate impetranda convenissent, et Quintus Pop- pedius, Marsorum princeps, eum rogaret ut socios apud avunculum adjuva- ret, constanti vultu respondit, non facturum se. Iterum cleinde et saepins l'ogatus, in proposito perstitit. Tunc Poppedius puero in altissimam aedium partem sublato minatus est, se eum inde dejecturum, nisi precibus obtem- peraret. Sed Cato ne hac quidem re ab in cep to depelli potuit. Ita Poppe- dio vox ilia expressa est: Gratulemur nobis, socii, hunc esse tarn parvum: quo senatore ne sperare quidem civitatem liceret. Sic ea constantia, quam postea per totam vitam ostendit, jam in puero Catone apparuit. 278 READING LESSONS. FABLES. a 1 . Vulpes, extrema fame coacta, uvam appetebat, ex alta vite dependentem. Quam qimm summis viribus saliens attingere non posset, tandem discedens: Nondum matura est, inquit; nolo acerbam sumere.—Sic saepe homines, quae facere non possunt, verbis elevant. 2 . Asinus segrotabat famaque exierat eum cito esse moriturum. Cum igitur lupi canesque venissent ad eum visendum, quaererentque ex filio, quomodo pater ejus se baberet, ille per ostii rimulam respondit: Melius quam velletis. 3 . Opiliones aliquot, caesa atque assata ove, convivium agebant. Quod quum lupus, qui praedandi causa forte stabula circumibat, videret, ad opiliones conversus: Quos clamores, inquit, et quantos tumultus vos contra me exci- taretis, si ego facerem, quod vos facitis? Turn unus ex iis: Hoc interest, inquit: nos quae nostra sunt comedimus; tu vero alien a furaris. 4 . Rapuerat caseum corvus atque, ut comederet ilium, in celsa arbore con- sedit. Quo conspecto, vulpes avida casei, accurrit eumque blande astuteque aggreditur: O corve, inquit, quam pulchra es avis, quam speciosa! Te de- cuit esse avium regem. Sane omnes aves regiis virtutibus antecedere's, si vocem liaberes. His corvus laudibus inflatus, ut vocem ostenderet, clamo- rem edidit, sed simul, aperto rostro, caseum amisit. Ilunc vulpes statim arripuit atque irridens dixit: Ileus, corve! Nihil tibi deest praeter mentem. 5 . Formica sitiens quum ad fontem descendisset ut biberet, iu aquam cecidit nee multum abfuit quin misera periret. Columba quaedam, in arbore se- dens, misericordia tacta, ramulum in aquam injecit. Hunc assecuta est for¬ mica eique innatans mortem etfugit. Paulo post adfuit auceps, qui colum- bae insidiabatur. Formica, ut piae columbae opein ferret, ad aucupem arrep- sit et tarn vehementer eum momordit ut arundines prae dolore abjiceret. Columba, strepitu arundinum territa, avolavit ac periculum incolumis evasit. —Juva et juvabere; raro beneflcium perit. READING LESSONS. 279 6 . Vulpes, asinus et leo venatum iverant. AmpU prseda facta, lco asinum illam partiri jnbet. Qui quum singulis singulas partes poneret sequales, leo eum correptum dilaniavit et vulpi negotium partiendi tribuit. Ilia astutior leoni maximam partem apposuit, sibi vix minimam reservans particulam. Turn leo subrTdens ejus prudentiam laudare et, unde boo didicerit, interro- gare ccepit. Et vulpes: Iiujus me, inquit, calamitas docuit, quid minores potentioribus debeant. 7. Leo annis confectus inorbum finxit. Ut eum viserent, plures bestise ad asgrotum regem venerunt, quas ille protinus devoravit. Sed cauta vulpes prooul ante speluncam stab at, regem salutans. Leo rogavit, cur non intra- ret? Quia, inquit, multa intrantium vestigia video, sed nulla exeuntium. 8 . Asinus sale onustus fluvium transiit et titubans in aquam decidit. Quum surgeret, onus non nihil levatum esse sensit; sal enim in aqua delicuerat. Qua re gavisus, quum postea spongiis onustus ad fluvium accederet, spera- vit, si rursus collaberetur, fore ut onus fieret levius. Quare de industria lapsus est. Spongiis autem madefactis exsurgere nequivit ideoque oneri succumbens misere in aqua periit. 9 . Serpens ingenti saxo oppressus rogavit virum iliac iter facientem, ut a se onus amoliretur, pollicitus, se illi ingentem thesaurum daturum esse si hoc faceret. Quod cum vir iste fecisset, non modo promissa non solvit, sed hominem occidere conatus est. Dum contendunt, accidit ut vulpes transi- ret. Quae arbitra electa: Non possum, inquit, tantas lites componere, nisi videro prius, quomodo serpens saxo oppressus fuerit. Cum igitur vir ser¬ pent! saxum iterum imposuisset, vulpes astuta: Ingratum animal, inquit, sub saxo relinquendum esse censeo. 10 . Lupus et agnus, siti compulsi, ad eundem rivum venerant. Superior lupus, longe inferior agnus stabat. Tunc improbus latro jurgii causam quse- rens: Cur, inquit, aquam milii bibenti turbulentam fecisti? Agnus porter- ritus: Quomodo, inquit, hoc facere possum ; aqua a te ad me decurrit. Lu¬ pus, veritate rei repulsus: Sex menses abhinc, inquit, mihi maledixisti. Illo tempore, respondit agnus, equidem nondum natus eram. Hercle igitur, in¬ quit lupus, pater tuus de me male locutus est, atque ita correptum agnuin dilaniat. 280 READING LESSONS. 11 . Oervus cum vehem enter sitiret, ad fontem accessit, suaque in aquis im¬ agine conspecta, cornuum magnitndinem et varietatem landabat, crura vera ut graoilia et exilia vituperabat. Haec cogitanti supervenit leo. Quo viso in fugam se conjicit cervus et leoni longe prsecurrit. Quamdiu in planitie erat, nullum ei ab hoste imminebat periculum. Ubi vero ad nemus venit opacum, inter dumeta cornibus adhssrescens, quum celeritate pedum uti non posset, captus et dilaniatus est. Turn moriturus: O me desipientem, inquit, cui ea displicerent, quae me servarunt, placerent autem, qua) me perdide- runt! 12 . Senex quidam ligna in silva ceciderat et, fasce in hnmeros sublato, do- mum redire coepit. Quum autem defatigatus esset et onere et itinere, de- posuit ligna, et senectutis inopiaeque miserias secum reputans, clara voce in- vocavit mortem ut se ab omnibus malis liberaret. Mox adfuit mors quid vellet interrogans. Tunc senex penterritus : Nihil volo, inquit, nisi ut liunc fascem lignorum humeris meis imponas. 13 . Duo amici iter una faciunt. Occurrit in itinere ursus, quo conspecto alter eorum illico arborem conscendit sicque periculum evltat; alter vero, quum meminisset, bestiam illam cadavera non attingere, humi se prosternit ani- mamque continet, se mortuum esse simulans. Accedit ursus, contrectat jacentem, os suum ad hominis os auresque admovet atque, cadaver esse ratus, discedit. Quum postea socius qusereret, quidnam ei ursus dixisset in aurem, respondit: Monuit ne amicum esse milii unquam persuaderem, cujus fidem adverso tempore non fuissem expertus. 14 . Mures, in pariete cavo commorantes, diu contemplabantur felem, quae capite demisso et tristi vultu placide recumbebat. Tunc unus ex iis: Hoc animal, inquit, admodum benignura et mite videtur esse. Quid, si alloquar et familiaritatem cum illo contraham ? Quae cum dixisset et propius acces- sisset, a fele captus et dilaceratus est. 15 . Sturnum, qui ex urbe aufugerat, cuculus interrogavit: Quid dicunt ho¬ mines de cantu nostro? quid de luscinia? Sturnus: Maximopere, inquit, omnes cantum ejus laudant. Quid de alauda? Permulti, respondit sturnus, hujus quoque cantum laudibus extollunt. Et quid de coturnlce dicunt? Non desunt, qui voce ejus delectentur. Quid tandem, rogat cuculus, de me judicant? Hoc, inquit sturnus, dicere nequeo; nusquam enim tui fit men- ro. Iratus igitur cuculus: Ne inultus, inquit, vivam, semper dq me ipse oquar. READING LESSONS. 281 16 . Cani perpingui occurrit forte lnpns macie confectus. Quum inter se salu- fcassent, lupus: Uncle, in quit, sic nites? aut quo cibo tam pinguis factus es? Ego, qui longe fortior sum, fame pereo. Oanis respondit: Eadem tibi erit fortuna, si domino par offieium prsestabis. Quodnam? inquit ille. Gustos ut sis liminis et noctu domum a furibus tuearis. Turn lupus: Ego vero, in¬ quit, paratus sum; nunc enim patior frigora et imbres, in silvis oberrans. Quanto facilius est sub tecto vivere et largo satiari cibo!—Yeni ergo me- cum.—Dum procedunt, aspicit lupus collum canis catena detritum. Unde lioc, amice? Nihil est.—Die, quaeso !—Quia acer sum, me interdiu alligant, ut quiescam et noctu alacrior sim. Vesperi me solvunt. Tunc vagor ubi lubet. Ultro mihi afferunt panem, de mensa sua dat ossa dominus, frusta dat familia.—Age vero, si quo abire vis, estne tibi abeundi licentia?—Non semper.—Yale, respondit ille, et fruere ista felicitate tua, quam mihi laudas. Equidem regnare nolo, si libertate carendum est. IT. Cosdebat quidam ligna juxta fluvium. Laboranti excidit secilris et in flumine demersa est. Turn ille, inops consilii, in ripa assidens, deflere for*' tunam suam et misere lamentari coepit. Mercurius autem, cum querelas* illius cognovisset, hominis miseritus, ex aqua emersus, ei retulit secQrim, non earn quidem, quam amiserat, sed auream, hominemque interrogavit, hceccine esset, quam perdidisset. Cum suam illam esse negaret, Mercurius alteram argenteam extulit; sed quum ne hanc quidem agnosceret lignator, ferream postremo protulit, quam Icetus homo suam esse dixit. Qua probi- tate delectatus deus, omnes secures homini donat. 18 . Ranee olim regem a Jove petivisse dicuntur. Quarum ille precibus com* motus trabem ingentem in lacum dejecit. Ranse sonitu perterritaa primum refugerunt, deinde vero, trabem in aqua natantem conspicatce magno cum contemptu in ea consederunt aliumque regem novis clamoribus expetive- runt. Turn Jupiter, ut ranarum stultiam puniret, hydrum illis misit, a quo plurimce captse misere perierunt. Turn sero stolidarum precum ranas pceni- tuit. 19 . Circum leonem dormientem lascive discurrebant musculi, quorum unus in dorsum ejus insiluit. Captus autem a leone experrecto excusavit impru- dentiam gratiasque se ei liabiturum esse pollicitus est, si vitco parceret. Leo, etsi erat ira commotus, ignovit tamen musculo precanti, et tam con- temtam bestiolam dimisit incolumem. Paulo post incautius preedam vestT- gans leo in laqueos incldit, quibus adstrictus rugltum maximum edidit. Accurrit musculus, cernensque vinculis detentum, qui sibi dudum vitam BEADING LESSONS. potenti concesserat, arrepsit ad laqueos eosque corrosit. Hoc modo quum leonem periculo liberasset: Tibi, inquit, ludibrio eram, quasi nullum vicissim beneficium praastare possem; nunc scias, etiam murem gratias referre posse. 20 . Lupus moribundus vitam ante actam perpenclebat. Malus quidem fui, in- quit, neque tamen pessimus. Multa male feci, fateor, sed multum etiam boni perpetravi. Agnus aliquando balans, qui a grege aberraverat, jam prope ad me accesserat, ut facile devorare possem; sed parcebam illi. Eo- dem tempore convicia ab ove quadam in me jactata Eequissimo ferebam animo, licet a canibus nihil milii metuendum esset.—Atque base omnia ego testari possum, in quit •wipes. Probe enim rem memini. Nimirum turn temporis accidit, cum os illud devoratum in faucibus tuis heereret, ad quod extrahendum gruis opem implorare cogebaris. 21 . Societatem inierunt leo, capra et ovis. Praada autem, quam ceperant, in quatuor partes diyisa, leo: Prima, inquit, mea est, quia sum leo, yobis longe praastantior. Tollam etiam secundam, quam meretur robur meum. Tertia debetur egregio labori meo. Quartam qui tangere voluerit, is sciat mecum sibi negotium futurum esse. Sic improbus totam praadam solus abstulit. 22 . Mendax et yerax simul iter facientes forte in simiorum terram venerant. Quos quum unus e turba, qui se regem simiorum fecerat, yidisset, teneri eos jussit, ut audiret, quid de se homines dicerent. Simul jubet omnes adstare simios longo ordine dextra lEovaque, sed sibi poni thronum, ut hominum reges quondam facere viderat. Turn homines in medium adduetos rogat: Qualisnam vobis esse yideor, hospites? Respondit mendax: Rex videris esse maximus. Quid hi, quos mihi vides astantes? Hi comites tui sunt, hi logati et militum duces. Simius, mendacio laudatus, munus dari adulatori jubet. Turn ad veracem simius: Et qualis tibi esse videor? et quales illi, qui mecum sunt? Yir verax: Verus, inquit, tu es simius, et simii omnes illi, qui tui similes sunt. Turn rex iratus dentibus et unguibus eum dilace - rari jussit. 23. Ferunt quodam in conventu bestiarum tarn belle saltasse simium, ut om¬ nium sententia rex crearetur. Hunc vulpes superbientem videns, dixit simio, quum regnum ipsi obtigisset, se non amplius celare yelle, quaa magno- pere, ut rescisceret, regis interesset. Quid id esset, simio interroganti, the- saurum respondit sibi a patre suo esse indicatum, defossum in solitudine, qui jam optimo jure regis esset. Eamus igitur, inquit simius, ut effodiamus. —Cave tibi, in quit vulpes, nam ego smpe audiyi, lianc rem periculo non carere.--—Nihil, inquit simius, periculi est; an tu, obsecra, times? Eamus READING LESSONS. 283 modo, in quit vulpes. Din ambo in silvis vagantnr. Tandem venerunt ad laqneos sub frutioibus ad capiendas bestias absconditos. Turn vulpes : Hie, inquit, thesaurus obrutus est. Simius festlnans neque ullo modo sibi cavens statim capitur ac laqueis implicitus vulpem suppliciter orat, ut sibi succur* rat. Hose vero: Regem, inquit, attingere non audeo; ceteroquin ars sal tandi regnum non merebatur, 24 . Eusticus moriturus, cum relinquere filiis suis divitias non posset, animos illorum ad stadium diligentis agrorum cultures et ad laboris assiduitatem excitare voluit. Arcessit igitur illos ad se atque ita alloquitur: Filii mei, quo modo res mess se babeant, videtis; quidquid autem per omnem vitam reservavi, boo in vinea nostra qussrere poteritis. Hsec cum dixisset, paulo post moritur sen ex. Filii in vinea patrem alicubi thesaurum abscondisse arbitrantes, arreptis ligonibus universum viness solum effodiunt. Thesaurum quidem nudum inveniunt, terrain vero fodiendo adeo fertilem reddiderunt, ut vites uberrimum fructum ferrent. 25 . Agitata vulpes a canibus, longo spatio confecto, devenit tandem ad casu- lam, ante quam lignator findebat stipitem quernum. Ad eum supplex con- fugit, orans, ut sibi latebras aliquas demonstraret, in quibus, dum venatores prssteriissent, occultaretur. File, misericordia motus, suam casulam jubet subire. Postea recordatus animantem illam esse nocentem, nec tamen manifeste prodere supplicem ausus, venatoribus vulpem persequentibus et, num vulpem vidisset, percent antibus, verbis quidem se vidisse negabat, sed manu oculisque casulam suam indicabat. Sed venatores, non animadverso indicio, celeriter discedunt. Vulpes, quss omnia audierat et viderat, non ita multo post de casula progressa, insalutato lignatore abiit. Quod quum ille asgre ferret et cum vulpe expostularet, astutum animal: Libenter, inquit, tibi gratias agerem, si cum oratione tua manus et oculi non discrepassent* Unguam tuam laudo, sed manus tibi prcecisas et oculos effossos velim. 984 READING LESSONS. EXTRACTS FROM CICERO. 1. Cum rex Pyrrhus populo Romano helium ultro intulisset, cumque de im perio certamen esset cum rege generoso ac potente, perfuga ab eo venit in castra Fabricii, eique est pollicitus, si premium sibi proposuisset, se, ut clam venisset, sic clam in Pyrrhi castra rediturum et eum veneno necaturum. Hunc Fabricius redueendum curavit ad Pyrrhum ; idque factum ejus a sen- atu laudatum est. {De Office. III. 22.) 2 . Laudabo sapientem ilium, Biantem, ut opinor, qui numeratur in septem ; cujus cum patriam Prienen cepisset hostis, ceterique ita fugerent, ut multa de suis rebus secum asportarent, cum esset admonitus a quodam, ut idem ipse faceret: Ego vero, inquit, facio ; nam omnia mea porto mecurn {Farad. I. 1.) 3 . Socrates quum esset ex eo queesitum, Afchelaum Perdiccse filium, regem Macedonum, qui turn fortunatissimus haberetur, nonne beatum putaret. Baud scio, inquit, nunquarn enim cum eo collocutus sum. Ain’ tu ? an aiiter id scire non potes ?—Nullo modo.—Tu igitur ne de Persarum quidem rege magno dicere potes, beatusne sit?—An ego possim, inquit, quum igno- rem q-uam doctus sit, quam vir bonus ?—Quid ? tu in eo sitam esse vitam beatam putas ?—Ita prorsus existimo : bonos beatos, improbos miseros.— Miser ergo Archelaus?—Certe, si injustus. {Tuscul. Quccst. Y. 12.) 4 . Duodequadraginta annos tyrannus Syracusanorum fuit Dionysius, cuin quinque et viginti natus annos dominatum occupavisset. Qua pulchritudine urbem, quibus autem opibus prasditam, servitute oppressam tenuit civita- tem! Atqui de hoc homine a bonis auctoribus sic scriptum accepimus, summam fuisse ejus in victu temperantiam, in rebusque gerendis virum acrem et industrium; eundem tamen maleficum natura et injustum. Ex quo omnibus, bene veritatem intuentibus, videri necesse est miserrimum. {Tuscul. Qucest. Y. 20.) Xenocrates, cum legati ab Alexandro quinquaginta ei talenta attulissent, quas erat pecunia temporibus illis, Athenis prsesertim, maxima, abduxit legatos ad coenam in Academiam: iis apposuit tantum, quod satis esset, nullo apparatu. Cum postridie rogarent eum, cui numerari juberet: Quid ? READING LESSONS. 285 vos.hesterna, inquit, ccenula non intellexistis, me pecunia non egere ? Quoa quum tristiores yidisset, triginta minas accepit, ne aspernari regia liberali- tatem videretur. ( Tuscul. Qucest. V. 32.) 6 . iEschines, cum propter ignominiam judicii cessisset Atlienis, et se Rho- dum contulisset, rogatus a Rhodiis, legisse fertur orationem illam egregiam quam in Ctesiphontem contra Demosthenem dixerat: qua perlecta, petitum est ab eo postridie lit legeret etiam illam, quaa erat contra a Demosthene pro Ctesipbonte edita : quam cum suavissima et maxima voce legisset, .ad- mirantibus omnibus: Quanto, inquit, magis admiraremini, si audissetis ip- sum ! {De Orat. III. 56.) 7 . Cum Hannibal, Carthagine expulsus, Ephesum ad Antiochum venisset exsul, invitatus est ab hospitibus ut Phormionem quendam philosophum andiret; cumque se non nolle dixisset, locutus esse dicitur homo copiosus aliquot boras de imperatoris officio et de omni re militari. Turn, cum ceteri qui ilium audierant, vebementer essent delectati, qumrebant ab Hannibale, quidnam ipse de illo philosopho judicaret. Hie Poenus non optime graace, sed tamen libere respondisse fertur, multos se dellros senes seepe vidisse, sed qui magis, quam Phormio, deliraret, yidisse neminem. Neque mebercule injuria Quid enim arrogantius aut loquacius fieri potuit, quam Idannibali, qui tot annos deimperio cum populo Romano omnium gentium, victore cer- tasset, Grascum liominem, qui nunquam liostem, numquam castra vidisset, nunquam denique minimam partem ullius publici muneris attigisset, pree- cepta de re militari dare? {De Orat. II. 18.) 8 . Roges me quid aut quale sit Deus, auctore utar Simonide; de quo cum qusesivisset hoc idem tyrannus Hiero, deliberandi causa sibi unura diem pos- tulavit. Cum idem ex eo postridie quoareret, biduura petivit. Cum ssepiua duplicaret numerum dierum, admiransque Hiero requireret cur ita faceret: Quia quanto, inquit, diutius considero, tanto mibi res videtur obscurior. {De Nat. Deor. I. 22.) 9. Dionysius tyrannus ipse indicavit, quam essetbeatus. Nam quum quidam ex ejus assentatoribus, Damocles, commemoraret in sermone copias ejus, opes, majestatem dominatus, rerum abundantiam, magnificentiam sedium regiarum, negaretque unquam beatiorem quemquam fuisse: Visne igitur, inquit, 0 Damocle, quoniam bmc te vita delectat, ipse eandem degustare et fortunam experiri meam ? Quum se ille cupere dixisset, collocari jussit bominem in aureo lecto strato pulcberrimo textili stragulo, magnificis operi- bus picto : abacosque complures ornavit argento auroque cmlato. Turn ad mensam eximia forma pueros delectos jussit consistere eosque nuturn illius 286 READING LESSONS. intuentes, diligenter ministrare. Aderant unguenta, coronas; incendebantur odores, menses conquisitissimis epulis exstruebantur. Fortunatus sibi Damo¬ cles videbatur. In boc medio apparatu Dionysius fulgentem gladium o lacunari seta equina aptum demitti jussit, ut impenderet illius beati cervi- cibus. Itaque nee pulchros illos ministratores aspiciebat Damocles, nec ple¬ num artis argentum, nec manum porrigebat in mensam : jamipses deiluebant coronas : denique exoravit tyrannum ut abire liceret, quod jam beatus nollet esse. ( Tuscul. Qucest. V. 21.) 10 . Lysandrum Lacedeemonium dicere aiunt solitum, Lacedeemonem esse bonestissimum domicilium senectutis: nusquam enim tantum tribuitur eetati, nusquam est senectus bonoratior. Quin etiam memorias proditum est, cum Atbenis, ludis, quidam in theatrum grandis natu venisset, in magno consessu locum ei a suis civibus nusquam datum; cum autem ad Lacedes- monios accessisset, qui legati cum essent, in loco certo consederant, consur- rexisse omnes, et senem ilium sessum recepisse. Quibus cum a cuncto con¬ sessu plausus esset multiplex datus, dixisse ex iis quondam, Atbenienscs scire quee recta essent, sed facere nolle. (Be Senect. XYIII.) 11 . Sic existimabam nihil homines aliud Romee, nisi de qusestura mea, loqui. Frumenti in summa caritate maximum numerum miseram : negotiatoribus comis, mercatoribus Justus, municipibus liberalis, sociis abstinens, omnibus eram visus in omni officio diligentissimus : excogitati quidam erant a Siculis honores inauditi. Itaque bac spe decedebam, ut mihi populum Romanum ultro omnia delaturum putarem. At ego, cum casu diebus iis, itineris fa- ciendi causa, decedens e provincia, Puteolos forte venissem, cum plurimi et lautissimi solent esse in iis locis ; concidi pcene, cum ex me quidam qusesis- set, quo die Roma exissem, et num quid in ea esset novi: cui cum respon- dissem, me ex provincia decedere: Etiam mebercules, inquit, ut opinor, ex Africa. Huic ego jam stomachans fastidiose : Irno ex Sicilia, inquam. Turn quidam, quasi qui omnia sciret: Quid? tu nescis, inquit, hunc Syracusis qusestorem fuisse ?—Quid multa? destiti stomacliari, et me unum ex iis feci, qui ad aquas venissent. Sed ea res baud scio an plus mibi profuerit, quam si mihi turn essent omnes congratulati. (Orat. pro Plancio ; 26. 27.) 12 . Annibalem Coelius scribit, cum columnam auream, quae esset in fano Ju- nonis Lacinke, auferre vellet, dubitaretque utrum ea solida esset an extrin- secus inaurata, perterebravisse ; cumque solidam invenisset, statuisse tollere: ei secundum quietem visam esse Junonem prsedicere ne id faceret, minari- que, si id fccisset, se curaturam ut eum quoque oculum, quo bene viderot, amitteret; idque ab bomine acuto non esse neglectum. Itaque ex eo auro, quod exterebratum esset, buculam curasse faciendam, et earn in summa columna coilocavisse. (De Divinat. I. 24.) READING- LESSONS. “1 O JLo. Fuii Spartiatarum gens fortis, dnm Lycurgi leges vigebant: e quibus nnns, quum Perses hostis in colloquio dixisset glorians: Solem prse jaculorum multitudine et sagittarum non videbitis; In umbra igitnr, inqnit, pugna- bimus.—Esto : fortes et duri Spartiatse ; magnam babet vim reipublicas dis- ciplina. Quid ? Cyrenceum Tlieodornm, philosopbnm non ignobilem, nonne miramur ? cni qimm Lysimacbns rex crucem minaret nr : Istis quceso, inquit, ista liorribilia minitare purpuratis tuis : Tlieodori qnidem nihil interest, bu- mine, an sublime putrescat.—Leges Lycurgi laboribus erudiunt juventutem, venando, currendo, esuriendo, sitiendo, algendo, aestuando. Spartee veto pueri ad aram sic verberibus accipiuntur, ut multus e visceribns sanguis exeat: nonnunquam etiam, ut, cum ibi essem, audiebam, ad necem: quo¬ rum non modo nemo exclamavit, sed ne ingemuit quidem. ( Tuscul. Qucest. I. 42, 43 ; II. 14.) 14, L. Manlio, cum dictator fuisset, M. Pomponius, tribunus plebis, diem dixit, quod is paucos sibi dies ad dictaturam gerendam addidisset; criminabatur etiam, quod Titum filium, qui postea est Torquatus appellatus, ab bominibus relegasset, et ruri liabitare jussisset. Quod quum audivisset adolescens- filius, negotium exbiberi patri, accurrisse Eomam et cum prima luce Pom¬ pom i domum venisse dicitur: cui quum esset nuntiatum, quod ilium iratum allaturum ad se aliquid contra patrem arbitraretur, surrexit e lectulo, remo- tisque arbitris, ad se adolescentem jussit venire. At ille, ut ingressus est, confestim gladium destrinxit, juravitque se ilium statim interfecturum, nisi jusjurandum sibi dedisset, se patrem missum esse facturum. Juravit boc coactus terrore Pomponius: rem ad populum detulit; docuit cur sibi causa desistere necesse esset; Manlium missum fecit; tantum temporibus iliia jusjurandum valebat. {De Ofjic. III. 31.) - 15. Sophocles ad sumxnam senectutem tragoedias fecit: quod propter studium cum rem familiarem negligere videretur, a filiis in judicium vocatus est; ut, quemadmodum nostro more male rem gerentibus patribus bonis interdici solet, sic ilium, quasi desipientem, a re familiari removerent judices. Turn senex dicitur earn fabulam, quam in manibus habebat, et proxime scripserat, CEdipum Coloneum recitasse judicibus, qugesisseque, num illud carmen desi- pientis videretur: quo recitato sententiis judicum est liberatus. {De Senect. YII.) 16. Cam duo quidam Arcades familiares iter una fecissent et Megaram venis- sent, alterum ad cauponem dcvertisse ; ad hospitem, alterum : qui ut coenaP quiescerent, concubia nocte visum esse in somnis ei qui erat in bospitio, ilium alterum orare ut subveniret, quod sibi a caupone interitus pararetur : eum prime perterritum somnio surrexisse; dein quum se collegisset, idque visum pro nihilo babendum esse duxisset, recubuisse; turn ei dormicnli HEADING LESSORS. 289 enndem ilium visum esse rogare, ut, quoniam sibi vivo non subvenisset. mortem suam ne inultam esse pateretur : se interfectum in plaustrum a cau- pone esse conjectum et supra stercus injectum ; petere, ut mane ad portam adesset, priusquam plaustrum ex oppido exiret. Hoc ver5 somnio eum eommotum, mane bubulco prmsto ad portam fuisse ; qumsisse ex eo, quid esset in plaustro ; ilium perterritum fugisse; mortuum erutum esse ; caupo- r.em, re patefacta, poenas dedisse. ( De Divin. I. 27.) 17. In itinere quidam proficiscentem ad mercatum quendam et secum all- quantum nummorum ferentem, est consecutus : cum hoc, ut fere fit, in via Ecrmonem contulit; ex quo factum est ut illud iter familiarius facere vel- lent: quare quum in eandem tabernam devertissent, simul ccenare et in eodem loco somnum oapere voluerunt. Ooenati discubuerunt ibidem. Caupo autem quum ilium alterum, videlicet qui nummos haberet, animadvertisset, noctu, postquam illos arctius jam, ut fit, ex lassitudine dormire sensit, ac- cessit: et alterius eorum, qui sine nummis erat, gladium propter appositum e vagina eduxit, et ilium alterum occidit, nummos gbstulit, gladium cruen- tatum in vaginam recondidit, ipse sese in lectum suum recepit. llle autem, gujus gladio occisio erat facta, multo ante lucem surrexit, comitem ilium suum inclamavit semel et smpius: ilium somno impeditum non respondere existimavit: ipse gladium et cetera qum secum attulerat, sustulit, solus pro- fectus est. Caupo, non multo post, conclamavit hominem esse occisum, et, cum quibusdam deversoribus, ilium qui ante exierat consequitur: in itinere hominem comprehendit, gladium ejus e vagina educit, reperit cruentum, homo in urbem ab illis deducitur ac reus fit. ( De Invent. Rhetor. II. 4.) 18. Acerrimo studio tenebar; quotidie et scribens, et legens, et commentans, oratoriis tamen exercitationibus contentus non eram. Juris civilis studio multum operas dabam; quumque princeps academies Philo cum Athenien- sium optimatibus, Mithridatico bello, domo profugisset Eomamque venisset, totum ei me tradidi, admirabili quodam ad philosophiam studio concitatus; in quo hoc etiam commorabar attentius, quod rerum ipsarum varietas et magnitude summa me delectatione retinebat. Eodem anno etiam Moloni Rhodio Romm dedimus operam, et actori summo causarum, et magistro. Ego vero, hoc tempore omni, noctes et dies in omnium doctrinarum medita- tione versabar. Eram cum Stoico Diodoto, qui quum habitavisset apud me, mecumque vixisset, nuper est domi mem mortuus: a quo, cum in aliis rebus, turn st'udiosissime in dialectica exercebar, qum quasi contractu et adstricta eloquentia putanda est. Huic ego doctori et ejus artibus variis atque multis ita eram tamen deditus, ut ab exercitationibus oratoriis nullus dies vacuus esset.—Commentabar declamitans (sic enim nunc loquuntur) smpe cum M. Pisone, et cum Q. Pompeio, aut eum aliquo quotidie; idquo faoiebam mul- tnm etiam latine, sed grmce smpius: vel quod grmca oratio plura ornamenta suppeditans, consuetudinem similiter latine dicendi afierebat, vel quod a Grmcis summis doctoribus, nisi grmce dicerem, neque cOrrigi pi'ssem, neque EE LDIXd LEoSONS. 98 ? aocori. Itaque prim a causa pul) lie a, pro Sext. Koscio dicta, tantum com- mendationis liubuit, ut non ulla esset, qnm non digna nostro patrocinio vide- rotiLr .—(JDe Claris Orat. 89, etc.) 19. Nunc, quoniam totum me videris velle cognoscere, complectar nonnull a etiam, quee fortasse yideantur minus necessaria. Erat eo tempore in nobis gumma gracilitas et infirmitas corporis: procerum et tenue collum:qui liabitus et quee figura non procul abesse putatur a vitae periculo, si accedit labor et laterum magna contentio. Eoque magis hoc eos, quibus eram cams, commovebat, quod omnia sine remissione, sine varietate, vi summa vo.is 05 totius corporis contentione dicebam. Itaque quum me amici et medioi hor- tarentur ut causas agere desisterem, quodvis potius periculum mihi adeun- dum, quam a sperata dicendi gloria discedendum putavi. Sed, quum cen- serem remissione et moderatione vocis, et commutato genere dicendi, me et periculum vitare posse, et temperantius dicere, ut consuetudinem. dicendi mutarem, ea causa mihi in Asiam proficiscendi fuit. Itaque corn essem biennium versatus in causis, et jam in foro celebratum meum nomen esjet, Roma sum profectus. Cum venissem Athenas, sex menses cum Antiocho, yeteris academiae nobilissimo et prudentissimo philosopho, fui; studiumque philosophise nunquam intermissum, a primaque adolescentia cult-um et sem¬ per auctum, hoc rursus summo auctore et doctore reno^avi.— (P°, elarii Orat. 89.) 20 . Aiunt T. Coelium quendam Tarracinensem, hominem non obscurum, quuir, ccenatus cubitum in idem conclave cum duobus adolescentibus filiis isset, inventum esse mane jugulatum. Quum neque servus quisquam reperire- tur, neque liber, ad quern ea suspicio pertineret; id setatis autem duo fili: propter cubantes ne sensisse quidem se dicerent: nomina filiorum de parri cidio delata sunt. Quidpostea? erat sane suspiciosum : neutrum sensisse < ausum autem esse quemquam se in id conclave committere, eo potissimum tempore, quum ibidem essent duo adolescentes filii, qui et sentire et defen- dere facile possent? Erat porro nemo, in quern ea suspicio conveniret. Tamen quum planum judicibus esset factum, aperto ostio dormientes eos re- pertos esse, judicio absoluti adolescentes et suspicione omni liberati sunt. Nemo enim putabat quemquam esse, qui quum omnia divina atque humana jura scelere nefario polluisset, somnum statim capere potuisset: propterea quod qui tantum facinus commiserunt, non modo sine cura quiescere, sed ne spirare quidem sine metu possunt.— {Orat. pro Bose. Amer. 23.) 21 . Narrat Xenophon, Cyrum minorem, regem Persarum, prsestantem ingenio atque imperii gloria, cum Lysander Lacedeemonius, vir summas virtutis, venisset ad eum Sardis eique dona a sociis attulisset, et ceteris in rebus somcm erga Lysandrum atque humanum fuisse et ei quendam conseptum. ftgrum, diligenter consitum ostendisse. Quum autem admiraretur Lysander 290 BEADING LESSONS. et proceritates arborum et directos in quincuncem ordines, et humum sub- actam atque purain, et suavitatem odornm qui afflarentur e floribus : turn dixisse, mirari se non modo diligentiam, sed etiam solertiam ejus, a quo essent ilia dimensa atque descripta; et ei Cyrum respondisse: Atqui ego omnia ista sum dimensus, mei sunt ordines, mea descriptio; multse etiam istarum arborum mea manu sunt sate. Turn Lysandrum intuentem ejus purpuram, et nitorem corporis, ornatumque Persicum multo auro, multisque gemmis dixisse: Pecte vero te, Cyre, beatum ferunt, quoniam virtuti tuse fortuna conjuncta est.— [De Senect. XVII.) 22 . Quid potest esse tam apertum, tamque perspicuum, cum ccelum suspexi- mus, coelestiaque contemplati sumus, quam esse aliquod numen praestantis- simce mentis, quo hrec regantur ? Quod qui dubitet, haud sane intelligo cur non idem, sol sit, an nullus sit dubitare possit. Quid enim est hoc illo evi- dentius? Quod nisi cognitum comprehensumque animis haberemus, non tam stabilis opinio permaneret, nec confirmaretur diutumitate temporis, nec una cum seculis setatibusque liominum inveterare potuisset. Etenim vide- mu 3 ceteras opiniones fictas atque vanas diuturnitate extaVaisse. Quis enim Eippocentaurum fuisse, aut Cbimaeram putat? Quseve anus turn excors in- veniri potest, quae ilia, quae quondam credebantur apud inferos portenta, extimescat? Opinionum enim commenta delet dies: naturae judicia confir- mat.— {De Nat. Deor. II. 2.) 23. Praeclare Aristoteles: “Si essent,” inquit, “qui sub terra semper habita- vissent, bonis et illustribus domiciliis, quae essent ornata signis atque pictu- ris, instructaque rebus iis omnibus, quibus abundant ii qui beati putantur, nec tamen exissent unquam supra terram: accepissent autem fama et audi- tione esse quoddam numen et vim deorum: deinde aliquo tempore, pate- faotis terrse faucibus, ex illis abditis sedibus evadere in haec loca qum nos incolimus atque exire potuissent: cum repente terram, et maria ccelumque vidissent, nubium magnitudinem, ventorumque vim cognovissent, aspexis- sentque solem, ejusque turn magnitudinem pulcbritudinemqne; turn etiam efficientiam cognovissent, quod is diem efficeret toto ccelo luce diffusa; cum autem terras nox opacasset, turn coelum totum cernereut astris distinctum et ornatum, lunmque luminum varietatem turn crescentis, turn senescentis, eorumque omnium ortus et occasus, atque ratos immutabilesque cursus* bsec quum viderent, profecto et esse deos, et haec tanta opera deorum esse arbitrarentur.’’—Atque haec quidem illo. Nos autem tenebras cogitemus tantas, quanta) quondam eruptione EDtna) orura ignium finitimas regiones obscuravisse dicuntur, ut per biduum nemo hominem homo agnosceret; quum autem tertio die sol illuxisset, turn ut re- vixisse sibi viderentur. Quod si hoc idem ex seternis tenebris contingeret, ut subito lucem aspiceremus : queenam species cceli videretur! Sed assidui- tate quotidiana, et consuetudine oculorum, assuescunt animi: neque admi- READING LESSONS. 291 rantur, neque requirunt rationes rerum enrum quas semper violent: proinde quasi novitas nos magis, quam maguitudo rerum, debeat ad exquirendas causas excitare .—{Be Nat. Deov. II. 87.) 24. Quis hunc hominem dixerit, qui quum tarn certos coeli motus, tam rates astrornm ordines, tarnque omnia inter se connexa et apta viderit, neget in his ullam inesse rationem, eaque casu fieri dicat, quoo quanto consilio geran- tur, nullo consilio assequi possumus? An, quum machinatione quadam moveri aliquid videmus, ut sphasram, ut horas, ut alia permulta, non dubi- tamus quin ilia opera sint rationis; cum autem impetum coeli admirabili cum celeritate moveri vertique videamus, constantissime conficientem vicis- situdines anniversarias, cum summa salute et conservatione rerum omnium, dubitamus quin ea non solum ratione fiant, sed etiam excellenti quadam divinaque ratione? Licet enim jam, remota subtilitate disputandi, oculis quodammodo contemplari pulchritudinem rerum earurn, quas divina provi- dentia dicimus constitutas .—{Be Nat. Beor. II. 38.) 25. Esse prsestantem aliquam seternamque naturam, et earn suspiciendam ad- mirandamque hominum generi, pulcbritudo mundi, ordoque rerum coeles- tium cogit confiteri. Firmissimum hoc afferri videtur, cur deos esse credamus, quod nulla gens tam sit fera, nemo omnium tam sit immanis cujus mentem non imbuerit deorum opinio. Multi de diis prava s.entiunt: id enim vitioso more efilci solet: omnes tamen esse vim et naturam divinam arbitrantur. Nee vero id collocutio hominum aut consensus effecit: non institutis opinio est confir- mata, non legibus. Omni autem in re consensio omnium gentium, lex naturae putanda est .—{Be Buili. II. 72.— Tasc. Qucest. I. 13.) 26. Hie ego non mirer esse quemquam, qui sibi persuadoat corpora quaedam solida atque individua vi et gravitate ferri, mundumque efilci ornatissimum et pulcherrimum ex eorum corporum concursione fortuita? Hoc qui exis- timat fieri potuisse, non intelligo cur non idem putet, si innumerabiles unius et viginti formse litterarum vel aureso, vel qualeslibet, aliquo conjiciantur, posse ex his in terrain excussis annales Ennii, ut deinceps legi possint, effici: quod nescio an no in uno quidem versu possit tantum valere fortuna. Isti autem quemadmodum asseverant, ex corpusculis non colore, non quali- tate aliqua, non sensu praeditis, sed concurrentibus temere atque casu, mun- dum esse perfectum? vel innumerabiles potius in omni puncto temporis alios nasci, alios interire ? Quod si mundum efficere potest concursus ato- morura, cur porticum, cur templum, cur domum, cur urbem non potest, qua) sunt minus operosa, et multo quidem faciliora? Certe ita temere do mundo effutiunt ut nunquam admirabilem coeli ornatum suspexisse videantur .—{Be Nat. Beor. II. 37.) 292 READING LESSONS. bus picto: abacosquo complures ornavit argento auroque c®lafco. Turn ad mensara eximia forma pueros delectos jussit consistere eosque nutum illius intuentes, diligenter ministrare. Aderant unguenta, coronas; incendebantur odores, mens® conquisitissimis epulis exstruebantur. Fortunatus sibi Damo¬ cles videbatur. In boc medio apparatu Dionysius fulgentem gladium e lacunari seta equina aptum demitti jussit, ut impenderet illius beati ceryi- cibus. Itaque nec pulcbros illos ministratores aspiciebat Damocles, nec ple¬ num artis argentum, nec manum porrigebat in mensam : jam ips® defluebant coron®: denique exoravit tyrannum ut abire liceret, quod jam beatus nollet esse. 15. Socrates and Xenophon. Xenoplionti in angiportu obviam yenit Socrates. Qui quum yideret ado- lescentem vultu admodum specioso atque verecundo, porrecto baculo yetuit, ne pr®teriret. Ut constitit, Socrates earn interrogayit, ubinam venderentur, qu® essent necessaria variis civium usibus. Ad qu® quum expedite respon- disset Xenophon, percontatus est, ubinam boni ac probi homines fierent, Quum autem adolescens responderet, id se nescire, Socrates: Sequere igitur me, inquit, et disce. Ex eo tempore Xenophon ccepit esse Socratis auditor et bonus probusque factus est. LETTERS. - 1 . M. T. 0. Teeentt^e SuiE S. P. D.—In Tusculanum nos venturos putaraua aut Nonis, aut postridie : ibi fac ut sint omnia parata. Plures enim fortassa nobiscum erunt, et ut arbitror, diutius ibi commorabimur. Labrnm, si in balneo non est, fac ut sit: item cetera, qu® sunt ad victum, et ad valetudi- nem necessaria. Yale. 2 . M. T. 0. Teeenti.ze Siee S. P. D.—Si vales, bene est: ego valeo. Reddi- t® mihi tandem sunt a C®sare litter® satis liberales: et ipse opinione celerius venturus esse dicitur. Cui utrum obviam procedam, an hie eum expectem, cum constituero, faciam te certiorem. Tabellarios mihi velim quamprimum remittas. Yaletudinem tuam cura diligenter. Yale. 3. M. T. 0. Tieoxi S. P. D.—Omnia a te data mihi putabo, si te valentem videro: summa cura expectabam adventam Menandri, quern ad te miseram, Cura si me diliges, ut valeas, et cum te bene confirmaris, ad nos venias. Yale. 4. Ciceeo S. D. Tekextle. —Quod nos in Italiam salvos venisse gaudes, per- petuo gaudeas velim. Sed perturbati dolore animi, magnisque injuriis, metuo ne id consilii ceperimus, quod non facile explicare possimus. Quare, READING LESSONS. 293 quantum potes, adjuva. Quid autem possis, mihi in mentem non venit. In viam quod te des hoc tempore, nihil est: et longum est iter, et non tutum : et non video, quid prodesse possis, si veneris. Yale. D. prid. Nonas No- vembres. Brundusio. 5. Ciceeo S. D. Tieoni. —Non queo ad te, nec lubet scribere, quo animo sim affectus: tantum scribo, et tibi et mihi maximse voluptati fore, si te firmum quam primum videro. Tertio die abs te ad Alyziam accesseramus. Is locus est citra Leucadera stadia CXX. Leucade aut te ipsum, aut tuas litteras a Marione putabam me accepturum. Quantum me diligis, tantum fac nt valeas, vel quantum te a me scis diligi. Nonis Novemb. Alyzict. 6 . Ciceeo S. D. Tieoxt. —Tertiam ad te hanc epistolam scripsi eodem die, magis instituti mei tenendi causa, quia nactus eram, cui darem, quam quo haberem, quid scriberem. Igitur ilia: quantum me diligis, tantum adhibe in te diligentieo. Ad tua innumerabilia in me officia adde hoc, quod mihi erit gratissimum omnium : cum valetudinis rationem, ut spero, habueris, habeto etiam navigation^. In Italiam euntibus omnibus ad me litteras dabis, ut ego euntem Patras neminem prastermitto. Cura, cura te, mi Tiro. Cum non contigit, ut simul navigares, nihil est, quod festines: nec quidquam cures, nisi ut valeas. Etiam atque etiam vale. 1 . Cioeeo Papieio Pzeto S.—Heri veni in Oumanum: eras ad te fortasse. Sed cum certum sciam, faciam te paulo ante certiorem. Etsi M. Ceparius, cum mihi in silva Gallinaria obviam venisset, quaesissemque quid ageres, dixit te in lecto esse, quod ex pedibus laborares. Tuli scilicet moleste, ut debui: sed tamen constitui ad te venire, ut et viderem te, et viserem, et coenarem etiam. Non enim arbitror, coquum etiam te arthriticum habere. Expecta igitur hospitem cum minime edacem, turn inimicum ccenis sumptu- osis. Y ale. 8 . Ciceeo S. D. Memmio. —Aulum Fusium, unum ex meis intimis, observan- tissimum, studiosissimumque nostri, eruditum hominem, et summa humani- tate, tuaque amicitia dignissimum, velim ita tractes, ut mihi coram rece- pisti. Tam. gratum mihi id erit, quam quod gratissimum. Ipsum prseterea summo officio, et summa observantia tibi in perpetuum devinxeris. Yale. 9. Ciceeo S. D. Czelio. —Marco Fabio, viro optirno et homine doctissimo, familiarissime utor, mirifieeque eum diligo, cum propter summum ingenium ejus summamquo doctrinam, turn propter singularem modestiam. Ejus negotium sic velim suscijiias, ut si esset res mea. Novi ego vos magnoa 294 READING LESSONS. patronos: hominem occidafc oportet, qui vestra opera uti velit. Sed in hoo homine nallam accipio excusationem. Omnia relinques, si me amabis, cnm tua opera Fabius uti volet. Ego res Romanas vebementer expecto et desi- dero: in primisque, quid agas, scire cupio: nara jam diu propter hiemis magnitudinem nihil novi ad nos afferebatur. Yale. 10 . Cicero S. D. Teebatio. —Quam sint morosi qui amant, vel ex hoc intelligi potest. Moleste ferebam antea te invitum istic esse : pungit me rursus, quod scribis esse te istic libenter. Neque enim mea commendatione te non delectari facile patiebar; et nunc angor, quidquam tibi sine me esse jucun- dum. Sed hoc tamen malo, ferre nos desiderium, quam te non ea, quse spero, consequi. Cum vero in 0. Matii, suavissimi doctissifnique hominis, familiaritatem venisti, non dici potest quam valde gaudeam: qui fac ut te quam maxime diligat. Mihi crede, nihil ex ista provincia potes, quod jucundius sit, deportare. Cura ut valeas. 11 . Cioeeo S. D. Coenificio. —Sex. Aufidius et observantia, qua me colit, aecedit ad proximos; et splendore equiti Eomano nemini cedit. Est autem ita temperatis moderatisque moribus, ut summa severitas summa cum hu- manitate jungatur. Cujus tibi negotia, quse sunt in Africa, ita commendo, ut majore studio, magisve ex animo commendare non possim. Pergratum mihi feceris, si dederis operam, ut intelligat, meas apud te litteras maxi- mum pondus habuisse. Hoc te vebementer, mi Cornifici, rogo. Yale. 12 . Ciceeo S. D. Seevio Sulp.—A sclapone Patrensi, medico, utor valde fanii- liariter: ejusque cum consuetudo mihi jucunda fuit, turn ars etiam, quam sum expertus in valetudine meorum: in qua mihi cum ipsa scientia, turn etiam fidelitate benevolentiaque satisfecit. Ilunc igitur tibi commendo; et a te peto, ut des operam, ut intelligat diligenter me scripsisse de sese, me- amque commendationem usui magno sibi fuisse. Erit id mihi vebementer gratum. Y ale. 13. Ciceeo S. 1). Aoilio.— On. Octacilio Nasoue utor familiarissime ; ita prorsus, ut illius ordinis nemine familiarius. Nam et humanitate ejus, et probitate in consuetudine quotidiana magnopero delector. Nihil jam opus est expectare te, quibus eum verbis tibi commendem, quo sic utar, ut scripsi. Ilabet is in provincia tua negotia, quae procurant liberti, llilarus, Antigonus, Eemostratus: quos tibi, negotiaque omnia Nasonis non secus commendo, ac si mea essent. Gratissimum mihi feceris, si intellexero, banc commen* dationem magnum apud te pondus habuisse. Yale. HEADING LESSONS. 29 6 tuis rebus capio, maxime scilicet consolatur spes, quod valde suspicor fore, ut infringatur hominum improbitas et consiliis tuorura amicorum, et ipsa die, qua debilitantur cogitationes et inimicorum et prodiforum. Facile se- cundo loco me consolatur recordatio meorum temporum, quorum imaginem video in rebus tuis. Nam etsi minore in re violatur tua dignitas, quam mea salus afflicta sit; tamen est tanta similitude, ut sperem, te mihi ignoscere, si ea non timuerim, quae ne tu quidem unquam timenda duxisti. Sed prsesta te eum, qui mibi a teneris (ut Greed dicunt) unguiculis es cognitus. Illus- trabit (mihi crede) tuam amplitudinem hominum injuria. A me omnia gumma in te studia officiaque expecta: non fallam opinionem tuam. Yale. 16. Cicero T. Fuefaxo Proc. S. D.—Cum Aulo Caecina tanta mihi familiari- tas consuetudoque semper fuit, ut nulla major esse possit: nam et patie ejus, claro homine, et forti viro, plurimum usi sumus: et hunc a puero, quod et spem mihi magnam afferebat summae probitatis, summaeque eloquent!te, et vivebat mecum conjunctissime, non solum officiis amicitise, sed etiarn studiis communibus, sic semper dilexi, ut nullo cum homine conjunctius viverem. Nihil attinet me plura scribere ; quam mihi necesse sit ejus salu- tem et fortunas, quibuscunque rebus possim tueri, vides. Eeliquum est, ut cum oognoverim pluribus rebus quid tu et de bonorum fortuna, et de Kei- publicee calamitatibus sentires, nihil a te petam, nisi ut ad earn voluntatem, quam tua sponte erga Csecinam habiturus esses, tantus cumulus accedat commendatione mea, quanti me a te fieri intelligo. Hoc mihi gratius facere nihil potes. Yale. 17. Cicero L. Culleolo Proc. S. D.—Quae fecisti Lucceii causa, scire te plane volo, te homini gratissimo commodasse: et cum ipsi, quae fecisti, pergrata sunt, turn Pompeius, quotiescunque me videt (videt autem ssepe), gratias tibi agit singulares. Addo etiam illud, quod tibi jucundissimum esse certo scio, me ipsum ex tua erga Lucceium benignitate, maxima voluptate affici. Quod superest, quamquam mihi non est dubiurn, quin, cum antea nostra causa, nunc jam etiam tuce constantiae gratia mansurus sis in eadem ista liberalitate: tamen abs te vehementer etiam atque etiam peto, ut ea, quae initio ostendisti, deincepsque fecisti, ad exitum augeri et cumulari per te velis. Id et Lucceio, et Pompeio valde gratum fore, teque apud eos prie- clare positurum confirmo et spondeo. De republics, deque his negotiis cogitationibusque nostris perscripseram ad te diligenter paucis ante diebus, easque litteras dederam pueris tuis. Yale. IS. Cicero Dolatieliae Suo S. D.—Yel meo ipsius interitu mallem litteras meas desiderares, quam eo casu, quo sum gravissime afflictus: quern ferrem certe moderatius, si te haberem. Nam et oratio tua prudens et amor erga me singularis multum levaret. Sed quoniam brevi tempore, ut opinio nos¬ tra est, te sum viaurus, ita me affectum offendes, ut multum a te possim 200 READING LESSONS. juvari; non quod ita sim fractus, ut ant hominem me esse oblitus sim, aut fortunes snccumbenclnm putem, sed tamen hilaritas ilia nostra et suavitas, qu® te praster ceteros delectabat, erepta mibi omnis est. Firmitatem tamen et eonstantiam, si modo fuit aliqnando in nobis, eandera cognosces quam reliquisti. Quod scribis prcelia te mea causa sustinere, non tarn id laboro, ut, si qui mihi obtrectent, a te refutentur, quam intelligi cupio, quod certe intelligitur, me a te amari: quod ut facias te etiam atque etiam rogo, ignos- casque breyitati mearum litterarum ; nam et celeriter una futuros nos arbi- tror, et nondum satis confirmatus sum ad scribendum. Yale. 19. Cicero S. P. Marcello. —Etsi nihil erat novi, quod ad te scriberem, ma- gisque litteras tuas jam expectare incipiebam, vel te potius ipsum: tamen cum Theopliilus proficiscer'etur, non potui nihil ei litterarum dare. Cura igitur, ut quam primum venias. Yenies enim, mihi crede, spectatus, neque solum nobis, id est, tuis, sed prorsus omnibus. Yenit enim mihi in men- tem, subvereri interdum, ne te delectet tarda decessio. Quod si nullum haberes sensum, nisi oculorum, prorsus tibi ignoscerem, si quosdam nolles videre; sed cum leviora non multo essent, qu® audirentur, quam qti® vide- rentur; suspicarer autem, multum interesse rei familiaris tu®, te quampri- mum venire, idque in omnes partes valeret, putavi, ea de re te esse admo- nendum. Sed, quoniam quod mihi placeret, ostendi, reliqua tu pro tua prudentia considei urns. Me tamen velim, quod ad tempus te expectemus, certiorem facias. Yale. 20 . Cicero S. P. D. Txroni Sijo. —Paulo facilius putavi posse me ferre desidh- riumtui: sed plane non fero; et quam quam magni ad honorem nostrum interest quamprimum ad urbem me venire, tamen peccasse mihi videor qui a te discesserim: sed quia tua voluntas ea videbatur esse, ut prorsus, nisi confirm ato corpore, noiles navigare, approbavi tuum consilium: neque nunc rauto, si tu in eadem es sententia: sin, posteaquam cibum cepisti, videris tibi me posse consequi, tuum consilium est. Marionem ad te eo misi, ut aut tecum ad me quamprimum veniret; aut, si tu morarere, statim ad me redi- ret. Tu autem hoc tibi persuade, si commodo valetudinis fuse fieri possit, nihil me malle quam te esse mecum : sin intelliges opus esse te Patris con- valescendi causa paulum commorari, nihil me malle quam te valere. Si statim navigas, nos Leucade consequere: sin te confirmare vis, et comites et tempestates et navem idoneam ut habeas, diligenter videbis. Unum illud, mi Tiro, videto, si me amas, ne te Marionis adventus et h® littene move- ant. Quod valetudini tine maxime conducet, si feceris, maxime obtempe- rabis voluntati meee. H®c pro tuo ingenio considera. Nos ita te desidera- mus, ut amemus: amor, ut valentem videamus, hortatur; desiderium, ut quamprimum. Illud igitur potius. Cura ergo potissimum ut valeas; de tuis innumerabilibus in me officiis, erit hoc grafissmmm. Tertio Nonas Novembris. 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