GUIDE Y A X 0 K 7 /'K6s> .4 9v r FOR WRITING LATIN CONSISTING OF RULES AND EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. BY JOHN PHILIP KREBS, DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY AND PRINCIPAL SCHOOL DIRECTOR IN THE DUTCHY OF NASSAU. FROM THE GERMAN, BY SAMUEL II. TAYLOR, PRINCIPAL OF PHILLIPS ACADEMY. SECOND EDITION. ANDOVER: ALLEN, MORRILL & WARD WELL. NEW YORK: M H. NEWMAN. 1845 . pisroF o mzmis znmninr ©EBSTNUT HIU* MASS* Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1843, by ALLEN, MORRILL & WARDWELL, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 131216 / ANDOVER: ALLEN, MORRILL AND WARDWELL, PRINTERS. PREFACE TO THE FIRST AMERICAN EDITION. John Philip Krebs, the author of the following work, was born in Glauchau, in Prussia, near Halle, in the year 1771. In 1800, he w 7 as appointed Professor in the Gymnasium at Weil- burg. The duties of his office he continued to discharge with great success till 1837, when he became Professor Emei'itiis. He was then appointed priic'pal School Director,—and for this service he receives his former salary. Besides.the present work, he has published several others of much value. His Manual of Philological Works, illustra¬ tive of the classics, w r as published in 1822—3, in two volumes. He also edited an edition of Ovid. He is likewise the author of a Greek and Latin Grammar, Greek Lessons for beginners, and a treatise on Greek Accents. In 1842, he published the third edition of his Antibarbarus of the Latin Language, which contains a clear exhibition of those words and constructions which are not approved by the best classical writers. This is a book of great value to the classical scholar, and shows that the author has studied, with care and discrimination, the best Latin writers. The following work has passed through nine editions in Germany. The plan, as will be seen, is somewhat different from any which has been used in this country. A principle or idiom of the language is first stated and explained, and then examples are given for practice. The author has made it his IV PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. object to guard against giving the student too much or too little assistance. By the latter, he would leave him in constant doubt respecting the various idioms ; by the former, he would give but little occasion for the exercise of the nicer powers of dis¬ crimination. A middle course, therefore, has been wisely adopted. Examples for practice are not always given at the close of every rule ; if so, neither memory, reflection nor judg¬ ment would be required. Often several rules are stated, and then the examples for practice are given promiscuously. Such an arrangement makes it necessary to study the» rules atten¬ tively. The book has been very favorably noticed by many of the leading classical journals of Germany. Flattering opinions of it have also been expressed by distinguished classical scholars, in private letters to the author. The principal argument for writing Latin, in our own coun¬ try, is the more thorough knowledge of it, which is thereby acquired. Those best qualified to judge on this subject, think that the Latin must be written, before it can be fully under¬ stood. In Germany, where the classics are more thoroughly and extensively studied than in any other country, the exercise of writing, and, in many instances, even of speaking Latin and Greek, is considered of the first importance. Within the last twelve years, not less than forty different treatises have appeared from the German press, to facilitate the writing of Latin. The exercise of .writing Latin makes the knowledge of it definite. Years are often spent in the loose and general study of the language, with little or no profit. But few of its princi¬ ples are understood, and its force and beauty cannot be appre¬ ciated. Now, if the study of Latin is to be made useful in disciplining the mind, in giving it strength and energy, in mak¬ ing it capable of close application and nice distinctions, or, if we would open its richest fountains and draw from them their sweetest waters, we must study it radically. There is choice PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. V gold in the mine, but it is found only by hard digging. The % complaints, which are often made against the study of the classics, originate, in a great measure, from the want of a pro¬ per method of study. A language like the Latin cannot be supposed to be understood by a few misdirected efforts. The forms and force of its words, the nice use of its modes and tenses, the emphatic position of its words, the euphonic balanc¬ ing and arrangement of its sentences, together with its varied idiomatic features, must become, as it were, vernacular to the student, before the proper advantage can be derived from it. It is not assumed, however, that the writing of Latin will alone secure such a result. This is but one of the means to be used. The more the language is read, the more easily and correctly will it be written, provided the reading be rightly directed; and the more it is written, the more easily and understandingly will it be read. In selecting a particular Latin word to express the corresponding English, the attention is directed more closely to it than if the same word was merely to be read. And should there be doubt respecting its exact use, it will be more care¬ fully observed, every time it occurs in reading, until the classi¬ cal usage is definitely fixed. So in regard to a particular construction ; if any question is raised respecting its correctness, the mode of solving the doubt will be the same as before. In this way, a knowledge of all the usages of the language may, in a short time, be acquired. The student who knows that he has a Latin exercise to pre¬ pare, will watch, with double attention, the form, the force and position of every word, the construction of every sentence, every new idiom, and every departure from the common usage. Thus the mind will ever be on the stretch of investigation,— and the study of the Latin be attended with pleasure and profit. In writing Latin, the student will also acquire a more exact knowledge of his own language. Before he can translate an English sentence into Latin, he must have a precise idea of the thought it contains. Then he must mark the different VI PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. usages of the two languages, to see wherein they are alike, and wherein they differ. One must employ a preposition, where the other does not; one requires one mode, the other a different one; the arrangement of the sentences is different in each; one uses interrogatives, where the other dispenses with them. Thus, all the more striking differences between the two languages will be subjects of careful observation, and each be more fully understood. It may be safely affirmed, therefore, that, in the time usually devoted to the study of Latin, a more accurate and extensive acquaintance with it can be acquired, by uniting the constant habit of writing with that of reading. Nor will the benefits of this thorough study of the Latin be confined to this language alone ; the same habits of discrimination will be readily trans¬ ferred to any other,—and the mind which has been accustomed to mark the resemblances and differences between the English and the Latin, will, at once and naturally, trace the analogies between other languages, and will be prepared for the close and successful investigation of whatever subjects may be pre¬ sented. It may be thought that the sentences in the examples for practice are too short. They do not generally contain whole fables or anecdotes. The author justly remarks on this point, “ That the habit, adopted in some schools, of giving the begin¬ ner sentences involving several distinct principles, is a wrong one. He should first learn single rules and then apply them to practice. The landscape painter does not begin by drawing a whole landscape that is made up of many distinct objects ; he first sketches the trunks of trees and the foliage, accustoms himself to represent stones, cliffs, grottos, streams, waterfalls, and all other possible objects which belong to a landscape. Then, when he has acquired skill in representing these single objects, he attempts a full picture. The same method should be pursued in writing Latin. Let the student begin with short detached sentences, let him use the rules given to illustrate PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION Vll these, and, when he has acquired a facility in rendering these grammatically and correctly into Latin, let him pass to com¬ pound sentences, and then let him write full compositions in Latin. But before this can be done, much practice will be necessary.” In preparing the present work, the translator has been under the necessity of making many changes. In the original, the Latin is throughout compared with the German. Of course, much that was said respecting the agreement and disagree¬ ment between the German and Latin, would not be applicable to the English and Latin. It was necessary, therefore, to omit a number of sections, which could have no application to the English, and also to make changes in others, and often to omit or change single sentences. The translator has, moreover, ad¬ ded remarks of his own, where they seemed to be needed. For what is said, therefore, respecting the usage of the English, so far as it agrees with, or differs from the Latin, the translator alone is responsible. All the examples for practice have not been translated, as it was thought, that no more would ordinarily be used, than will be found in the present edition. The small Antibarbarus, at the close of the German edition, has not been translated, from the fear that it would make the present volume too large and expensive. Should this work, however, be favorably received, it is the intention of the translator to prepare the Antibarbarus to accompany it. The exercises for practice are designed to be written, till the student has acquired an ease in Latin composition. Then, after the portion to be translated has been thoroughly studied, it should be rendered immediately into Latin. It will also be useful for beginners, to translate extempore what they had writ¬ ten at the previous exercise. After the translation was finished, the manuscript was read to Dr. Charles Beck, Professor of Latin in Harvard University, whose critical knowledge of both the German and Latin, ena- Vlll PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. bled him, at once, to detect any inaccuracies and to suggest such changes and additions as were required. The special ac¬ knowledgments of the translator are due to Dr. Beck for his valuable services thus rendered, and for the interest he has taken in the work. The translator would also express his thanks to Mr. R. D. C. Robbins, Abbot Resident, Theological Seminary, for his highly valuable assistance in correcting the proofs and also for several useful suggestions. Andover, August, 1843. PREFACE TO THE SECOND AMERICAN EDITION. The present edition of this work has been carefully revised and compared with the last German edition. Some additions have also been made by the translator, where the illustration of any idiom had been omitted, or where a more full statement of it seemed to be required. The principal alterations and addi¬ tions may be found on pages 16, 48 note, 89—95, 99, 114 note, 117, 122, 124, 169, 183—189, 247, 294, 301 note, 319, 324—329, 336, 337, 346, 350, 356, 357, 380, 381, 396, 397, 400, 401, 406, 417, 418, 433, 457, 458 ; also the synonymes on pages 477—483. In making these additions, the best works accessible have been freely used, particularly the Latin Grammars of Kruger, Rams - horn, Zumpt, Kuhner and Reisig. As the duties of the translator in the institution with which he is connected, did not allow him sufficient time to prepare the present edition as soon as it was called for, he has been assisted by Mr. John N. Putnam, of the Theological Seminary, whose critical and extensive acquaintance with the Latin language had given him unusual qualifications for such a work. Andover, December, 1844. SUMMARY OF CONTENTS FIRST PART. The English Articles, § 1—2. Agreement of the adjective, participle and pronoun with the substan¬ tive, 3—11. Agreement of the subject and predicate, 12—17. Cases of declinable words, IS—24. Connection of prepositions with cases, 25—30. Adjectives, comparative and superlative, 31—36. Pronouns, 37. The verb. Persons. Numbers. Classes of verbs, active and passive. Tenses. Modes. Conjunctions followed bj^ the subjunctive. Im¬ perative. Infinitive, with its Gerunds. Supines. Participles. Ver¬ bal adjective in andas and endus , 38—54. Position of some words, 55—59. SECOND PART. A. General Remarks. The praenomen and name of the gens joined to a noun in the plural, when two persons are spoken of, 60. Agreement of the subject and predicate, 61—65. Apposition, 66. Use of cases to designate place, 67—74. Use of cases to denote relations of time, 75—78. Adjectives and participles, 79—97. The Comparative, 85—94. The Superlative, 95—97. Numeral Adjectives, 98—101. Pronouns, 102—127. X SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. B. Particular Rules. I. Government of the cases of declinable words. Tlie Nominative, 128—130. The Genitive, 131—161. Genitive with substantives, 131—139. Genitive of quality, 140, 141. Genitive with esse , 142,143. Partitive genitive, 144—149. Genitive after adjectives and participles, 150, 152. Genitive after verbs, 153—160. Genitive after certain adverbs, 161. The Dative, 162—178. Dative after adjectives, 163—167. Dative after verbs, 168—178. The Accusative, 179—189. Some general rules respecting the accusative, 180,181. Accusative after verbs, 182—189.. The Vocative, 190. The Ablative, 191—213. Ablative of quality, 192, 193. Ablative of price, 194, 195. Ablative after adjectives and verbs, 196—207. The ablative to denote several relations, such as cause, manner and instrument, etc., 208—213. II. Construction of verbs. Number, 214. Persons, 215—217. The indefinite one , we, they , 218. Different classes of verbs, transitive, intransitive, passive and de¬ ponent, 219—221. Tenses of verbs, 2 ; 22—251. Additional remarks on the tenses, (251. a—h.). Periphrastic conjugation in the active, 252, 253. Dependence of tenses, 254—267. Modes of verbs, 268—(270. h.). Indicative, 269—(270. b.). Subjunctive, (270. c.)—(270. h.). Conjunctions which influence the modes of verbs, (270. i.) —298. Relative words (qui, unde, ubi, etc.) in reference to their influence upon the modes, 299—314. SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. XL Interrogati ves and their connection with the verb, 315—334. Answers to questions, 335—340. Imperative mode, 341—344. Infinitive and Gerunds, 345—358. Verbal adjective in audits or cndus , 359—372. The conjunction that, 373—418. Oratio obliqua, 419—434. Supines, 435—442. Participles, 443—467. Position of words, 468—514. Arrangement of sentences, 515—518. Connection of sentences by qui, quae, quod , 519—523. Several particular rules for writing Latin, 524—(541. e.). Use of prepositions, 542—544. Construction of several verbs, 545. Difference between some words, 546—550. Choice of certain forms, 551, Brevity and copiousness of expression, 552. Periods, 553. ♦ i - . • ' GUIDE FOE. WRITING LATIN. PART I. EXERCISES FOR BEGINNERS. THE ARTICLES THE AND A. 1. The definite article the, is not expressed in Latin; e. g. The man, homo; the woman, femina; the animal, animal. And so in the remaining cases of the singular and plural. 2. The indefinite article a , is not expressed in Latin ; e. g. A man, vir; a woman,/««fl!; a house, tectum. AGREEMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE AND PRONOUN WITH THEIR SUBSTANTIVE. 3. Every word which is united with a substantive, and de¬ fines it more fully, especially in relation to a quality, may be called a qualifying word. In English it usually stands be¬ fore the substantive; e. g. A benevolent Deity. Here bene¬ volent qualifies the substantive Deity. Further: A kind mother, a high house, the present day, this year, the singing birds. Such a qualifying word may be an adjective, numeral, pronoun or participle. 4. In English, the adjective is not varied on account of the gender or number of the substantive; e. g. A good father, a good mother, a good animal; and so in the plural, good fa¬ thers, etc. But in Latin the adjective is varied so as to agree 1 2 AGREEMENT OF THE ADJECTIVE [§§ 5 - 7. in gender, number and case with the substantive; e. g. Pater bonus , mater bona, animal bonum, patres boni. In respect to gender and number, there is a difference be¬ tween the English and the Latin. 5. (1) The gender of the substantives in the two languages is often different; e. g. Stella (a star) is feminine; liber (a book) is masculine; corpus (the body) is neuter, and so very many others; while in English these are all neuter. Hence in Latin before we unite an adjective with its substantive, we must ascertain the gender of the substantive, and then put the adjective in the gender which the substantive requires; e. g. A little book, liber parvus ; a little star, stella parva ; a little body, corpus parvum. 6. (2) Also the number of English and Latin substantives sometimes differ; e. g. A camp, castra (plural); a letter, litterae (plural); courage, animi; great courage, magni animi. Remark. In English, the adjective, participle and pronoun usually stand before their substantive. In Latin, they can stand before and af¬ ter the substantive. To prevent frequent mistakes in translating from English into Latin, it is advisable for beginners to place the substan¬ tive first; then they can put the adjective after it in the gender, num¬ ber and case it requires. The following examples are designed to exercise the stu¬ dent in uniting the adjective with the substantive. 7. First Declension. These and the following examples are to be written in the nomina¬ tive plural also. The Latin adjectives standing under the exercises are always given only in the masculine form. The long 1 tail 2 . The moist 3 earth 4 . The white 5 paper 6 . Human 7 life 8 . The level 9 way 10 . The dense 11 forest 12 . The robust 13 husbandman 14 . The renowned 15 poet 16 . The fear¬ ful 17 sailor 18 . The proud 19 Persian 20 . The new 21 flint-stone 22 . The wild 23 Scythian 24 . 1 longus. 2 cauda. 3 humidus. 4 terra. 5 albus. 6 charta. 7 humanus. 8 vita. 9 planus. 10 via. 11 densus. 12 silva. 13 robustus. 14 agricola. 15 clarus. 16 poeta. 17 pavidus. 18 nauta. 19 superbus. 20 Persa. 21 novus. 22 pyrites. 23 ferus. 24 Scytha. §§ 8 — 10 .] WITH ITS SUBSTANTIVE. 3 8. Se cond D eclension . A sharp 1 nail. 2 A white horse 3 . A broad 4 furrow 5 . A small 6 field 7 . A renowned man. A sharp knife 8 . A pater¬ nal 9 house 10 . An ancient 11 dialect 12 . A long period 13 . A small meadow 14 . A long neck 15 . A cruel 16 war 17 . A great sea 18 . An odoriferous 19 laurel 20 . A high 21 cherry-tree 22 . Acutus. 2 clavus. 3 equus. 4 latus. 5 sulcus. 6 parvus. 7 ager. 8 cul¬ ter. 9 paternus. 10 domus. 11 antiquus. 12 dialectus. 13 periodus. 14 pra¬ tum. 15 collum. 18 saevus. 17 bellum. 18 pelagus. 19 odorus. 20 laurus. 21 altus. 22 cerasus. 9. T hir d Declension. A beautiful flower 1 . A great labor 2 . A little goose 3 . A black 4 coal 5 . A broad foot 6 . The ancient order 7 . Good flesh 8 . A painted 9 image 10 . A high tree 11 . A beautiful woman 12 . A long journey 13 . A sharp bone 14 . White mar¬ ble 15 . The second 16 legion 17 . Pleasant 18 spring 19 . Tender 20 age 21 . New peace 22 . Great praise 23 . A little bird 24 . A broad bridge 25 . A great herd 26 . A great fire 27 . A little stone 28 . A sharp tooth 29 . A high sea 30 . A broad forehead 31 . A clear 32 fountain 33 . A pleasant summer 34 . A worthy 35 re¬ ward 36 . A renowned name 37 . A broad head 38 . A great tribute 39 . An ardent 40 youth 41 . Wet 42 weather 43 . A brave 44 breast 45 . A renowned city 46 . A long winter 47 . A little mouse 48 . A beautiful turtle-dove 49 . The right 50 side 51 . A white swallow 52 . A deep 53 bog 54 . The high grass 55 . Cruel 56 death 57 . A good 58 mother 59 . Good parents 60 . A new priest 61 . A new priestess 61 . A faithful 62 companion 63 . Faithful 62 companions 63 . A great contest 64 . 1 fios. 2 labor. 3 anser. 4 ater. 5 carbo. 6 pes. 7 ordo. 8 caro. 9 pictus. 10 imago. 11 arbor. 12 mulier. 13 iter (profectio). 14 os. 15 marmor. 16 se¬ cundus. 17 legio. 18 jucundus. 19 ver. 20 tener. 21 aetas. 22 pax. 23 laus. 24 avis. 23 pons. 26 grex. 27 ignis. 28 lapis. 29 dens. 30 mare. 31 frons. 32 liquidus. 33 fons. 34 aestas. 35 dignus. 36 merces. 37 nomen. 38 caput. 29 vectigal. 40 fervidus. 41 juventus. 42 humldus. 43 tempestas. 44 ro¬ bustus (fortis). 45 pectus. 46 urbs (oppidum). 47 hiems. 48 mus. 49 tur¬ tur. 50 dexter. 51 latus. 52 hirundo. 53 profundus. 54 palus. 55 gramen. 56 acerbus. 57 mors. 58 benevolus. 59 parens. 60 parentes. 61 sacerdos. 62 fidus. 63 comes. 64 certamen (dissensio). 10. Fourth and Fifth Declension. A deep lake 1 . A great carriage 2 . A small house. A long hand 3 . A high tide 4 . A sharp needle 5 . A beautiful face 6 A long row 7 . A festive 8 day. A broad knee 9 . A long horn 10 . 4 AGREEMENT OF THE SUBJECT [§§ 11-13. That 11 old 12 oak 13 . The warm noonday 14 . The old cus¬ toms 15 . The painted 16 porches 17 . The Indian 18 fig-tree 19 . 1 lacus. 2 currus (vehiculum). 3 manus. 4 fluctus. 5 acus. 6 facies. 7 series. 8 festus. 9 genu. 10 cornu. 11 ille. 12 annosus. 13 quercus. 14 meridies. 15 ritus. j6 pictus. 17 porticus. 18 Indicus. 19 ficus. 11. s om e Substantives used in the plural. The renowned wedding 1 . The nightly 2 watch 3 . Uncer¬ tain 4 riches 5 . Hidden 6 treachery 7 . The new calendar. 8 The holy 9 bible 10 . Demolished 11 Jerusalem 12 . Renowned Del¬ phos 13 . High walls 14 . A great 15 camp 16 . My house 17 . These entrails 18 . Egyptian 19 darkness 20 . 1 nuptiae. 2 nocturnus. 3 excubiae. 4 incertus. 5 divitiae. 6 occultus. 7 insidiae. 8 fasti. 9 sacer. 10 litterae. 11 dirutus. 12 Hierosolyma, -orum. 13 Delphi. 14 moenia,-ium. 15 ingens. 16 castra,-orum. 17 ae¬ des,-ium. 18 exta,-orum. 19 iEgyptius. 20 tenebrae. AGREEMENT OF THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 12. A subject, predicate and copula are necessary for the formation of a sentence which expresses an idea. The subject is a person or thing , or in general, that of which something is said; e. g. I, thou, the father, we, ye, the parents, life, death, etc. The predicate is that which is affirmed of some subject; e. g. Active, teacher, sleeping, industrious, scholars, etc. The copula, i. e. that which binds together, is the word which unites the subject and predicate. The most usual word for this is the verb to be. These three words together form a sentence; e. g. I am active; thou art a teacher; the father is sleeping; we are industrious ; ye are scholars ; the parents are good. 13. The subject is not only a substantive, an adjective used as a substantive (e. g. the sweet, the bitter, the future), and a pronoun, but also an infinitive, and a whole sentence; e. g. to die (i. e. death) is our lot; to die for one's country (i. e. death for one’s country) is glorious; that we all die (the death of us all) is certain ; when we die (the time of our death) is uncertain. When a whole sentence is the subject, as in the last two cases, it is called a 'periphrastic subject. AND PREDICATE. 5 §§ 14 - 16 .] 14. The predicate is either a substantive, an adjective, or a participle; e. g. I am a man ; thou art active; the mother is mourning. 15. The predicate is connected with the subject chiefly by the verb to be, as the previous examples show, and a sen¬ tence is first formed by means of this connection, as without it, the two words would stand separate; e. g. I — man; thou — active. But the copula is very often expressed in the predicate, i. e. the predicate contains both the predicate and the copula. This is the case with such verbs as have a complete idea in themselves, and are not mere auxiliary verbs; e. g. 1 teach, is the same as I am a teacher; I desire, as I am desirous; I conquer, as I am a conqueror. Hence, a simple sentence generally consists of but two words, a subject and a predicate-copula, which is usually called simply the predicate; e. g. The father sleeps; I sing; thou writest; we labor ; ye sing; the parents eat. 16. When the predicate is an adjective or a participle, it must agree with its subject in gender, number and case. The subject pater requires the predicate bonus; mater the predicate bona; consilium the predicate bonum. So also, patres — boni ; matres — bonae; consilia — bona; sol — lucidus; soles -— lucidi; stella — lucida; stellae — lucidae; sidus — lucidum; sidera — lucida. If the predicate is a substantive, it can be either a per¬ sonal substantive (e. g. king, companion), or a substantive denoting a thing (e. g. cause, book). The former must be in the same number and gender as its subject, the latter is unchanged in both. On this see more under § 62. Further: not only the copulative verb esse, but also the predicate verbs (e. g. amare, to love, canere, to sing, etc.), have particular forms for the different persons of the subject, in the singular as well as in the plural; therefore, the person of the subject must determine the person of the verb; 1* 6 AGREEMENT OF THE SUBJECT WITH THE VERB. [§ 17. e. g. I am, ego sum; thou art, tu e s ; the father is, pater e s t; we are, nos sumus; ye are, vos estis. When the subject is singular in English, but plural in Latin, then the verb must agree with the subject in number also; e. g. The house burns, aedes ardent; a house is built, aedes sunt extructae. When by the pronouns, I, thou, we, ye, they, females are denoted, the predicate is in the feminine gender. Hence, ego beata sum ; nos beatae sumus ; tu benevola es ; vos benevolae estis. 17. Examples for practice . (These are all to be written in the plural also.) (1) I am in good health 1 . Thou art attentive 2 . The girl 3 is attentive. The ice 4 is cold 5 . The mind 6 is sound 1 . The fish 7 is great. The river 8 is broad 9 . The gift 10 is great. The winter 11 is severe 12 . The sun 13 is bright 14 . The part 15 is small. The horn 16 is curved 17 . The month 18 is past 19 . The body 20 is weak 21 . The law 22 is good. The shore 23 is low 24 . The head 25 is great and broad. 1 sanus (in good health). 2 attentus. 3 puella. 4 glacies. 5 frigidus. 6 mens. 7 piscis. 8 fluvius (flumen, amnis). 9 latus. 10 munus (donum). 11 hiems. 12 saevus. 13 sol. 14 lucidus. 15 pars. 16 cornu. 17 curvus. 18 mensis. 19 praeteritus. 20 corpus. 21 caducus. 22 lex. 23 littus. ^hu¬ milis. 25 caput. (2) The leaf 1 is narrow 2 . The tail 3 is long. The race 4 is different 5 . Strong 6 is the breast 7 , small is the head, and great the neck 8 . The night is long and the day is short 9 . The honey 10 is sweet 11 . The sea 12 is deep 13 . The tree is high. The mountain is steep 14 . The ship 15 is long and broad. The time 16 is good. The occasion 17 is convenient 18 . The wish 19 is heard 20 . The journey 21 is wearisome 22 . Not every 23 wound 24 is curable 25 . The judgment 26 is different. 1 folium. 2 angustus. 3 cauda. 4 genus. 5 diversus. 6 robustus. 7 pec¬ tus. 8 collum. 9 brevis. 10 mei. 11 dulcis 12 mare. 13 profundus. 14 ar¬ duus. 15 navis. 16 tempus. 17 occasio. 18 commodus. J9 optatum. 20 ex¬ auditus. 21 iter. 22 molestus. 23 omnis. 24 vulnus. 25 sanabilis, ^judi¬ cium. (3) Long is the day, short is the night. Wonderful 1 is the dream 2 . Wealth 3 is great. The camp 4 is pitched 5 . The wall 6 is demolished 7 . The calendar 8 is old 9 . The guard 10 is attentive. The wedding 11 is small. The treachery 12 is THE USE OF CASES. 7 §18.] apparent 13 . Jerusalem 14 is now 15 small. The birds fly 16 . The fish swim 17 . We sleep 18 . Ye run 19 . The lion 20 roars 21 . The lions roar. The friend 22 despairs 23 . The friends de¬ spair. Thou art near 24 . Ye are near. The tree blossoms 25 . The trees blossom. We travel 26 . The swallows 27 travel. We dispute 28 . The masters 29 dispute. The boy 30 weeps 31 . The boys weep. Virtue and knowledge 32 are the most cer¬ tain 33 riches. Cicero and Demosthenes are illustrious 34 ora¬ tors 35 . Virgil 36 and Horace 37 are two 38 great poets 39 . 1 mirus. 2 somnium. 3 divitiae. 4 castra. 5 positus. 6 moenia. 7 di¬ rutus. 8 fasti. 9 vetustus. 10 excubiae. 11 nuptiae. 12 insidiae. 13 aper¬ tus. 14 Hierosolyma (plural). 15 nunc. 18 volare. 17 natare. 18 dormire. 19 currere. 20 leo. 21 rugire. 22 amicus. 23 desperare. 24 instare (to be near) 25 florere. 26 migrare. 27 hirundo. 28 disputare. 29 magister. 30 puer. 31 lacrimare. 32 doctrina. 33 certissimus. 34 clarus. 35 orator. 36 Virgilius. 37 Horatius. 38 duo, ae, o. 39 poeta. CASES OF DECLINABLE NOUNS. 18. A substantive or pronoun can be used in a sentence as the subject or predicate, and consequently is the principal word of the sentence, e. g. The friend is kind, thou art my friend; but in other sentences it can be considered only as a subordinate word, which, however, stands in a nearer or more remote connection with the principal word of the sen¬ tence ; e. g. Thou hast read the letter of the friend. Thou bringest a letter to the friend. He visits the friend constantly. Friend! let us go into the garden. In no one of these four sentences is the substantive friend , the principal word or the subject; but it stands, in each in¬ stance, in connection with the subject, yet it occupies only a subordinate place in the sentence. The sense, which in each instance is different, has made the construction differ¬ ent ; as, of the friend , to the friend , the friend and friend. This is more perceptible in the Latin, where it is written amici , amico , amicum , amice. For the purpose of distinguishing the principal and subor- 8 NOMINATIVE CASE. [§ 19. dinate relation of a substantive or pronoun, these words have peculiar endings, which are called cases. As therefore such an ending is called case, these relations themselves have also been called cases. These cases sometimes govern other cases, and sometimes they are governed. While in English the same relations are expressed, as in Latin, yet these relations are not indicated as in Latin, by the different endings of the word ; e. g. to a man, of a man, for a man,—the endings being the same. See § 542. Remark. THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 19. The nominative case is sometimes used as a subject, sometimes as a predicate. The former is called the subject- nominative ; the latter, the predicate-nominative. As subject- nominative, it names the person or thing of which something is said, it is independent of any word, and governs the verb ; e. g. the father loves you. As predicate-nominative, it be¬ longs to a verb, which of itself does not fully express the necessary thought. Such verbs are, to be (esse), to appear (existere, apparere), to become (fieri, evadere), to seem (videri), to be called (appellari, vocari, nominari, dici), etc. Examples. My father is a rich 1 man. Cicero was a great orator. Great will be thy reward 2 . Many appear worthy of admira¬ tion 3 . Dionysius appeared cruel 4 . Bad actions 5 often be¬ come quickly 6 known 7 . Some 8 boys 9 become good, others bad 10 . The wise are called philosophers. This precept 11 will always remain true. Cossinius seems to me a good man. Cicero has been called the father of his country. These plants seem to me baneful 12 . Stammerers 13 cannot become 14 great orators. 1 dives. 2 merces. 3 admirabilis. 4 crudelis. 5 factum. 6 cito. 7 aper¬ tus. 8 nonnullus. 9 puer. 10 malus. 11 praeceptum. 12 perniciosus. 13 balbus. 14 evadere. GENITIVE CASE. 9 § 20.] THE GENITIVE. 20. The genitive case generally depends on some word: (1) On substantives . When one of two substantives is dependent on the other, the dependent one stands in the genitive; e. g. oratio Ciceronis, the oration of Cicero; laus justitiae, the praise of justice ; epistola matris, the letter of the mother. In these examples the dependence is indicated in English by the preposition of (2) On adjectives; e. g. such as express, knowledge, re¬ membrance, consciousness, fulness, etc.: peritus moris, ac¬ quainted with the custom; memor beneficiorum, mind¬ ful of benefits. (3) On verbs; e. g. such as signify, to remember, to for¬ get, to accuse .‘Patriae suae meminisse (reminisci, recor¬ dari), to remember his country ; fr at r i s oblivisci, to forget one's brother; furti accusare, to accuse of theft. (4) On an adverb of quantity; e. g. Pecuniae satis, enough money. (5) Also in expressions which describe the quality or na¬ ture of any one; e. g. Magni ingenii esse, to be (pos¬ sessed) of great genius. Examples. (1) The long neck of the camel 1 . The roaring 2 of the lion. The sweet 3 song 4 of the nightingale*. The croaking 5 of frogs 6 . Jewels 7 of India 8 . The horses of the Arabians 9 and the Englishmen 10 . The skin 11 of the black 12 foxes 13 . The justice 14 of Aristides. The beautiful temples 15 of the Greeks 16 and Romans 17 . Mercury 18 was the inventor 19 of the lyre 20 and of eloquence 21 , the messenger 22 of the gods, and the pro¬ tector 23 of merchants 24 and thieves 25 . Apollo is the guardian 26 of the Muses, and the inventor of medicine 27 . Romulus is the grandson 28 of Numitor, and the son of Rhea Silvia. The letters of Cicero and Pliny are excellent 29 . The singing of nightingales delights 30 . 1 camelus. 2 rugitus. 3 jucundus. 4 cantus. * luscinia. 5 vox. 6 rana. 7 gemma. 8 India. 9 Arabs. 10 Britannus. 11 pellis. 12 niger. 13 vulpes. 10 DATIVE CASE. [§ 21 . 14 justitia. 15 templum. 16 Graecus. 17 Romanus. 18 Mercurius. 19 in¬ ventor. 20 lyra. 21 eloquentia. 22 nuntius. 23 tutor. 24 mercator. 25 fur. 26 praeses. 27 medicina. 28 nepos. 29 egregius. 30 delectare. (2) A youth 1 bearing marks of age 9 is a sign 3 of early 4 death 5 . Whoever 6 forgets 7 his father and his mother, is an ungrateful 8 man. Only 9 a few 10 are acquainted 11 with anti¬ quity 19 , and with the ancient 13 authors 14 . Many are igno¬ rant 15 of the customs 16 and passions 17 of men. Socrates was accused 18 of impiety 19 . Aristides did not remember 90 his unjust 91 banishment 99 . Croesus had enough gold 93 and sil¬ ver 94 . I am conscious 95 of no fault 96 . I remember 97 the merit 98 of this man. Jugurtha was of a restless 99 and spright¬ ly 30 disposition 31 . Crassus was unmindful 39 of the treaty 33 made 34 . Piso accused 35 Germanicus of luxury 36 and haugh¬ tiness 37 . juventus. 2 senllis (bearing marks of age). 3 signum. 4 maturus. 5 mors. 6 qui. 7 oblivisci. 8 ingratus. 9 tantum. 10 pauci. 11 gnarus. 12 antiquitas. 13 antiquus. 14 scriptor. 15 ignarus. 16 mos. 17 animi per¬ turbatio. 18 accusare (perf.). 19 impietas. 20 reminisci. 21 injustus. 22 exilium. 23 aurum. 24 argentum. 25 conscius. 26 culpa. 27 recordari, ^meritum. 29 impiger. 30 acer. 31 ingenium. 32 iramemor. 33 foedus. ^factus. 35 incusare (perf.). 36 luxuria. 37 superbia. THE DATIVE. 21. The dative case designates the person or thing, for which anything is designed or done; e. g. Patri mittis librum, you send a book to your father, ox for him. This case also, is generally governed by some word in the sen¬ tence : (1) By adjectives; e. g. such as signify, like, useful, hurtful, pleasant, etc.; e. g. He is like my father, est m e o patri similis ; this plant is useful for men, haec planta h o- minibus est utilis. (2) By verbs; e. g. such as signify, to obey, to please, to be useful, to be injurious y to serve; e. g. We obey the laws, paremus legibus; this oration pleases all, haec oratio pla¬ cet omnibus. In many instances, where the Latin verb would take the dative after it, the English requires the accusative; e. g. Paremus legibus, we obey the laws; placet mi hi, it pleases me. §22.] ACCUSATIVE CASE. 11 Examples . This happened 1 to my father and mother. Envy 9 stands 3 in the way of many men. I am devoted 4 to this science 5 . Misfortunes 6 are often useful to us. This image 7 is like 8 my sister. Eloquence 9 is necessary 10 for boys 11 , and pleasant 12 for old men 13 . Letters 14 are necessary for us. The story seems 15 laughable 16 to you; to others it appears true 17 and credible 18 . This virtue is opposite 19 to that vice 20 . Many sports 21 are injurious 22 to health 23 . We obey 24 the same 25 commands 26 and magistrate 27 . Many men benefit 28 neither 29 themselves nor others 30 . This will beuefit you, that will in¬ jure 31 us. Many are slaves 32 to the passions 33 . Answer 34 thy sister as quick as possible 35 . 1 accidere (perf.). 2 invidia. 3 obstare (to stand in the way of). 4 dedi¬ tus. 5 doctrina. 6 malum. 7 imago. 8 similis. 9 eloquentia. 10 necessa¬ rius. 11 puer. 12 jucundus. 13 senex. 14 littera. 15 videri. 16 ridiculus. 17 verus. 19 credibilis. 19 contrarius. ^vitium. 21 ludus. 22 perniciosus, ^valetudo. 24 parere. 25 idem. 26 imperium. 27 potestas, ^prodesse. 29 nec— nor nec. 30 alter. 31 nocere. 32 servire. 33 perturbatio animi. 34 respondere. 33 quam primum (as quick as possible). THE ACCUSATIVE. 22. The accusative case designates particularly the object to which an action is directed; this object may be a person or a thing; e. g. Thou seekest thy father; my father writes a letter. This case also is usually governed by some word of the sentence: (1) By a verb. It is then called the accusative of the ob¬ ject . This can be known by the Latin verb admitting the words, aliquem, aliquid, before it; e. g. Aliquem amare, to love some one; aliquid (aliquem) quaerere, to seek some¬ thing or some one. That word, therefore, which can stand instead of the indefinite words, some one , some thing, is put in the accusative; e. g. amo pa¬ trem et matrem. Many verbs, besides an accusative, take also the dative; this is the case with all those verbs which contain the idea of doing something for some one, giving something to some one, and the like; e. g. Alicui aliquid dare, to give 12 ACCUSATIVE CASE. [§ 22. something to some one; alicui aliquid legere, to read something to some one; Deus nobis vitam dedit, God has given us life. (2) By a preposition. See § 25—27. (3) The accusative stands in Latin as in English, in an¬ swer to the questions, How high ? How long 1 How broad 1 How thick ? How far 1 How old ? e. g. This animal is one foot long, hoc animal unum pedem longum est ; this hoy is two years old, hic puer duos annos est natus; he rests no part of the night, nullum partem noctis requiescit ; he was restless the whole day, totum diem non quietus fuit. Examples. (1) All good men love equity 1 . The inhabitants 2 of Egypt 3 worship 4 the Apis, a black 5 ox 6 . Dogs produce 7 their young 8 blind 9 . The return 10 of the stork 11 announces 12 the spring 13 . Archelaus gave 14 to Euripides a golden goblet 15 . I hate 16 proud 17 , wicked 18 and ungrateful 19 men. We do not see 20 all the stars 21 . Augustus consecrated 22 a temple 23 to Jupiter. Caesar exercised 24 his soldiers 25 . My brother has chosen? 6 the best 27 way 28 . I recommend 29 my friend 30 to you. Thou hast sent 31 to me the letter of my mother. Sicily has had 32 many and cruel 33 tyrants 34 . Nature has given to men un¬ derstanding 35 and speech 36 . Nature has prescribed 37 certain 38 laws 39 to diseases 40 . Too great 41 familiarity 42 produces 43 contempt 44 . Camillus conquered 45 the Gauls 46 ; Alexander the Great, the Persians 47 ; and the Romans, all other 48 na¬ tions 49 . We endure 50 patiently 51 these pains 52 . I prefer 53 friendship to riches 54 . 1 aequitas. 2 incola. 3 Aegyptus. 4 colere. 5 niger. 6 bos. 7 parere. 8 catulus. 9 caecus. 10 reditus. 11 ciconia. 12 nuntiare. 13 ver. 14 donare (perf.). 15 scyphus. 16 odisse. 17 superbus. 18 maleficus. 19 ingratus. 20 cernere. 21 stella. 22 consecrare (perf.). 23 aedes. 24 exercere. 25 miles. 26 eligere. 27 optimus. 28 via. 29 commendare. 30 amicus. 31 mittere. 32 habere. 33 saevus. 34 tyrannus. 35 ratio. "oratio. 37 ponere, ^qui¬ dam. 39 lex. 40 morbus. 41 nimius (too great). 42 familiaritas. 43 parere. 44 contemptus. 45 vincere. 46 Gallus. 47 Persa. 48 ceterus. 49 gens. 50 tolerare. 51 patienter. 52 dolor. 53 anteponere. 54 divitiae. (2) A linnet 1 lives 2 twelve 3 years 4 . The lava 5 of Aetna is often thirty miles 6 wide 7 . Some 8 animals sleep 9 the whole 10 §§ 23 , 24 .] VOCATIVE AND ABLATIVE CASES. 13 winter 11 . An adult 12 man is usually 13 three 14 cubits 15 high 16 . Gorgias lived a hundred and seven years. This city is dis¬ tant 17 from 18 ours 19 two miles. 1 linaria. 2 vivere. 3 duodeni. 4 annus. 5 lava. 6 millia. 7 latus. 8 non- nullus. 9 dormire. 10 totus. 11 hiems. 12 adultus. 13 fere. 14 terni. 15 cu¬ bitus. 18 longus. 17 abesse (to be distant). 18 a. 19 noster. THE VOCATIVE. 23. The vocative case is used in addressing or calling to a? person, or a thing considered as a person ; e g. Let us de¬ part, dear brother, abeamus, care frater; friend, from whence do you come ? amice, unde venis 1 This case is not governed by any word, but is independent of all words standing before and after it. Examples. Read 1 Cicero often, dear friend. I commend 2 to you, my dearest 3 , this youth 4 . Thy life 5 , rny Plancus, grieves 6 me. Thou hast, Pomponius, a wonderful 7 memory 8 . Give 9 , great friend, this letter to Atticus. I free 10 you, O man, best 11 and most dear 12 to me, from 13 all 14 fear 15 . Fear 16 nothing 17 , most beloved 18 . 1 legere. 2 commendare. 3 carissimus. 4 adolescens. 5 vita. 6 sollici¬ tare. 7 mirus. 8 memoria. 9 dare. 10 liberare. 11 optimus. 12 amicissi¬ mus. 13 ab. 14 omnis. 15 timor. 16 timere. 17 nihil. 18 suavissimus. THE ABLATIVE. 24. The ablative case is governed by adjectives, preposi¬ tions or verbs ; it also stands independent of the other words of the sentence. The adjectives and verbs which govern the ablative, will be mentioned in the second Part of this book. When it stands independent of any word in the sentence, it expresses chiefly the instrument by which, or the time when anything happens ; e. g. We see with our eyes, videmus ocu¬ lis; by virtue we are happy, virtute sumus beati ; I saw him the very first day, jam primo die eum vidi. Such an independent ablative must almost always be translated into English by a preposition. The other instances in which the 2 PREPOSITIONS. 14 [§§ 25 , 26 . ablative is used, will be considered at length in the second Part. This case is chiefly governed by prepositions. Examples, in which the preposition is always omitted, and the substantive put in the ablative. Attus cut 1 a hone 2 with a razor 3 . The earth is clothed 4 with flowers, herbs 5 , trees and fruits 6 . The clouds are sup¬ plied 7 by the vapors 8 of the earth and sea. The sun fills 9 the whole 10 world with its 11 light 12 . The trunks 13 are covered 14 with a softer 15 or 16 harder bark 17 . The sun very much ex¬ ceeds 18 the earth in size 19 . The flight 20 of birds is facili¬ tated 21 by wings 22 , as if 23 by oars 24 . The Nile 25 irrigates 26 Egypt 27 the whole 10 summer, and covers* it 28 with a rich 29 slime 30 . We can, with our 31 minds 32 , as if 23 with eyes, view 33 the whole earth and sea. Tarquin was exhausted 34 by old age 35 and grief 36 . discindere (perfi). 2 cos. 3 novacula. 4 vestitus. 5 herba. 6 fruges. 7 alere. 8 vapor. 9 complere. 10 totus. 11 suus. 12 lux. 13 truncus. 14 ob¬ ductus. 15 liber (softer bark). le aut. 17 cortex (harder bark), ^praes¬ tare. 19 magnitudo. 20 volatus. 21 levare. 22 penna. 23 tanquam. 24 re- mus. 25 Nilus. 26 irrigare. 27 Aegyptus. * obducere. 28 is, ea, id. 29 fer¬ tilis. 30 limus. 31 (our is omitted in Latin, comp. § 104). 32 animus. 33 lustrare. 34 conficere. 35 senium. 38 aegritudo. CONNECTION OF PREPOSITIONS WITH CASES. 25. Prepositions govern only two cases, the accusative and ablative. Some govern only the accusative, others only the ablative, and again others both cases, yet with a change of meaning. (I) The following govern the accusative alone: Ad, ad¬ versus (adversum), ante, apud, circa (circum), cis, citra, contra, erga, extra, infra, inter, intra, juxta, ob, penes, per, pone, post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra, trans, ultra, versus. Respecting versus, see § 28. 26. (2) The following, the ablative alone : A, ab, abs, coram, cum, de, e, ex, prae, pro, sine, tenus, palam. Re¬ specting cum and tenus, see § 28, (2). Absque is omitted, being an unclassical word, and but rarely used. §§ 27 , 28 .] PREPOSITIONS. 15 27. The following, the accusative and ablative: In, sub, subter, super. These, however, govern one or the other case, according to their different signification. Clam is omitted, being used by writers before and after the classi¬ cal period. Remarks. (1) In takes the accusative, when it indicates motion into something, towards something; therefore it is used in answer to the question, whither? e. g. Into that house, in illam dornu m. In takes the ablative, when it expresses the be¬ ing actually in or upon a place ; therefore it is used in an¬ swer to the question, where? e. g. In that house, in ilia d o m o. (2) Sub governs the accusative and ablative with precisely the same difference of signification as in; it has the accusa¬ tive when motion under something is signified ; therefore it is used in reference to the question, whither ? e. g. Ire sub terram, to go under the earth. It takes the ablative, when the being actually under something is expressed ; therefore it is used in reference to the question, where? e. g. Sub terra, under the earth, i. e. to be under. (3) Subter usually takes the accusative only, in reference to the two questions, whither ? and where ? e. g. Under the bed, subter lectum. It takes the ablative but seldom, and then in the poets. It is also frequently used as an adverb. (4) Super takes the accusative when it signifies above or over, and the ablative when it signifies on account of, or in regard to; e. g. He ran over the water, (i. e. along the sur¬ face), cucurrit super aquam; a contention on account of this embassy, controversia super hac legatione. On the other hand, when above signifies a being above something, it can take either the accusative or ablative; e. g. Super lu¬ nam, and 1 u n a. With numerals, super signifies more than, e. g. super tres modios, more than three bushels. 28. Some additional remarks. ( 1 ) The preposition cum 16 PREPOSITIONS. [§ 29 . is almost always placed after the ablatives, me, te, se, nobis and vobis. With the ablatives of qui, quae, quod, it can stand before and after; e. g. Mecura, with me; quocum and cum quo, with whom; q u i b u s c u in and cum qui¬ bus. Elsewhere the preposition stands first; e. g. cum Deo. (2) The prepositions versus and tenus , in like manner must always stand after their cases; e. g. Towards the south, meridiem versus; as jar as the ocean, oceano tenus. Tenus governs the genitive also, especially of cities or of the mem¬ bers of the body, of which there are pairs; e. g. Cumarum tenus, Cicero; Crurum tenus, Virg.; lateium tenus. But the Gen. with this preposition is confined almost wholly to poetry and to words in the plural. Where it takes the accusative, the reading may be con¬ sidered doubtful. Tenus is very rare in good prose. 29. (3) The prepositions a and e never stand before a word which begins with a vowel or an h. Then ab and ex are used, though these, especially ex, can also stand before almost all consonants; e. g. Ab eo, not a eo, ab hoc, not a hoc; further, ab Jove, ab se, ex aqua, not e aqua, ex humo, not e humo; further, ex meis, ex te, ex se. Examples upon the Prepositions. (1) Between 1 us and them there is a small disagreement 2 . After 3 our death we leave 4 this earth. Many never 5 come back 6 to their 7 country. On 8 the boundless 9 sea, we behold only 10 water and sky. There is a God in us. Asia lies 11 towards 12 the east 13 . After 3 death we go out from 14 these bonds 15 of the body. Africa lies beyond 16 the Mediterra¬ nean 17 sea. Socrates discoursed 18 , in his prison 19 , of the im¬ mortality 20 of the soul 21 . Cicero was murdered 22 by Popilius Laenas. Around 23 the poles 24 of the earth is thick 25 ice 26 . It is not becoming 27 to laugh 28 in the presence 29 of an honor¬ able 30 man. The animal concealed 31 itself, contrary to 32 its nature, in the earth. After death we are without 33 sensation 34 . Alexander spoke 35 in the workshop 36 of Apelles concerning his pictures 37 ; but 38 he was blamed 39 by the artist 40 . Cicero is esteemed 41 before 42 all other writers 43 . The same 44 wrote 45 a book on friendship' 16 and old-age 47 . PREPOSITIONS. 17 § 29 .] 1 inter. 2 dissensio 3 post. 4 relinquere, “nunquam. 6 redire (to comeback). 7 suus. 8 in. 9 immensus. 10 tantum. 11 situs esse, ^ver¬ sus. ,3 oriens. 14 exire (to go out from). "vinculum. 16 ultra. "Medi¬ terraneus. 18 disserere (perf.). 19 career. 20 immortalitas. 21 animus. 22 interficere (perf.). 23 circa. 24 polus. 25 densus. 26 glacies. 27 decdrus. ^ridere 29 coram (in tlie presence of). 30 honoratus. 31 occultare (perf.). "contra. 33 sine. 34 sensus, "dicere (perf.). "officina, "pic¬ tura. 38 ^ed. 39 reprehendere (perf.). "artifex. 41 aestimare. 42 prae, "scriptor. 44 idem. 45 scribere, "amicitia, "senectus. (2) I predicted 1 this before 2 the unfortunate 3 battle 4 . The cocks 5 crow 6 before day-break 7 . We do 8 nothing against the will 9 of our parents. Without 10 speech' 1 , man is a mute 12 animal 13 . Jupiter gave a sign 14 by 15 fowls 16 . The rivers 17 flow 18 into the sea. Hannibal sent 19 ambassadors 20 to 21 the Roman 22 Senate. The world was created 23 by God. We tell the children 24 concerning God, by whom the whole world is preserved 25 . At 26 Himera was (perf.) an unsuccessful battle. The earth is enlightened 27 by the sun. What 28 has he said 29 to you of the sun ? Beneath 30 the clear 31 ether 32 the clouds 33 float 34 . Pyrrhus fought 35 against 36 the Romans. There is a quarrel 37 between 38 these philosophers 39 . In many children hope shines forth 40 . I would rather 41 live with you, than 42 with another 43 . We travel 44 into 45 Italy. The Germans 46 dwell 47 beyond 48 the Rhine 49 . This way is dangerous 50 on account of 51 the narrowness 52 . The Romans occupied 53 Egypt 54 as far as 55 Ethiopia. God created the birds for* flying 56 , horses for running 57 , and wild beasts 58 for cruelty 59 . Beneath 60 the moon, there is nothing except 61 what is mortal 62 and perishable 63 ; but 64 above 65 it, all is eternal 66 . I was ed¬ ucated 67 with you under 68 the same teacher. Of these writ¬ ers we cannot judge 69 . We walk about 70 among these pop¬ lars 71 on 72 the green 73 and shady 74 bank 75 . Among 76 so many 77 species 78 , no creature except 79 man, has a knowledge 80 of God. Thou wilt live here 81 with thy friends 82 and with us. Cicero’s life was spent 83 in praiseworthy 84 labors 85 . praedicere. 2 ante. 3 infelix. 4 pugna, “gallus. 6 canere. 7 lux. 8 facere. 9 voluntas. 10 sine. 11 oratio. 12 mutus. "animal. 14 signum. 15 per. "gallina. 17 flumen, "fluere, "mittere (perf.). 20 legatus. 21 ad. 22 Romanus. 23 creare. 24 puer. 25 conservare. 26 apud, ^illus¬ trare. 28 quid. 29 dicere. 30 sub. 31 serenus. 32 aether. 33 nubes, ^pen¬ dere. 35 pugnare (perf.). 36 adversus. "controversia. 38 inter, "phi¬ losophus. "elucere. 41 malle (would rather). 42 quam. "alius. 44 mi¬ grare. 45 in. 46 Germanus. 47 habitare. 48 ultra. "Rhenus, "pericu¬ losus. 51 ob. "angustiae, "occupare (perf.). "Aegyptus, "tenus (as far as). *ad. 56 volatus. 57 cursus. 58 fera (wild beast), "saevitia. 2* 18 ADJECTIVES. [§§ 30 — 32 . 60 infra. 61 nisi. 62 mortale (what is mortal). 63 caducum 64 sed. 65 su¬ per. 66 aeternus. 67 educare. 68 sub. 69 judicare. 70 ambulare (to walk about). 71 populus. 72 in. 73 viridis. 74 opacus. 75 ripa. 76 ex. 77 tot (so many). 78 genus. 79 praeter. 80 notitia. 81 hic. 82 tuus (thy friends). 83 consumere. 84 gloriosus. 86 labor. J 30. From what has been said of the cases, it is evident, that the student must early accustom himself to find out the word by which any case is governed. He should also learn what cases particular words may or must govern. The different cases which the governing words require, will be treated in the second Part of this book. ADJECTIVES. 31. Adjectives express quality in various relations. When this quality can be conceived of as greater or smaller, it ad¬ mits of two degrees, a higher and a highest; e. g. attentive , more attentive, most attentive. These two degrees are the Comparative and the Superlative. 32. (1) The Comparative. With the comparative, the word than and the expression connected with it, is either expressed or understood ; e. g. Thou art wiser than many others; this poet is more learn - ed —. In both of these examples the quality expressed by the adjective, is in the comparative. In the last some such phrase as, than this man, or than that man , or than the others, is understood. Very often the force of the Latin comparative may be given by the English words, too, or very; e. g. serius venit, he came very late, or too late, i. e. later than he ought. The formation of the comparative by means of the ending ior or magis placed before the positive, should be learned from the gram¬ mar before the following examples are translated. Examples for practice. Nothing seems 1 to man more beautiful than man. No beast 2 is more intelligent 3 than the elephant. What is better or more excellent 4 than goodness 5 and beneficence 6 . No¬ thing is more lovely 7 than virtue. Nothing has greater strength 8 and power 9 than God 10 . Things of nature are bet- ADJECTIVES. 19 § 33 .] ter than things of art. The younger 11 nightingales imitate 12 the older 13 . The price 14 of nightingales has sometimes 15 been greater than the price of slaves. What affinity 16 is nearer 17 or more certain 18 . The upright 19 man is more hap¬ py 20 than the rich one, and enjoys 21 greater pleasure. A fool¬ ish 22 man is an unhappy 23 man. Nothing is greater, nothing is more blissful 24 , nothing is more pleasant 25 than friendship. You are more timorous 26 than we. The sense of sight 27 is more important 28 and necessary 29 , than the sense of smell 30 . No one was more liberal 31 and beneficent 32 than the emperor Titus. I have not seen worse men. The Consuls had less 33 power 34 than the Dictators. ’videri. 2 bellda. 3 prudens. 4 praestans. 5 bonitas. 6 beneficentia. 7 amabilis. 8 vis. 9 potestas. 10 Deus. 11 juvenis. 12 imitari. 13 senex. 14 pretium. ,5 interdum. 1G cognatio. 17 prope. 18 certus. 19 bonus. ^beatus. 21 percipere. 22 stultus. 23 miser. 24 uber. 25 jucundus, ^timidus. 27 visus. 28 magnus. 29 necessarius. 30 odoratus. 31 liberalis. 32 beneficus. 33 parvus. 34 potestas. 33. (2) Superlative. The Superlative represents a particular quality in the highest degree . The formation of the superlative by means of the endings rimus , issimus and limus , or by means of maxime placed be¬ fore the positive, should be learned from the grammar before the following examples are translated. Examples for practice. Demosthenes is the most illustrious 1 orator 2 of antiquity 3 . Nero was (perf.) the most cruel 4 emperor 5 of the Romans. The most trusty 6 animal is the dog. The shortest 7 time of life is often the most miserable 8 . The wisest and most pru¬ dent man is sometimes 9 deceived 10 . The swiftest 11 animal is the dolphin 12 . Lucullus possessed 13 (perf.) a most splendid 14 country-seat 15 . The most useful 16 limbs 17 of man are the hands. The ape 18 is the animal most like 19 man. The smallest trees are in the northern 20 regions 21 . The army 22 of Xerxes was (perf.) the greatest. These grapes 23 are the sweetest 24 . My dream 25 was (perf.) the most wonderful 26 . The death of Codrus was the most glorious 27 . Pleasure is not the highest 28 good. This garden is the nearest 29 . Rome 20 i ADJECTIVES. [§ 34. was the most populous 30 city. Titus was (perf.) the most beneficent 31 emperor. The earth holds 32 the lowest 33 place 34 . This poem 35 is most elegant 36 . My brother has selected 37 the worst 38 flowers. I have procured 39 only the most neces¬ sary 40 books. The richest 41 Romans were Lucullus and Crassus. These mountains are the lowest 42 , and these shores 43 the steepest 44 . The greatest good is friendship, for the most 45 pleasures 46 are in friendship. Clarus. 2 orator. 3 antiquitas. 4 crudelis. 5 imperator. 6 fidelis. 7 brevis. 8 miser. 9 interdum. 10 decipere. 11 celer. 12 delphinus. 13 possidere. 14 magnificus. 15 villa. 16 utilis. 17 membrum. ‘ 8 simia. 19 simllis. 20 septentrionalis. 21 regio. 22 exercltus. ^uva. 24 dulcis. 25 somnium. 26 mirus. 27 gloriosus. 28 superus. 29 prope. 30 celeber. 31 beneficus. 32 obtinere. 33 inferus. 34 locus. 35 carmen. 36 elegans, ^eligere. 38 malus. 39 comparare. 40 necessarius. 41 dives. 42 humi¬ lis. 43 litus. 44 arduus. 45 multus. 46 delectatio. 34. The Latins sometimes use the neuter plural of an ad¬ jective, where the singular would be used in English; e. g. mine, mea; utilia, that which is useful , or those things which are useful; omnia, everything; plura, more. The connec¬ tion must determine whether one thing or more is meant. When these neuters are the subject of a proposition, the verb must be in the plural; e. g. Everything is, omnia sunt. When, moreover, an adjective stands without a substantive, and refers to men, it is put in the masculine; e. g. The poor, pauperes; the mortals, mortales. Examples for practice . The rich and the poor, the high 1 and the low 2 are subject 3 to death. The future 4 is not known. What is dishonorable 5 , is to be avoided 6 . What is praiseworthy 7 , is to be sought 8 . The past 9 , the present 10 and the future are very 11 different 12 . Truth and falsehood are not the same 13 . Mine is also thine. That which is weak 14 and fragile 15 , is mortal 16 . Some 17 of 18 what he said, is wicked 19 and base 20 . Every 21 animal 22 per¬ ceives 23 the warm 24 and the cold 25 , the sweet 26 and the bitter 27 . Hear 28 much and speak 29 little 30 . ’nobilis. 2 ignobilis. 3 obnoxias 4 futurus. 5 turpis (what is dis¬ honorable). 6 effugiendus, ’laudabilis. 8 expetendus. 9 praeteritus. 10 praesens, "admodum. 12 diversus. 13 idem. 14 caducus (that which PRONOUNS. 21 §§ 35-37.] is weak). 15 fragilis. 16 mortalis. 17 quidam. 18 ex. 19 flagitiosus. 20 foe¬ dus. 21 omnis. 22 animal. 23 sentire. 24 calidus. 25 frigidus. 26 dulcis, ^amarus. 28 audire. ^loqui. 30 pauci, ae, a. 35. Remark. The Latins often use the word res also, making the adjective agree with it, instead of using the adjective alone in the neuter ; e. g. mine , m e a res; useful things , or tchat is useful, utiles res, instead of utilia; he speaks of these things , loquitur de his rebus; on this account , hac de re, earn ob rem, etc. On the other hand, the word things, etc. is sometimes not expressed in Latin; e. g. boys do boyish things, pueri puerilia tractant; these three points are the most important , haec tria sunt maxima. 36. Lastly, when the adjective stands as predicate of an infinitive or of a whole sentence, it is always in the neuter, because an infinitive or a whole sentence is considered as neuter. In English such a subject may stand either before or after the verb. In the last instance, we supply the word it; e. g. To practice virtue is honorable , or it is honorable to practice virtue, \ irtutem exercere est honestum. Examples for practice. To do injustice 1 to others is base 9 . It is right 3 to repel 4 passion 5 . It is dishonorable 6 to praise 7 one’s self. To speak prudently 8 and briefly 9 is always better than to speak impru¬ dently 10 and eloquently 11 . It is sweet and honorable 19 to die 13 for 14 our* country. It is necessary to have faithful friends. It is useful and just 15 to do good 16 to men. To learn much is beneficial 17 to you and others. It is proper 18 to know 19 one’s* faults 90 . 1 injuria. 2 turpis. 3 rectus. 4 repellgre. 5 iracundia. 6 deformis. 7 praedicare. 8 prudenter. 9 breviter. 10 imprudenter. 11 diserte, ^de¬ corus. 13 mori. 14 pro. * omitted in Lat. 15 honestus. 16 benefacere. 17 salutaris. 18 bellus. 19 nosse. ^vitium. Remark. But when the word it with an adjective refers to a pre¬ ceding substantive, then the adjective is in the same gender as that substantive ; e. g. Whose book is it? It is mine , Cujus est liber? Est meus. Is this house great ? No, it is small , Estne haec domus mag¬ na? Immo, est par va. PRONOUNS. 37. Most pronouns are of such a nature, that they relate to substantives. But here two cases occur : 22 THE VERB. [§ 38 . (a) If they stand in the same clause with the substan¬ tives, they are to be considered as adjectives, and must agree with the substantive in gender, number and case; e. g. I have seen this man ( hunc hominem). What man ( quem hominem) hast thou seen 1 I have seen these men (hos homines). Thou dost please this man ( huic homini). (b) If the substantive to which the pronoun refers stands in a preceding clause, the pronoun can agree only in gender and number with its substantive, but not always in case, be¬ cause that depends on the nature of the sentence in which the pronoun stands; e. g. The youth ( quem adolescentem) you recommended to me , he (i s) is agreeable to me. The youth ( adolescens ) whom {quern) you recommended to me , is agree¬ able to me. Your oration ( tua oratio) which ( quam ) I have read , pleases me. Thy friend came to me; I said much to him {huic). Examples for practice . Cicero said this in those books which you have read 1 . Pliny had (perf.) two country-seats 2 , the one 3 he called 4 Tragedy 5 , the other 6 Comedy 7 . Among 8 those animals which live with us, the dog is the most faithful 9 . Memory 10 is ne¬ cessary for the orator 11 ,— and this is especially 12 strengthen¬ ed 13 by exercise 14 . Show 15 me the book which you praised 16 to me. The syllable 17 which we protract 18 , is long. The hope 19 which we cherish 20 , is often deceptive 21 . All men whom we consider happy 22 , are not happy. All 23 the food 24 which the hungry 25 take 26 , satisfies 27 them 28 . Virtue does not value 29 highly 30 the pleasure which she has approved 31 . 1 legere. 2 villa. 3 ille. 4 nominare. 5 tragoedia. 6 hic. 7 comoedia. 8 ex. 2 fidus. 10 memoria, "orator. 12 praecipue. 13 confirmare, "exer¬ citatio. "monstrare. 16 praedicare, "syllaba, "producere. 19 spes. 20 fovere. 21 vanus. 22 beatus. 23 omnis. 24 cibus, ^esuriens, ^occu¬ pare. 27 satiare. 28 is, ea, id. 29 aestimare. 30 magni. 31 probare. THE VERB. 38. The verb, next to the subject, is the principal word in a sentence, because it either unites the subject and predicate § 39 .] THE VERB. 23 with each other, or, by denoting the existence of some pro¬ perty or quality, it contains the predicate in itself. There is no sentence without a verb; although sometimes, for the sake of brevity, the verb is omitted, yet it must be under¬ stood. The verb is, both as to its definition and form, so compre¬ hensive, that it is of the first importance for beginners to make themselves thoroughly acquainted with it. 39. (1) The Persons of the Verb. The verb has different endings for the different persons, both in the singular and plural. When a subject, of whatever person it may be, has two or more verbs connected with it, then the subject is express¬ ed with the first only, and is not repeated with the following verbs; e. g. I read and (I) write; we read and (we) write. In the Latin, these several verbs, because they refer to the same person, must have the same personal form ; e. g. lego et scribo; legimus et scribimus, etc. I have read and writ¬ ten , legi et scripsi; I shall read and write , legam et scribam, etc. This is true, also, when the verbs are in different tenses, provided the person remains the same; e. g. I have always esteemed you, and always shall esteem you, te semper d i 1 e x i, ac semper diligam. Examples for practice. I arm 1 and equip 2 the legions. We write back 3 to you immediately 4 and send the book which you wish 5 . I shall write to you as soon as possible 6 and tell 7 you all the news 8 . We have told you the whole 9 case 10 , and explained 11 our meaning. Thy letter pleased 12 me and truly 13 cheered 14 me. We shall soon 15 come to you and congratulate 16 you. We study 17 and hunt 18 at our country-seat 19 , and sometimes 20 do both 21 together 22 . All which we have heard and seen, has happened to us. ‘armare. 2 parare. 3 rescribere. 4 statim. 5 opt.are. 6 quam primum (as soon as possible), ’nuntiare. 8 nova res. 9 omnis. 10 res. “ex¬ ponere. 12 delectare. 13 vere. 14 exhilarare. 15 mox. 16 gratulari, “lit¬ teris operam dare. 18 venari. 19 villa. 20 interdum. 21 uterque. 22 simul. 24 THE VERB. [§§ 40 — 42 . 40. (2) Number. The number of the verb corresponds with the number of the subject. Hence if the subject is singular in English, but plural in Latin, the verb also must be in the plural; e. g. Wealth is uncertain, divitiae sunt incertae. See § 34 above. It is not usual to find the subject plural in English, when it is singular in Latin. The word both , however, which is plural, is frequently expressed by the Latin uterque, which is singular. How few or how many, is expressed by quotus- quisque. Examples. Both 1 are absent. Both have left 2 me. Both laugh 3 . Both weep 4 . How few understand 5 this ? 1 uterque. 2 relinquere. 3 ridere. 4 flere. 3 intelligere. 41. (3) Different classes of Verbs. The beginner should early learn the difference between the transitive, intransitive, passive and deponent verbs. A transitive verb expresses an action which the subject performs upon itself or upon another object. The subject is therefore considered as active, and is occupied with itself or some other object; e. g. I love myself, I love my father, I love my books, teach the scholars, paint a horse, eat bread, etc. Here the verb always takes an accusative after it as its object. 42. An intransitive or neuter verb expresses only the con¬ dition of a subject, often indeed an active condition, but one in which there is no object on which the action is performed ; e. g. I run, I dance, I spring, etc. Here the verb is follow¬ ed by no accusative. A passive verb denotes that something either good or bad is done to the subject. Hence, the subject is not active it¬ self, although sometimes it can be regarded as in a state of motion; e. g. I am loved by my father; I am instructed by § 42 .] THE VERB. 25 my teacher— am bitten by the dog —am carried away by the storm ; history is learned; the action will be investigated. Every passive verb comes from a transitive one, and every sentence with a transitive verb and an accusative belonging to it, can be changed into a passive sentence; e. g. My father teaches me, I am taught by my father. The storm prostrates the trees, The trees are prostrated by the storm, The subject of an active sentence becomes only a subor¬ dinate word in a passive sentence, and is denoted by the pre¬ position by; on the other hand, the object which stands in the accusative, in the active sentence, becomes the subject- nominative, in the passive. The deponent verb is only a secondary form of the transi¬ tive or intransitive, since it has the passive form or, instead of the active o, but in signification, it is either transitive or intransitive; e. g. I accompany you , te comitor; I exhort my friend, amicum exhortor; I arise, orior; / advance, pro¬ ficiscor. Examples for practice . We shall praise others, and we are also 1 praised by others. Thou wilt praise 2 this youth. Thou art praised by all men. Cicero will defend 3 him. Cicero is defended by him. The messenger will bring: 4 a letter to me. A letter is brought to me. We are not surpassed 5 by animals. We will deceive 6 those by whom we are deceived. Thou wilt love, esteem 7 and honor 8 this man. Thou art loved, esteemed and honored by all. I have come into the city. I have been praised by you. You had scarcely come hither 9 , when you were in¬ vited 10 . We have fallen 11 upon the camp 12 . Hannibal had fled 13 to Antiochus. We have met 14 with many evils 15 . What men have you escaped 16 . No one has appeared 17 to¬ day. Thy friends have remained 18 in the city. Our ac¬ tions 19 have been extolled 20 or undervalued 21 . My parents returned 22 to the city yesterday. 3 t 26 TENSES. [§§ 43 , 44 . Quoque. 2 praedicare. 3 defendere. 4 reddere. 5 superare. 6 de¬ cipere. 7 suspicere. 8 ornare. 9 huc. 10 invitare. n invadere (to fall upon). lz castra. 13 confugSre. 14 incidere (to meet with). 15 malurn. 16 effugere. 17 apparere. 18 remanere. 19 factum. 20 tollere. 21 deprimere. 22 redire. 43. It will be a very useful exercise for the beginner to change active into passive sentences, and passive into active; for almost every active sentence, which has an accusative governed by the verb, can be changed into a passive sentence, by making the object which stands in the accusative, the subject, and by subjoining to the passive the previous subject by the preposition by ; e. g. Alexander conquers Darius — Darius is conquered by Alexander. Let the following exam¬ ples be expressed both actively and passively. Examples for practice. I love you. Thou lovest me. The father loves the son. The son loves the father. The parents love the children. The children love the parents. Ye love us. We love you. A good man loves equity 1 . We do not see all the stars. Caesar exercised 2 the soldiers. My brother has chosen 3 the best way. We bear 4 the pains. Archelaus gave (perf.) a golden goblet 5 to Euripides. Augustus dedicated 6 a temple to Jupiter. Nature has given reason 7 to man. I prefer 8 friendship to riches. Others prefer riches to friendship. We prefer the soul to the body. Camillus conquered 9 the Gauls 10 . 1 aequitas. 2 exercere. 3 eligere. 4 tolerare. 5 scyphus. 6 con¬ secrare. 7 ratio. 8 anteponere. 9 vincere. 10 Gallus. 44. (4) Tenses. The tenses of the Latin, in the principal sentences, cor¬ respond for the most part with those of the English, except in the use of the imperfect. On the contrary, when the thought is expressed indefinitely in the subjunctive, or in con¬ nection with conjunctions, there are many differences, be¬ cause the English does not express an action so precisely as the Latin. These differences will be pointed out in the se¬ cond Part of this book. Here only a part of the usage of the imperfect will be spoken of. TENSES. 27 § 45 .] 45. The English imperfect has two significations: (1) It is used for the purpose of expressing a condition or state continuing in past time. In this sense the imperfect is used in Latin also; e. g. While I was sitting at my ease , my brother was reading , dum ego otiosus sedebam, frater meus legebat. (2) The imperfect is used in English to describe an action simply as past. Here the Latin imperfect is never used, but the perfect; e. g. Alexander died in Babylon , mortuus est. Alexander conquered, (vicit) Darius. Alexander teas killed (interfectus est) by his wife. In these last three examples, the actions are described as simply past,—in English by the imperfect, in Latin by the perfect. But the Latin imperfect is often used to express habitual or customary past action , in which sense the English imper¬ fect* is rarely found ; e. g. Socrates was accustomed to think the same , Socrates idem censebat. When Alexander went into his bed-chamber , he was wont to command (j u be¬ ba t) a slave to go before with a sword, i. e. he commanded it as often as he went. Examples for practice. Phalaris did not perish 1 by 2 treachery 3 , but the whole 4 multitude 5 of Agrigentines made an attack 6 upon him. The Macedonians 7 went 8 to Pyrrhus. The wars of the Romans were carried on 9 , either for their allies 10 , or for the sake of 11 power 12 . The Roman magistrates 13 sought for 14 the most worthy praise. The Roman armies 15 and generals yielded 16 to Viriathus. Socrates discoursed 17 in prison on the immor¬ tality of the soul. Mummius demolished 18 Corinth. Scipio destroyed 19 Carthage. The Lacedemonians banished 20 Ly¬ sander from the city. Romulus and Remus built 21 Rome. Romulus was the first king of the city, Rome. The same killed 22 his brother Remus. Two commanders 23 were ap¬ pointed 24 against Hannibal and two armies 15 sent 25 . * Although the English imperfect may sometimes be used to ex¬ press customary action, yet that idea is usually expressed by, he was accustomed , wont , he always , etc. 28 MODES. [§§ 46 — 48 . 'interire. 2 ex. 3 insidiae. 4 universus. 5 multitudo. 6 impetus. 7 Macedo. 8 se conferre. 9 gerere. 10 socius. 11 de (for the sake of). 12 imperium. 13 magistratus. 14 appetere. 15 exercitus. 16 cedere. 17 dis¬ serere. 18 evertere. 19 delere. 20 expellere. 21 condere. 22 necare. 23 im¬ perator. 24 creare. 25 mittere. 46. (5) Modes. The indicative is used in all principal sentences, when something is affirmed and said of the subject with definiteness and certainty ; e. g. This is laborious, hoc e s t laboriosum ; this man abounds in every virtue, abundat; I shall be greatly indebted to you, maximam tibi gratiam habebo. But the indicative is used also in introductory and subor¬ dinate sentences after some conjunctions, when in like man¬ ner something is said with definiteness and certainty. Such are, quia, because ; quoniam, since or because ; etsi and quanquam, although; postquam, afterwards; ubi, when; ut, as or when ; quando, when ; si, if; nisi y unless ; simulae , simulatque, as soon as; quod, because that; e. g. As I be¬ lieve, ut arbitror ; because you think, quia putatis; al¬ though you know, etsi (quanquam) scitis; after I heard, postquam audivi; when the day dawned, ubi illuxit dies; when 1 see, quando video; if this is true, si hoc verum est; as soon as he saw me, simulae me vidit; you do well, that you do not doubt, bene facis, quod non dubitas. 47. The subjunctive is used in the principal sentence, only, when something is said of the subject without definiteness and certainty. In English the potential mode is generally used, and sometimes the imperative ; e. g. Let each one ex¬ ercise himself diligently, se quisque studiose exerceat; 1 would come to you, if I had time, venirem ad te, si mihi otium esset; who can believe this ? quis hoc credat? let us believe, credamus. 48. The subjunctive stands, moreover, in introductory and m dependent sentences: (I) In narration, in which the words and thought of an¬ other are not stated directly in his own language, but in an MODES. 29 § 49 .] indirect narrative form. Then none of the conjunctions men¬ tioned above take the indicative, but the subjunctive, which is expressed in English by the indicative; e. g. quod cuique privatim opus est becomes in narration, quod — sit; and si nunc non sumus becomes si — sint. Because it was necessary, quia opus esset; as you had asked , ut exegis¬ ses; although you were sick , etsi aegrotares. Hence the subjunctive is used also in dependent and indirect ques¬ tions ; e. g. He asked me where I was going (direct ques¬ tion, where are you going?), me interrogavit quo tende¬ rem; I do not know, whether he makes verses, nescio, an f a- ciat versus. 49. (2) The subjunctive stands after some conjunctions, although the sentence itself contains nothing uncertain or in¬ definite. These conjunctions are: 1. Ut , in the sense of, that, so that, in order that , to; e. g. I pray you, that you would defend me, or to defend me, ut me defendas. 2. Quo, in the sense of, in order that, and with minus fol¬ lowing it, that not,from; e. g. In order that the cucumber may be more tender, the seeds are soaked in milk, cucumis quo tenerior e x i s t a t. Nothing will prevent me from accom¬ plishing this, quo minus hoc exsequar. 3. Ne, in the sense of, that not, lest, from; e. g. He has advised us that we should not be (not to be) too liberal, ne nimis liberales simus. 4. Quin, in the sense of, that not, but that, who or which not, that; e. g. I doubt not that virtue makes us happy, quin virtus nos beatos faciat. 5. Utinam, O that, would that; utinam ne, O that not; e. g. Utinam scias, O that you knew. 6. Licet, though, although ; e. g. Although I am wretched, licet miser sim. 7. Velut and quasi, just as if, as if; e. g. As if thy honor were at stake, quasi tuus honos agatur. 3* 30 MODES. [§ 50. 8. Quamvis, hoivevcr, however much; e. g. However wretch¬ ed you are, quamvis miser s i s. The subjunctive is also used in the phrases, non (nihil) e st, quod, there is no reason, that, and quid est, quod, why is it that, or why ? e. g. There is no reason, that you should fear my coming, quod adventum meum extimescas. Why do you hasten ? quid est, quod festinetis? Examples for practice. So narrate the matter, that* the narration 1 may be proba¬ ble 2 . Who does not know 3 , that 4 Miltiades conquered 5 the Persians, at Marathon 1 I will mention 6 my own, that I may not speak of the misfortunes 7 of the state 8 . I earnestly 9 pray you to 10 do this. However 11 rich you are, you are not there¬ fore happy. There is no reason 12 that we should hasten 13 . Nothing deters 14 me from 15 being always prepared 16 . The winter has hitherto 17 prevented 18 us from 19 knowing 20 what you were doing. The gods can make me announce 21 such things 22 to you often, (Lat. can make that I should announce). If that which thou doest is honorable 23 , let all know it. Why 24 dost thou not write to me ? Let us read this book. Al¬ though 25 many dangers 26 threaten 27 me, yet I am safe 28 . Many cities have so disappeared 29 , that* no trace 30 is now 31 seen 32 . I could not be prevented 33 from 34 declaring 35 my af¬ fection to you. Entreat 36 him to 10 be silent 37 . We are often influenced 38 to 10 be good men by some 39 advantage. * ut. 1 narratio. 2 verisimilis. 3 ignorare (not to know). 4 quin. 5 vincere. 6 commemorare. 7 incommodum. 8 civitas. 9 vehementer. 10 ut. 11 quamvis. 12 non est, quod (there is no reason that). 13 fes¬ tinare (present). 14 deterrere. 15 quo minus. 16 paratus. 17 adhuc. 18 prohibere. 19 quo minus. 20 certum habere. _ 21 nuntiare (See § 541). 22 talia. 23 honestus. 24 quid est, quod. 25 licet. 26 pericu¬ lum. 27 imminere. 28 securus. 29 evanescere. 30 vestigium. 31 jam. 32 apparere. 33 tenere. 34 quin. 35 declarare. 36 exorare. 37 silere. 38 movere. 39 aliquis. 50. The imperative mode entreats, commands, forbids and prohibits. When it is used to forbid, the English word not, must be expressed by ne, and be placed before the verb, and, if a following sentence is connected by and not, neither, nor, these must be expressed by neve; e. g. Trust kirn, crede ei; trust him not, ne ei crede; you should help your bro- INFINITIVE WITH ITS GERUNDS. 31 §§ 51 , 52 .] thcr, and not desert him,, fratri tuo subvenito neve de¬ serito. Examples for practice. Take away 1 this difficulty 2 from me. Do not bury 3 a dead person 4 in the city, nor burn 5 him. Calm 6 your passion as soon as possible 7 . Deliver 8 me from this torment 9 . Do not demand 10 too much 11 . Farewell 12 , and love me and write to me soon. 1 eximere. 2 scrupulus. 3 sepelire. 4 mortuus. 5 cremare. 6 restin¬ guere. 7 quam primum (as soon as possible). 8 eripere. 9 tormentum. 10 postulare. 11 nimium (too much). 12 valere. 51. (6) The Infinitio e with its Gerunds. The infinitive is used as a substantive, and therefore is considered either as a nominative or as an accusative. As nominative, it is the subject of a sentence; e. g. To praise everything is foolish, omnia laudare est ridiculum; as accusative, it is the object of a sentence, and as such is used with very many words which do not express a complete idea of themselves, but require other verbs after them. Such are, velle, nolle, malle, cupere, posse, debere, solere, coepisse, inci¬ pere, statuere, constituere, decernere, desinere, etc. ; e. g. Many prefer to serve rather than fight, multi servire ma¬ lunt, quam pugnare; we are wont to say, solemus dicere ; I wish to hear you, te audire cupio. Here the subjoined infinitives are the object-accusative of the verbs with which they are connected. 52. The genitive of the gerund is translated into English by a present participle, a participial noun, or the infinitive; e. g. The art of loving, ars amandi; desirous of drinking, cupidus bibendi; an opportunity was given of burying, or to bury the slain, sepeliendi caesos potestas facta est. The dative of gerunds is used to denote the purpose for which something serves or is adapted; e. g. He gives him legs fit for swimming, apta natando crura dat; you de¬ vote all your time to learning, discendo. 32 SUPINES. [§ 53 . The accusative with the ending andum or entfum is gov¬ erned by the prepositions ad and inter, which may usually be rendered by to, for the purpose of, and while; e. g. My mind inclines me to write, ad scribendum; he came in order to see or to see, venit ad videndum; while writing, the thought occurs to me, inter scribendum. The ablative stands sometimes alone, and may be usually rendered by the preposition by; sometimes it is governed by the prepositions in and a; e. g. You effect nothing by weep¬ ing, flendo nihil proficis; you cannot prevent him from writing, a scribendo eum retinere non potes. Examples for practice. Thou knowest 1 the art of writing. It is difficult 2 to cor- rect 3 this. By contradicting 4 we make»enemies 5 to ourselves. He comes to me daily 6 in order to read, to write and to hear 7 . I devote 8 my time to 9 reading and writing. Many are accustomed to sleep by day 10 and to watch 11 by night 12 . I have resolved 13 to go 14 and see 15 you. The spring and au¬ tumn are the best seasons of the year 16 for ploughing 17 . We are desirous of reading this oration 18 , and we venture 19 to ask 20 you to 21 give it to us. Rhetoric 22 is the art of speak¬ ing 23 well; but the orator knows 24 how 25 to speak well. fovisse. 2 difficilis. 3 corrigere. 4 adversari. 5 inimicus. 6 quotidie. 7 audire. 8 impendere. 9 (in the dative). 10 diu. 11 vigilare. 12 noctu. 13 capere consilium. 14 proficisci. 15 visere. 16 anni tempus (season of the year). 17 arare. 18 oratio. 19 conari. 20 exorare. 21 ut. 22 rhetonce. 23 dicere. 24 scire. 25 (omitted in Lat.). 53. The two supines have a different signification. The first with the ending urn, which is active, is often used with verbs of motion, for the purpose of expressing the design of the action; e. g. I go to Italy for the purpose of seeing, or to sec the ancient monuments, vetera monumenta visum. The second with the ending u, which is passive, stands with some adjectives, for the purpose of showing in what respect, the adjective belongs to its substantive; e. g. This monument is worthy of being seen or to be seen, hoc monumentum visu est dignum. § 54 .] PARTICIPLES. 33 Examples for practice. In eulogies 1 , the virtues are the most agreeable 2 to be heard. Caesar came 3 quickly 4 with the whole army 5 to be¬ siege 6 Alesia. This mountain is difficult to be ascended 7 . Tatia descended 8 from 9 the hill 10 for the purpose of obtain¬ ing 11 water. 1 laudatio. 2 jucundus. 3 venire. 4 cito. 5 exercitus. 6 oppugnare. 7 ascendere. 8 descendere. 9 de. 10 collis, “petere. 54. (7) Participles. The participles are very important in writing Latin. These, however, are reserved for the second Part and only the verbal adjective in enclus and andus, as connected with the verb esse, will be treated here. When the verbal adjective, e. g. amandus , diligendus, is united with the verb esse, it can stand only in the nomina¬ tive with the verb, except where the infinitive is used. Then the verbal adjective refers either to some declinable word, which is considered as its subject, or to a whole sentence, which is also its subject. Properly, sentences which contain the verbal adjective must be considered as passive; but we can also express them actively, by placing the indefinite words one or we before them; e. g. Virtue must be honored , can be expressed, one must honor virtue, virtus est col en- d a; one (we) must honor the virtues, virtutes sunt colen¬ dae; one (we) must respect the Icing, rex suspiciendus est; one (we) must honor the kings, reges suspiciendi sunt; one (we) ought to pray (it ought to be prayed) that a sound mind may be given to us, orandum est. And so through the remaining tenses and modes. The above exam¬ ples may be translated with the words one or we. But when in the place of the indefinite one or ice, a defi¬ nite person is used, the Latin puts that person in the dative, —which in English is better translated actively, as the nom¬ inative ; e. g. There must be honoring by me, i. e. I must honor, mihi colendum est; it must be honored by us, i. e. 34 POSITION OF SOME WORDS. [§§ 55 , 56 . we must honor, nobis colendum est. Therefore,/ must read this book, is expressed by, m i h i hie liber legendus est ; thou must read these books, tibi hi libri legendi sunt; we must honor our parents, nobis parentes colendi sunt. Examples for practice. One must always keep 1 the fidelity 2 of an oath 3 . We must explain 4 the nature 5 of justice 6 . Thou must confirm 7 thy health 8 . One must prefer 9 many things to pleasure (Lat. many things must, etc.). We must sometimes 10 fight with the hand and prefer death to slavery 11 and disgrace 12 , (Lat. it must sometimes be fought, and death must be, etc.). Every man ought to avoid 13 the suspicion 14 of boasting 15 . One must not hearken 16 to all men (Lat. all men must, etc.). The vine-dresser 17 must break off 18 the highest 19 shoots 20 of the trees and 21 preserve 22 only one or two. We must form 23 new words 24 and give 25 new names to things. ‘servare. 2 fides. 3 jusjurandum. 4 explicare. 5 natura. 6 jus. 7 fir¬ mare. 8 valetudo. 9 anteponere. 10 nonnunquarn. “servitus, ^turpi¬ tudo. 13 vitare. 14 suspicio. 15 ostentatio. 16 audire. 17 vinitor, ^defrin¬ gere. 19 summus. 20 flagellum. 21 nec nisi (and only). 22 servare. 23 parere. 24 verbum. 25 imponere. THE POSITION OF SOME WORDS. 55. Many words in Latin have their definite position. Some always stand first in the sentence, others after one or two words of a sentence; others again have a more indefinite position according to the signification they have in the sen¬ tence. (1) Nam, etenim, at, sed, verum, sin, and qui with all the phrases belonging to it, as qua re, qua de re, etc., stand only at the beginning of the sentence; e. g. For I deny this, n am hocnego; but this is nothing, at hoc nihil est; but it rarely happens, verum raro evenit; if this happens, quod si evenit; quae quum vera sint. 56. (2) Enim, vero, autetn, quoque, que and quidem , do not stand at the beginning of a sentence, but after one or more words. The last three, quoque, que and quidem, stand POSITION OF SOME WORDS. 35 §§ 57 — 59 .] after the words to which they refer; e. g. hoc enim nego, hoc vero est nihili. This also pleases me, hoc quoque mihi placet; this pleases me also, hoc mihi quoque placet; pater mater q ue, boni malique. This is great indeed, hoc magnum quidem est ; this indeed is great , hoc quidem magnum est. 57. (3) The particle non never stands after the word to which it belongs but before it. When there are two verbs, one depending on the other, then non stands before the lead¬ ing verb, unless the infinitive is to be contrasted with some¬ thing following; e. g. I do not write, non scribo. Fraus non dissolvit perjurium ; epistola non est scripta or scripta non est; eum amare non possum; non est ita or non ita est (not est non ita, or ita non est); non quidem adjicit; non omnia possumus. 58. (4) Quisque, quaeque, quidque (quodque), are placed : (a) Usually after the reflexive pronouns, sui, sibi, se and suus; e. g. Each one loves himself, se quisque amat; every people has its own custom, suus cuique populo mos est; (b) After the superlative, when it belongs to the pronoun; e. g. Optimus quisque Ciceronem laudabat ; (c) After ordinal numbers; e. g. Every third year he went to Rome, tertio quoque anno Romam migravit. 59. (5) The verb, for the most part, is placed after those words which are governed by it; e. g. I gave him two books, ei duos libros dedi; I remind the scholars of this one thing, discipulos hoc unum moneo. Examples for practice. But 1 we congratulate 2 them at least 3 . The thoughts 4 themselves also 5 are apparent 6 . For 7 in every 8 art and science 9 whatever 10 is best, is rarest. Epicurus was not acute 11 enough 1 ' 2 . Thou canst not surely 13 deny 14 this. Every 15 fourth year a day is inserted 16 . These things at least (quidem) can be easily distinguished 17 . For 18 who willingly 19 undertakes 20 any 21 laborious 22 exercise 23 of the 36 POSITION OF SOME WORDS. [§ 59 . body ? Every fifth year the Olympic games 24 are celebra¬ ted 25 ; but 26 the Pythian 27 , at first 28 , every ninth year. When 29 this had been announced 80 to him 31 , he sent 32 for him. Each 33 one cares 34 more for himself than for others. Where¬ fore 35 , let the Stoics reserve to themselves 36 the name of wisdom. Old men also 37 , hope for long 38 life. Every one wishes his work 39 praised. God 40 has given its own nature to every animal 41 . Every one truly wise 42 is exposed 43 to the jealousy of evil men. I have lost 44 nothing; for 45 all mine is with 46 me. It is not so, as most have hitherto 47 be¬ lieved 48 , and every one has hitherto dreamt 49 . Wherefore 50 , all my hope rests 51 upon 52 you. Wherefore 53 , I do not ask you, but the poet himself. How 54 dost thou explain 55 the actions 56 of these 57 men ? ^s 58 each one is disposed 59 to¬ wards 60 himself, so let him be disposed towards his friend. Very many things 61 are indeed true, but not very 62 credible 63 . Many praise that which is not to be praised 64 . 1 verum. 2 gratulari. 3 quidem. 4 sententia. 5 quoque. 6 eminere. 7 enim. 8 omnis. 9 scientia. 10 quidque. 11 acutus. 12 satis. 13 vere. 14 ne¬ gare. 15 quisque. 16 intercalare. 17 distinguere. 18 enim. 19 libenter. 20 suscipere. 21 ullus. 22 laboriosus. 23 exercitatio. 24 Olympia (Olym¬ pie games). 25 celebrare. 26 vero. 27 Pythia. 28 primo. 29 quum(with subjunctive). 30 nuntiare. 31 qui. 32 arcessere (to send for). 33 quisque. 34 providere. 35 quare. 36 sibi habere (to reserve to themselves). 37 quoque. 38 diuturnus. 39 opus. 40 Deus. 41 animans. 42 sapientissimus (truly wise). 43 expositus. 44 perdere. 45 enim. 46 cum. 47 adhuc. 48 opinari. 49 somniare. 50 quam ob rem. 51 esse. 52 in. 53 quapropter. 64 quemadmodum. 55 interpretari. 56 factum. 57 qui. 58 quemadmodum. 59 animatus. 60 in. 61 plurima (very many things). 62 parum (not very). e 3 credibilis. 64 laudandus (to be praised). PART II. CONTAINING ’ /* THE IDIOMATIC AND THE MORE DIFFICULT USAGE OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE. (A.) GENERAL REMARKS WITHOUT REFERENCE TO SINGLE CASES. 60. In English, where two or more persons are named, we put the name of the gens and the family in the singular num¬ ber; e. g. Marcus and Quintus Tullius Cicero. But in Latin, these family and gentile names are put in the plural, where two or more persons are spoken of; e. g. Marcus et Quintus Tullii Cicerones; Cneus et Publius Sci¬ piones. But Quintus pater et filius, is right, not Quin¬ ti, as a plural. But where neither the praenomen nor the name of the gens is used, the English, also, must have the plu¬ ral, if more than one person is referred to, e. g. two Ciceros, but Marcus and Quintus Cicero. Examples for practice. The brothers Lucius and Spurius Mummius were inferior 1 orators. There are many orations of Lucius and Caius Au¬ relius Oresta. Celer and Nepos Metellus were not unlearned men. Daniel and Nicolaus Heinsius, father and son, as well as John Frederic 2 and Jacob Gronovius, were learned Hol¬ landers 3 . At that time lived Marcus and Lucius Porcius Cato. These Carbos were three brothers, viz 4 . Caius, Cneus and Marcus Carbo. Mediocris. 2 Fredericus. 3 Batavus. 4 see § 534. 4 38 AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [§§ 61 , 62 . AGREEMENT OF THE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 61. It has been already stated, § 16, that the subject and predicate must be of the same gender, number and case. This is the simplest principle of agreement. Here, there¬ fore, others more difficult will be presented. (1) In certain English sentences which begin with that, this conjunction is omitted in the Latin, and the accusative takes the place of the subject-nominative, but the verb is put in the infinitive. See § 380. If then the verb has a substan¬ tive, adjective or participle connected with it, as predicate, this also must be in the accusative, because its subject is in that case; e. g. I believe, that my father is sick, credo pa¬ trem esse a e g r o t u m— that my mother is sick, matrem esse aegrota m— that my teachers are sick, magistros esse aegroto s— that you have been praised, v o s lauda¬ tos esse. Examples for practice. (In all the following examples the accusative with the infinitive is used.) I believe, that my antagonist 1 is timid 2 . I believe, that the nature of man is wonderful 3 . We think 4 , that piety 5 is the greatest virtue. It is certain, that many men are rude 6 and hard-hearted 7 . I know, that the Lacedemonians were a brave nation 8 . The Stoics 9 say, that the wise man is the most happy. The same think 4 , that the world is, as it were 10 , a common 11 city, and a state 12 of gods and men, and that every 13 man is a part of this world. It is certain, that we were born 14 for a natural fellowship 15 . 1 adversarius. 2 timidus. 3 mirus. 4 censere. 5 pietas. 6 asper. 7 du¬ rus. 8 gens. 9 Stoicus. 10 quasi (as it were). 11 communis. 12 civitas. 13 unusquisque. 14 nasci. 15 communitas. 62. (2) The predicate is not always an adjective or a par¬ ticiple ; it may also be a substantive, either denoting a per¬ son, e. g. teacher, guide, attendant, or a substantive deno¬ ting a thing, e. g. cause, source. When the substantive denotes a thing, it agrees with its subject only in case, not § 62.] AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 39 in gender and number; e. g. Riches are to many the highest good of life, divitiae multis sunt summum vitae bonum. But when the substantive denotes a person, it must agree with its subject, not merely in case, but also in gender and number. But these substantives have in Latin, either two distinct forms, one masculine and one feminine, e. g. rex, regina ; rector, rectrix; victor, victrix; pater, mater, etc., or only a single form, which is of the common gender; e. g. dux, comes, parens; hence, dux fidus, and dux fid a; comes perpetuus, and comes perpetua. But where there are two forms of a substantive, it is always necessary to select the one which is of the same gender as the subject; e. g. The sun is the king of heaven, sol est rex (rector, moderator) coeli ; the moon is the queen of the stars, 1 u n a est regina (rectrix, moderatrix) siderum ; fear is a poor guard, metus est malus custos; Athens is the inven~ tress of many arts, Athenae sunt inventrices multa¬ rum artium. The following are somewhat different: Athens was the most honorable seat of wisdom, Athenae fuerunt (fuit) honestissimum domicilium sapientiae; This youth is my delight, hic juvenis est (sunt) meae deliciae. When the subject is neuter, the predicate substantive is mas¬ culine rather then feminine; e. g. tempus vitae magister est, not magistra. Examples for practice. The soul 1 is eternal 2 , and the guide 3 of the human race. Money is the source 4 of many and great pleasures. Virtue is the greatest 5 good 6 , and vice the greatest evil 7 . The laws are the best defenders 8 of the citizens. A good conscience 9 is a safe 10 keeper 11 and companion 12 of man. Grief 13 is a cruel 14 tormentor 15 of the soul. Want 16 is the bitterest 17 enemy 18 of virtue. Fortune 19 is the blind 20 mistress 21 of all things. The memory 22 is a treasury 23 of all things, and an excellent 24 companion 25 of the orator. Let the mind 26 be the constant 27 judge 28 of all things. Praise is the almost constant companion of good actions 29 . Athens was the teacher 30 of eloquence and the poetic art 31 . 40 AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [§ 63 1 animus. 2 aeternus. 3 rector, rectrix. 4 effector, effectrix. 5 su¬ perus. 6 bonum. 7 malum. 8 patronus, patrona. 9 conscientia. 10 tutus. 11 custos. ,2 comes. 13 aegritudo. 14 saevus. 15 carnifex. 16 inopia. 17 acer. 18 adversarius, adversaria. 19 fortuna. 20 caecus. 21 dominus, domina. 22 memoria. 23 thesaurus. 24 egregius. 25 comes. 26 mens. 27 perpetuus. 28 judex. 29 recte factum (good action). 30 magister, magistra. 31 ars poetica. 63. (3) When a predicate-verb, e. g. amare, scribere, re¬ fers to two or more subjects of the third person singular, two cases occur: (a) The subject are living things. Here the verb is generally in the plural when it stands after the subjects; e. g. Homer and Hesiod lived before the building of Rome, Homerus et Hesiodus fuerunt ante Romam conditam. The singular is used more rarely. But when the verb stands after the first subject only, then it is naturally only in the singular; e. g. Homerus fuit et Hesiodus ante Romam conditam. Finally, when the verb stands before the first subject, then it is sometimes in the singular, sometimes in the plural. Therefore we can say, f u i t and fu e r u n t Homerus et He¬ siodus —; hic nobiscum sunt (est) Nicias et Valerius. After the phrase, Senatus populusque Romanus , generally the sin¬ gular only is used by the best writers; e. g. The Senate and Roman people gave thanks to Cicero , Senatus populusque Romanus gratias egit Ciceroni, not egerunt. After aut or the distributing et — et, aut — aut , cum — tum, non solum — sed etiam, etc., the singular is used more than the plural; e. g. If Socrates or Antisthenes said , si Socrates aut Antisthenes diceret or dicerent; both Socrates and Antisthenes thought the same , idem et Soc. et Antisth. censebat or censebant. (b) The subject are things without life. Here, whenever the subjects of a verb are singular, the verb, for the most part, is singular, seldom plural; e. g. Rea¬ son and truth convince, convincit; the force of justice and the will of the Praetors will avail nothing, nihil vale- bit. When the verb stands after or before the first subject, the verb is only in the singular; e. g. Civility and kindness of § 64.] AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 41 speech conciliate the feelings, conciliat animos comitas affabilitasque sermonis. When aut, or the distributing et — et, nec — nec, cum — tum, non so¬ lum—sed etiam, and the like, come between the subjects, then the verb is better in the singular; Not only our favor, but also our au¬ thority, is diminished, et gratia et auctoritas minuitur. When a plural subject is connected with a subject in the singular, and the singular subject stands before the verb, the Latins put the verb in the plural, as well as in the singular; e. g. The bodies themselves and nature contribute much to the health of bodies , multum ipsa corpora et natura valent (valet); me illam causam non solum homines, sed etiam locus ipse lacusque docuit; nunc mihi nihil libri, nihil litterae, nihil doctrina prodest. Examples for practice . In the most ancient times lived Orpheus and Linus. Hunger and thirst are allayed 1 by food and drink 2 . Fannius and Scaevola came to Laelius. Porcius Cato and Valerius Cato together 3 , held 4 the consulship and censorship. Not only 5 favor 6 , but honor is obtained 7 mostly 8 by defending 9 . Thus the society and union 10 of men will be best preserved 11 . Time and necessity demand 12 this. Justice and liberality chiefly effect 13 this. Critias, Theramenes and Lysias fol¬ lowed 14 Thucydides. After Thucydides, Theopompus and Ephorus devoted themselves 15 to history. Life, death, wealth and poverty, affect 16 all men. ’depellere. 2 potio. 3 conjunctus. 4 gerere. 5 et (not only). 6 gratia. 7 parere. 8 maxime. 9 defensio. 10 conjunctio, “servare. 12 postulare. 13 efficere. 14 sequi. 15 se conferre (to devote themselves). 16 permovere. 64. (4) When the predicate is an adjective or participle, and relates to two or more subjects, then here also, two cases occur: (a) The subjects are living things. When the predicate is placed after the first subject, it agrees with that subject in gender and number; e. g. Mal¬ leolus a me productus est, et mater ejus atque avia. But when the predicate is placed after the last subject, 4* 42 AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. [§ 64. then if the singular is prominent in the mind, the predicate agrees with the last in gender and number; but when the plural is prominent, then, if the subjects be of like gender, the predicate is of the same gender ; but if the subjects be of different gender, the masculine is used; e. g My father and mother died long ago, jam pridem pater mihi et mater mor¬ tui sunt (mortua est). (b) The subjects are inanimate objects. When the subjects are singular and of the same gender, the singular or plural can follow, in the same gender as the subjects: e. g. The greatest ardor and desire for carrying on war were natural to him, huic summa alacritas et cupidi¬ tas belli gerendi innata est or innatae sunt. When the subjects are of the same gender but of a differ¬ ent number, either the singular or plural may be used when the plural subject stands first; but when it is the last, the plural only is used e. g. Our houses and the country itself were plundered, domus nostrae et patria ipsa direpta est or direptae sunt; but, patria et domus nostrae direp¬ tae sunt. When the subjects are of different genders, the predicate is either singular and in the same gender as the subject to which it is joined, or plural and in the neuter gender; e. g. Literary pursuits and their delight are to be preferred to all pleasures, studiorum et usus et delectatio est omnibus volup¬ tatibus anteponenda or sunt anteponenda. When all the subjects are plural and of different genders, then the predicate agrees in gender with the noun to which it is joined; e. g. Ex eo leges moresque constituti sunt (mores legesque constitutae sunt). Examples for practice . The virtues and customs of this man are to be praised 1 . Your valor and fidelity have been tested 2 by me. Foolish¬ ness 3 , rashness 4 , injustice and extravagance are to be avoided 5 . Pain, sickness, poverty 6 and obscurity 7 have been despised 8 43 §§ 65.] AGREEMENT OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. by certain 9 philosophers. Men and women were terrified 10 on account of 11 this report. Fields 12 , islands and coasts 13 glitter 14 , studded 15 with houses and cities. Beauty, con¬ stancy 16 and order, ought to be praised 17 . When 18 hunger and thirst are allayed 19 by food and drink, we rejoice 20 . 1 laudandas. 2 spectatus. 3 stultitia. 4 temeritas. 5 fugiendus. 6 pau¬ pertas. 7 ignobilitas. 8 contemnere. 9 quidam. 10 conturbatus. 11 de (on account of ). 12 ager. 13 litus. 14 collucere. 15 distinctus. 16 con¬ stantia. 17 praedicandas esse (ought to be praised). 18 quum. 19 depel¬ lere. 20 laetari. 65. (5) When two or more subjects of a different person, I and thou, I and he, we and ye, we and they, ye and they, belong to one verb, and the same thing is affirmed of them, the verb must not only be in the plural, but must be in the person that takes precedence. The first person takes prece¬ dence of the second, and the second of the third. The per¬ son of the verb is therefore determined according to this rule; e. g. You and 1 are brothers, ego et tu sumus fratres ; thy father and I are cousins, ego et pater tuus sumus patrue¬ les. You and your brother owe your life to this man, tu et frater tuus huic viro vitam debetis. Neque vos neque sorores vestrae invitati estis. Yet this rule holds, only when the same thing is affirmed of the different subjects ; for, when this is not the case, the verb agrees with the person, with which one may wish to join it; e. g. I obtained this place in peace, you in war , ego hunc locum in pace, nactus sum, tu in bello, or ego hunc locum in pace, tu in bello nactus es. Examples for practice . I and my brother value 1 this man on account 2 of his learn¬ ing 3 . Since 4 this day, I and that man have lived in the same 5 house. Then 6 1 was in safety 7 , and he was in danger. You and your father have done 8 many good deeds for the repub¬ lic 9 . Since that time, I have engaged in 10 the study of gram¬ mar, and my brother, in the study of philosophy. Our Cas¬ sius and I, will be at your house to-morrow 11 , as you desire 12 . 1 magni aestimare. 2 ob (on account of). 3 doctrina. 4 ex. 8 idem. 6 turn. 7 tutum. 8 praestare. 9 respublica. 10 tractare (to engage in). 11 cras. 12 cupere. 44 APPOSITION. [§ 66 . APPOSITION. 66. When two substantives, near to each other, denote but one thing, e. g. The philosopher Socrates , or Socrates the philosopher, Julius Caesar, the greatest commander, then the substantive, which is annexed to the more important word, is said to qualify it, and to be in apposition with it. This is an abridged expression for, Socrates who is or was a philoso¬ pher. Every substantive, which defines more definitely another preceding substantive, with and without the word namely , is in apposition ; e. g. Despise not all external bless¬ ings , (namely) riches, rank and birth —where the word name¬ ly is omitted in Latin. Substantives thus annexed must be in the same case, as those to which they are annexed; e. g. Ciceroni, magno oratori; pro Socrate, homine sapi¬ ent i s s i m o. The gender and number must also be the same, when the noun in apposition is a personal substantive (see § 62); e. g. Fear, the master of the human mind , timor, dominus; fortune, the mistress of our life, fortuna, domina vitae nostrae ; Athens, the inventress of many arts, Athenae inventrices multarum artium. But if the substantive in apposition, denotes something inanimate, the gender and number of this substantive need not agree with the other; e. g. Fear, the cause of much misery, timor, causa; Athens, the city, Athenae, urbs; Cicero, my delight, Cicero, meae deliciae meique amores. The same rule applies, when words or phrases with as if, as, either — or, neither — nor, explain a preceding substantive; e. g. Nature has given to man sensations, as if messengers and attendants, natura homini sensus, tanquam nuntios ac satellites attribuit. There is but one seeming exception to the rule, which requires nouns in apposition to be in the same case, viz. when a noun is put in apposition with the name of a city, which, in answer to the ques¬ tion, Where? according to the form, is in the genitive, then the noun APPOSITION. 45 § 66 .] in apposition is put in the ablative with or without in; e. g. At Rome , the chief city of Italy, Romae, (in) prima urbe Italiae. But since that genitive form to denote the place, where something happens, is probably an old ablative form, the natural case follows in apposition. See § 69. When another substantive with an explanatory relative (qui), fol¬ lows the substantive with which it would be in apposition, then that other substantive is put in the same case with qui; e. g. he destroyed Corinth , a city , which , delevit Corinthum quae urbs. Examples for practice. Marcellus routed 1 Hannibal, the commander of the Car¬ thaginians at (apud) Nola, a city of Campania. When 2 Marcellus had taken 3 Syracuse 4 , the famous city of Sicily, he ordered 5 every one to 6 spare 7 Archimedes 8 , that famous mathematician. Cupid 9 was represented 10 near 11 Hymenaeus, the god of marriage. Apelles had very often 12 painted Ve¬ nus, the goddess of love. Dionysius, the elder 13 , had two wives 14 , namely, Aristomache, his country-woman 15 , and Do¬ ris, a Locrean 16 . At 17 Capua, a beautiful city of Campania, the soldiers of Hannibal lived luxuriously 18 . Milo was in vain 19 defended 20 by Cicero, at that time 21 , the most illustri¬ ous orator. An eruption 22 of Vesuvius destroyed 23 Hercula¬ neum and Pompeii, two cities of Campania. Carthage pro¬ duced 24 Hamilcar and Hannibal, two brave Africans, the lat¬ ter of 25 whom was conquered 26 by the Roman commander, Scipio the elder 13 , near Zama, a city of Africa. Conon, having been banished 27 from Athens, that most splendid 28 city of Greece, went 29 to Pharnabazus, the kinsman 30 of the king of the Persians. Let industry, the mother of renown and happiness 31 , belong 32 to every man. Already has the stork, the messenger 33 of spring, appeared 34 again 35 . Death spares 36 no one, neither the rich nor the poor. Fortune 37 , that mistress 38 of human life, rules 39 over 40 us all. Cicero and Marius were born 41 at 42 Arpinum, a free town 43 of La¬ tium. Coriolanus, influenced 44 by anger, a bad 45 counsel¬ lor 46 , fought 47 against 48 his country. Geese, the preservers 49 of the capitol, were highly 50 valued at 51 Rome. Popular ap¬ plause 52 , a rash 53 panegyrist 54 of faults, impairs 55 the beauty of virtue. Besides 56 Juno, the queen of Heaven, the sister and wife of Jupiter, the ancients worshipped many other god¬ desses. There was a contest 57 concerning 58 the possession 59 of the city, Athens*, between two deities, Neptune and Mi¬ nerva. In every 60 pure mind dwells 61 modesty 62 , the con- 46 USE OF CASES TO DESIGNATE PLACE. [§§ 67 , 68 . troller 63 of lust. We avoid death, as if 64 a dissolution 65 of nature. Many ancient people worshipped the dog and the cat as 66 gods. Sulla was the teacher 67 of three pernicious 68 vices, luxury, avarice and cruelty. 1 fundere (perf.). 2 quum(with subjunctive). 3 capere. 4 Syracusae. 5 edicere. 6 ut. 7 parcere. 8 (dative). 9 Amor. 10 pingere. 11 juxta. 12 saepius. 13 major. 14 conjux. 15 civis. 16 Locrensis. 17 (the genitive). 18 luxuriose. 19 frustra. 20 defendere. 21 tum (at that time). 22 eruptio. 23 delere. 24 gignere. 25 ex. 26 vincere. 27 expulsus. 28 amplissimus. 29 se conferre. 30 propinquus. 31 felicitas. 32 proprius. 33 nuntius, nun¬ tia. 34 apparere. 35 rursus. 36 parcere. 37 fortuna. 38 dominus, domina. 39 dominari. 40 in. 41 nasci. 42 (the genitive). 43 municipium (a free town). 44 ductus. 45 malus. 46 consultor, consultrix. 47 dimicare, ^ad¬ versus. 49 servator, servatrix. 50 magni. 51 (the genitive). 52 fama pop¬ ularis (popular applause). 53 temerarius. 54 laudator, laudatrix. 55 cor¬ rumpere. 56 praeter. 57 certamen. 58 de. 59 possessio. * Athenae. 60 om¬ nis. 61 inesse. 62 pudor. 63 moderator, moderatrix. 84 quasi (as if). 65 dissolutio. 66 ut. 67 magister. 68 pestifer. USE OF CASES TO DESIGNATE PLACE. 67. A place can be spoken of, either in relation to some¬ thing which is done in it, and then the question is asked by, where ? or in relation to something which is directed towards it, and then the question is asked by, whither ? or in relation to something which comes from it, and then the question is asked by, whence ? These questions may be distinguished thus: Where? Whither? Whence? For other designations of place, see § 74. 68. The question , Where? V (1) With the divisions of the earth, with countries and islands, the preposition in with the ablative is used; e. g. In Europa; in Italia; in Creta. In is often omitted, but only when totus or omnis (the whole) agrees with the noun. But if the writer wishes to express, with precision, the idea of the where , then also in stands before the ablative; e. g. In the whole of Europe, tot a Europa ; tota Graecia, moreover also, in tota Eur. Cv „ (2) With the names of cities, villages and small islands, no preposition is used, but the genitive or ablative, according to their difference of declension and number. USE OF CASES TO DESIGNATE PLACE. 47 § 69 .] The genitive is used, when the word is of the first or se¬ cond declension, and singular number; e. g. At (or in) Rome, R o m a e; at (or in) Corinth, C o r i n t h i. Compare the remarks respecting this genitive under § 69. The ablative is used, when the word is of the third declen¬ sion, or plural number; e. g. At (or in) Carthage , Car¬ thagine; at (or in) Athens, Athenis (from Athenae) ; at Delphi, Delphis; at Andes, Andibus (from Andes, -ium). The following table shows the different usage. Genitive. Ablative. Declension 1 and 2. Singular number. With all others. It has already been stated above, § 66, under apposition, that, when the name of a city, island or village, in reference to the question, where? is in the genitive, and a noun with an adjective, or another explanatory clause is in apposition with it, this is put in the ablative, with or without in; e. g. At Rome , the capital of the old icorld , Romae, (in) capite veteris orbis terrarum. So, Neapoli, in celeberrimo op¬ pido ; Tusculi, salubri et propinquo loco. This is not the case where a single city or village is in apposition ; e. g. In the city Rome , is ex¬ pressed only by in urbe Roma, not in urbe Romae , nor Romae , urbe. It can be written in urbe Romac, only when in urbe is contrasted with in agro. 69. (3) The words, domus (home), humus (ground), mi¬ litia (war), helium (war) and rus (country), are constructed in the same manner. Hence, at home, is expressed by domi; on the ground, by humi, instead of which sometimes humo , as ablative of place; abroad, by militiae or belli; in the coun¬ try, by ruri, seldom rure. Militiae and belli, however, are used in this way in prose, only when they are connected with domi; because then domi signifies in peace. Thus, In peace and war, domi militiaeque, domi bellique, domi et belli, domi bellique, and so also, vel belli vel domi. With the substantive domi, an adjective denoting the pos¬ sessor, or the genitive of the possessor, can be joined ; hence, domi meae (at my house), tuae, suae, nostrae, ves¬ trae, alienae (in the house of another), r egi a e (in the house of the king), domi Caesaris (in Caesar’s house); 48 USE OF CASES TO DESIGNATE PLACE. [§ 70 . and so similar words, when they refer to the possessor, and not to any internal or external quality of the house. Hence, In a spacious house , is expressed, not by amplae domi, but by in ampla domo; in the royal (i. e. worthy of a king, splen¬ did) house, not by regalis domi, but in regali domo. But with totus (whole), iota domo, without in. Although the cases in ae and i, denoting place, as Romae, militiae, domi, humi, belli, are called by the usual name of genitive, yet those forms, in these significations, do not indi¬ cate the relation of the genitive, but that of the ablative* or dative. As it respects the right use of them, however, the name is not important. 70. (4) With all other names of places, e. g. city, moun¬ tain, island, etc. the preposition in with the ablative is used ; e. g. In the city, in urbe; in the island, in insula; in the mountain, in monte; in the world, in mundo; in the forum, in foro; in coelo; in libro; —in short, in every instance, where the idea of place only is expressed by the preposition; e. g. In our parents is the greatest piety, in parentibus sum¬ ma pietas; in Cicero we feel the want of firmness, in Cice¬ rone desideramus constantiam. But when the name of a person stands only for his works, apud is used; e. g. In Ci¬ cero we do not find this, apud Ciceronem. * The proper ending of the ablative in all declensions is e, e. g. mensa-e (mensa), horto-e (horto), color-e , fructu-e (fructu), re-e (re) ; but the e, especially when the ablative denotes the place where , was changed into i, e. g. Romai , contracted Romae , Tarenti. Thus this form, in the first and second declension, corresponded with the geni¬ tive form. In the third declension the e of the ablative remained; yet there are still some traces of the ablative in i, e. g. ruri (not rure ), Lacedaemoni, Carthagini and e. In this way, domi is formed from domui , which is found even in Cicero. But whatever may be the explanation, there can be little doubt that all the forms denoting the place where are in the ablative. As all plural nonus of the first and second declension, denoting the place where, and all, both singular and plural of the third declension, have regular ablative forms,—and as all such nouns, whatever be their declension and number, take the noun in apposition with them, in the ablative, it is naturally inferred that these words themselves are all ablatives. See Ktihner’s Lat. Gr. Syntax, § 16, Rem. 4, also Reisig on the Lat. language, § 347 seq. § 71 .] USE OF CASES TO DESIGNATE PLACE. 49 Here, also, when totus and omnis are joined to the noun, the preposition in is omitted; e. g. In the whole city } tota urbe; in the whole forum, toto foro; in the ichole camp , totis castris ; in this whole battle , hoc toto proelio. Comp. § 68- In is omitted only with locus, place, situation, condition, qualified by an adjective or adjective pronoun, though more seldom when locus signifies place; with status, position, com- dition; with terra, in the phrase, by land; with mari, in the* phrase, by sea; and with via, way, when it is definitely named; e. g. Then our affairs were in a better situation (condition), meliore loco (statu); in this place, hoc loco; in many places, multis locis; nothing remains permanently in its own condition, suo statu; we lose every >- thing by sea and by land, terra marique; in the Appian way, via Appia; upon another road, alia via; on the same way, eodem itinere. Examples for practice. (The following detached expressions may be used first.) In Asia. At Tusculum. At Baiae. In Asia Minor 1 . At Capua. In this house. In thy house. At Carthage. At Thebes 2 . In Germany 3 . In the earth 4 . At Ephesus. In the temple. At Gabii. In the country 5 . In peace and war. In this war. At Troy. In Troas. At Neapolis. At Paris 6 . In Palestine 7 . At Jerusalem 8 . In the water. In the stable 9 . In Cyprus, an island of the Mediterranean sea. At Andes 10 . At Philippi. At Verona, a city of up¬ per 11 Italy. In Ionia. In the valley 12 . In the grove. At our house. At Patara 13 . In Delos, the birth-place 14 of Apollo. ‘Asia Minor. 2 Thebae. 3 Germania. 4 terra. 5 rus. 6 Parissii. 7 Palaestina. H Hierosolyma, -ae, or -a, -orum. 9 stabulum. 10 Andes, -ium. 11 Italia superior. 12 vallis. 13 Patara,-orum. 14 locus natalis. 71. The question, TV hither ? This question denotes motion towards or into a place. (1) With the divisions of the earth, with countries and 50 USE OF CASES TO DESIGNATE PLACE. [$ 71 . large islands, the preposition in with the accusative is used; e. g. To or into Europe, i n Europara ; i n Italiam ; i n S#i- ciliam. (2) With cities, villages and small islands, merely the ac¬ cusative is used without a preposition, whatever be the de¬ clension of the noun; e. g. To Rome, Romam; to Cor¬ inth, Corinthum; to Sulmo, Sulmonem; to Athens, Athenas; to Delphi, Delphos; to Cures, Cures. A noun in apposition is used with or without in; e. g. Cures, (in) urbem Sabinorum. (3) The same also applies to domus and rus. Hence to the house, home, into the house, is expressed by domum, or, when several houses of different men are spoken of, by domos (yet even then the singular is often used), yet the Latin says, in domum meretriciam induci, in domum veterem remi¬ grare e nova; to the country, is expressed by rus. The accu¬ sative humum is not so used. Domum and domos, like the genitive domi, can have a possessive adjective, or a genitive joined with them (§ 69); e. g. To my house, domum meam, tuam, etc.; domum Caesaris. (4) With all other names of places, in with the accusative is used; e. g. Into (to) the city, in urbem; to the island , i n insulam ; i n mundum ; to or upon the mountain, i n mon¬ tem ; i n librum. Ad, however, is used when only the direction towards a place is denoted; e. g. To travel to the coasts of Africa, ad oras Africae proficisci ; he hastened into Volaterrae to the camp of Sulla, ad Volaterras in—. So always where the march of an army to a place is spoken of; e. g. Caesaris ad Brundusium cursus, Caesar's march to Br. Examples. (Here also the following detached expressions may be used first.) To Asia. To Tusculum. To Baiae. To Asia Minor. To Capua. Into this house. To his house. To Carthage. To Thebes. To Germany. To the earth. To Ephesus. 51 §§ 72 , 73 .] USE OF CASES TO DESIGNATE PLACE. Into the temple. To Gabii. To the country. To the war. To Troy. To Neapolis. To Paris. To Palestine. To Jerusalem. Into the water. Into the stable. To Cyprus, an island of the Mediterranean sea. To Andes. To Philippi. To Verona. To Aulo. To Ionia. Into the valley. Into the grove. To your house. To Patara. To Delos, the birth-place of Apollo. 72. The question , W hence? This question is used to denote a local object, or a place, out of which, or from which, something comes. (1) With divisions of the earth, with countries and large islands, the preposition a is used ; e. g. To come from Italy , ab Italia venire; from Sicily, a Sicilia. (2) With cities, villages and small islands, not only the preposition a is used, but also often the ablative alone, with¬ out a; e. g. To come from Corinth , a Corintho, and Corintho. At the close of Cicero’s letters, the place from which the letter comes is usually in the ablative; e. g. Capua, from Capua; L u c a d e, from Lucas , etc., where we, according to our mode of expression, should say, Capua, Lucas, to denote the place where the letter was written. Yet sometimes also the genitive is used, (where the nouns are of the first or second declension,) with which scripta or scripsi is to be understood. When the removal or going from one place to another, or from the place where something happens, is denoted, a cannot be omitted; e. g. From Rome to Neapolis, a Roma ad Neapolim; he was carrying on war as soon as he left Brundusium, jam a Brundusio. 73. (3) Domus and rus are put in the ablative without a preposition; thus, To come from home, domo; to come from the country, rure, or ruri. The ablative humo is not so used. Domo can also take a possessive adjective with it, § 69; e. g. To come from my house, domo m e a. (4) With other relations of place, the prepositions a, de and ex are used; a mostly, when the place is on a level with 52 USE OF CASES TO DESIGNATE PLACE. [§ 74 . the other, seldom when it is higher; dc and ex mostly, when it is higher; e. g. To come from the forum , a foro; to come from Cicero, a Cicerone; to he seen from the tower, de or e x turri. Examples. (The following detached expressions may be used first.) From Asia. From Tusculum. From Baiae. From Asia Minor. From Capua. From this house. From my house. From Carthage. From Thebes. From Germany. From Ephesus. From the temple. From Gabii. From the coun¬ try. From Troy. From Troas. From Neapolis. From Paris. From Palestine. From Jerusalem. From the stable. From Cyprus. From Andes. From Philippi. From Ve¬ rone. From Ionia. From the valley. From the grove. From your house. From Patara. From Delos, the birth¬ place of Apollo. 74. Other r el at ions of place . All other relations of place are denoted by the appropriate prepositions. Through, per; e. g. Through Asia, per Asiam; through the city, per urbem; through Thebes, per Thebas. By, near by, at, apud, ad, prope; e. g. At or near Ther¬ mopylae, apud Thermopylas; at Nola, ad Nolam; near Veseris, ad or apud Veserim; near by the city, prope urbem ; very near Rome, proxime Romam. Towards a place, ad; e. g. I went to Capua, profectus sum ad Capuam. Comp. § 71, 4. Before , ante; e. g. Before the city, ante urbem. Out of , e, ex ; e. g. Out of Italy, ex Italia; out of Rome, e Roma. But this preposition is used with a city, only when something really comes out of it, not where something only comes from it; e. g. Navis Tyro, Epheso, Alexan¬ dria— venit, the ship came from Tyre —not ex Tyro, ex Epheso, ex Alex. Within, intra ; e. g. Within the city, intra urbem. USE OP CASES TO DESIGNATE PLACE. 53 §74.] Around, circa and circum; e. g. Around Capua, circa Capuam. Without, extra; e. g. Without Rome, extra Romam. Even to, as far as, ad, usque* (with cities), usque ad (with countries); e. g. Even to Egypt, usque ad Aegyptum; as far as Delphi, usque Delphos, or Delphos usque; as far as the borders, a d fines. Above, super ; e. g. Above Macedonia lies Thrace, super Macedoniam. Between, inter; e. g. Between the Apennines and the Alps, inter Apenninum Alpesque. Beyond, trans, ultra; e. g. Beyond the Apennines, trans Apenninum. On this side, cis, citra ; e. g. On this side of Rome, citra Romam. And so the other relations of place are expressed by the appropriate prepositions. Examples on §§ 67—74. (1) That year, the Roman people were not more quiet 1 at home, than they had been before 2 in war. At Constanti¬ nople 3 , or, at Byzantium, as it was then called 4 , the eastern* Roman empire was established 5 . At Arpinum, a small free city 6 of Latium, Cicero and Marius were born. In Upper Italy 7 , many writers were born ; Catullus at Verona, Livy 8 at Padua 9 , Virgil at Andes 10 , a village 11 near Mantua, and Cor¬ nelius Nepos probably 12 at Hostilia, a small city of that re¬ gion. Cicero came near 13 being killed 14 at his house by two Roman knights 15 . At Venice 16 , a famous ancient city of Upper Italy, is the extensive 17 library of Saint 18 Mark. The largest libraries are found 19 at Paris 20 , Gottingen 21 , Vienna 22 , Munich 23 and London 24 . This year was distinguished 25 by nothing at home or abroad. In war, Marius rested 26 mostly on the ground 27 . "VVhat happens to-day at Tralles 28 , does not happen at Pergamus. I have resolved 29 to send him to the farms 30 which you have 31 at Nola. Pliny 32 had a villa near lake Larius. At Pergamus, Smyrna, Tralles, Apamea, * Only the poets and the later prose writers use usque alone with¬ out ad. — Zumpt. 5 * 54 USE OF CASES TO DESIGNATE PLACE. [§ 74 . Adramyttium and in other cities of Asia Minor, many Roman bankers 33 sojourned 34 . The poet Archias was born at Anti¬ och 35 , once 36 a famous and wealthy 37 city. I had rather 38 live at Rome and in thy house, than at Mitylene or Rhodes 39 . Then there was the greatest confusion 40 in the whole city. The north-west wind 41 is accustomed to blow 42 in this place 43 . ‘quietus. 2 antea. 3 Constantinopolis. 4 nominari. * oriens. 5 con¬ dere. 6 municipium. 7 Italia superior. 8 Livius. 9 Patavium. 10 Andes, -ium. 11 pagus. 12 probabiliter. 13 paene. 14 interficere (indic, perf.) 15 eques. 16 Venitiae. 17 copiosus. 18 sanctus. 19 reperiri. 20 Parissii. 21 Gottinga. 22 Vindobona. 23 Monachium. 24 Londinum. 25 insignis. 26 quiescere. 27 humus. 28 Tralles,-ium. 29 destinare. 30 praedium. 31 possidere. 32 Plinius. 33 negotiator. 34 morari. 35 Antiochea. 36 quon¬ dam. 37 copiosus. 38 malle (had rather). 39 Rhodus. 40 perturbatio. 41 Caurus (north-west wind). 42 flare. 43 locus. (2) I was with him at Ephesus, as if 1 in my house. The soul dwells in the body, as if in another’s 2 house. The Ro¬ man exiles 3 often went 4 to Rhodes, or Mitylene, or Marseilles 5 . The Luculli received 6 into their house the famous poet, Ar¬ chias, when 7 he had come to Rome. Ten thousand Greeks marched 8 to Persia, and Xenophon led them back 9 to Athens, after a bloody 10 battle 11 at Cunaxa. My brother went by ship 12 from Ephesus to Athens, I, on foot 13 , through Macedo¬ nia to Attica. In very important 14 business 15 of the state, the Roman senators, who in peace lived mostly 16 on their farms, were called from the country 17 into the city. Cicero travelled from Tarsus to Asia, and he made his journey 18 in such a manner 19 that the famine 20 , which then was in all Asia, was checked 21 . The townsmen 22 brought 23 gold and silver and other expensive articles 24 into the royal palace 25 . The Vagenni invited 26 the Romans sojourning 27 in their city, to their houses, and slaughtered 28 them all. In Sicily, the death of Hiero had changed everything, and at Syracuse 29 , many factions 30 had arisen 31 . Then, many miraculous signs 32 ap¬ peared 33 ; at Lanuvium, the ravens 34 built 35 a nest within the temple of Juno; in Apulia, a green palm-tree 36 burnt 37 ; near Mantua, the river Mincius appeared bloody 38 ; at Cales 39 , it rained 40, clay 41 , and at Rome, blood. A certain 42 Hadri¬ anus was burnt 43 alive 44 by the Romans, in his own house at Utica. In the whole camp there was the greatest disturb¬ ance 45 . The pirates 46 in separate bodies 47 wandered 48 over the whole sea. I have commanded 49 that 50 the fugitive 51 should be sought 52 by sea and land. USE OF CASES TO DENOTE TIME. 55 § 75 .] 1 tanquam. 2 alienus. 3 exul. 4 se conferre. 6 Massilia. 6 recipere. 7 cum (with subj.). 8 proficisci. 9 reducere. 10 cruentus. 11 pugna. 12 classe (by ship). 13 pedibus (on foot). 14 summus. 15 res. 16 plerum¬ que. 17 rus. 18 iter. 19 tam (in such a manner). 20 fames. 21 sedare. 22 oppidanus. 23 comportare. 24 res pretiosa (expensive article).- 25 do¬ mus. 26 invitare. 27 commorari. 28 obtruncare. 29 Syracusae. 30 factio. 31 exoriri. 32 prodigium (miraculous sign). 33 apparere. 34 corvus, ^facere. 36 palma. 37 ardere. 38 cruentus. 39 Cales, -ium. 40 pluere aliqua re. 41 creta. 42 quidam. 43 exurere. 44 vivus. 45 perturbatio. 46 praedo maritimus. 47 dispersus (in separate bodies). 48 vagari. 49 mandare. 50 ut. 51 fugitivus. 52 conquirere. USE OF CASES TO DENOTE RELATIONS OF TIME. 75. Time can be expressed in very different relations. In English, we have different prepositions, to express the dif¬ ferent ideas of time; e. g. in, after, before, during, on, about, etc. In Latin, also, time is variously expressed, as may be seen from the following divisions. (1) When? in or at what time? This is a single point or period of time in which something happens, and is often qualified by an ordinal number. In English we sometimes use prepositions; e. g. in, on, at, upon; sometimes the ac¬ cusative merely; e. g. The first of January; the third year. The Latins use only the ablative; e. g. in a moment he per¬ ished, momento interiit ; at the sixth hour, sexta hora; on the ffth day, quinto die; the frst of January, C a- lendis Januariis; in the frst month, mense primo; in the spring, v e r e; loith the rising of the sun, o r t u solis ; at mid-day, meridie. Here also belongs the phrase, in war, when* the war is definitely named, because it then denotes time; e. g. in the first Punic war, primo bello Punico, or bello Pun. primo. In bello would not denote time. So festivals; e. g. at the Saturnalia, Sa¬ turnalibus. So also other substantives, which do not of them¬ selves denote time, are put in the ablative to express such a relation, with and without in, oftener without; e. g. initio and principio, ad¬ ventu and discessu alicujus, comitiis and tumultu. See § 213, (5). Here also belong many adverbs of time, most of which are obsolete ablatives; e. g. mane, early; diluculo, at day-break; diu , by day; noctu, by night; sero, late; raro, seldom; vesperi, at evening; luce (luei), early, at day-break. Periods of life form an exception to this rule. With these in is 56 USE OF CASES TO DENOTE TIME. [§§ 76, 77. used, because the whole time of the age referred to is meant to be included; e. g. in boyhood, i n pueritia. So when the circumstances of times, condition , especially dangerous condition are translated by tem¬ pus, in is also used with it; e. g. in hoc tempore, in this condition, during this time. In tempore or merely tempore is also used in the sense of, at the right time. 76. (2) During , within what time ? A space of time during which something takes place. The numeral used is a cardinal number, or such words as biduum, biennium, are employed. Cicero uses either inter, or intra, or per, or still more frequently, the ablative with or without in; Everything which has happened within ten years, inter decem annos ; no one in, during, within the last twenty years was an enemy of the state, (in) h i s annis viginti; this happened with¬ in the last three years, per hoc triennium. Moreover, also, intervallo or spatio ; e. g. spatio bienni, in two years. Where an action is repeated within a given period, in is generally used, being omitted but seldom, e. g. twice a day, bis in die; three times a year, ter in anno. (3) How long? The period during which an action or event continues. In English we use the prepositions, through, throughout, during, often the simple accusative without a preposition. The Latins use the preposition per, or the ac¬ cusative without a preposition ;* e. g. Through the whole night, per totam noctem, totam per noctem, totam noc¬ tem; I have tarried here two months, (p e r) duos menses hic commoratus sum. But the preposition per must stand before, not after the substantive. This must not be confounded with how long? i. e. how much time before or after something, for which see below. 77. (4) Before or after what time or event ? The Latins express this by ante and post with the accusative; e. g. He came to me two days before or ago, ante duos dies; I re- * Cicero rarely uses the ablative to denote duration of time, e. g. Scriptum est trigenta annis vixisse Panaetium.— De Off. This usage is more frequent in the writers of the silver age, e. g. quatuordecem annis exilium toleravit. — Tacit. § 77.] USE OF CASES TO DENOTE TIME. 57 turn after two years, post duos annos. Here the reckon¬ ing always commences from the present time. (5) How long before or after an event? For this the Latins use the,ablative. There are here two dates, one ear¬ lier and the other later, or one later and the other earlier. The earlier or later event is either positively expressed and put in the accusative, depending on ante or post, or it must be determined from what precedes, and then, in English we say, before , or before that , after , or after that; e. g. Homer lived many years before Hesiod , multis annis ante He¬ siodum ; Virgil lived many years after Ennius, multis annis post Ennium ; three years before, or before that this war broke out, tribus annis ante, or tribus ante annis; two years afier Horace died, duobus annis post, or duobus post annis. When the time before or after which anything took place, does not stand in the sen¬ tence itself, as in the last two examples, then the prepositions or adverbs ante and post can stand with two words which are in the ablative, after or between them, as the examples show, but seldom before; e. g. A n t e multo, long before, for multo ante. But antea and postea cannot be used here. Here also belong those words which express time how long before or after, indefinitely; viz. long (multo); not long, short (non multo, paulo, brevi) ; not very long (non ita multo); pretty long (aliquanto); as long (quanto); so long (tanto) ; e. g. This happened long before (after), multo ante (post). With the words ante and post, a sentence with quam is often joined; e. g. I knew this man a year before you did, anno ante, q u a m tu eum cognovisti. So with p r i d i e, a day before, and postridie, a day after, often followed by quam; e. g. Pridie, quam has litteras dedi, the day before I gave this letter. Quo, in the sense of after that, sometimes follows such words as biduo , triduo, two, three days. 58 USE OF CASES TO DENOTE TIME. [§ 78 . Here belongs the question, by kmc much time something is longer or shorter than another, or differs from another,—where the ablative only is used; e. g. You arc two years older (younger) than /, duo- bus annis, not duo (duos) annos. Finally, the rule hoio long before or after must not be mistaken for this. That denotes the real continuance of an action before or after another. It is put, according to § 76, 3, in the accusative ; e. g. Ma¬ rius continued seven years after his praetor ship without authority , sep¬ tem annos post praeturam, i. e. seven years long. There is also a difference between the question how long before or after, and the similar one, When before or after something else,—where the ablative is used, and the particular point of time is marked by an ordinal; e. g. On the fifth month (quinto mense) after the death of her husband, she married another. 78. (6) When before the present time ? The present time is expressed by abhinc , and the other time mentioned is usu¬ ally put in the accusative, seldom in the ablative; e. g. My father died twenty years ago (before this time), abhinc viginti annis or annos mortuus est, for ante viginti annos, which is equally good. (7) Since when, since what time ? Here the preposition ex is used; e. g. Since that time, e x illo tempore, also e x illo merely; since or since the time that, ex quo; also eputim, when a period of time has been mentioned before; e. g. since the first Punic war broke out, ex q u o primum bellum Punicum exarsit; it is four years, that I have not seen you, or since I have seen you, q u u m t e non vidi, not quod te non vidi, which is found only after the classic pe¬ riod. The similar relation, from what time, is usually ex¬ pressed by a; e. g. He was drunk from the third hour, ab hora tertia ; from the eleventh to the fourteenth, a b undecimo die (usque) ad quartum decimum. (8) About what time? Here ad, sub and fere are used; e. g. Towards or about day-break, a d primum auroram ; towards (about) evening, sub (ad) vesperum; towards, about the ninth hour, hora fere nona. (9) Till when? to what time? ox for what time? Here in with the accusative is used; e. g. I defer this matter till to-morrow, in crastinum diem eam rem differo ; the USE OF CASES TO DENOTE TIME. 59 § 78 .] auction is fixed for the month of January , in mensem Janu¬ arium. Examples on § 75—78. (1) In the second Messenian 1 war, Aristomenes was com¬ mander of the Messenians. The planet of Saturn com¬ pletes 2 its course 3 in about 4 thirty* years, but the moon her course 3 around the earth, in twenty-eight** days. In the seventieth year before the birth of Christ 5 , October fif¬ teenth,*** Virgil was born, and he died in the nineteenth year, Septemberf twenty-second. It is proper 6 to pluck out 7 the feathers 8 of the goose twice a year, in the spring and autumn. The gosling 9 is fed 10 the first ten days in the stable 11 . Pompey made preparations 12 for this war, at the close of the winter 13 , he entered upon 14 it, at the commence¬ ment of spring 15 , and ended 16 it, in the middle 17 of summer. A hundred and six years before the birth of Christ, Jugurtha was taken captive 18 by 19 Sulla. The very 20 same 21 day on which he was taken prisoner, Crassus was put to death by Surena. The eclipses 22 of the sun can be foretold 23 for a thousand years. C. Flaminius first proposed 24 an agrarian law 25 , some years before the second Punic war. It pleased 26 Sulpicius Gallus to predict the eclipses of the sun and moon to the Romans long before. At length 27 the Macedonians with the Persians came at the same time, about day-break 28 , into a valley surrounded 29 by a thick 30 fog. Animals are born, which live one day; among 31 these, that which died about the eighth hour 32 , died in advanced 33 age. Cicero travelled from Tarsus on the fifth of January 34 . On the thirteenth of February 35 he held court 36 at the forum of Lao¬ dicea. Thence 37 he returned to Cilicia, where he remained 38 the whole month. 1 Messenius. 2 confic6re. 3 circuitus. 4 circiter. * triceni. **duode- triceni. 5 Christus natus (birth of Christ). *** Idus Octobres, t de¬ cimus Calendas Octobres, 22d Sep. 6 licet (it is proper). 7 evellere. 8 pluma. 9 anser pullus (gosling). 10 pascere. 11 stabulum. 12 apparare aliquid (to make preparations for something). 13 exiens hiems (close of winter). 14 suscipere (to enter upon). 15 iniens ver (commence¬ ment of spring). 16 conficere. 17 medius. 18 capere (to take captive). 19 per. 20 ipse (comp § 126). 21 idem. 22 defectio solis. 23 praedicere. 24 ferre. 25 lex agraria—aliquot (some). 29 delectare. 27 aliquando. 28 lux. 29 circumfusus. 30 densus. 31 ex. 32 hora. 33 provectus. 34 Nonae Januariae (fifth of January). 35 Idus Februariae (the thirteenth of February). 36 agere (to hold court). 37 inde. 38 commorari. 60 USE OF CASES TO DENOTE TIME. [§ 78. (2) I will deliberate 1 fully 2 with you concerning this thing, on the next 3 day. The emperor Tiberius enjoyed excellent health 4 , during almost the whole time of his government 5 . In the times of Pompey 6 and Cicero, pirates wandered 7 over the whole sea. Antony 8 was Cicero’s school-fellow 9 in boy¬ hood 10 , his intimate friend 11 in youth*, and his colleague in the quaestorship. Socrates, a few days before his death, could have fled 12 from prison. The command 13 against the Gauls was intrusted 14 to Julius Caesar for many years. Yesterday evening, the seventh 15 of March, I received your letter, which was written the first of February 16 . Julius Caesar received joyful intelligence at mid-night; therefore, on the following day, he broke up 17 his camp at day-break 18 , and arrived at noon 19 , at the camp of the enemy. After 20 Caesar had routed 21 the Treveri, he received intelligence, after some days, that 22 the Suevi had collected 23 all their forces 24 . The very thing 25 which you write to me, I had written to Cassius four days before. Ask 26 him why he left 27 the city so long after, rather 28 than immediately 29 . Not very long after Horace, his patron 30 and friend Maecenas died. From the first 31 of January to 32 this hour, I have not heard anything of you. Caesar sent auxiliaries 33 to the townsmen 34 , about midnight 35 . Charles the Great subdued 36 almost all Germany, but after twenty years, his son Lewis 37 lost 38 it again 39 . A monk 40 predicted 41 this to Charles when dying; Thy son, said 42 he, after twenty years, will lose everything which you have conquered 43 . Appius Claudius died a year before the censorship of Cato, and nine years after his con¬ sulship. Pythius invited 44 the knight 45 Canius to supper 46 , on the following 47 day. On the seventh day, in the night, I came home, where I remained 48 twenty days. 1 agere. 2 accurate. 3 proximus. 4 valere optime (to enjoy excellent health). 5 imperium. 6 Pompeius. 7 vagari. 8 Antonius. Condiscipu¬ lus. J0 pueritia. 11 familiaris (intimate friend). * adolescens. 12 effugere. 13 imperium. 14 committere. 15 Nonae Martiae (seventh of JV1 arch). 16 Calendae Februariae (first of Feb.). 17 movere. 18 lux prima. 19 tem¬ pus meridianum. 20 postquam (with perfect indic.). 21 fundere. 22 (ae¬ cus, with the infin.). 23 contrahere. 24 copiae. 25 id ipsum. 26 quaerere ex aliquo (to ask anyone). 27 relinquere (comp. § 48). 28 potius, ^continuo. 30 fautor. 31 Calendae. 32 usque ad. 33 auxilia. 34 oppidanus. 35 media nox. 36 subigere. 37 LudovIcus. 38 amittere, ^rursus. 40 mo¬ nachus. 41 praedicere. 42 inquit. 43 occupare. 44 invitare. 45 eques. 46 coena. 47 posterus. 48 commorari. § 79 .] ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 61 ADJECTIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 79. The simpler and more general use of these has al¬ ready been treated in the first Part. Other remarks will now be made on their more difficult features. (1) Sentences containing the pronouns who, which, or & conjunction, e. g. when, while, after, as, and a verb belong¬ ing to these, can be abridged by means of adjectives and par¬ ticiples. As in English, instead of, The teachers esteem a scholar who is attentive, we can say, an attentive scholar ; or instead of, 1 fear the storm which approaches, the approach¬ ing storm; —instead of, Scipio consecrated the temple after it had been built,— Scipio consecrated the temple built; so in Latin. By this abridgement, the adjectives and participles become qualifying words, and agree with their substantive in gender, number and case. Hence the foregoing examples can be translated, Magistri discipulum attentum (for qui attentus est) aestimant; timeo tempestatem im¬ pendentem (for quae impendet); Scipio aedem exstructam (for quum exstructa esset) conse¬ cravit. In the same manner also, similar sentences, which contain a sub¬ stantive, are abridged, since they are the same as a case of apposi¬ tion; e. g. This opinion was maintained by Torquatus who was a learned man, a. Torquato homine erudito, for qui homo eruditus erat. Examples. This never pleases some 1 who are not very 2 unlearned. Many censure 3 our labor 4 , which is by no means 5 unpleasant to us. Who does not willingly 6 read books which are good and useful ? Who willingly undertakes 7 any 8 exercise of the body, which is laborious? There are others who, much 9 unlike 10 those, are simple-hearted 11 and ingenuous 12 . The remembrance 13 of a life which has been well spent 14 , affords 15 great consolation 16 . The Romans fled for succor 17 to any one 18 who was distinguished 19 for his virtue. The fear 20 of an affliction which threatens 21 , torments 22 us. The condi- 6 62 ADJECTIVES. [§ 80 . tion 23 of men when dead 24 , is different 25 . The remembrance of calamities 26 which are past 27 , is pleasant. We rejoice on account of 28 calamities which are past. You name to me two Romans, who are not only 29 the most just 30 , but also 31 the most learned 32 men. We see the changes 33 of the moon, which not only 34 increases 35 but also decreases 36 . We ad¬ mire 37 the sun, not only when it rises 38 but when it sets 39 . The multitude of stars which do not wander 40 in the heaven, is very great 41 . The Romans went against 42 the enemy, who were going 43 to Rome, and met them as they were de¬ scending 44 into the Alban 45 vale. T ullus Hostilius received 46 the Albans into the city, after they had been conquered 47 . A pleasing message 48 was brought 49 to Cincinnatus, when he was plowing. Quidam. 2 admodum. 3 reprehendere. 4 labor. 5 mimme (by no means). 6 libenter. 7 suscipere. 8 ullus. 9 multum. 10 dispar. 11 sim¬ plex (simple-hearted). 12 apertus. 13 memoria. 14 actus. 15 praebere. 16 solatium. 17 confugere (to flee for succor). 18 unus aliquis, ^praes¬ tare. 20 timor. 21 impendere. 22 torquere. 23 status. 24 mori. 25 diversus. 26 labor. 27 praeteritus. 28 de (on account of). 29 partim (not only). 30 bonus. 31 partim (but also). 32 eruditus. 33 varietas. 34 tum (notonly). 35 crescere. 36 senescere. 37 admirari. 38 oriri. 39 occidere. 40 inerrans. 41 maximus. 42 obviam ire. 43 petere. 44 descendere. 45 Albanus, ^ac¬ cipere. 47 vincere. 48 nuntius. 49 afferre. 80. (2) Many English substantives governed by a preposi¬ tion, may be translated into Latin by adjectives or participles, which then agree as adjectives with the substantives to which they refer. Such are, against one's will , invitus ; in one's life, in one's lifetime, vivus ; contrary to expectation, impru¬ dens, necopinans, inopinans; with knowledge, sciens; with¬ out knowledge, ignarus, inscius, insciens ; in the presence of, praesens ; in the absence of, absens ; after death, mortuus, etc. In English we often unite with these words the pronouns, my, thy, his, etc., but in Latin these are omitted ; e. g. My brother gave this to me against my will, frater mihi invito; my brother gave this to us against our will, frater nobis invitis; divine honor was paid to Augustus during his life and after his death, Augusto vivo et mortuo divinus honor contigit. $ 81 .] ADJECTIVES. 63 Examples. Great honor is but seldom 1 paid 2 to great men during their life. We have erected 3 a statue 4 to that emperor against our wishes. The Indian sages burn 5 themselves often during their life. Cicero surprised 6 me, contrary to my expectation. In war, many things often happen 7 to the commanders, con¬ trary to their expectation. Thou hast defended 8 me, with¬ out my knowledge. The Greeks conveyed 9 Achilles to Troy, contrary to his wish. Wicked men persecute 10 their enemies 11 , not only during their life but also after their death. Nothing will be more pleasant to me in my lifetime, than thy friendship. I have written two letters to you in your absence. Why do you compel 12 your daughter to mar¬ ry 13 against her wish 1 1 raro. 2 contingere. 3 ponere. 4 statua. 5 cremare. 0 occupare. 7 ac¬ cidere. 8 defendere. 9 deducere. 10 persequi. 11 inimicus. 12 cogere. 13 nubere. (3) The Latins commonly employ adjectives of countries, islands, cities and villages, where the English uses both the name of the place with the prepositions of or from, and the adjective. As adjectives, they must agree with the sub¬ stantive to which they belong; e. g. Diodorus of Sicily, Dio¬ dorus Siculus; Cicero of Arpinum, Cicero Arpinas; Virgil of Andes, Virgilius Andinus. Examples. (The adjectives not given below may be found in the Lexicon.) Miltiades of Athens (or the Athenian). Pausanias of La- cedemon (or the Lacedemonian). Pelopidas and Epami¬ nondas of Thebes 1 (or Thebans). Timoleon of Corinth. Dion of Syracuse. Hannibal of Carthage (or the Cartha¬ ginian). Zenodotus of Ephesus. Heraclides of Pontus 2 . Aristophanes of Byzantium. Livy of Patavium (Padua). Theophrastus of Eresus 3 . Aristotle of Stagira 4 . Democri¬ tus of Abdera 5 . Antipater of Tyre. Ovid of Sulmo. Ho¬ race of Venusia. Catullus of Verona. Thebanus. 2 Ponticus. 3 Eresius. 4 Stagirites. 5 Abderites. 81. (4) When two or more adjectives belong to a sub- 64 ADJECTIVES, [§ 81 . stantive and denote really distinct qualities, they are con¬ nected almost wholly by et, ac or atquc ; e. g. A long and excellent oration , oratio longa e t praeclara ; a great and wise man , vir magnus ac sapiens. So, magnifica et praeclara defensio; dubia formidolosa que tempora; nobilis homo et honestus. But when adjective pronouns, e. g. hic, ille, meus; definite and indefinite numerals, e. g. multi, plures, duo; ad¬ jectives denoting material, e. g. aureus ; time, e. g. hodier¬ nus; place, e. g. Alexandrinus ; or a person (where it stands for the genitive), e. g. civilis, —are joined with adjectives of quality, or when an adjective with its substantive expresses but a single idea, then they have no connecting word; e. g. Magna mea officia ; multi cives Romani; multa parva poe¬ mata; vasa argentea nobilia; tristis hodiernus dies; clarus ille portus Alexandrinus; novum bellum civile; magna mea vetera officia; externi multi clari viri. Yet the adjective that stands in connection with multi, ae, a (many), is usually joined to it by et, ac or atque, in order that the specification of the number may be expressed emphatically, by itself; e. g. tulit ilia insula multos et crudeles tyrannos, not only many, hut also cruel. Three or more qualifying words are all con¬ nected with the first by et, ac, atque ; e. g. fortes et magni e t clari homines. Orators, how r ever, in animated discourse allow even many adjectives to follow one another, without a connective; e. g. Jupiter nos justos, temperatos, sapientes non efficit. —But the Latin always says only, Jupiter optimus, maximus, without a connective. Examples. The whole Campanian 1 district 2 . A good domestic edu¬ cation. The other 3 splendid 4 buildings 5 . A brave and pa¬ triotic 6 army. The frightful 7 , insolent 8 tribune of the peo¬ ple 9 . No foreign 10 , cruel 11 enemy. The poor 12 , barren 13 soil 14 . A good and popular 15 law. An unadorned 16 , rough 17 body. The little Esquiline 18 gate 19 . There are many ridicu¬ lous fables of the ancient 20 gods. Dionysius carried 21 away the great silver 22 tables from 23 all the temples. ADJECTIVES. 65 § 82 .] 1 Campanus. 2 ager. 3 ceterus. 4 magnificus. 5 aedificium. 6 patriae amans. 7 terribilis. 8 trux. 9 tribunus plebis. 10 externus. 11 crudelis. 12 exllis. 13 macer. 14 solum. 15 popularis. 16 incultus. 17 horridus. 18 Esquilmus. 19 porta. 20 veteres. 21 auferre. 22 argenteus. 23 de. 82. (5) In English, as before remarked, adjectives are not declined, and nothing but the connection can determine whether they agree with this or that substantive. Hence, in some sentences of the same apparent import, the meaning may be very different. This is frequently the case, where the words first, last, alone and the like occur. Particular care is therefore necessary in rightly constructing the corres¬ ponding Latin words, primus, prior, ultimus, postremus, ex¬ tremus, solus, unus, totus ; e. g. I read this hook first, ego hunc librum primus legi, or ego hunc librum primum legi,—p r i m u s, \{ first refers to I, and the meaning is, I was the first who read the hook ; primum, if first refers to book, and the meaning is, this hook was the first which I read. He said this to me first, ille m i h i primo hoc dixit, ille mihi hoc primum dixit, or mihi i 11 e primus dixit, accord¬ ing as the word first relates to me, to this or to he. What writers did you read first ? quos scriptores primos le¬ gisti ? Tell it to me alone and to no one else, die mihi soli. Did he alone meet you, or was some one with him ? solusne i 11 e tibi obviam venit 1 Did he meet you alone, or was some one with you, tibine soli ille occurrit 1 Twelve vultures appeared to Remus first, Remo priori. The nominative of such words therefore refers to the sub¬ ject, other cases to a subordinate case of the sentence. So¬ lum and primum are also used as adverbs, when they refer to the verb of the sentence or make an object prominent, only adverbially; e. g. I not only (solum) retain my estate, hut also increase ii ; wisdom makes only happy, solum beatos, i. e. not rich, not illustrious, etc. And so after stands in contrast with the adverb first. 6 * 66 ADJECTIVES. [§ 83 . Examples. The pirates 1 attacked 2 every 3 ship in the rear 4 first. Aescu¬ lapius, as 5 it is said, first dressed 6 a wound 7 . Manlius Capi¬ tolinus alone had then 8 preserved 9 the Capitol. Ceres first gave 10 laws in Attica and Sicily. The Thessalians 11 first fought 12 on 13 horses, and the nation of the Phrygians 14 first joined 15 a span 16 . The Stoics alone, and the first among 17 all philosophers, asserted 18 this. I have often said this to you alone, when no one was present 19 . The ancient Germans communicated 20 the rumors heard to the magistrate 21 alone. I wish to read 22 the letter of my brother to you alone. Thou alone hast betrayed 23 my secret 24 to my brother. Give to me this letter only, the others I do not wish 25 to read. Furius weakened 26 the authority of the aged 27 Camillus by his youth¬ ful 28 age, the only means by which 29 he vras able. The Ae- tolians were forsaken 30 by the Romans, in 31 whom alone they trusted 32 . Among* the Grecian states, the commander 33 en¬ tered 34 Corcyra first. This did not happen 35 to you alone. Bibulus attributes 36 this to himself alone. The wise man does not provide 37 for his body alone, but much 38 more 39 for the mind 40 and soul 41 . Only those indued 42 with virtue, are rich. pirata. 2 adoriri. 3 quisque (see § 58). 4 postremus (in the rear.) 6 ut. 6 obligare. 7 vulnus. 8 tum. 9 servare. 10 ferre. 11 Thessalus. 12 pugnare. 13 ex. 14 Phryx. 15 jungere. 16 bigae. 17 ex. 18 discere. 19 nemine praesente (when no one was present). 20 communicare cum aliquo (to communicate to any one). 21 magistratus. 22 legere. 23 pro¬ dere. 24 res secreta. 25 nolle (not to wish). 26 levare. 27 senex. 28 juve¬ nilis. 29 qua (means by which). 30 deserere. 31 (dative). 32 fidere. * (genitive). 33 praefectus. 34 adire. 35 contingere. 36 attribuere. 37 pro¬ videre (with dative). 38 multo. 39 magis. 40 mens. 41 animus. 42 prae¬ ditus. 83. (6) English adverbs are sometimes expressed in Latin by adjectives, when they qualify not merely the verb in a sentence, but also the subject, of which the verb affirms something. Otherwise the adverb must be used; yet even in the first case, the adverb might be retained in the Latin. The following examples will illustrate both; This wheel runs swiftly, haec rota cita or cito currit; but this schol¬ ar paints beautifully , hic discipulus pulchre (not pul¬ cher) pingit; (for if a wheel runs swiftly, it is itself, at the ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 6 ? § 84 .] same time, swift; but if a scholar paints beautifully, he is not therefore, at the same time, beautiful himself); increase thy estate actively , strenuus or strenue auge rem tuam familiarem; you have expressed your opinion clearly and per- spicuously , dilucide et perspicue; I live happily , b e- atus or beate; I do this willingly, libens or liben¬ ter; he sits very near , proximus or proxime. Examples. Old men 1 walk 2 slowly 3 . The woman spoke 4 fearlessly 5 . Aristotle has expressed 6 this thought 7 very happily 8 . I can by no means 9 pass 10 this over silently 11 . This is silently granted 12 . Since 13 it is not lawful 14 for them to speak freely 15 , they ask 16 this of you silently. I live most unhappi¬ ly 17 . When Epaminondas had heard this, he died joyfully 18 , and breathed out 19 his life 20 fearlessly 21 . 1 senex. 2 incedere. 3 tardus. 4 loqui. 5 non timidus. 6 exprimere. 7 sententia. 8 egregius. 9 nullo modo (by no means). 10 praeterire. 11 tacitus. 12 concedere. 13 quoniam. 14 licere (to be lawful). 15 liber. 16 rogare. 17 miserrimus. 18 laetus. 19 efflare. 20 anima. 21 animosus. 84. (7) In English, we often use substantives governed by prepositions to denote time or place, e. g. in the beginning, in the middle, where the same may be expressed in Latin by adjectives; e. g. In the beginning or first part, primus; in the middle, medius; at the end or last part, extre¬ mus, ultimus; on the summit, on the surface, summus; in the inner part, intimus, etc. As adjectives, they must agree with their substantives; e. g. I dwell in the first part of the city, habito in prima urbe ; in the middle of the city, in media urbe; in the extreme or most remote part of the city, in extrema (ultima, summa) urbe; on the top of the tree, in summa arbore ; I touch the surface of the water, tango summam aquam; the enemy advanced into the middle of the city, in mediam urbem. Hence, auri¬ cula infima, the ear-lap. Examples. At 1 the end of the letter, the farewell 2 is omitted 3 . In the 68 ADJECTIVES. [§ 85 . beginning of spring, the swallows 4 and the storks 5 appear first. Decius Mus rushed 6 into the midst of the enemy. When I am pushed 7 in the middle of the way 8 , I cannot ac¬ cuse 9 one who is at the end 10 of the way. Many worms 11 do not die, when they are cut 12 in two in the middle. The an¬ cient astronomers placed 13 the earth in the middle of the world. Pompey made preparations 14 for this war at the end of winter, entered upon 15 it in the beginning of spring, and terminated 16 it in the middle of summer. Anapis and Am¬ phinomus carried 17 their father through the midst of the flames of .'Etna. In the inner part of the sanctuary 18 was an image 19 of Ceres. 1 in. 2 vale. 3 deesse. 4 hirundo. 5 ciconia. 6 immittere. 7 impellere. 8 via. 9 accusare. 10 summus. 11 vermis. 12 dissecare (to cut in two). 13 ponere (with in and the ablat.). 14 apparare (to make prep. for). 15 suscipere (to enter upon). 16 conficere. 17 gestare. 18 sacrarium. 19 signum. 85. Comp ar ativ e. The force of the Latin comparative may be expressed in English in the following ways: (1) Somewhat, very, pretty, a little; e. g. The place is somewhat, a little dark , locus est obscurior. (2) Too, too much, — in which case the com¬ parative is usually followed by quam ut ; e. g. The times are too oppressive for us to rejoice, tempora graviora, quam ut gaudere possimus. (3) So — as; e. g. Nothing is so easy, as this, nihil est facilius, quam hoc. (4) More — than ; e. g. This man is more fortunate, than prudent , hie homo felicior est, quam prudentior. (5) Not so — as, where in both members of the English sentence the positive is used, but in Latin the comparative, yet both of the Latin comparatives are transposed, and the word not is omitted; e. g. This advice was not so pleasing to Alexander, as usef ul, hoc consilium Alexandro erat utilius, quam carius. (6) Less — than, where there is a similar transposition of the comparative; e. g. This hook is less entertaining, than prof table for study, salubrior studiis, quam dulcior. But it is-to be observed in all these six instances, that they can be translated in the usual way by positives. COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 69 §§ 86 , 87 .] 86. The two phrases, as, as much, and as little, just as little, may also be expressed by comparative adverbs. As, as much, may be translated by non minus, nihilo minus ; e. g. Alcibiades is as much distinguished by his vir¬ tues, as his vices, Alcibiades non minus virtutibus, quam vitiis. The phrases, as little, just as little, may be expressed by non magis, nihilo magis, or non plus, nihilo plus ; e. g. That will happen as little to-day, as yesterday, hodie non ma¬ gis, quam heri. For the difference between magis and plus, see under § 547. 87. ( 1 ) When but two persons or things are spoken of, the comparative is used in Latin, as in English, although the English superlative is sometimes used here. We say in regard to two sons of a father, that is the elder, and this the younger. So the Latin, ille est natu major, hie minor. He spends the greater part of the year in the country, the rest in the city , majorem anni partem. Hence the com¬ parative is also used, at least more generally, when one ta¬ citly divides a great whole, containing many things, into two parts, And treats of one of them; e. g. Let us touch upon the more important only , potior a tantum attingamus. When a discourse has two parts, then the first part is prior pars, and the second and last — posterior pars, and when the first of two persons answers, he answers prior; the first six of twelve books, is sex priores, of more than twelve, sex primi. The question which, is here asked by uter, utra, utrum, not by quis, quae, quid; e. g. Which (of two) is the younger, uter est minor? (2) An affirmative superlative can also be well expressed by the periphrastic negative nihil est with the comparative, followed by quam with the nominative, or, instead of quam with the nominative, the ablative alone is still more frequent¬ ly used; e. g. The world is the most magnificent thing, n i- hil est praestantius, quam mundus, or nihil est 70 ADJECTIVES. [§ 88. mundo praest antius; this is the greatest kingdom, ni- hil est majus, quam hoc regnum, or nihil est hoc reg¬ no m aj u s, or quo regno nihil est majus. In phrases of this kind, nihil very often occurs with per - sojis, for nemo ; e. g. No one was more cruel than Nero, n i- hil fuit crudelius, quam Nero, or nihil fuit Nerone crudelius. The idea is expressed still more vividly by the interrogatives quis est, quid est, with the comparative: duis (quid) fuit crudelior (crudelius) Nerone? Examples. Nothing is so desirable 1 as a sound 2 mind 3 . Ulysses was more cunning 4 than brave. The winter of the past 5 year was very severe 6 . This wine is too sour 7 to be drunk. (Lat. quam ut id bibi possit). Old age 8 is somewhat reserved 9 and morose 10 . Aristides was not so timid as modest. Themis¬ tocles was more shrewd 11 than just. Cicero’s father had two sons,—the elder 12 is the renowned orator. The poems 13 of Catullus are too licentious 14 . These houses are not so splen¬ did 15 as convenient 16 . Between Caesar and Pompey a civil 17 war broke out 18 ; the cause 19 of the one 20 seemed 21 the better, that of the other, the stronger 22 . Jugurtha feared 23 his broth¬ ers just as little, as the Senate and Roman people. Our ac¬ quaintance 24 is most intimate 25 . Most 26 of the exploits 27 of Datames are very obscure 28 * Reason is the best thing, (ac¬ cording to No. 2). By too severe 29 diseases of the body, the pleasure 30 of life is interrupted 31 . No one is more dear 32 to me than my brother. I esteem 33 Pompey as much as Caesar. Philosophy is affected 34 just as little by threats 35 as by entrea¬ ties. I have received from you two letters; I will reply to the former first. ‘praestans. * sanus, "mens, ‘•versutus, “praeteritus, acidus. 8 senectus. 9 tectus. 10 morosus. 11 callidus. 3 carmen. 14 lascivus. 15 magnificus. 16 commodus. 17 civili lescere. 19 causa. 20 alter. 21 videri. 22 firmus. 23 timere. 24 fa 5 pnninn(>tiis (n nnmrl i n rr lo TVr» QN 26 nlp r innp 27 TCS gesta 33 diliger 13 carmen __ _ s _ _ descere. 19 causa. 20 alter. 21 videri. 22 firmus. 2 23 conjunctus (according to No. 2). 26 plerique. rus. 29 gravis, "jucunditas. 31 impedire. 32 carus movere. 35 minae. ire 88. It is further to be remarked, that three different abla¬ tives can be connected with the comparative. The one shows in what respect one person or thing excels another, § 89 .] ABLATIVE WITH THE COMPARATIVE. 71 the next how much one person or thing excels another, and the third the person or thing that another excels; e. g. Man is much more distinguished in boldness than woman, here the words in boldness , much and than woman, are expressed by the ablatives, audacia, multo, muliere. In reference to these three ablatives, the following is to be observed: (1) The first ablative shows wherein ox in what respect, one person or thing excels another; e. g. I am greater in body, corpore; thou art more distinguished in genius, ingenio. 89. (2) The second ablative shows how much one person or thing excels, or is inferior to another, in any respect; e. g. Greater by half, dimidio major; smaller by two feet, duobus pedibus minor; three years older, tribus a n n is major. In English the preposition is sometimes used, sometimes omitted; e. g. I am an inch larger, or larger by an inch, u n o digito major ; a day younger, or younger by a day, uno die minor. The general expres¬ sions by adjectives and pronouns to denote measure and de¬ gree, belong here, viz. by much, much, by far, multo; by a little, little, not much, parvo, paulo ; by how much, how much, how far, the, quanto; by so much, so much, the, tanto; by which, by which means, the, quo; by this, so much, the, eo or hoc; by a considerable, pretty much, considerable, by a good deal, aliquanto; in nothing, in no respect, nihilo, etc.; e. g. The closer the net is, so much (or the ) better, quo (quan¬ to) densius est rete, eo (tanto) melius; this is much (by far) more useful than that , multo utilius. The English even and still, which also strengthen the comparative, may be expressed by etiam or multo; e. g. This pain was now still more troublesome than before, nunc etiam moles¬ tior, quam antea. In sentences of general import, which do not speak of a definite subject (this, that, this disease, that physician), e. g. the more learned any one is, quo- 72 ADJECTIVES. [§ 90 . quis or quisque is seldom used classically with the com¬ parative, but ut quis with the superlative. Comp. § 95, 2. 90. (3) The third ablative denotes a person or thing which another excels, or to which it is inferior. This abla¬ tive consequently expresses the object, whether a person or thing, with which another of the first member of the sen¬ tence is compared. The English connects the two objects compared, by the particle than. The Latin expresses this by quam; but according to Latin usage, qaam can also be omitted, in some instances, and instead of it, the declinable word which follows it, can be put in the ablative; e. g. The earth is smaller than the sun , terra est minor, quam sol; or, without quam , terra est minor sole; and with the usual transposition, terra est sole minor; no virtue is more pleas¬ ing than liberality , nulla virtus liberalitate est jucun¬ dior, for quam 1 i b e r a 1 i t a s. 91. But this change to the ablative without quam, does not always take place, where in Latin a declinable word follows quam. The ablative without quam can be used only in the following instances: (1) When the nominative follows quam; therefore the subject of the first member is compared with another; e. g. men are better than beasts, meliores quam bestiae, instead of which, meliores bestiis, or bestiis meliores ; the palms are higher than other trees, altiores, quam aliae arbores, instead of which, altiores aliis arboribus, aliis ar¬ boribus altiores. It is no exception to this rule, if such a sentence is pre¬ ceded by the conjunction that, and is translated into Latin by the accusative with the infinitive, by which construction both the English nominatives become accusatives in Latin; e. g. It is certain, that men are better than beasts, homines meliores esse, qu a m bestias. Here also, instead of quam bestias, the Latins can say bestiis, since the accusative takes the place of the nominative. §§ 92, 93.] ABLATIVE WITH THE COMPARATIVE. 73 92. (2) When an accusative follows (quam) than, but which in English can be explained by the verb to be, and the nominative; e. g. I know no more faithful friend than this youth, which signifies, than this youth is, quam hunc ju¬ vene m,—instead of this, hoc juvene; why shall I consi¬ der Herodotus more to be trusted than Ennius, which signi¬ fies, than Ennius is, quam E n n i u m, or instead of it, E n- n i o. The ablative for quam with the accusative of the ob¬ ject, occurs very frequently among the poets, e. g. cur olivum sanguine viperino cautius vitat 1 — lior. In prose this is far more seldom, but yet sufficiently well established, e. g. est boni consulis suam salutem posteriorem salute com¬ muni ducere. — Cicero. 93. On the contrary, an omission of quam, and a variation of the case (i. e. either quam and the nominative, or the ab¬ lative without quam) is not admissible in the following in¬ stances : (1) When the use of the ablative, instead of quam with the nominative, might occasion ambiguity; e.g. Europa est Asia minor, can mean, Europe is less than Asia, and Asia is less than Europe. (2) When a genitive, a dative, an accusative (the two cases mentioned under § 91 and 92 excepted), or an ablative, would follow quam, then quam cannot be omitted; and still less, can it be omitted, when it stands before an indeclinable word. Hence in the following phrases, there can be no omis¬ sion of quam, or any variety in the construction : If I forget this man less than my brother, quam fratris mei, or quam fratrem meum; my father has given me a greater part than my brother, quam fratri meo; my father has rewarded me more amply than you, quam t e; he has given me more than I was expecting, quam expectabam; the inhabitants of Delos considered A polio more holy than any of the other gods, quam quemquam deorum. Cicero and others do not always use the ablative when it could 7 74 ABLATIVE WITH THE COMPAR 4TIVE. [§ 94. stand according to the rule, but they often introduce quam for the purpose of speaking more definitely and distinctly. Thus, Cicero says, Luna autein, quae est major, quam dimidia pars terrae, though he might have said, dimidia parte terrae. Catonem nostrum non tu amas plus, quam ego; and so very often. Quam is omitted with such nouns and adjectives as, expectatione (opinione), spe, dir,to, solito , justo , aequo ; e. g. Sooner than any one supposed, omnium opinione celerius ; less than usual, sol i to mi¬ nor; too long, justo (aequo) longior. So the Latins often speak. 94. Finally, the following peculiar usage is to be noticed. After the comparatives plus, amplius and minus followed by a numeral, quam is not usually expressed, but yet the nume¬ ral with its substantive suffers no change of case, and does not pass into an ablative; e. g. This field cannot support more than five thousand men , non amplius hominum quinque millia; not more than two hundred horsemen escaped , haud amplius ducenti equites; with not more than ten men , cum haud plus decem hominibus; this place is dis¬ tant from the dtp less than three hundred paces , minus tre¬ centos passus. The Latins consider plus and minus as a mere addition, therefore, two hundred horsemen , not more . Examples. (1) The more cunning 1 and artful 2 any one 3 is, so much the more hateful 4 and suspected 5 is he. There is no surer 6 bond 7 of friendship, than sympathy 8 and a communion 9 of counsels 10 and wishes 11 . We ought 12 to be more ready 13 for our own, than for the common 14 dangers. Nature has be¬ stowed 15 upon man nothing better than the shortness of life. The larger every 16 good book is, the better it is. Nothing can be more pleasant and dear to me, than thy life. In nothing 17 can we more easily obtain 18 the favor of the peo¬ ple 19 than by civility 20 . Although 21 Hector was inferior 22 to Achilles in courage 23 , yet, in the mildness of his disposi¬ tion 24 , he was more distinguished 25 than he. The greater the renown which we obtain 26 , the more shall we be exposed 27 to the envy of others. Doest thou believe 28 , that 29 anything is better for man than friendship ? When Mummius had de¬ stroyed 30 Corinth, he was in no respect richer than before 31 . Wise men consider 32 peace better 33 than innumerable tri¬ umphs. Epammondas held 34 the command 35 four months ADJECTIVES-SUPERLATIVE. 75 §95.] longer 36 than the people had ordered. Nature has given one 37 more 38 strength, than another. There are animals which do not live more than a year, and an insect which does not live more than a day. The Gymnasium lies 39 less than three hundred paces 40 from the city. I have lived with this man more than a year. The life of Procles was a year shorter, than that 41 of his brother Eurysthenes. 'versutus. 2 callidus. 3 quis. 4 invisus. 5 suspectus. 6 certus. 7 vinculum. 8 consensus. 9 societas. 10 consilium. 11 voluntas. 12 de¬ bere. 13 promptus. 14 communis. 15 praestare. 10 omnis. 17 nulla re. 1S adi pisci. 19 vulgus. 20 comitas. 2I etsi. 22 parvus. 23 fortitudo. 24 mi- tis animus (mildness of disposition). 25 praestans. 26 adipisci. 27 prope. 28 num credis (dost thou believe), "(acc. with the inf.). 30 delere. 31 antea. 32 ducere. 33 potior. 34 gerere. 35 imperium. 36 diu. 37 alter. 38 plus (with the genitive). 39 esse. 40 passus. 41 (comp. § 125). (2) Crassus was more desirous of gold than of renown. Anaxagoras was ignorant 1 , that 2 the sun was much larger than the whole earth; for he believed, that it was only 3 a lit¬ tle smaller than the Peloponnesus. Spare 4 bodies have more blood 5 than the corpulent 6 , which have more flesh 7 than blood. A walk 8 in 9 the open air 10 is far better and more healthful 11 , than in a colonnade 12 — better in the sun, than in the shade 13 . Cicero was generally 14 accustomed to praise Caesar more 15 than Pompey. The Sicilians and the other Greeks sometimes 16 made the month longer, by one or two days. Any 17 peace with the citizens, seems to me more advantageous than a civil war. All this is much better known 18 to you than to me. The Lacedemonians lived more 19 than seven hundred years, with 20 the same 21 customs, and with unchanged 22 laws. Thy letter was more pleasing to our Atticus than to me. What is there in the whole 23 heaven, and upon the earth, more godlike than reason? A righteous man loves 24 himself, in no respect more 25 than another 26 . Not less than fifty cities revolted 27 to king Philip. 'nescire. 2 (acc. with inf.). 3 tantum. 4 tenuis. 5 sanguis (gen.). 6 crassus. 7 caro (gen.), "ambulatio. 9 sub. 10 divum (open air), "sa¬ luber (salubris). 12 porticus. 13 umbra. 14 plerumque. 15 magis. 16 in¬ terdum. 17 omnis. 18 notus. 19 amplius. 20 (ablative). 21 unus. 22 immu¬ tatus. 23 omnis. 24 diligere. 25 plus. 26 alter. 27 deficere. 95. The Superlative. This is used as follows: ( 1 ) For our positive, strengthened by prefixing very, ex - 76 ADJECTIVES-SUPERLATIVE. [§ 95. ceedingly, extraordinarily, right, wholly, perfectly, etc. e. g. A very learned man, vir doctissimus; this man is wholly like you, tibi simillimus. In general, the ancients use it more than we do, to express praise or blame. (2) It is used almost always for the comparative, where the word the, before a comparative in one clause, is followed by so much the, or simply the, in another. This usage oc¬ curs where the proposition is general, and is not confined to a single definite person or thing, or to several, as 1 , this, the physician, this teacher, but to what is indefinite, as any one , one, a physician, etc. The — any one with the compara¬ tive, is expressed in Latin by ut quisque with the superlative, and so much the, or simply the , by ita with the superlative; e. g. The more learned any one is, so much the more , (or the more) modest is he, u t quisque est doctissimus, ita est modestissimus; the more difficult any cause is, the more able (so much the more) advocate should be employed, ut quaeque causa dfficillima est, ita optimus patronus adhibendus est. Nevertheless, the com¬ parative is also used in the same manner, yet seldom by the best classical writers; e. g. quo quis or quisque est doctior, eo est modestior. With the comparative, quo quisque is always used, when a substantive belongs to it, but without a substantive, both quo quis and quo quisque. In one of the two clauses, a superlative adverb can be used. Comp. § 96. Examples. The girl was very sad 1 . What is true, plain 2 and sincere 3 , is perfectly adapted 4 to nature. The more powerful and wealthy 5 any one is, the more luxurious and vicious is he. The more ignorant 6 any one is, the more haughty 7 is he. The power 8 of conscience 9 is exceedingly great. The more brave any one is, the more noble 10 is he. A very great crowd 11 of men accompanied 12 the emperor. In diseases of the body, the more dangerous they 13 are, the better and more skilful 14 physician is sought. §§ 96, 97.] ADVERBS - COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. 77 1 tristis. 2 simplex. 3 sincerus. 4 aptus. 5 opulentus. 6 imperitus. 7 arroaans. 8 vis. 9 conscientia. 10 generosus. 11 turba. 12 comitari. 3 O 13 quisque. 14 nolulis. 96. What has been said of the two degrees of adjectives, is true also of adverbs. These likewise occur in the com¬ parative and superlative, not merely in their proper and natural signification, but also with the significations and different constructions already mentioned, of which adjec¬ tives admit. In English, a periphrasis by the preposition with and a substantive, often takes the place of an adverb of quality, in Latin ; e. g. With pleasure , libenter; with more (greater) pleasure , libentius; icitk the greatest pleasure , liben¬ tissime. Examples . A calm 1 tnind 2 can do 3 everything better. Men very often err. Death and pain are most 4 feared 5 . Socrates lived far more happily 6 than Croesus. Caesar defended 7 himself with the greatest obstinacy 8 . Darius never drank impure water with greater pleasure 9 , than when he was thirsty 10 . Men very easily believe what they hope for. Many men speak eloquently 11 , but not prudently 12 ; others on the contrary 13 , do not speak so eloquently, as prudently. The ancient Ro¬ mans observed nothing with more conscientiousness 14 , than an oath 15 . We do not with propriety 16 call him happy, who possesses 17 much; with greater propriety, he takes 18 the name of happy, who wisely employs 19 ihe gifts 20 of the gods. Parents, with the greatest propriety, intrust 21 their children 22 to wise men. Thou hast pronounced 23 this syllable 24 too short. The more honestly any one lives, the less will he injure 25 others. The more any one refers 26 everything, which he does 27 , to 28 his own advantage 29 , so much the less is he a good man. tranquillus. 2 mens. 3 facere. 4 multum. 5 timere. 6 beatus, ’de¬ fendere. 8 pertinaciter. 9 jucunde. 10 sitiens. 11 diserte. 12 prudenter. 13 contra. 14 religiose. 15 jusjurandum 16 recte. 17 possidere, ^occu¬ pare. 19 collocare, “munus. 21 committere. a ' 2 liberi. 23 pronuntiare. 24 syllaba, "offendere. 26 referre. 27 facere. 28 ad. "commodum. 97. When an explanation, by the preposition of or among , is con¬ nected with the comparative or superlative, it is more usually e** 7* 78 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. [§ 98 . pressed in Latin by the genitive, more seldom by the prepositions ex and in; e. g. The elder of the brothers pleased vie more , major fra- trum; Demosthenes was the most distinguished among the orators of antiquity, maximus or summus oratorum; Thales was the wisest among the seven wise, sapientissimus in septem fuit Thales. See more on this below, under the genitive. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. (Let the student learn, first of all, to distinguish the cardinal from the ordinal numbers.) 98. The cardinal numbers show how many persons or things are meant, and hence in all these numbers above one (unus, a, um), more than one person or thing is denoted; e. g. Three boys, twelve scholars, thirty soldiers. The cardi¬ nal number often occurs in English, where the Latin uses the distributive. Comp. § 101. But the ordinal number never denotes more than one. It denotes what one in a series, a class and a regularly dis¬ posed number; e. g. The third month, the fifth scholar, the fourth camp (quarta castra). We, however, often exchange the ordinal for the cardinal, when we place the numeral after, instead of before the sub¬ stantive; e. g. The year twenty before Christ. We also sometimes mix the cardinal with the ordinal numbers; e. g. We say twenty-third, joining twenty, a cardinal, with third, an ordinal number. The Latins never adopt this usage. In both the cases just mentioned, the Latins use the ordinal number, e. g. anno vicesimo ante Christum, vigesi¬ mus tertius. In the best ancient writers, the forms of certain ordinals, which have crept into some grammars, are not used; such as decimus ter¬ tius, decimus quartus, etc. to decimus septimus. In all these, the smaller number must stand before the greater; as, tertius decimus, etc. Hence, tertiadecimanus, a soldier of the thirteenth legion. But from twenty upward, the greater stands either before or alter the smaller. If it stands before the smaller, et does not stand be¬ tween, e. g. tricesimus sextus. But if it stands after the smaller, et is almost always placed between; e. g. sextus et tricesimus, not sex¬ tus tricesimus. It is more correct to say, duodevigesimus, not octa¬ vus decimus ; duodeviginti, not decem et octo; undevigesimus, not NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 79 §§ 99, 100.] nonus decimus ; undeviginti . , not decem et novem; tres et viginti , not viginti (et) tres. Where hundreds occur, the smaller number is gen¬ erally placed after, without et ; e. g. centesimus quadragesimus. 99. The word thousand is expressed either by mille (mile), or millia (milia). But mille signifies only a thousand, and millia , many thousand. The singular, rnillc, is seldom used as a substantive, and is generally connected only with geni¬ tives denoting money and measure; e. g. mille denarium, mille passuum. It is for the most part considered as an ad¬ jective, and is joined, without inflection, to any case of a sub¬ stantive; e. g. Mille milites, mille militum, mille mi¬ litibus. But the plural, millia , which is declinable, is always considered as a substantive, and has the word connected with it, in the genitive; e. g. in the nominative. Two thousand soldiers , duo millia militum, in the genitive, duorurn millium militum, in the dative, duobus millibus militum, etc. But when another smaller number follows the word thousand, and the substantive belonging thereto is placed after this smaller number, then the substantive is not considered as dependent on millia , but is put in any case the sentence requires; e. g. 9300 knights, tria millia et trecenti equites; 2500 stadia, duo millia et quingenta stadia; 5417 sesterces (accusative), quinque millia qua¬ dringentos septendecim numos. So also, when the sub¬ stantive is placed first; e. g. 3300 knights, equites tria millia et trecenti, where, however, the genitive also can be used. But if the substantive is placed immediately after the word thousand, it must be in the genitive, and the smaller number stands after, in the case required; thus, tria millia equitum et trecenti. 100. When the word every, is used with the English car¬ dinal or ordinal, in Latin only the ordinal is found, and the word every is expressed by quisque , which is placed directly after the ordinal; e. g. He comes to me every three days, or every third day, tertio quoque die ad me venit; every 80 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. [§ 101 . jive years, or every fifth year , quinto quoque anno. The word always, if it stands with an ordinal, is also ex¬ pressed by quisque , which is placed after the numeral; e. g. The seventh day is always a festival, septimus quis¬ que dies est festus. 101. The distributives, e. g. Two and two, two by two, three and three, three by three , b i n i, terni, etc., are used to express a distribution into equal parts, among several. Hence they are employed : (1) To denote, that the number named belongs especially to each person or thing (of two or more that are named); e. g. He gave to each of us two books , dedit nobis binos libros. On the contrary, dedit nobis duos libros would signify, he gave us two books in all , which we must divide among ourselves. The each or every ( unusquisque ) is there¬ fore contained in the bini. Yet each or every can also be translated by unusquisque or singuli. In this case, how¬ ever, the second numeral of the sentence must be a distribu¬ tive; e. g. To every soldier he gave one (two, three) sesterce (sesterces), singulis militibus dedit singulos (binos, ternos) sestertios; every pillar (singulae columnae) cost five hundred (quingenis) sesterces; to every one of you two feet of land is assigned , unicuique vestrum bini pedes. The idea of each is also contained in viritim, which requires the distributive in connection with it. But in English the words, each, every are sometimes not expressed, but must be supplied by the mind ; e. g. Lionesses first produce five young, i. e. each lioness produces, — hence, leaenae primo pariunt quinos fetus; for it is not affirmed of all lionesses together, but only of each individually, and not of any definite one. If, on the contrary, it is affirmed of any single definite one, the cardinal is used, e. g. This lioness produced five young, quinque fetus. In the phrase, This lioness produces six young, whereas they are wont to produce five, — the number six must be expressed by sex, but the second number five, by quinos. § 101 .] NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 81 The distributive is generally used, when each, every or al¬ ways is readily supplied by the mind, or is contained in the sentence; e. g. The law (always) allows three hours to the (every) orator , ternas horas; the army in six divisions, went in turn every six hours into the battle, sen is horis in orbem successit proelio; the laws prescribe three (ternos) sesterces as the highest for a meal, and thirty (tricenos) on holidays, i. e. three for each, and thirty for each; some continue in the course of instruction twenty (v i c e n o s an¬ nos) years, i. e. each of the some do this; the walk to the right and left is ten feet wide, i. e. is always so, or each walk is so wide, pedes lata denos; he made divisions on the shore, I know not of how many acres (each), nescio quotenorum jugerum ; so the distributive is always used with numeral ad¬ verbs, e. g. How much is twice two, quot sunt bis bina ? (2) The distributives are used with substantives denoting time; e. g. daily, every day, singulis diebus; hourly, every hour, singulis horis; yearly, singulis annis. Yet, instead of this, in horas, quot diebus, in dies, in annos, quotannis, omnibus annis, quot mensibus ( every month), monthly, etc. So also the adjectives quotidianus, diurnus, horarius, menstruus, anniversarius have a distributive force. (3) Distributives stand for the cardinal numbers with those substantives which are used in the plural and signify only a single thing, or with those substantives, whose plural has a different signification from the singular ; e. g. A letter, 1 i t- terae; two letters, b i n a e litterae, (d u o litterae being two letters of the alphabet); a camp, castra; three camps, trina castra (terna castra being each of three camps); an army, copiae; two armies, biuaecopiae; two houses, binae aedes; two temples, duae aedes. To these belong also catenae, ludi (public games), gladiatores, molae (a mill), etc. It is hence to be noticed, that the Latin here does not say, terni, but trim, at, a, — t.rni retaining its dis¬ tributive force; thus, trinae litterae, trinae nuptiae, 82 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. [§ 101 . trini codicilli, and the like. So, not singuli, — ae , a, but uni, ae, a, — singuli also retaining its distributive force; e. g. Unae scalae, una castra ; and so also with centesimae, the per cent.; binae cent., two per cent. ; trinae, etc. Examples on § 98—101. (1) Ten men were appointed 1 to write 2 laws, who, after two years, proposed 3 the twelve tables 4 . The Romans con¬ tended in Spain nearly 5 two hundred years. If you* add 6 four pounds 7 to seven, it makes 8 eleven pounds ; and if, from twenty-seven pounds, you subtract 9 six, twenty-one remain 10 . If two hundred and forty-two years are added to three hun¬ dred and sixty-five, there is 11 a series 12 of six hundred and seven years. The emperor Tiberius died 13 in the seventy- eighth year of his age, and in the twenty-third of his reign 14 , the sixteenth** of March, in the seven hundred and ninetieth of the city of Rome, and in the thirty-seventh year after the birth of Christ 15 . Mithridates, with three hundred and forty soldiers, conquered 16 sixty thousand and two hundred of the enemy, by continual 17 assaults 18 . King Crotimus, with seven hundred and thirty-three companions 19 laid waste 20 all Egypt. The olive-tree 21 bears 22 every two years. Nero usually 23 gave the consulship for only six months. Turtle doves 24 usually lay 25 three eggs. Numantia, with four thousand Cel- tiberians 26 , withstood 27 , fourteen years, an army of forty thou¬ sand men 28 . In a battle of Alexander the Great against Da¬ rius, twenty-one thousand infantry 29 and ten thousand caval¬ ry 30 were killed 31 . Archidamus in his will bequeathed 32 to each of his friends five talents 33 . Every five years the Olym¬ pic games 34 were celebrated 35 in Greece. 1 creare. 2 conscribere (subj. with ut). 3 proponere. 4 tabula. 5 prope. *§218. 6 addere alicui. 7 libra. 8 confici. 9 deducere. 10 reliqui fit summa (with the genitive). 11 oriri. 12 serips. 13 mori. 14 imperium. ** septimus decimus Calendas Apriles. 15 Christus natus (birth of Christ). 16 vincere. 17 assiduus. 18 eruptio. 19 comes. 20 vastare. 21 olea. 22 ferre. 23 plerumque. 24 turtur. 25 parere. 26 Celtiber, -eri. 27 sustinere. 28 miles. 29 pedes. 30 eques 31 occidere. 32 legare. 33 ta¬ lentum. 34 Olympia (the Olympie games). 35 celebrare. (2) Diodotus lived with Cicero in one house*. One thou¬ sand two hundred and seventy Numidian 1 and Spanish 2 knights revolted 3 to Marcellus. In the battle near Cannae, forty thousand infantry, two thousand seven hundred cavalry, PRONOUNS. 83 § 102 .] and nearly as many 4 allies 5 , were killed. Hannibal offered 6 for 7 each 8 head, as 9 the price 10 of ransom 11 , five hundred ses¬ terces 12 for 13 every knight, three hundred for every foot 14 sol¬ dier, and one hundred for every slave 15 . I received 16 three letters 17 from you in one day. The Pythian 18 games were celebrated, at first 19 , every nine years, afterwards 20 , every four years. Christ was born 21 one thousand eight hundred and forty-one years ago, in the seven hundred and fifty-fourth year after the building of Rome 22 . Caesar made 23 two 24 ditches 25 , of twelve feet 26 each. An Arcadian 27 ass was sold 28 , in Cicero’s times, for 29 a thousand and sixty sesterces. Tiberius made 30 three classes of companions 31 , and gave to the first, six hundred sesterces, to the second, four hundred, and to the third, two hundred. Until 32 the autumnal equi¬ nox 33 , the hives 34 are to be opened 35 every ten days. In the Picene 36 district 37 , a goat 38 produced 39 six kids 40 at one birth 41 ; generally 42 they produce only four. * aedes. ‘Numidicus. 3 Hispanicus. 3 transire. 4 totidem (as many). 5 socius. 6 proponere. 7 in. 8 singuli. 9 (as is not expressed in Lat.). 10 pretium, “redemptio. 12 sestertius. 13 (dative). 14 pedes. 15 servus. 16 accipere, “litterae. 18 Pythia (Pythian games). 19 initium. 20 postea. 21 nasci. 22 Roma condita (building of Rome). 23 ducere. 24 duplex. 25 fossa. 26 (genitive). 27 Arcadicus. 28 vendere, 29 (ablative). 30 fa¬ cere. 31 comes. 32 usque ad. 33 autumni aequinoctium. 34 alveus. 35 aperire. 36 Picenus. 37 ager. 38 capra. 39 edere. 4 °hoedus. 41 uno fetu. 42 alias. PRONOUNS. 102. When it is said affirmatively in English, This is my father, or interrogatively, Which is my father ? neither hoc nor quid can be used ; but, in reference to the following pa¬ ter (father)—h i c and q u i s est meus pater ? In Latin, the pronouns agree in gender, number and case with the follow¬ ing substantive. Hence, That is my mother, is expressed by, ilia mea est mater; what is the cause of thy grief? quae est causa doloris tui ; I consider this true friendship, hanc veram habeo amicitiam. The neuter what , however, is translated by quid, when the property, essence and nature of a person or thing, is to be denoted ; e. g. He does not know what God is, quid Deus sit ; what is the memory, quid est memoria ? What else is philosophy ? philosophia 84 pronouns. [§§ 103,104. quid est aliud ? So the negative nihil aliud , e. g. History is nothing else, than, nihil a 1 i u d, n i s i. 103. On the contrary, when qui, quae, quod has, in its sentence, a substantive as its predicate, referring to itself, the pronoun is put in the gender and number, either of the preceding substantive, or the one following, though the last is more usual. This construction is particularly found with the verb sum and with verbs of naming, railing and considcr- ing, e. g. dicere, vocare, appellare, nominare, habere, pu¬ tare, etc. Hence, Summa pars coeli, q u i (for quae) aether dicitur; venio ad Catonem, quod (for qui) est firmamen¬ tum—; domicilia conjuncta, quas (for quae) urbes dici¬ mus. Yet the pronoun might refer to the other noun. Examples. This is the nearest 1 , and, as it were 2 , the shortest 3 way to renown. Both 4 are wholly different 5 opinions. What are the best writings 6 of the ancients 7 ? These are the best ex- ercises 8 of the mind 9 . It is an old question 10 , What is man ? What is this 11 voluntary servitude 12 ? This is the cause of the dissension 13 . Our ancestors 14 regarded this as 15 true riches, this as 15 a good reputation 16 and great renown 17 . The Germans 18 are no longer 19 the same 20 , that they were before. What are now called cities, were formerly 21 vil¬ lages 22 . I am towards 23 you, what you are towards me. That which we find in ourselves, is the best remedy 24 for 25 troubles 26 . No one can certainly 27 say, what the soul is. These are not the faults 28 of art, but of man. The study of wisdom, which is called 29 philosophy, is ancient. Philoso¬ phy, the mother of all arts, what else is she, than a gift of the gods ? This shows that emotion 30 of the mind, which I call madness 31 . •proximus. 2 quasi (as it were). 3 compendiarius. 4 uterque. di¬ versus (superlative). 6 scriptum. 7 veteres. 8 exercitatio. 9 ingenium. 10 quaestio. 11 iste. 12 servltus. 13 discordia. 14 majores. 13 (as is omit¬ ted). 16 f'ama. 17 nobilitas. 18 Gerfnanus. 19 amplius. 20 idem. 21 olim. 22 vicus. 23 in. 24 medicina. 23 (genitive). 26 labor. 27 certe. 28 vitium. 29 dicere. 39 concitatio. 31 furor. 104. The pronouns, my, thy, his, her, your, our, their, are not expressed in Latin, if they are not contrasted with PRONOUNS. 85 * 104 .] others, and especially, if they refer to the subject of the sen¬ tence ; e. g. The righteous man is also happy in his death % in morte; all love him on account of his courtesy, prop¬ ter humanitatem; I love my brother, as I ought, f r a- trem sic arno, ut debeo. But if, on the contrary, they do> not refer to the subject of the sentence, and there is an evi¬ dent antithesis, and a particular emphasis is placed on the pronoun, or if indeed the word own is connected with the English pronoun, then it is expressed, and is generally placed before the substantive. But the word own is either not ex¬ pressed at all in Latin, or, if so, by ipsius, and in the plural by ipsorum ; e. g. You prefer your interest to the pttblic , tu t u a m utilitatem praeponis publicae; I wrote this with my own hand, haec me a manu scripsi: this was written with his own hand, ipsius manu; in my opinion, this is worihy of praise, ad m e u m sensum ; he killed his daughter with his own hand, s u a manu ; thy speech is evidence of this, oratio t u a,—where the addition of the pronoun is not super¬ fluous, although without emphasis, and hence it is placed af¬ ter the substantive. And so the pronouns are often supplied, when the relation would be indefinite without them, even when they refer to the subject, e. g. We are accustomed to send our children to the best teachers, liberos nostros. Examples. I learned 1 this from thy letter. Pompey showed 2 his kind¬ ness 3 towards 4 us by every 5 address 6 . The lion gently 7 lick¬ ed 8 the feet of the man, and, according to the custom 9 of fawning 10 dogs, wagged his tail 11 . If we raise 12 our eyes to heaven at night, we see the most beautiful spectacle. You read and love only 13 your own writings, but the writings of others 14 you despise 15 . We make our way through Italy. Who will judge 16 of 17 our disagreement 18 ? I have received your letter, and was surprised that 19 you wrote it with your own hand. Scipio exceeded 20 the highest 21 expectation 22 of his fellow-citizens 23 . Oxen defend 24 themselves by their horns, wild-boars 25 by their tusks, and lions by their bite 26 . 8 86 PRONOUNS. [§ 105. Romulus killed 27 his brother Remus. We speak of friends, who are not before our eyes. Cato bore 28 the death of his son calmly 29 1 cognoscere. 2 significare. 3 benevolentia. 4 in. 5 omnis. 6 oratio. “ O 7 leniter. 8 demulcere. 8 ritu (according 1 to custom). 10 adulans. 11 cau¬ da. 12 tollere. 13 solum. 14 ceterus. 15 contemnere. 16 judicare. 17 de. 18 dissensio. 19 quod. 20 superare. 21 summus. 22 spes. 23 civis. 24 tu¬ tari. 25 aper. 26 morsus. 27 interficere. 28 ferre. 29 equo animo. 105. Since the possessive pronouns take the place of the genitives of their personal pronouns ego, tu, etc. and conse¬ quently stand for mei, tui, etc., therefore every addition or ex¬ planation, which refers to the ego, tu, ille, nos, vos, illi con¬ tained in the possessives, is put in the genitive, and if possi¬ ble, directly after the possessive ; e. g. an oration by me, (my oration), is expressed by, oratio mea; an oration by me, thy father, m e a, patris tui, oratio ; my own hand, m e a i p- sius manus; our own children, nostri ipsorum liba¬ ri ; a fault of myself alone, m e u m solius vitium ; this is the mistake of myself, who disclaim it, hic est meus error, negantis. But when the word all is prefixed to or follows the words, of us, of you, of them, the Latin usually puts both in the genitive ; e. g. of all of us, or of us all, nostrum om¬ nium; contrary to the expectation of all of us, praeter nos¬ trum omnium (omnium nostrum) expectationem, not nostram omnium. In all these examples, the genitives are in apposition or agree with the possessive pronouns, which contain the force of a genitive. Examples. I have done all for 1 my own sake 2 . My name was a source of honor 3 to him, while I was absent 4 , and now my prayers, when I am present 5 , have profited* him much. You have done this for your own sake only 6 . Our 7 anxiety 8 , when we are absent 9 , is relieved 10 by frequent 11 letters. I have under¬ taken 12 the journey for thy sake alone 13 . Camillus recount¬ ed 14 the wars which had been carried on 15 by 16 the direction 17 of himself alone 18 . Thou hast often seen my eyes, when I was weeping 19 . I perceived 20 thy zeal 21 when 22 thou wast a youth. The state is saved 23 by my efforts 24 alone. We have PRONOUNS. 87 § 106.] disappointed 25 the expectation of all of you. You have ex¬ ceeded 26 the expectation of us all. Our country is the com¬ mon 27 parent 28 of us all. ^ablative). 2 causa 3 honor (dative, source of honor). 4 absens (while I was absent). 5 praesens. * prodesse. 8 solum. 7 (the posses¬ sive pronoun in Nora ). 8 desiderium. 9 absens. 10 lenire. 11 creber. 12 suscipere. 13 unus. 14 commemorare. 15 gerere. 1(5 sub. 17 auspicium. 18 solus. 19 flens (when 1 was weeping). 20 perspicere. 21 studium. 22 adolescens (when thou —). 23 salvus. 24 opera. 25 fallere. 26 su¬ perare. 27 communis. 28 parens. 1C6. Quis , quid is used when we speak of more than two; on the contrary, uter, utra , utrum t only when we speak of two ; thus, which of t?co ; e. g. Virgil and Horace are great poets; which pleases you? uter tibi placet? Virgil , Ho¬ race and Tibullus are distinguished poets ; which pleases you? qu is tibi placet ? If, in these two questions, an adjective or an adverb occurs, the comparative is used with utcr , because it speaks of but two (see § 8?) ; but the superlative with quis, because it speaks of several, though where a compar¬ ison is made, the comparative degree must be used, even when the who or what does not refer to two substantives al¬ ready named ; e. g. which (amongtwo already named) pleases you more ? u t e r tibi magis placet ? Which (of these two) is the better ? utrum est melius? Which (among more than two named) pleases you more ? quis tibi maxime placet? Who is more eloquent than Demosthenes? quis Demosthene eloquentior? The same is true of nullus and neuter. Nullus refers to more them two , neuter to two only , and hence signifies neither of two. Docs Eutropius or Justin please you ? neither pleases me , neuter mihi placet. Hast thou read a tragic poet of the Grecians ? as yet, no one , adhuc n u 11 u m. Examples. Lydus and Tyrrhenus determined by lot 1 , which of 2 them should leave 8 the country. Which do you consider 4 the greatest general, Caesar, Scipio or 5 Hannibal ? Which do you consider the better orator, Cicero or Demosthenes ? 88 PRONOUNS. [§ 107 . Thou hast read two tragedies 6 of Sophocles; which pleases you more ? Epaminondas when* dying, asked 7 which had conquered, the Thebans or Peloponnesians ? These are the different 8 opinions of Philosophers concerning 9 the Deity; which seems to you the most reasonable? Which is the richer, he, who is rich in mind 10 , or he, who is rich in gold? Epicurus and Zeno are of different opinions respecting the highest good ; but the opinions of neither please me. If thy neighbor 11 had a better farm 12 than thou hast, which farm wouldst thou prefer 13 We here bring 14 to you war and peace; which pleases you ? The river Arar flows into the Rhone very 15 gently 16 , so that it cannot be determined 17 by the eye which way 18 it flows. When Hercules saw two ways, the one 19 of pleasure, and the other of virtue, he doubted 20 which it was better to enter 21 . 1 sortiri (to determine by lot). 2 ex. 3 relinquere. 4 ducere. 8 an. * tragoedia. * see §79.1. 7 interrogare. 8 diversus. 9 de. 10 mens. 11 vicinus. 12 fundus. 13 malle. 14 portare. 15 incredibilis. 16 leni¬ tas. 17 judicare. 18 pars. 19 unus. 20 dubitare. 21 ingredi. 107. The phrases, and this too, and that too, and these too, and besides, and even, which connect an important additional circumstance belonging to what precedes, especially an ad¬ jective with a foregoing substantive, are expressed in Latin by et is, et hie, isque; in like manner, and at the same time, at once, and also, are expressed by et idem or idemque. As pronouns, is, hie or idem must agree with their preceding substantives. But when they do not refer to a preceding substantive, but to the whole foregoing sentence, especially to the verb, they are put in the neuter singular; thus, et id, idque, et idem; e. g. I have received a letter, and that too (or and that) a short one, epistolam, eamque (et eam) brevem accepi, or litteras, easque (et eas) breves accepi. He made use of historical illustrations, and besides (or and these too) beautiful ones, exemplis, i isque illustribus. Epicu¬ rus spent a happy, and at the same time, the last day of his life, beatum et eundem supremum diem. He accom¬ plished his journey, and that too, in a short time, cursum con¬ fecit, idque (et id) brevi tempore. But if the additional circumstance is negative, then, instead of et or que , the word PRONOUNS. 89 § 108 .] nec or neque , is used; e. g. At length he sent me a letter, and that too, not a long one, epistolam, neque eam longam. The adverb quidem is often joined to the pronoun is; there¬ fore, et eas quidem breves; et eis quidem illustri¬ bus. Examples. You sent me a single 1 book yesterday, and that too a bad one. We find, in most places of the earth, warm water, and that too in the winter. To philosophize 2 does not please* some 3 , and those too, not very 4 learned men. Pompey fought 5 against Mithridates, and even with a small army 6 . The tyrant Alexander always had a barbarian 7 with 8 him and that too, tattooed with Thracian 10 letters. In all the letters, which I sent to Caesar, 1 subjoined 11 a recommendation of you 12 , and besides, no common 13 one. Many bestow 14 upon 15 dark, and at the same time not necessary subjects 16 , much pains 17 . The mind has a recollection, and that too, unlimi¬ ted 18 , of innumerable things. This food is the most deli¬ cious 19 and also the most wholesome 20 . 1 anus. 2 philosophari. * displicere (not to please). 3 quidam. 4 admodum. 5 pugnare. 6 exercitus. 7 barbarus. 8 cum. 9 compunctus. 10 Threicius. 11 adjicere. 12 commendatio tui. 13 vulgaris. 14 con¬ ferre. 15 in. 1G res. 17 opera. 18 infinitus. 19 suavis. 20 saluber (salu¬ bris). 108. The reflexive pronouns, sui, sibi, se and suus must, according to their nature and signification, refer back to the subject or the most important word in the sentence; but the demonstrative pronoun, is, ea, id, does not refer to the sub¬ ject, but to some other substantive. The reflexive pronouns, himself, herself, themselves, etc. in their appropriate cases, are expressed by the reflex¬ ives sui, sibi, se, although the English does not always use a reflexive pronoun where the Latin does. This is particular¬ ly the case, in the construction of the Acc. with the Inf., when the Latin uses the reflexive ; e. g. my brother said that he would come, frater dixit, se venturum esse. So also, the English generally use the personal pronoun without the re¬ flexive form, where the Latin reflexive and the substantive to which it refers are in different clauses; e. g. The general 8 * PRONOUNS. 90 [§§109—111. feared that the soldiers would desert h i m, dux metuebat, ne milites se desererent. 109. The reflexive pronouns sui, sibi, se , are used : (1) When they refer to the subject of their own sentence; e. g. Phidias inclosed a form like himself in a shield, s u i similem speciem. He mentioned the honor bestowed upon himself (sibi). They mentioned the honor bestowed upon themselves (sibi). 110. (2) When the pronoun stands in a dependent sentence, and refers to the subject of the leading or principal sentence. Dependent sentences are such as do not stand alone, but re¬ quire some other sentence to precede them, which contains the principal verb or thought, to which the dependent sentence re¬ fers. Sentences denoting a purpose, object, or result, and intro¬ duced by u t, that, in order that, n e, ihat not, in order that not, fjuo, in order that, and the like, and also indirect questions, belong to dependent sentences. Sentences, likewise contain¬ ing an Acc. with the Inf., are dependent. 111. In such dependent sentences, the Latins use the re¬ flexive pronouns, when the pronouns refer to the person speaking or thinking, and he speaks or thinks of himself (d e s e); e. g. Whoever believes, that he, (the one believing) can he unhappy, is not happy, se (not eurn) posse miserum esse ; men do not often think, that evils can befall them (the men thinking), mala sibi (not e i s) accidere posse ; Ver¬ res asked Dolabella, that he would send him (Verres speak¬ ing) to king Nicomedes, ut se (not eu in) ad regem Nico¬ medem mitteret ; Cicero requested Pompey, that he would not demand this of him (the one requesting), ne hoc a s e (not eo) postularet. From these examples it will be evident, that here the one speaking or thinking, always speaks or thinks of himself (de s e). (3) There are some instances in which one reflexive refers to the subject of the principal sentence, and another to the subject of the subordinate sentence ; e. g. The Scythians re- PRONOUNS. 91 § § 112 — 115 .] quested Alexander to marry the daughter of their Icing ; Scy¬ thae petebant ab Alexandro, ut regis sui (sc. Scytharum) filiam matrimonio sibi (sc. Alexandro) jungeret. 112. When the dependent sentence has a subject, to which the re¬ flexive pronoun might also be easily referred, the pronoun ipse can be employed to prevent this ambiguity, although in such cases, also, the reflexive is almost always used ; e. g. Jugurtha sent ambassadors to the consul, to ask life for himself and his children ; J. legatos ad con¬ sulem mittit, qui ipsi liberisque vitam peterent, where ipsi can refer only to Jugurtha, whereas sibi might have referred to legatos also. On the contrary, ipse is often found where there is no ambiguity, since it always expresses the contrast more emphatically than the reflexive. Cicero uses this ipse in the intermediate clause, as much as in his power , quantum in ipso est, where others use in se. 113. On the contrary, the demonstrative is, ea, id, in its different cases, is used : (1) When the pronouns in the leading and subordinate propositions, do not refer to the subject of these propositions; e. g. Cicero promised all to him (ei) ; Laelius did everything for his sake (for the sake of another), e j u s causa ; Cicero left the city, when this had been announced to him (ei); Ci¬ cero, who was favorable to him (ei), defended him (eum). In the last two sentences, Cicero does not speak of himself, but another speaks of him. 114. (2) When the pronouns stand in dependent sentences and refer neither to the subject of these, nor to that of the leading sentence ; e. g. Cicero hereby showed that he (Galba) had been rash, eum (not s e) vehementem fuisse ; some one told Claudius, that the consulship would be offered to him, e i consulatum oblatum iri. Here sibi could not properly be used, for the some one, does not speak of himself, but of Clau¬ dius. Cicero spoke so convincingly, that every one believed him, ut e i quisque crederet, not sibi, for Cicero does not say this of himself, but another says it. 115. From these examples it will be seen, that, even when, in in¬ termediate and introductory sentences, the person of the leading sen¬ tence is spoken of, the reflexive cannot be used, if the person does not speak of himself (de se), but another speaks of him (de eo). There is a difference between the following examples: Prusias said when Hannibal lived with him in exile —and Prusias said that when Hannibal Lived icith him in exile. The first with him would be ex¬ pressed by apud eum, for Prusias does not speak of himself; the 92 PRONOUNS. [§ 115 . other by apud se, for here Prusias speaks of himself (de se). Alex¬ ander was vexed , that the city Miletus obstructed, him —and, Alexander was vexed , because the city Miletus obstructed him. The former him isexpressed by s i b i, because Alexanderthere speaks ofhimself (de se); the latter him by e i, because it is only related of him (eo). Cincinna¬ tus was informed , that he (emu) had been appointed\ Dictator —and, Cin¬ cinnatus, heard that he (se) had been appointed Dictator. And so in ma¬ ny subordinate clauses, the reflexive or demonstrative pronoun isused according as the sentiment expressed is that of the subject of the prin¬ cipal sentence, or that of the writer; e. g. Ambiorix, in Aduatucos, qui erant ejus regni finitimi, proficiscitur; here the subordinate clause, qui erant ejus r. fi, contains a remark of the writer; yet the sentence could have been expressed as the sentiment of Ambiorix, and would then have been written qui essent sui regni fin. Examples. (1) Some 1 scholars do not care 2 , that 3 others are prefer¬ red 4 to themselves ; but others are unwilling 5 that 6 they should be surpassed 7 by any. A judge casts 8 his eyes upon the countenance 9 of the accused 10 ; and the fear and embarrass¬ ment 11 of the same, are to him the surest 12 proofs 13 of the crime 14 committed 15 . The tyrant Dionysius ordered 16 , that 17 his daughters should burn 18 off his beard. The Spartans feared, that 19 king Philip would come upon them, and sub¬ jugate 20 them. Since you ask 21 me concerning 22 this orator, I will say to you, that 23 he was destitute 24 of many qualifica¬ tions of an orator, although 25 he himself believed, that he had 26 all qualifications. The Allobroges (Allobrox) entreat¬ ed 27 Umbrenus to 28 have pity on 29 them. Chabrias wished, that 30 a statue should be erected 31 to him, in that posture 32 , in which he had gained 33 a victory. Dionysius entreated Da¬ mon and Phintias*, to 34 admit 35 him also, as 36 the third in friendship. We praise that youth, who, as much as 37 is in his power, strives 38 to be accomplished 39 . Vespasian thank¬ ed 40 the Senate, that it had thought him worthy 41 of the hon¬ or 42 of a triumph. The same dreamt 43 , before 44 the dignity of an emperor 45 had been conferred on him, that his fortune, and that of his friends, would begin, as soon as 46 a tooth of Nero had been extracted 47 ; and it truly 48 came to pass 49 , that 50 the physician, on the following day, showed 51 him a tooth, that moment 52 extracted. Jugurtha admonishes 53 the soldiers to 54 defend him and his kingdom from the avarice O of the Romans. 1 quidam. 2 nihili facere. 3 (acc. with inf.). 4 praeponere. 5 moleste ferre. 6 (acc. with inf). 7 superare. 8 conjicere. 9 vultus. 10 reus. II perturbatio. 12 apertus. 13 indicium. 14 facinus. 15 commissus. 16 in- PRONOUNS. 93 § 116.] stituere. 17 ut. 19 adurere. 19 ne. 20 subigere. 21 rogare. 22 de. 23 (acc. with inf.). 24 deesse. 25 quamvis (subj.). 26 esse. 27 orare. 28 ut. 29 misereri (to have pity on). 30 ut. 31 facere. 32 status. 33 adipisci. * Phintias, ae. 34 ut. 35 adscribere 36 (as is omitted). 37 quantum (as much as). 38 studere. 39 perfectus. 40 gratias agere. 41 dignari (to think worthy). 42 (ablative). 43 somniare. 44 priusquam. 45 dignitas impera¬ toria. 49 simulae (as soon as). 47 eximere. 48 vere. 49 evenire (to come to pass). 50 ut. 31 ostendere. 52 tantum quod (that moment). 53 mon¬ ere. 34 ut. (2) All commanders cannot call to mind 1 wars successful¬ ly 2 carried on 3 by themselves. Cicero, from the beginning of his consulship, had taken care 4 that 5 Curius should betray 6 to him the plans 7 of Catiline. Angry 8 men have no control 9 of themselves; hence Alexander, while angry, put to death Clitus who was most dear to him. A fugitive 10 of king Pyr¬ rhus came to the camp of Fabricius, and promised 11 him, if he would offer 12 him a reward 13 , that 14 he would return to the camp of Pyrrhus, and destroy 15 him with poison 16 . And tru¬ ly 17 , this man did not foresee 18 , that 19 Fabricius would cause 20 him to be led back 21 . The Syracusians entreated, that 22 they might be pardoned 23 because 24 they had not yet given thanks 25 for the favors 26 shown 27 to them. The senators exclaimed 28 , that 29 justice and freedom were snatched 30 from them, and the Roman citizens entreated me, not 31 to withdraw 32 from them. Nevertheless 33 ,1 could not promise them this. Show 34 them the folly 35 of their resolution 36 , in order that 37 they may understand 38 how 39 destructive 40 it may be to them. ^recordari. 2 bene. 3 gestus. 4 efficere. 3 ut. 6 prodere. 7 consilium. 8 iratus. 9 esse compos (to have control of). 10 perffiga. 11 polliceri. 12 proponere. 13 praemium. 14 (acc. with inf). 13 tollere. 16 venenum. 17 vere. 18 divinare. 19 (acc. with inf ). 20 curare. 21 reducendum. 22 ut. 23 ignoscere (see § 220). 24 quod. 25 gratias agere. 26 beneficium, ^tri¬ butus. 28 clamare. 29 (acc. with inf). 30 eripere. 31 ne (not to). 32 dis¬ cedere. 33 neque tamen (nevertheless — not). 34 ostendere. 33 stultitia. 36 consilium. 37 ut (in order that). 38 intelligere. 39 quam. 40 pernici¬ osus. The pronouns his, her , its, their, and the Latin suus, a, urn, and ejus, eorum, and earum. 116. The pronoun suus, a,um, (his, her, its, their) is an adjective, which must agree in gender, number and case, with the substantive to which it belongs; but the other words, ejus (his, her, or of him, of her), corum and earum, (their, or of them), are the genitives of is, and in Latin, do not qual¬ ify substantives, but, as genitives, are governed by them. 94 PRONOUNS. [§§ 117 , 118 . As the English words his, her, its, their, have a double sense, viz. a reflexive and demonstrative, there is, consequent¬ ly, some difficulty in translating them into Latin. When I say, Cicero was accustomed to write down his orations, his would be expressed by suns; but when I say, I am accustom¬ ed to note his orations, his is expressed by ejus. His, in the first example, is reflexive, in the second, demonstrative. Hence, for the sake of a more clear distinction, it may be observed, that the words his, her, its, their, are to be trans¬ lated by suus, a, inn: 117. (1) When the pronoun refers to the subject of its own sentence ; e. g. But a very small part of mankind know their own faults and vices, s u o s errores ac vitia; most men do not know their vices, sua vitia; they guard the life of their king, regis s u i vitam ; he considers me the first of his defenders, suorum defensorum principem; many love us for the sake of their own advantage, s u i commodi causa. His, her and their are often so emphatic, that the word own stands with them; this is not translated into Latin by any corresponding word, but is expressed by placing suus before the substantive,—for when it is placed after, it is often used without emphasis, merely to prevent ambiguity. 118. (2) When the pronoun stands in a dependent sen¬ tence, and refers to the subject of the leading sentence. Compare the remarks above, §110 and 111. What was there said, is applicable here also. When the words his, her, their, in a dependent sentence, refer to the subject of the leading sentence, and that subject speaks or thinks of itself (de se), i. e. when the sentiment expressed is that of the sub¬ ject, they must be translated by suus; e. g. The Macedonians hope, that you will he their king, te regem s u u m fore; Philodemus commanded this to he announced to his son, ut hoc filio suo nuntiaretur ; Horatius confessed, that his sister was slain hy his hand, su a manu sororem (s u a m) interfectam esse; It is pleasing to him (i. e. he rejoices), that his praise is spread abroad, jucundum ei est, su am laudem proferri. PRONOUNS. 95 § § 119 — 121 .] When a dependentsentence has for its subject a personal substan¬ tive, and consequently the use of suus might cause ambiguity, then, instead of suus , the genitives ipsius or ipsorum (ipsarum) are substi¬ tuted ; e. g. The Macedonians entreated Cicero to defend their cause , ut causam ipsorum (for suam) tueretur. Suam would not have been incorrect, but a little ambiguous, as it might refer to Cicero. Still, even then, the ancients used suus almost wholly. Hence, when the subjects of the principal and subordinate sentences are different, only the connection can determine, to which of the subjects the reflexive refers ; e g. in the following sentences, the reflexive can refer either to Caesar or to Milites: Caesar milites hortatur, ut de salute sua acriter dimicarent 5 —Caesar speravit, milites de salute sua acriter di¬ micaturos esse. The nature of the connective particle, also, by which two sub¬ stantives are united, determines which of the pronouns is to be used; e. g. dux ejusque exercitus capti sunt, for by que or ct two clauses independent of each other are connected ; but dux cum s u o exercitus captus est, for by cum, the idea expressed by exercitus is connected with that expressed by dux. The first construction is coordinate , the second, subordinate. So, Isocrates et discipuli ejus adfuerunt, but lsoc. c u m discipulis suis adfuit. 119. (3) When the pronoun with its substantive refers to another subordinate substantive, (i. e. a substantive in an oblique case) in the same sentence; e. g. His lusts enticed Verres to conduct shamefully , Verrem suae libidines flagi¬ tiose facere admonebant; rubbers ivaylaid the consul at his own house, consuli domi suae; you deprive this discourse of its ornament , s u o ornatu. 120. (4) When the pronoun stands in a sentence contain¬ ing a general truth ; e. g. It is good to know one's own vices, bellum est sua vitia nosse. It would be properly expressed by aliquem (that one) sua vitia nosse. Therefore it strictly belongs to No. (1). 121. On the contrary, the genitives ejus, eorum and earum are used, where there is no such reference, either to the sub¬ ject of their own, or to that of the leading sentence, and therefore where a person does not speak and think of him¬ self; e. g. Verres is led to a certain Janitor, and his com¬ panions to others, comitesque ejus ad alios; some live in such a manner, that their life contradicts their profession, ita vivunt quidam, ut eorum vita refellat (e o r u m) orationem. You grieve on account of the death of your brother. Think PRONOUNS. 96 [$ 121 . of his modesty , and all his words and actions , cogita ejus modestiam et omnia ejus dicta et facta. It will be seen from these passages, that his, her, their, are express¬ ed by ejus, eorum and earum, when their sentences do not depend on each other. This will be evident from comparing the different ways by which the following sentence can be expressed : Verres believed that an inheritance had fallen to him, because Antiochus had come into his kingdom. The last clause can be expressed in Latin in two ways. First by, quod Antiochus in ejus regnum venerat; second by, quod Antiochus in suu m regnmn venisset. In the first, ejus is used, be¬ cause the sentence is not dependent on the preceding; Verres does not speak of himself, [n the other, suum, because the sentence is dependent on the preceding ; Verres himself speaks of his own (s u o) kingdom. So also in the following sentence: The Aeiolians were grieved, because the Romans were not thus disposed toward their peo¬ ple. The phrase, toward their people, is either, erga suam gentem, or erga eorum gentem, according as the Aetolians are considered as speaking of themselves, or some one else of them. Examples. (1) When king Astyages was angry 1 with 2 Harpagus, he killed 3 his son. Whoever values little 4 his own estate 5 , will value still 6 less the estate of others. Lucullus was the rich¬ est man in Rome; but his wealth 7 is differently 8 estimated 9 . Those who cannot subdue 10 their passions 11 , are seduced 12 into evil deeds; but when we afterwards 13 hear their com¬ plaints 14 , they cast 15 the blame 16 , not upon their passions, but upon some other things 17 . The Corinthians presented 18 Alexander the Great with the freedom of their state 19 ; but he derided 20 their gift 21 . In Homer, the aged Nestor proclaim¬ ed 22 his own virtues,—and* he does not seem 23 to be too lo¬ quacious 24 , for his speech 25 flows 26 from 27 his tongue sweeter than honey. The general and all his troops were taken cap¬ tive by the enemy. I saw Isocrates with his disciples. 1 iratus. 2 (dative). 3 interficere. 4 parvi facere (to value little). 5 res familiaris. 6 multo, ’divitiae. 8 varie. 9 tradere. 10 domare. 11 animi commotio. 12 inducere. 13 postea. 14 querela. 15 transferre. 16 culpa. 17 res. 18 donare aliquem re (to present some one with something). 19 jus civitatis (freedom of the state). 20 irridere. 21 donum, ^praedi¬ care. * nec (and—not). 23 videri. 24 loquax. 25 oratio. 26 fluere. 27 ex. (2) Let the virtues be most desired 1 by man, because their pleasure is permanent 2 When Alcibiades was thrown out 3 unburied 4 , a friend covered 5 his body with his mantle 6 . Most men do not know 7 their faults, but when they judge 8 concerning their enemies, they believe, that* they know their PRONOUNS. 97 § 122.] faults best. Kleobis and Biton were sons of a priestess 9 . When their mother could not be carried 10 to the temple, be¬ cause** the cows delayed 1 ' 2 , they laid aside 13 their gar¬ ments 14 and carried their mother to the temple. Verres brought 15 home the young 16 and beautiful 17 of 18 the pirates 19 ,, who had been taken, and, in their place 20 , Roman citizens were executed 21 . A good father believes, that 22 nothing must be neglected in respect to 23 his son; hence 24 , his educa¬ tion 25 and the formation of his character 26 are his greatest solicitude 27 . 'exoptatus. 2 perpetuus. 3 projicere. 4 inhumatus. 5 tegere. 6 pal¬ lium. 7 novisse. 8 judicare. *(acc. with inf.). 9 sacerdos. 10 vehi. 11 bos. **ob. 12 morans. 13 ponere. 14 vestis, '’abducere. 16 adolescens. 17 formosus. ls ex. 19 pirata. 20 locus. 21 necare. 22 (acc. with inf.). 23 in (in respect to). 24 quare. 25 educatio. 26 formatio (formation of character). 27 maxime esse cordi (to be his greatest solicitude). 122. The English pronouns, some one, any one, and in the neuter, something, anything, are expressed in Latin by ali¬ quis, quis, quisquam or ullus. Aliquis has an affirmative sense, and denotes some person or thing indefinitely known, and the neuter aliquid and aliquod, something indefinitely known. Aliquis is also used in the sense of the English somebody, to denote a person of distinction ; so aliquid , something. But quis, quisquam and ullus, have, as it were, a nega¬ tive sense, and hence, they are used, sometimes in sentences which contain a negative, and sometimes in questions which imply a negative. Some examples : I do not wish, that any one should depart in sad¬ ness from me, nolo quern q u a m, for neminem. Take care not to trust any one, cave c u i q u a m. IVho is it, that fears anything ? quis est, qui q u i d qu a m timeat P When nothing was written to me, either by you or any one else, ab u 11 o alio q u i d q u a rn scriberetur, instead of which Cicero elsewhere says, quum nihil mihi neque a te ipso, neque ab u 11 o alio scriberetur. Just as if any one of us be¬ lieves this, quasi quisquam. Without virtue we cannot secure friendship, nor anything desirable, neque ullam rem. Thou canst prefer him without the censure of any one, sine cujusquam repre¬ hensione. Who has esteemed any one (quemquam) so highly as I have Pompey ? Hence, and no one, neque quisquam, and nothing, neque quidquam. It is otherwise in the following sentences. Every body is either water or air, or something, ichicli is composed of these or some part of themj aut aliquid, quod est concretum ex his, aut ex aliqua 9 98 PRONOUNS. [§ 122 . parle eorum. We are offended with actors, as soon as any of the plea¬ sure is diminished,, simulatque imminuitur aliquid de voluptate, (any, aliquid, even a little). This happened to us first, and never to any one else, nec alicui unquam, where alicui, as is often thq case, stands in the definite signification of any one else , for nulli, alii or alii cuiquam. It is further to be observed, that after the words, si, nisi, num, ne, an, quo, quando, etc., quis and quisquam are mostly used to denote only something general and indefinite, and aliquis, only something definite and limited. So alicubi and aliquando are definite, cubi in sicubi, and quando after si and others, are indefinite and general. Hence si quando signi¬ fies if ever, whenever, when indefinite, i. e. it can refer to any time ; si a 1 i q u a n d o, if at some time, at some certain time, which refers either to a past or a future time; si quis, if any one, if one ; s i a 1 i q u i s, if some one; n e quis, that no one, that one may not —is general; n e aliquis, that some one may not —is limited. The following examples will illustrate this: If any one (if one) on a walk muses on a place or thinks attentively of anything else, si quis—meditetur, aut si quid aliud cogitet. Jin affection is produced, when we have found some one, whose charac¬ ter harmonizes with our own, si aliquem nacti sumus. If we, by our labor, have added anything to the praise of oratory, si aliquid oratoriae laudi attulimus. If any misfortune befalls you, si quid tibi adversi accidit. If ever a friend has saved another, who does not praise him, si quando amicus —. Ji spacious house, if it stand empty, is a reproach to its possessor, especially if it was once much frequented, while another possessed it, et maxime si aliquando. Did any one ever give thanks to the gods, because he —, num quis gratias egit —? If any one was a wise man, he was that man, si quisquam, ille sapi¬ ens fuit. Examples. Pompey obtained 1 the highest 2 dignity 3 without any recom¬ mendation 4 of his ancestors 5 . In all these narrations, there is 6 a certain 7 hue* of truth, without any embellishment 8 . Take care 9 not to 10, do anything else, than what I command you. No one** can be named 11 , more friendly 12 to my wel¬ fare 13 and honor, than you. I may not write to you immedi¬ ately 14 , unless perchance 15 something new 16 occurs 17 . The pirates 18 entered 19 the harbor 20 without any fear 21 . I do not believe, that 22 anything has been omitted 23 in this discourse, §§ 123 , 124 .] PRONOUNS. 99 which belongs 24 to the subject. Neither this nor that can happen 25 to 26 any one of us. If any one (definite) had killed 27 a tyrant, he was praised by the Greeks and Romans. It is contrary to nature, to take 28 anything from another. Does any one deny 29 this 7 Alexander seems to be somebody. 1 adipisci. 2 superus. 3 honor. 4 commendatio. 5 major. 6 inesse. 7 quidatn. *color. “fucus. 9 curare. 10 ne (not to, with subj.). **(§527). 11 dicere. 12 amicus. 13 salus. 14 statim. 15 forte. 16 (genitive). 17 acci¬ dere. 18 pirata. 19 penetrare. 20 portus. 21 metus. 22 (acc. with inf.). 23 praetermittere. 24 pertinere. 25 cadere. 26 in. 27 occidere. 23 detra¬ here. 29 negare (num is to be placed before the pronoun.) 123. The pronouns he, she, it, these, those, (is, ea, id) are often omitted in Latin before the pronouns who, which, (qui, quae, quod). This omission occurs, when the pronoun has no special emphasis; it lakes place most frequently, when the relative clause stands first, or when the omitted demon¬ strative denotes some indefinite object, and has the sense of aliquis , or when the relative qui can be resolved into si quis, and also particularly where the relative and antecedent are in the same case; quis (for quibus) opes nullae sunt, (i i) bonis invident. —Utile est, uti motu animi, qui (= s i q u i s) uti ra¬ tione non potest; e. g. He, who loves virtue, is dear to me, qui virtutem amat, mihi carus est. I have seen those whom you expect, vidi, quos tu exspectas. Yet where definiteness is required, the pronoun must be expressed. 124. The Latins sometimes put the antecedent and the relative in the same clause, and instead of saying: The let¬ ters which you sent me are short, they say, what letters you sent me, these are short, q u a s epistolas mihi misisti, eae breves sunt. 1 meet you in the place, in which you wish, quo loco vis, e o te convenio. Thus the substantive is attracted to the relative, and is put in the same case with it. Before the principal clause, which stands after the other, is, ea, id, or idem referring to that clause, is usually placed, as the above examples show, viz. eae and eo ; the pronoun, how¬ ever, is often omitted, when it is not emphatic; e. g. urbem quam statuo, vestra est. 100 FRONOUNS. [§ 125 . This mode of construction and agreement must always be adopted, when a substantive, to which qui, quae, quod refers, stands alone, and is in apposition with another; e. g. Mum¬ mius destroyed Corinth, a city, which, at that time, was the most magnificent in Greece, quae urbs (not urbem quae) tum amplissima Graeciae erat. A state, which, quae civ¬ itas; a place, which, qui locus; everything, which, quae omnia, quae res o m n e s ; at the time when, quo tempore; Alexander died in his thirty-third year, at an age, which, quae aetas, not aetate, quae. The ad¬ jective, also, is sometimes put in the relative clause, and made to agree with the relative, instead of with the substantive to which the relative refers, e. g. veniat Caesar cum copiis, quas habet firmissimas. Examples. The money, which we have borrowed 1 from others, cannot be called ours. Those evils, which we suffer 2 with many, seem to us lighter 3 . The year in which Tarquinius Super- bus was banished 4 from Rome, the Athenians banished Hip¬ pias. The herbs 5 , which the flocks 6 do not eat 7 , men often eat. The men, whom you commended, are worthy of 8 com¬ mendation. The expectation, which you have raised 9 of 10 yourself, is great. I live content 11 with that lot 12 which I have chosen 13 for myself. The Germans abandoned the booty 14 which they had obtained 15 . A thought 16 , which lessens 17 all trouble 18 . Verres sends to king Antiochus to ask for those most beautiful vases, which he had seen. 1 mutuari. 2 pati. 3 levis. 4 expellere. 5 herba. 6 pecbra. 7 edere. 8 (ablative). 9 concitare. 10 de. 11 contentus. 12 sors. 13 dare. 14 prae¬ da. 15 nancisci. 16 cogitatio. 17 extenuare. 18 molestia. 125. The pronouns that and those, followed by a substan¬ tive governed by the preposition of, are expressed in Latin by hie or ille referring to a person or thing before named, or to a place, when that substantive does not denote a second person or thing contrasted with a preceding one. Sometimes instead of the pronouns hie or ille, the substantive itself is re¬ peated ; e. g. Virtue seeks no other reward, than that (prae- PRONOUNS. 101 § 126 .] ter h a n c) of praise and renown. (He had before spoken of this). Not only is all arrogance hateful, hut that of ge¬ nius and eloquence is by far the most offensive, cum omnis ar¬ rogantia odiosa est, tum illa ingenii, atque eloquen¬ tiae; there is no speed ichic/i can compare with the speed of the mind , nulla est celeritas, quae possit cum animi celeritate contendere. But often both the pronouns hic , ille and the substantive itself are omitted before the genitive. This takes place, when the genitive is contrasted with a preceding genitive. But in English we must often supply, this, that, these, those; e. g. I prefer the art of memory to that of forgetfulness, memori- a e artem, quam oblivionis malo; the lineaments of the mind are more beautiful than those of the body, animi lin¬ eamenta sunt pulcriora, quam corporis. Comp. Rams- horn’s Lat. Gram. p. 317. Examples . The letters of Cicero are more frequently 1 read than those of Pliny. The name of Themistocles is more renowned 2 , than that of Solon. There are three kinds 3 of blessings; the greatest are those of the mind 4 , the second those of the body, and the third external 5 . In Gaul there are two kinds of hon¬ orable 6 men, one that of the Druids 7 , the other that of the knights. The diseases of the mind are more dangerous than those of the body. Publius Considius had been in the army 8 of Sulla, and afterwards in that of Marcus Crassus. I can find no more beautiful 9 saying 10 , than that of Seneca. The life of a man is not preserved 11 , as that of a vine 12 and a tree. This letter is not that of a counsellor 13 , but that of a peti¬ tioner 14 . The body of a sleeper lies 15 like that of a dead man. Creber. 2 illustris. 3 genus. 4 animus. 5 externus. 6 honoratus. 7 Druida. 8 exercitus. 9 praestans. 10 dictum. 11 conservare. 12 vitis. 13 suasor. 14 rogator. 15 jacere. 126. The pronouns he himself, she herself, this or that one himself , etc. and also the neuters, this or that thing itself, are expressed in Latin by ipse ille, ipse hie, or also by ille ipse, hie ipse; but even he, this or that very person or thing is expres- 102 PRONOUNS. [§ 127 . sed only by hic ipse , ille ipse not ipse ille. These two, there¬ fore, must not be confounded with each other; The self-same Gorgias (or Gorgias himself) professes in that very hook of Plato, ipse ille Gorgias in illo ipso Platonis libro. With other pronouns also, very or even are expressed by ipse , but it is always placed after the other pronoun. Examples. Thou hast attributed 1 something to Epicurus, which was never said by himself. This very thing, which you write to me, has been most pleasing to me. If any one has been seiz¬ ed 2 with a bloody 3 sword 4 , in the very place where a murder¬ ed man 5 lies 6 , suspicion will fall on him. What can be found which is more repugnant to itself 7 even. Timoleon perform¬ ed 8 the most successful acts 9 on his very birth-day 10 . This very thing, to do nothing and to be wholly* inactive 11 , de¬ lights 12 me. Those very men, who are devoted 13 to the pur¬ suits of science 14 and wisdom, employ 15 their knowledge for 16 the benefit of men. This is the very thing which is called useful. 1 attribuere. 2 comprehendere. 3 cruentus. 4 gladius. 5 occisus. 6 ja¬ cere. 7 sibi repugnare. 8 gerere. 9 res. 10 dies natalis. * plane. 11 ces¬ sare. 12 delectare. 13 deditus (see § 79). 14 intelligentia. 15 conferre. 16 ad. 127. The pronoun ipse in different sentences can express different relations. It usually stands as the antithesis of, or in contrast with, another person or thing, or even several. A different case is used, according to the difference of the antithesis. If the antithesis is in the nominative, and consequently the subject of the sentence or the actor is to be considered antithetic, rather than the object to which the action is directed, the pronoun is in the nominative. If, on the contrary, the anti¬ thesis is in an oblique case, (in the genitive, dative, accusa¬ tive or ablative,) and the word self refers to the person or thing to which the action is directed, and if it is also the same as is contained in the subject, and consequently the same person as the actor, the word ipse stands in the oblique case. If, e. g. it is said, Know thyself ‘ and the meaning is, PRONOUNS. 103 § 127 .] do you yourself, and no other one, know and examine your¬ self, then the word self refers to the subject, and stands in the nominative, and the idea is expressed by nosce te ipse or ipse te nosce; but if the meaning is know yourself, your own self, and no other one, then it refers to the accusative te, and is expressed by nosce te i p s u m. Further; the phrases, mihi ipse faveo, and rnihi ip si faveo, have different mean¬ ings. In the first, the speaker contrasts himself with others, who do not favor him, hence ipse ; in the second, with others, whom he does not favor, hence ipsi. Further; scribam i p- s e de me, or scribam de me ipso; in the first case, he him¬ self will do it, no other one shall do it; in the second case, he will make himself and no other one the object of his writ¬ ing, i. e. he will write of himself alone. The connection, therefore, must always determine to whom the speaker refers the pronoun. In the phrase hy himself, herself, itself, ipse always belongs to the subject, therefore per se ipse, or ipse per se. And so in classical writers the nominative is often used, where, on account of a possible and conceivable contrast, the case of the other pronoun connected with it, might be expected. On the contrary, in connection with egomet— tumet —through all the cases, the strengthening ipse is put in the same case with these ; therefore, egomet ipse, mihimet ipsi, memet ipsum , no- hismet ipsis, etc. Examples. Nero was accustomed to proclaim 1 himself the conqueror, in the sacred' 2 contests 3 , not the public crier*. If we do not persuade** you to write 4 our exploits 5 , we will write ourselves. Pardon 6 me, if I say 7 something of myself. If I deplore 8 the neglect 9 of eloquence, I seem to complain 10 of myself. Jus¬ tice must be honored, in order that we may be pleasing to ourselves and the immortal gods. If we praise ourselves, it is not necessary 11 that others should praise us ; but if we cen¬ sure 12 ourselves, it is also proper 13 to censure others. One 14 of the vestals 15 killed herself. That is the best remedy 16 in trouble 17 , which we find in ourselves. Virtue has so great 104 GOVERNMENT OF CASES. [§§ 128 , 129 . strength 18 , that she can protect 19 herself. That man is wise 20 to no purpose 21 , who cannot benefit 22 himself. I esteem 23 myself more 24 daily 25 , since 26 you began 27 to esteem me. There are none, who hate 28 themselves. I say all these things, partly 29 for myself, partly for you and others. I, who en¬ courage 30 you, cannot encourage myself. Caesar must fall 31 , either by his enemies 32 , or by himself. Lentulus, whom I prefer 33 to all and to myself, did not think otherwise 34 . 'pronuntiari. 2 sacer. 3 certamen. * praeco. ** impetrare (fut. per¬ fect). 4 scribere. 6 res gesta. 6 ignoscere. 7 praedicare. 8 deplorare. 9 intermissio. 10 queri. 11 necesse esse (followed by subjunctive with¬ out ut.) 12 reprehendere. 13 licere. 14 alter. 15 Vestalis. 16 medicina. 17 labor. 18 vires. 19 tueri. 20 sapere. 21 nequidquam. 22 prodesse. 23 fa¬ cere. 24 pluris. 25 quotidie. 26 ex quo. 27 coepisse. 28 odisse (subjunct.). 29 partim. 30 confirmare. 31 corruere. 32 adversarius. 33 anteponere. 34 aliter. (B.) PARTICULAR RULES. I. Government of the Cases of declinable words. 128. It has already been shown, in the first Part, that the different cases of declinable words depend mostly on words which are in the same sentence. Sometimes the cases are dependent upon substantives, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, ad¬ verbs and prepositions; sometimes the case is determined by a particular thought, which is to be expressed. But since there is a marked difference, in the two languages, in respect to what the different words govern, it is important to be able to understand the principal points of difference. The order of the cases will be followed. THE NOMINATIVE. 129. The nominative case is either the subject or t\\e pre¬ dicate of a sentence. In stating the subject, the English seldom differs from the Latin, because the subject, consequently the nominative, re¬ mains in most instances, the same as in English, and is used for the subject in the nominative. There is a difference, how- NOMINATIVE CASE. 105 § 129.] ever, where the Latin employs the accusative with the infini¬ tive, which becomes the nominative in English, and also where a phrase is changed, because a verb, wholly different from the one in Latin, is used, e. g. when the verb to have is ex¬ pressed by esse, compare § 172. a, often also with imperson¬ al verbs, see § 189 and § 220. The two languages more frequently differ in stating the predicate. A certain class of verbs, of themselves, give only an imperfect idea, which is completed by the addition of a de¬ finite predicate or explanatory word, which may be a substan¬ tive or an adjective. As the predicate is in the same case as the object of which it is predicated, it must be in the nomin¬ ative, since it is the predicate of the subject. In English this predicate sometimes stands simply as a nominative, e. g. Hercules became a demi-gocl; sometimes also it is preceded by an explanatory word, e. g. as, for — which explanation the Latin omits; e. g. Brutus was given him for or as a com¬ panion (comes); Claudia was known as the most chaste (castissima). Of this class of verbs are esse, feri, evade¬ re, reddi, creari, nominari, haberi, and many others similar, which express but an incomplete idea. That the word add¬ ed to the subject and defining it more clearly, is its predicate, is evident from the fact, that the subject and predicate can be united; for when Cicero was chosen consul, he was the Con¬ sul Cicero. Explanatory adjectives are to be considered in the same manner; as, My brother has arrived safe, sal¬ vus. When such a phrase as the following is used, viz. Virtue is seldom taken for what it really is, we must refer to § 103, according to which, it must be expressed, Raro virtus (e a) habetur, quae revera est, not id quod. The nominative is rarely used in exclamations, these being oftener expressed by the accusative ; e. g.Omagna vis ve¬ ritatis, quae facile se per se ipsa defendat. Examples. Many dreams 1 prove 2 true. No one is born rich. The Chi¬ nese 3 have become wiser by the instructions 4 of Confucius. Scipio was chosen 5 as a commander against Hannibal. Virtue 106 GOVERNMENT OF CASES. [§ 130 . is justly considered 6 as the greatest good, and vice the great¬ est evil. Everything earthly 7 must be considered weak 8 and perishable 9 . Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus were appoint¬ ed 10 the first consuls of Rome. Those who are honored 11 , seem happy, but those unhappy 12 , who are without honor 13 . This whole 14 world must be considered as a common state of gods and men. The poets were always considered by the ancients as sacred 15 , and were so 16 called. That which at first was con¬ sidered by me as joy, afterwards proved 17 the greatest destruc¬ tion 18 . We are seldom taken for what we really 19 are. ^omnium. 2 fieri. 3 Chinensis. 4 praecepta. 5 eligere. 6 existimare. 7 terrestris. 8 cadacus. 9 fragilis. 10 creare. 11 honoratus. 12 miser. 13 inglorius. 14 universus. 15 sanctus. 16 (so is omitted). 17 existere. 18 exitium. 19 revera. 130. Opus est. When to be in need of or to be necessary , is expressed by opus esse, in English, the person or thing in need of some¬ thing is put in the nominative, and the thing needed, in the accusative (objective) after the verb or a preposition. Butin Latin, the former is put in the dative, and the latter in the nominative or ablative, more frequently in the ablative. When the nominative is used, the verb esse depends upon it, and must agree with it in number. But when the ablative is used, the verb is impersonal, and stands without a subject, and only in the singular ; e. g. I need aid , m i h i opus est auxili¬ um or auxilio; I need guards, mihi opus sunt cus¬ todes, or mihi opus est custodibus. The word opus is never declined. Where this phrase occurs, all the tenses and all the modes can be used; e. g. The father was surprised, that his son was so soon in need of money, quod filio jam nunc opus esset pecunia. When the construction of the accusative with the infinitive occurs, then, in¬ stead of the nominative, the accusative is used, and the verb agrees with it; e. g. That helpers will be needed, adjutores opus esse futuros. But the ablative is not changed, and the verb in the neu- ter gender is joined with opus ; thus, That there will be need of help¬ ers, adjutoribus opus esse futurum. It is to be noticed, also, that substantives are usually put in the ab¬ lative, but adjectives and neuter pronouns, for the most part, in the nominative, because the ablative of the neuter pronouns could not be distinguished from the masculine ; e. g. H ae c mihi opus sunt (1 have need of these), not h i s mihi opus est, but, I have need of help, mihi opus est auxilio, more seldom auxilium. GENITIVE CASE. 107 § 131.] When instead of the substantive, a verb is connected with opus esse , e. g. It is not necessary for you to sit here, then it is not the dative with the infinitive that is used, but the accusative with the infinitive. Therefore, Nihil opus est te hic sedere, not t i b i. Examples. The unfortunate 1 have need of help only, not mere 9 com¬ miseration 3 . Where there are proofs 4 of action, the judges have no 5 need of words. Thou hast promised 6 me every¬ thing, which I needed. We believe that we shall need no expense 7 for this 8 . For life, we need many things, but for a happy one, only 9 a sound 10 mind 11 and a sound body. If, for a happy life, men needed gold, silver, and other suchlike 19 things, many must be regarded 13 as the most unfortunate men. Fleet 14 horses will never 15 need spurs 16 . Why 17 did you have need of this ship ? We do not need to go 18 home. It is not 19 necessary for you to wait longer 90 1 raiser. 2 solus. 3 miseratio. 4 documentum. 3 non. 8 polliceri. 7 sumptus. 8 ad hoc (for this). 9 tantum. 10 sanus. 11 mens, ^ejusmo¬ di. 13 habendus. 14 currens. 15 nunquam. 16 calcar. 17 quid. ,8 proficisci. 19 nihil. 20 diu. THE GENITIVE. 131. This case generally denotes the object from which something proceeds, and has its origin, and that which refers to the object. It marks quality, character and obligation, ex¬ presses the relation of the whole to its partsj worth and price, and more fully explains the meaning of a substantive, adjec¬ tive, verb and adverb. GENITIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVES. After substantives, any other substantive can stand in the genitive, when it does not form with them a single idea(e. g. Cicero orator). This genitive denotes sometimes the person acting, or the efficient cause; sometimes the possessor, either a person or thing, to which something belongs; e. g. The order of the commander (imperatoris); the how of Diana (D i a- n ae). 108 GENITIVE OF THE OBJECT. [§§ 132 — 134 . The relation between the Latin genitive and the substan¬ tive by which it is governed, is usually expressed in English by the preposition of. For exceptions to this, see § 134. 132. Gerunds in the genitive are also governed by the sub¬ stantives which they explain ; e. g. The art of reading well is difficult, ars bene legendi; my hope of spending a hap¬ py life is idle, mea spes beatam vitam agendi vana est. 133. Instead of the substantive pronouns mei, tui, sui, nos¬ tri, vestri, in the genitive, the Latins use the possessives me¬ us, tuus, suus, noster, vester, agreeing in gender, number and case with their substantives. When to these possessive pro¬ nouns, which are used instead of the Gen. of the substantive pronouns, any explanatory word is added, to define more clearly the person contained in the possessives, such explana¬ tory word must be in the genitive, as stated above, § 105. These pronouns are sometimes rendered into English as if they were in the genitive. Examples. Many orations of Cicero are lost 1 . The people 2 of Spain 3 revolted. Your last letter was not pleasing 4 to me. The art of riding 5 well is difficult. The desire 6 of doing good 7 is strong in many men. Scarcely 8 a trace 9 of Corinth is left 10 . Herds 11 of oxen 12 and horses feed 13 near Clitumnus. Ti¬ granes, king of Armenia, received Mithridates, king of Pon¬ tus, kindly 14 . Men have the faculty of speaking and think¬ ing 15 . Yesterday I received 16 some letters of yours. I see, that 17 my last 18 writings 19 are known to very few men. In the houses of the Spartan kings, no one could see any 20 evi¬ dence 21 of luxury. ’deperditus. 2 gens. 3 Hispania. 4 jucundus. 5 equitare. 6 voluntas. 7 benefacere. 8 vix. 9 vestigium. 10 relictus. 11 grex. 12 bos. 14 pasci. 14 amice. 15 cogitare. 16 accipere. 17 (acc. with inf.). 18 novissimus. 19 scriptum. 20 (comp. §122.) 21 signum. GENITIVE OF THE OBJECT. 134. When the genitive denotes the object to which the action implied in the other noun refers, it is called the ob¬ jective genitive, or the genitive of the object. The object GENITIVE OF OBJECT. 109 § 135.] here receives the action, i. e. is passive, and is not an actor or possessor. The Latins usually employ the genitive here, as they consider one substantive as dependent on the other. Where, however, ambiguity would arise from the use of the Gen., the Latins use the preposition with its proper case. The preposition is used, when the genitive of a personal sub¬ stantive follows, because such a substantive more frequently denotes the actor or possessor, than it does the passive object; e. g. Love for learning , is expressed by, amor litterarum; but, love for parents, by amor in parentes, not amor parentum, which signifies the love which parents have for others. So impietas in deos for deorum. But yet, very often with these and other substantives, the genitive only is used ; e. g. Desire for one's father, desiderium parentis. In English also there is often ambiguity ; e. g. The love of God, i. e. either the love which he exercises, or that of which he is the object. So the Latin amor Dei. So, injuria s o- ciorum; odium O p p i a n i c i ; misericordia hujus ad¬ olescentis, etc. In such examples, the connection must determine the sense. The objective genitive is expres¬ sed in English by different prepositions. Examples of such genitives : Memoria patriae, memory of one's country ; recordatio itineris, recollection of or respecting the jour¬ ney; laetitia victoriae, joy on account of victory; admonitio virtutis, encouragement to virtue ; praemium industriae, re¬ ward for industry; reverentia religionis, respect for religion ; solatium doloris, consolation in affliction ; judicium t u i facti, judgment respecting thy act ; peritia h i s t o r i se, acquaintance with history ; excusatio senectutis, excuse on account of old age; studium salutis meae, desire for my welfare ; via laudis et gloriae, the way to praise and glory ; gloria posteritatis, re¬ nown with posterity ; Pyrrhi pax, peace icith Pyrrhus; poenae d o- loris, punishment for pain ; aditus honorum, access to places of honor ; deorum opinio, belief in the gods ; laudatio mortis, en¬ comium upon death, etc. 135. But when the English personal pronoun denotes the object of the substantive with which it is connected, the Latin possessive is not used, but the genitives of the personal pro- 10 110 GOVERNMENT OF CASES. [§ 135 . nouns, mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, sui; Memoria m e i, re¬ membrance of me; desiderium nostri, desire for us. Here the mei is the object of memory, or the object remembered, and the nostri , the object of desire. There is need of care therefore in choosing between mei and meus, tui and tuus, etc., although meus and tuus are sometimes used am¬ biguously ; e. g. Injuria m e a, the injury done to me. M e a conservatio, signifies, that I preserve another; in e i conserv¬ atio, that I am preserved by another; m e a memoria, that I think of some person or thing; mei memoria, that I am thought of, i. e. am the object of which some one thinks. The pronouns meus, tuus, etc. properly denote the actor, and the genitives mei, tui, etc. the person receiving the action. Examples on §§ 134, 135. (1) The recollection of their past 1 life is very pleasant to many. Pleasure is an enticement 2 to baseness 3 . The re¬ membrance of you always filis 4 me with the greatest joy ; and I doubt 5 not, that 6 the remembrance of me gives 7 joy to you also. Regulus burned 8 with love for his country. Confi¬ dence 9 in our strength gives us courage 10 . The contest 11 for riches, honor, and glory is common 12 to almost 13 all. I am very solicitous concerning 14 your recommendation 15 , although I have said everything, which could recommend you. Not the fear of punishment, but the inculcating 16 of duty is the best incentive 17 to virtue. Many have a desire for nothing, except 18 for pleasure. Almost all animals have strength for their defence 19 . All men are not captivated 20 by equal de¬ sire for glory. Patience is the best remedy 21 for affliction. Cato was inflamed 22 with deadly 23 hatred 24 against Car¬ thage. Tiberius Gracchus left 25 an ardent longing for him¬ self among the Roman people. ’superior. 2 illecebra. 3 turpitudo. 4 afficdre. 5 dubitare. 6 quin. 7 parare. 8 flagrare. 9 fiducia. 10 animus. 11 certamen. 12 communis. 13 fere. 14 de. 15 commendatio. 16 admonitio. 17 incitamentum. 18 nisi. 19 tutela. 20 tenere. 21 medicina, 22 inflammare (active). 23 perniciosus. 24 odium. 25 relinquere. (2) T will cause 1 you to 2 rejoice in the midst 3 of your af¬ fliction and your desire for us. Nature has implanted 4 in GENITIVE OF THE OBJECT. Ill §§ 136, 137.] man a desire for truth 5 and rectitude 6 . Epicurus when dying, asked, that not only his memory, but also that of Metrodorus might be celebrated. May every 7 recollection of discord be obliterated 8 by perpetual 9 forgetfulness 10 . Glory is the great¬ est incentive to danger and toil 11 . We pray you always 12 to retain 13 the remembrance of us. To whom his own preser¬ vation is an object of solicitude 14 , to him all parts of the body are dear 15 also. 1 facio. 2 ut (with subj.). 3 medius. 4 ingignere. 5 verum. 6 rectum. 7 omnis. 8 delere. 9 sempiternus. 10 oblivio. 11 labor. 12 perpetuo. 13 servare. 14 cordi esse (object of solicitude). 15 carus. 136. But the genitive stands in such phrases, only when in Latin there is a substantive, on which the genitive depends ; for when in¬ stead of the substantive, some other word is used, then the genitive is put in the case which that word requires ; e. g. / Long for my country, mihi est desiderium p at r i ae, but desidero patriam. / take into consideration your industry , rationem habeo tuae industriae, but respicio industriam. / care for thy father , mihi cura est t u i patris, but curo tuum patrem, and provideo (prospicio, consulo) tuo patri,— and so in similar instances. 137. On the other hand, we have many phrases, in which there is no substantive, but which in Latin, are expressed by phrases con¬ taining a substantive, as the principal word, and hence it takes a gen¬ itive ; e. g. To regard something , rationem habere alicujus rei ; to mention something , mentionem facere alicujus ; to avenge some¬ thing, vindicem esse alicujus ; to advise something , to relate some¬ thing, auctorem esse alicujus ; to try something, periculum facere alicujus ; to know something, to be acquainted with something, scientiam habere alicujus ; to reckon among something, in nu¬ mero alicujus habere ; to end something, alicujus rei finem fa- cere ; and also many other similar phrases. Hence, Balbus relates this occurrence, is expressed by hujus rei auctor est Balbus. Examples on §§ 136, 137. Why 1 dost thou mention 2 this worthless 3 man ? He who does not regard 4 the dignity of him, with whom he lives, is called foolish 5 . I always advise 6 to peace, not to war. Cae¬ sar considered 7 Pompey and others among 8 the enemies 9 of the state. The furies revenge 10 the crimes 11 and wicked¬ ness 12 of men. Epaminondas, Caesar and Hannibal were better acquainted 13 with military affairs 14 , than any others 15 . Regard 16 thine own advantage first, then 17 mine. Hesiod first related 18 this fable. Demosthenes closed 19 his oration unexpectedly 20 . 1 quid. 2 mentionem facere. 3 infimus. 4 rationem habere. 5 ineptus. 6 auctor esse. 7 habere. 8 in numero. 9 hostis. 10 vindex esse. 11 faci¬ nus. 12 scelus. 13 scientiam habere. 14 res militaris. 15 ante omnes (bet* GOVERNMENT OF CASES. 112 [§138. ter than any others). 16 rationem habere. 17 deinde. 18 auctor esse. 19 finem faceie. 20 improviso. 138. Some Latin substantives govern a genitive, whether they are translated by adverbs or other parts of speech : (1) I n s t a r (a likeness), as, like, just as; (2) more, m o d o, and r i t u (according to the manner, or custom of), as, like , like as; (3) causa, gratia and ergo, on account of, for, for the sake of The words causa and gratia do not usually stand before their genitives, but after them. My, thy, his, etc. are here rendered by the possessive mca, tua, sua, nostra, vestra and sua, placed before their substantive, but not by mei, tui, etc. When ipse, unus or solus, are joined with mea, tua, etc., the former are put in the genitive,—in the singular with mea, tua, sua, and in the plural with nostra, vestra and sua (plural). Some examples: Like a mountain, instar montis; as the beasts, more (ritu) pecudum; for the sake of my fa¬ ther, mei patris causa (gratia); for my sake, mea causa; for the sake of myself alone, mea unius causa ; on account of victory, victoriae ergo; for example, e x- e m p 1 i causa or gratia ; for the sake of walking, a m b u- ' landi causa; for the sake of writing a letter, epistolam scribendi causa. Examples. We do not live for our own sake alone, but also for the sake of other men. Thy last letter was like 1 a little book 2 . The years of our life pass 3 like 4 the waves 5 of swiftly run¬ ning 6 water. Most 7 men do everything only 8 for their own sake. I ask you to 9 undertake 10 this for the sake of my hon¬ or. Give up 11 common 12 pleasures for the sake of obtain¬ ing 13 greater pleasures, and endure 14 pain for the sake of avoiding 15 greater pain. Thou doest everything for thy own sake. Many pass 16 their lives in obscurity 17 , like 18 the herds 19 . Cicero valued 20 Brutus and Cassius more 21 on ac¬ count of the state, than on account of his familiarity with them. This place was not like 22 a village 23 , but like a city. GENITIVE OF QUALITY. 113 §§ 139 , 140 .] We do not live for ourselves. Beware 24 for thine own sake. We do everything for the sake of living happily 25 . 'instar. 2 libellus. 3 transire. 4 more. 5 unda. 6 cito fluens. 7 plerique. 8 tantum. 9 ut (with subj.). 10 suscipere. 11 omittere. 12 vulgaris, ^adi¬ pisci. 14 suscipere. 15 effugere. 16 transigere. 17 silentio. 18 ritu. 19 pe¬ cora. 20 diligere. 21 plus. 22 instar. 23 vicus. 24 cavere. 25 beate. 139. English adjectives also, which qualify substantives, are often expressed in Latin by a substantive in the genitive. This mode must in all instances be adopted, when the Latin adjective is either not in use, or does not have the appro¬ priate meaning; e. g. Mental (bodily) pleasure , animi (corporis) voluptas. GENITIVE OF QUALITY. 140. The English and the Latin express the qualities of a substantive both by adjectives and substantives ; e. g. He is a man of great eloquence , instead of, a very eloquent man. In Latin, the substantives denoting quality are put either in the genitive or ablative; e. g. Homo generosae na¬ turae, or generosa natura; opus summae artis, or summa arte. But such genitives or ablatives of quality never consist of a substantive merely; there must alyvays be united with the substantive an adjective or numeral, or prohoun expressing quality. For the purpose of writing Latin, therefore, it is of great importance to iftij, iw how English adjectives are expressed by such a periphrasi^^English positives can seldom be render¬ ed into Latin peripirastically ; e. g. Good, swij^greaff We cannot say in Latin, t I. The Present. The present denotes an action, which is in the present time, i. e. in that time, in which any one speaks or writes, etc.; e. g. 1 read or am reading this booh, lego librum. Here the action spoken of \s present to the speaker. 224. Moreover, this tense is often used by historians in de¬ scribing things already past, instead of a perfect, for the pur¬ pose of representing the ideas more vividly, especially when the actions are performed with some degree of ardor, and either take place in quick succession, or even simultaneously ; e. g. The tumult reaches (penetra t ) from the camp even to the city, the affrighted Vtjentes run (currunt) to arms, a part go (e u n t) to the Sabines for aid, another part attack (adoriuntur) the Romans with violence. This historical present occurs also in English, in spirited narration. The conjunction dum, while, frequently stands with the present, when the actions are past, for the purpose of a more vivid representa¬ tion ; e. g. While the Alban army are crying out to the Curiatii, Hora¬ tius had already gone to the second, combat. Comp. § 2!>4. Yet this construction is employed, only when the principal event occurs within the time of the other, not when both events are wholly cotemporaneous, in which case‘ dum oftener signifies as long as, and is joined with the imperfect. 225. The present is often employed in Latin, where we, in English, use the imperfect. This happens especially in dependent sentences, although the principal sentence contains 204 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 226,227. a present and speaks of something present. See more on this, § 256. This is the case: (1) In such phrases as, It would be too tedious , it were too tedious; I could , followed by but. Here the Latins speak definitely in the indicative present; longum, immensum, mul¬ tum est; possum; e. g. It would be tedious (longum est) to enumerate the battles ; I could (possum) mention still more , but -. Comp, also § 270. 226. (2) In statements and questions implying the possibili¬ ty, doubt and propriety of an action ; e. g. Who would not love virtue ? quis virtutem non a m e t ? who could bear those men ? quis istos ferat? why should I mention the multitude of arts ? quid enumerem artium multitudinem ? This pre¬ sent subjunctive, however, frequently corresponds with the English future or present potential; e. g. Who can or toill doubt that riches consist in virtue ? quis dubitet? where can or will you fnd that man who prefers the honor of his friend to his own ? ubi istum invenias? Shall I not go ? non earn? 227. (3) In hypothetical sentences, i. e. in sentences where a case is supposed or admitted, we often use an im¬ perfect. But, where the possibility of a supposition is ad¬ mitted, the Latin employs the present; on the other hand, the imperfect, when what is supposed is impossible; e. g. If you should ash me this , I could perhaps answer nothing , si me hoc roges, nihil fortasse respondeam; if God ivere (esset) unrighteous , he woidd punish (poena afficeret) the innocent also. If, therefore, the idea is, If this or that happens, then some other event might happen, a present is used ; but if the idea is, If this or that were , or should happen (but which, in the opinion of the speaker, is not, and does not happen), some other event would happen, then the im¬ perfect is used. In a clause with than if or just as if (ac si), accompanying a sentence expressed in the present, the im- § 228.] TENSES.-PRESENT. 205 perfect, and not the present, is used ; since this clause con¬ tains only something conceived of, and not real and true ; e. g. I recommend to you all his affairs , just as if they ivere my own, non secus, ac si mea essent, not s i n t. 228. In expressing a wish, in cases possible and doubtful , the Latin employs the present, first, where the present only is thought of, and second, where something is wished for, which is still possible. But when something impossible or vain is wished for, especially in reference to what has already taken place, and, therefore, the wish can be no longer gratified, the imperfect is used ; e. g. I wish you would, or I would be glad, if you icould write to me, velim mihi scribas (this is still possible); I could wish you had written to me, vellem mi¬ hi scripsisses (this is no longer possible); I could wish ice could say the same, vellem nobis hoc idem liceret (he considers it impossible); I could wish you had said, vellem diceretis (they had said something different from what he wished). I wish, I hope, that fortune has taken nothing from you , is expressed by velim ne quid for¬ tuna tibi eripuerit, when I do not yet know, whether it has happened; but by vellem - eripuisset, when I know that it has taken something. I hope that my father is still alive, utlnam pater vivat! when there is no news as yet of his death; utmam pater viveret! when he is really no longer alive, and the wish is expressed, that he were still alive. Hence one is represented in the times of Caesar, exclaiming among the statues of the elder Brutus, who had been long dead: Utmam viveres! O that you were still alive! Therefore the expression, I wish he would, or 1 hope he will come, must be translated, utmam veniat, when he is ex¬ pected ; but utmam veniret, when the wish is vain, and his coming is neither expected, nor even possible. I hope he has come! utmam venerit, when it is not known, whether he has come, but he is expected; but utmam ve¬ nisset, when it is known, that he has not come, where his 18 206 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ ' 229 . coming may, or may not, have been expected. The wish is, therefore, vain. In like manner, If you wished, is expressed by, si velis, when the person perhaps wishes something, or at least, can wish something; but si velles, when he does not wish anything, or cannot wish. Therefore the wish, ve¬ lim, stands in connection with a present or perfect, but vel¬ lem, with an imperfect or pluperfect. II. Imp e rf e ct. 229. The imperfect denotes an action or event in time past, cotemporancous with another, and moreover continuing at the time of the other. This tense does not stand in connection with the present. As it relates to the past, it is sometimes connected with the narrative historical perfect, which is its most general usage; sometimes with the pluperfect, and sometimes also with an imperfect. But the English imperfect, except the periphrastic form, I was, etc., with the present participle, e. g. I was speaking, does not always denote that one action is cotemporaneous with another, inasmuch as we use it also in narration, as a his¬ torical tense. We say, using our imperfect, Alexander con¬ quered Darius ; Romulus built Rome. Although neither the conquering nor the building took place at once, but continued for many years; yet these events, as they are expressed in the form of narration, are not to be regarded as continuing, or as unaccomplished in the past, because nothing is men¬ tioned, which took place during their continuance. Hence they cannot be translated into the Latin also by an imperfect, but by a perfect, vicit, condidit. When an action is to be expressed in the imperfect, it is considered as unaccom¬ plished in the past, still continuing in it, and interrupted by another action. The period of continuance may be repre¬ sented by a line-, upon which either another event falls (-j-), or to which another is wholly parallel ( ~ ); e. g. TENSES.-IMPERFECT. 207 §§230, 231.] When I teas sitting (imperfect) in the garden, a stone fell (perfect) down. When I ions sitting (imperfect) in the gar¬ den, my sister was (imperfect) busy. In both sentences, the state denoted by the word sitting, is considered as continu¬ ing and not yet accomplished while another took place. The first would be represented by the first of the above char¬ acters (-[-), and the second by the parallel lines ( —— ). 230. The imperfect is used, therefore : (1) In principal and subordinate sentences , which represent an action that was still continuing, and not yet accomplished, when another intervened or took place; e. g. When Alexan¬ der was passing over (cum transiret) to Asia, no obsta¬ cles obstructed, (obstiterunt) his way. When 1 was read¬ ing (cum legerem) in this booh, my brother came (venit) to me. The pirates were sailing (nav igabant) with Bac¬ chus to Asia, but he changed (mutavit) the mast and rud¬ der into serpents. In these three sentences, the passing over, the reading and sailing, are, in reference to the obstruction, the coming and the changing, cotemporaneous but incomplete events. In the last sentence, the sailing was not yet finished, but still continued, when the changing took place. It might also be expressed : When the pirates were sailing - Bac¬ chus changed -. In narration, the Latin often omits the conjunction, in the first clause, and places it before the principal clause which follows ; but the time is not thereby changed ; e. g. The crim¬ inal was stretching (porrigebat) his neck, when the king appeared (apparuit) -,instead of, When the criminal was stretching his neck, the king appeared -. There were (e r a n t )just thirty days, when I wrote this letter -, in¬ stead of, When there were just thirty days, I wrote -. Tarquin was preparing (parabat) to surround the city with a wall, when the Sabine king interrupted (intervenit) his undertaking. Comp. § 239. 231. (2) The imperfect is further used in principal senten- 208 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 232 . ces, which are so connected with a subordinate sentence, that both events, take place entirely within the same time, conse¬ quently two past events still continuing together, and parallel in time; e. g. While my brother was writing (s c r i b e b a t) a letter, I was sitting (sedebam) idle. When Caesar was (esset) in winter quarters, reports were frequently brought (afferebantur) to him. Nevertheless the perfect also is often used here, denoting cotemporaneous action. 232. (3) The imperfect also stands in principal sentences, when customs, habits, admitted opinions and principles, be¬ longing to a subject of past time, are specified. For then the writer does not speak of what has happened only once, but of that which is often repeated, which is accustomed to be done ; e. g. The ancient Germans were careful (studebant) to harden themselves from their very childhood. Socrates main¬ tained (censebat, i. e. was wont to) that the soul was im¬ mortal. Cimon was (e r a t) uncommonly generous. Hence this tense is especially used in delineating character, and when, in descriptions of battles, countries and other ob¬ jects, something is to be represented, as it was at the time re¬ ferred to. Such a continued and repeated action or condition, cotem¬ poraneous with a principal clause, is found in phrases like the following: Could I indeed fear this (at that time)? Could I believe that I should be feared? These are express¬ ed by : Ego timerem? Ego crederem? So also: What could I do? quid agerem? Could I refuse this ? hoc ego repudiarem? You might or could believe, cre¬ deres; then you could perceive, cerneres, videres. Tum vero is used with these to strengthen them. Who would then dare to say this? quis turn hoc auderet dicere? As these sentences contain nothing, which took place before something else, the pluperfect cannot be used. (4) The imperfect is used in intermediate and adjunct clauses, which denote an action that was cotemporaneous TENSES.-IMPERFECT. 209 § 232.] with another, but cannot be considered as completed before the other. In English, we often use here the pluperfect; e. g. When Hamilcar had come to Carthage, he found the state far different from ichat he expected , or had expected , multo aliter ac sperabat; Caligula boasted to Caesonia, waked from sleep, of what he had done, while she had been asleep, (dum meridiaret, not m e r i d i a s s e t) at noon-day ; we icould not have done this, if ice had supposed, si arbi¬ traremur, not arbitrati essemus; those men would not have honored the gods, unless it had been in their hearts, nisi in eorum mentibus haereret, not haesisset. There is, therefore, need of caution in regard to the English pluperfect. For the imperfect indicative instead of the plu¬ perfect subjunctive, see § (270, a.) But it is here to be remarked, on the other hand, that the Latins often use the imperfect in introductory clauses, where the pluperfect seems to be necessary, because something al¬ ready accomplished is spoken of, which is prior to the action in the principal sentence ; e. g. When he had asked - he said -, instead of which we often say, When he asked - he said -. This usage seems to have been adopted, when the second event follows the other immediately; because by using the pluperfect, some time is imagined between the two events. Hence in such cases, an abridged expression, by means of the participle of the same time as the other event or in the present, can be employed, § 453 (2). In other places, on the contrary, the same idea is expressed by the pluperfect, even when both events are simultaneous; e. g. When Hiero had asked (asked) Simonides what God was, he demanded -, and when on the following day he again asked, he inquired -, Hiero, quurn- quaesivisset, postulavit -. Q,uum idem quaereret -, petivit ; When some one had said to Laelius - He replied -, Laelius, quum - diceret -, inquit; when the messenger saw (had seen ) the commander slain, he said -, nuntius 18* 210 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 233 , 234 . quum imperatorem prostratum videret, dixit-; where indeed both ideas, that he had seen and was still seeing , are con¬ tained. Finally, in conditional sentences, a Latin would say : Li¬ brum emissem, si haberem, if I neither then had money, nor now have; but, si habuissem, if I had no money then, but now have. III. The Future. 233. The future denotes an action continuing, and still in¬ complete, in the future ; e. g. My father will be reading the letter, pater leget. In this example the action is consid¬ ered as future, and also continuing in that time. But here a conjecture only is expressed without any efforts being made to accomplish the thing. Hence, this tense sometimes de¬ notes the future merely absolutely, without any idea of the continuance of the action ; e. g. Thou wilt break the leg, fr anges; he will enter the office, inibit. 234. But the future is frequently employed in Latin, where we use the present; especially in subordinate sentences, which are not dependent; in all general precepts or instruc¬ tions, when, in the principal sentence, a future or an impera¬ tive, or, instead of this, a present subjunctive stands; e. g. Whoever wishes (volet) to obtain true glory, let him perform (fungatur) the obligations of justice; perhaps still more will be written by us, if life is prolonged (suppetet); we shall obtain this, if we are cautious (cavebimus); if you wish (voletis), you will find this; I will explain this, as well as I can (potero); be courageous, if a contest is to be engaged in (subeunda erit). And so in phrases, as, What wilt thou answer, if I ask thee ? I will call you when it is time ; I will go where my fortune carries me. Especially is the future of v e 11 e and posse often used, where the Eng¬ lish employs the present. But if in the English present, no futurity, as in the principal sentence, is to be denoted, the future TENSES.-PERFECT. 211 §§ 235,236.] tense is not admissible ; e. g. If you judge me unjustly , I will condemn you , this is expressed by, si iniquus e s in me judex, if he has already judged (as Cic. Fam. II, 1), but si eris, -if he is yet to judge. So also must a present infinitive, with the verbs to hope , to promise , and others similar, be expressed by a future infinitive, when the idea of futurity is contained in it; e. g. I hope to spend the winter there , spero me ibi hibernaturum; I promised, to help him , me eum adjuturum, (see § 402). And so in certain English phrases: / go (i b o) to-morroic ; my brother comes (veniet) in the morning . (h) Tenses denotin g actions co mp l eted. 235. These include all events, which are completed before, or are prior to, some other event. Here also there is a three¬ fold relation of time. The accomplishment, or priority of time can be regarded as present, or past, or future. Hence, there are here also three tenses, which are evidently related to each other in form. These are the following : I. The Perfect. 236. The perfect properly denotes an event prior to the present time, but completed in the present; e. g. / have writ¬ ten the letter , epistolam scripsi. By this I wish to say, I have now finished writing the letter. In English, we can ex¬ press such an idea only by our perfect, not by an imperfect. Therefore, where we speak in the perfect, an event that has just happened, is intended, and accordingly no account of it is given previous to that time. But as this now , or the present period, is constantly, from hour to hour, and from time to time, moving further forwards, the perfect has at length received a general and more histori¬ cal sense, and accordingly denotes any action considered as complete, and not as continuing. It can therefore be called the Aorist Perfect. The Greek here uses the Aorist, and we our imperfect. Hence in principal propositions, all com¬ pleted actions are expressed by this tense. We do not here think of a continuance, or frequent repetition, or interruption, 212 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 237 - 239 . or that another action is to follow the accomplishment of the one stated. As in English, we here make use of the imper¬ fect, there is therefore need of care in translating ; e. g. Cae¬ sar determined (constituit) to cross the Rhine; the enemy hastened (petierunt) to the nearest forest; we afterivards went (contulimus) home; Tar quin came (venit) to Rome; Romulus built (condidit) the city. For its difference from the imperfect, comp, above, § 229. 237. This narrative perfect is used for the most part in principal propositions, and describes an action which occur¬ red, either during another, which stands in the imperfect, or after another, which stands in the pluperfect; e. g. While the Tribunes were doing (agerent) this hastily , messengers came (venerun t) from Tusculum ; while he was driven back by the crowd, silence was commanded (factum est); when the Decemvir had shouted (intonuisset) this, the crowd sep¬ arated (dimovit ) of their own accord . 238. In clauses beginning with a conjunction, the perfect is rarely used, yet almost wholly with the particles of time, postquam, ut, ubi, simulae, after that, when, as soon as, if in the principal clause a perfect is used, and an action is described as already completed, which is followed by an¬ other ; e. g. When Virginius nowhere saw (vidit) any aid he said -; as soon as (u b i) this icas announced (nun¬ tiatum e s t) at Rome, the consul immediately departed ivith the army; after (postquam) they heard this, Quinctius said -. Comp. § 273. For quum with the perfect, see both § 239 and §292, Remark. 239. As the sentences with quum, when, while, are gene¬ rally only dependent sentences, to which the principal sen¬ tence refers, the usual time in these is either the imperfect, denoting contemporary action, or the pluperfect, denoting prior action. But if, by the removal or inversion of the con¬ junction quum, the sentences are as it were interchanged, (see § 230), nevertheless in the preceding and apparently the TENSES.-PERFECT. •213 §§240, 241.] principal sentence, the imperfect or pluperfect without the conjunction, is used, and quum is followed by the perfect or the historical present, indicating the true principal sentence; e. g. Valerius was already commanding (jubebat) the Liclors to withdraw, when (quum) Appius returned (r e c e- p i t) to his house, for quum jam Valerius- juberet, Appius - se recepit. Comp. §§ 230 and 244. This is always the case, when with the adverb now (jam) or scarce¬ ly (vix, vixdum) or just, (commodum, tan turn qu od), an event is stated to define the time of the following event. In such instances the principal sentence with quum follows the other, and the verb is in the perfect or in the his¬ torical present. Instead of the pluperfect, which can be used where there is such a transposition of the conjunction (see § 230), the perfect also is frequently employed to give animation to the discourse, and is followed by the spirited present for the per¬ fect, but only with quum. Thus there is in Cicero the fol¬ lowing narration : When he had come into the temple of Cas¬ tor, and had declared to the consul that the omens were unfetr vorable, the crowd at once exclaim -; therefore in Latin, Venit in templum Castoris, obnuntiavit consuli, quum subito manus illa- exclamat, where both of the pre¬ ceding single clauses make the narration more spirited. 240. When the perfect is used in adjunct and intermedi¬ ate clauses, it refers to more transient actions, in which there is no lively conception of the continuance of the action at that time ; e. g. He made (f a c i e b a t) his way, wherever he went (i b a t), with the sword, until he reached the gate (ad portam perrexit); you will say that Syracuse was found¬ ed by that man icho took (cepit) it, but was taken by him who received (accepit) it when organized. 241. The perfect indicative of debere, oportere, and the like, when followed by an infinitive present, is translated by our ought, and the infinitive by our infinitive perfect; e. g. 214 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 242 , 243 . Themistocles did not suffer the injustice which he ought to have suffered, quam ferre debuit; this money ought to have been given to the Sicilians (dari oportuit). Comp. § (270, a.), where other cases are mentioned. The perfect subjunctive must also often be used for the pluperfect subjunctive, when it does not describe an event completed before the one connected with it, but rather an event cotemporary with the other. Here indeed the imper¬ fect also can be employed; e. g. Was (an fuit) there any one at that time , who would have defended him ? qui eum defen¬ derit? not defendisset; no one^was an enemy of the country, who teas not my enemy , quin mihi inimicus fuerit, not fuisset; I have heard no one , who spoke more reproach¬ fully, qui criminosius diceret, not dixisset. 242. Finally, the Latins frequently use, but generally only in principal clauses, the perfect subjunctive instead of the pres¬ ent, to denote ability and permission; e. g. Perhaps some one might say, fortasse dixerit quispiam ; in almost all things I could sooner say (dixerim), what is not , than what is ; I too would rather learn (didicerim), than censure (rep¬ rehenderim) you. So with nc , when one wishes to pre¬ vent or hinder something, the perfect is used as an impera¬ tive ; e. g. Do not do this , hoc ne f e c e r i s; do not hesitate to send , ne dubitaris mittere. The perfect subjunctive is frequent in prohibitions of this kind, when the prohibition relates, not to continuing actions, habits or permanent states, but to single actions of instant or rapid accomplishment, or mo¬ mentary states ; e. g. Do not cross the river , ne trans i er is; do not stir a step anywhere , nusquam te vestigio moveris. II. The P lupe rf ect. 243. The pluperfect denotes an action, which took place before another past action, and therefore always refers to an¬ other event also past, which follows it. It occurs: (1) In sentences beginning with a conjunction, containing an event, which took place before another; e. g. When he §§ 244, 245.] TENSES.-PLUPERFECT. 215 pidus had lain down, he said, Lepidus quum recubuisset - inquit. The actions, lain down and said are both past; but the lying down is prior to the saying, which follows it. But it has already been stated above, § 232, in explaining the use of the imperfect, that the Latins, even in such intro¬ ductory sentences, sometimes use the imperfect, as well when the second event immediately follows the first, as when the first is to be considered as still continuing at that time. Hence, where there is a change to the abridged participial construc¬ tion, the participle of the present can be used for the pluper¬ fect tense. And it has also been stated above, § 238, that some particles of time, as postquam, ubi, etc., when they de¬ note an action that occurs before another, do not take a plu¬ perfect, but a perfect,except, when in the principal sentence, there is an imperfect or a pluperfect, or when the sentence, in which these particles are found, is a more definite explanation of another, but is not an introductory sentence. Comp, on this § 273. 244. (2) The pluperfect is used in principal clauses, where the action is wholly cotemporary and equally completed with that of the introductory clause. Both events are past, but both also are completed at the same time ; e. g. When I had read (legissem or legeram) my book, my brother also had, read (legerat) his. The pluperfect is further used in such principal sentences, as are so connected with a sentence beginning with a con¬ junction, that the apparently principal sentence should pro¬ perly be the introductory sentence, and the sentence begin¬ ning with a conjunction, the principal sentence; e. g. Al¬ ready had the report of the unsuccessful engagement arrived (perlata erat), when (q uum) new hope appeared (a ff u 1- s i t; they had not yet heard (e r a t an d i t u m), that you had come to Italy, when (q u urn)/ sent (m i si) Villius to you with this letter. Comp, above, § 239. 245. (3) The pluperfect is used in subordinate clauses, 216 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 246 . which give the reason of another past action, and hence be¬ gin with nam, quia and the like; e. g. For he had been in his way, while he was bashing, offecerat apricanti. For the cause is prior to the effect. In English, we here often use the imperfect. It is so also in sentences like this : No¬ thing had happened to Polycrates (acciderat), which he did not wish, except that he had thrown his ring, which he loved, into the sea, nisi quod — abjecerat. And so also in conditional sentences ; as, V Croesus had ever been (fuisset) happy, he might have led (pertulisset) a hap¬ py life to the day of his death. (4) The pluperfect is used in relative clauses, when some¬ thing is stated in them, which took place prior to what is stated in the principal clause. Sometimes, in English, an imperfect is used here; e. g. Themistocles did the same, which Coriolanus did (fe c e r a t, not faciebat) among us twenty years before. III. The Future-perfect. 246. The future-perfect denotes an action completed in the future; e. g. I shall have written, scripsero. The action is indeed in the future, but it is conceived of and re¬ presented as completed in the future. With such events there is usually connected another later future, or an impera¬ tive, or a subjunctive used imperatively, which also contains the idea of futurity. We sometimes translate the future-per¬ fect, by our perfect indicative, sometimes by the present or the simple future; e. g. When you have read (legeris) the book, send (mitte) it to me; when I have ivrittcn the letter (scripsero), I will come (veniam) to you ; the more persons we benefit or shall benefit (profuerimus), the more friends we shall have. The one is a future continuing, the other completed, and prior to the first. And so in laws, which com¬ mand something future, where a past tense is used, it is al¬ ways the future-perfect; e. g. Whoever is sacrilegious, ought §§ 247—249.] tenses.—future-perfect. 217 to be execrated, qui sacrilegus fu e r i t (whoever shall have been). 247. It does not follow from what is said above, that a fu¬ ture must always be connected with a future-perfect. For the sake of vivacity, the present may be used, or a future may be expressed in another manner; e. g. If I shall have effected (profecero) nothing, still I am (sum) full of courage r if I shall find (invenero) no house which pleases me, I have determined (decrevi) to live with you, i. e. I will then live with you, as I have determined. 248. Moreover, it does not follow, that a future of the principal sentence must have a future-perfect in the sentence connected with it by a conjunction; this latter sometimes contains a simple future, when only cotemporary and con¬ tinuing actions are described in the future; e. g. We will speak (loquemur) of these matters, when we are (eri¬ mus, not fuerimus) at leisure. Comp. § 234. But some¬ times either a future-perfect or a future is admissible and proper. Thus Cicero says (Fam. VI. 22, 6): Si quid ad me scripseris, ita faciam, ut te velle intellexero; sin au¬ tem tu minus scripseris, ego tamen omnia, quae tibi utilia esse arbitrabor, summo studio curabo; where for intel¬ lexero, also i n t e 11 i g a m might have been used, and for arbitrabor, also arbitratus ero. 249. The future-perfect is usually found in introductory sentences with a conjunction, since the principal sentence denotes an action, which is assumed as following the accom¬ plishment of the first named. So it is in the examples under § 246. But often the principal sentence also contains an action which is to be considered as completed at the same time with the other, in the future; where therefore the re¬ sult is immediately connected with the action itself, and takes place during its accomplishment. Both actions therefore proceed together, and are accomplished at the same time; e. g. When you have (shall have) finished your letter, I also 19 218 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 250 , 251 . shall have finished mine; whoever shall crush (shall have crush¬ ed— oppresserit) Antony, will (will have) put an end (confecerit)£oa most cruel war; you loill confer (will have conferred) a very great favor (pergratum f e c e r i s) on me, if you will take care (curaris) of that; you will very greatly increase (auxeris) your merit, if you will do ( f e c e r is) this. These and similar forms of gratum facere in this tense are found very frequently in the thirteenth book of Cicero’s letters. We say more frequently, Thou wilt confer, instead of Thou wilt have conferred. But the construction would be different, if the signification were, It will he pleasing to me, e r i t, not fu- erit; e. g. Id si correxeris, mihi valde gratum erit. This tense therefore is proper also in phrases, such as, He will deserve well of this place, who -, meruerit de hoc loco, qui, followed by the future-perfect. 250. This tense sometimes occurs also in Cicero for the other future, when the action is considered as prior, rather than cotemporary with the action of the principal sentence, since the speaker does not transfer himself to the time in which he will do something, but directly to the time in which he wishes it already done. This is particularly the case with posse, velle, licere, placere, etc. Hence so often, si potue¬ ro, si voluero, si placuerit, si licuerit, for si potero, volam, placebit, licebit. It is particularly to be observed, that in English, instead of this tense, i. e. our second future, we very often employ a present, or a perfect, or a first future; hence there is need of caution in translating into Latin. Thus, in the following sentences : If you take from nature (shall take) the binding influence of benevolence, no house can sta nd ; If I hear (shall hear) anything more certain respecting this , I will inform you ; how will you be able to be a friend to any one, unless you are attracted by love ; if the sick man takes (will take) this remedy , he will be restored to health. In all these examples, the Latin would use the future-perfect. Additional Remarks on the Tens es. (251. a.) As time is only threefold, present, past and fu¬ ture, every state or action, which is denoted by a verb, must fall within one of these three periods. It must either be §251.] TENSES.-ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE. 219 now, present to the writer or speaker, or before in the past, or after in the future. But a state or an action can be considered and represented, either by itself, as absolute, without any relation to another, or as relative, in relation to a second. There are only three absolute tenses, one of the present, one of the past, and one of the future. 1. Absolute present, e. g. scribo, I write. 2. Absolute past, e. g. scripsi, I wrote. 3. Absolute future, e. g. s c r i b a m, I shall write. Here, no idea of anything cotemporary or prior is intro¬ duced, since the speaker has in mind only the present, and describes what takes place in it, by the present, what took place before it, by the perfect, and what will take place after it, by the future. The necessity of expressing what is prior and cotempo¬ rary has occasioned the use of the relative tenses. But in this case, there must be two sentences referring to each other, a principal and a subordinate sentence, both either cotemporary, or so related that the subordinate sentence is before the other in time. Since in the space of the present, there can be no past, there should be five relative tense-forms, two for the past, one for the present, and two for the future. But only the past has its two relative forms, the present none, and the future but one. Further remarks: I. The Present. (251. b.) This is only a small period of time; for what I say or do in this present, is already past in the next moment, therefore said, done ; then we say, I have said, 1 have done. Hence, in the period of the present, there can be only the cotemporary existence of two or more actions, but no priority of one to another; for what is prior to another is past. There is here, however, no separate relative form for cotem- 220 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 251 . porary existence, but this is expressed by the absolute present; a past event, related to the present, is expressed by the per¬ fect, that is, by the form of the absolute past. Absolute Present. Present. Homo videt, audit, sentit, cogitat. Quid au¬ dio? Tuo facto delector. Hoc moleste fero. Iras¬ cor. Iratus sum. Relative Present. Here are only two cases: 1. Cotemporary existence with another present action; thus . . . Present — Present. Quum epistolam ad fratrem scribo, me ejus desiderium tenet. Agricola, quum arat et serit, sperat. Hoc quum dicit, non attendit. 2. Priority in reference to the present; thus-. Perfect— Present. Quum venit calamitas, tum detrimentum accipitur. Senes, quum cenaverunt, meridiant. t 11. The Pas t. (251. c.) This embraces the entire great period, preced¬ ing the time present to the speaker. Everything which takes place in this period, whether it occurred a long or a short time since, is expressed by the perfect, when there is no re¬ ference to another event. Absolute Past. Perfect. Deus aedificavit mundum. Romulus condidit Romam. Hodie epistolam scripsi ad meum fratrem. In these three examples, the exact time in the past, when $ 251.] TENSES.—-ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE. 221 the several events occurred, is very different; the first is in the most remote past, the last in the nearest , the second is be¬ tween the other two. But this remoteness or nearness makes no difference whatever in the tense of those three sentences. The perfect is also very frequently used, where I might con¬ sider and state the proposition in relation to another event, either cotemporary or prior , but do not do so, and therefore speak without any reference to an event happening after or at the same time with it, and have in mind nothing ex¬ cept the time of the past. Hence the perfect occurs so of¬ ten merely as an aorist , i. e. without reference to anything else mentioned before or after. Thus, Livy, II. 1, says, Nam priores (reges) ita regnarunt, ut numerentur, where he could have also said in reference to the newly chosen con¬ suls, of whom he began to speak, regnarant, inasmuch as it expresses what was prior to something else. (251. d.) The imperfect is used in preference to the perfect, only when an action, also without any reference to another, is to be considered as repeated , or as a custom and habit. By this use of the imperfect, the action, viewed as continuing in a former time, appears more vivid ; yet instead of this, where there is no reference to the repetition, the event may be considered only as past, and may be expressed by the per¬ fect ; e. g. Germani veteres venatui studebant (studue¬ runt). Hence a continued belief, a fixed opinion, or thought, often repeated by a person, is generally expressed by crede¬ bat, censebat, cogitabat, etc. (251. e.) But as the period of time is so great, that several events can have taken place simultaneously and consecutively , and as these can be stated with relation to each other, two actions are here sometimes cotemporary, sometimes the one is prior to the other. The former relation is properly de¬ noted by the imperfect, the latter by the pluperfect. 19* 222 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 251 . Relative Past. The following cases occur here : 1. An action wholly cotemporary, from beginning to end, with another past one; thus --- . Imperfect — Imperfect. Q,uum haec scribebam, bellum magnum erat. De¬ cii, quum in hostium aciem irruebant, fulgentes gladios videbant. 2. Both cotemporary , yet only so far, that the principal event happened during the continuance of the other ; thus -+• Imperfect — Perfect. Q,uum adolescens essem in Peloponneso, vidi quos¬ dam Corinthios. Aratus, quum ejus civitas a tyrannis t e- neretur, Sicyonem profectus est. 3. Both cotemporary, yet so, that the principal action fol¬ lowed immediately from the first, and originated from it. Such sentences often contain the idea of thereby, therefrom; thus also Perfect — Perfect. Q,uum ter praetor renuntiatus sum, (thereby) i n- t e 11 e x i —. Senatus, quum indici praemium decrevit, (thereby) indicavit suam sententiam. 4. Priority of one past event to another; the one was earlier than the other which followed it; thus-. Pluperfect — Perfect. Pompeius quum Rhodum venisset, audire voluit Posidonium. Q,uod Aristides quum audivisset, in con¬ cionem venit. 5. Two events prior to a third already past, so that one of the first two is again prior to the other; thus- § 251 .] TENSES.-ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE. 223 Pluperfect, Pluperfect, Perfect. duum, quid Romae actum esset, cognovissem, Brun¬ disium profectus sum. Dionysius caede familiaris d o- luit; quem enim amara t, occiderat. Here the verbs amare, occidere and doler e denote a threefold relation of past time, amare is prior to occidere, and occidere to dolere. It could also have been expressed: Dionysius, quum familia¬ rem, quem amara t, occidisset, doluit. 6. Two prior to a third, but both of these cotemporary, as the action of the principal subordinate sentence was co¬ temporary with, or happened during that of the other; thus Pluperfect, Imperfect, Perfect. duum, quid ageres, audivissem, Romam reliqui, duum Romae, tum quum apud Pharsalum pugnabatur, seditiones coortae essent, Caesar eoprofectus est. Cicero hoc curavit, ut omnes viderent, quod antea fuisset occultum. III. The Future. (251. f.) This embraces the whole great period that fol¬ lows the present. When merely the future is considered, there is no reference to what is near or remote in the future. But there is such a reference, where two future events are spoken of, if they are stated in relation to each other, whether they are cotemporary or one is prior to the other, as it were a prior future. Absolute Future. Future. Deus tibi providebit. Hodie apud inferos fortasse cenabimus. Animus non interibit cum reliquo cor¬ pore. Relative Future. Here the following cases occur : 224 CONSTRUCTION OP VERBS. [§ 251 . 1. A future event cotemporary with another future; thus — . Here neither is considered as yet accomplished. Future — Future. Si mihi probabis ea, quae dices, libenter assen¬ ti a r. Quern librum si legere voletis, reperietis. Nunc tu, si putabis me esse conveniendum, constitues, quo loco id commodissime fieri possit. 2. Priority of one future event to another ; thus-. Future-perfect—Future. Instead of one of these tenses, an imperative also can be used. Si te rogavero aliquid, non respondebis? Si te amicus rogaverit, quid facies? A me, quum paulum otii nacti erimus, uberiores litteras expec- tato. Subduc cibum unum diem athletae; Jovem Olym¬ pium implorabit. The clauses seldom stand in an inverted order; e. g. Quum tu haec leges, ego illum fortasse convenero. 3. Both so prior to another future event implied, that they are considered as completed at the same time, the action con¬ tained in the principal clause taking place immediately with the first, and as a consequence of it; thus =. Future-perfect — Future-perfect. Instead of the first future-perfect, an imperative also can be used. Quae vitia qui fugerit, is omnia fere vitia vitaverit. Haud e r r a v e r o, si a Zenone principium duxero. Gra¬ tissimum nobis feceris, si hoc a te didicerimus. T oil e hanc opinionem ; luctum sustuleris. . (251. g.) In writing, the student should adhere as strictly as pos¬ sible to this use of the absolute and relative tenses, and should admit no irregularity on account of an occasional departure in the best writers. Especially, should he be careful in the use of the imperfect and pluperfect, which differ very perceptibly, not only from each other, but also from the perfect. The imperfect is used either absolutely , and § 252.] TENSES.-PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE. 225 then signifies the repetition of the action or fact, or it is used relatively , and then denotes something cotemporary with another past action. The perfect, on the contrary, does not indicate the repetition of an action, but describes it only as past. If it is said, Dionysius was thir¬ ty-eight years king of Syracuse , it is expressed by fuit; on the con¬ trary, if it is said, He intrusted (or was wont to intrust) the protection of his body to slaves , then committebat, is used, which declares this as characteristic of him, or shows that that action was constantly re¬ peated. Further : In order that he might not intrust his head to a bar¬ ber , he taught his daughters to shave him ; accordingly after this they shaved their father. These actions would be expressed by committe¬ ret, docuit , tondebant. There is some difference between the two following sentences: Themistocles took a walk nightly , i. e. every night: Themistocles took a walk the following night ; the former is rendered by ambulabat , the latter by ambulavit. But if another action, which, in narration, would be the principal event, had occurred co¬ temporary with the last, then that also must be expressed by ambula¬ bat. Moreover, that, which is premised to the narration of the prin¬ cipal action, as its cause or occasion , if it be partly prior to, but also partly cotemporary with that which follows, is put in the imperfect. Therefore, when Livy, II. 48, says, Aequi se oppida receperunt, murisque se tenebant: eo nulla pugna memorabilis fuit, the re¬ treating contained in receperunt , in relation to the following principal clause, co nulla —, denotes nothing continuing or cotemporary , but something prior, which Livy states merely historically, as something past, without reference to the principal clause. On the contrary, the remaining in the wails, expressed by, in murisque se tenebant, is something cotemporary, and contains the reason of the principal clause ; hence the imperfect. It could also have been written : Q,uum Aeq. — recepissent, murisque se tenerent. (251. h.) Finally, sentences with ut and ne, dependent on a verb signifying to fear, are never used in the future, although something future is denoted, but, according to the different tense of the govern¬ ing verb, either in the present, imperfect or perfect; e. g. Vereor, ne temeritas tua tibi maerorem det, or, where the consequence has probably already commenced, dederit. Verebar (veritus sum), ne — daret. Verebor, ne — det. In like manner, sentences de¬ noting design, intention, with ut (that, in order that, to), although they signify something future, are not put in the future, but in a tense co¬ temporary with the principal clause, either in the present or imperfect; e. g. Mitto tibi hunc hominem, ut dicat, quid agam. Misi — ut diceret, quid agerem. Periphrastic Conjugation in the Active. 252. A future action can be represented, either prophetically, as one still uncertain, whether it be considered as still contin¬ uing, or already completed, e. g. I will write or he writing to you (scribam); when 1 shall have written to you, (scrip- 226 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 253 . s e r o), you will understand (cognosces) everything definitely; or it can be so represented, as also to signify that preparations have been made to perform it, and give it a real existence. For this the Latin uses the participle in urus, combined with the verb sum, because this participle denotes one who is destined to something by fate, is to be or do some¬ thing, is willing and inclined to do it. When Cicero (Fam. II, 7) says, Paucis diebus sum missurus domesticos tabellarios, the meaning is, I intend, design to send -. The principal ideas expressed by this form are, willing, de¬ signing, intending, being about, being on the point of, having a mind, having in mind, making preparations, and the like. Where it denotes an action, which also refers to the future, and the Latin verb is in the subjunctive or infinitive, we often render it by our auxiliaries, would, should and will; e. g. I know that he woidd have obtained, eum impetraturum fuisse; - that he will obtain, eum impetraturum esse; I doubt not that he will do this, quin facturus s i t. 253. But an action thus determined on, can not only be considered in the three relations of time, present, past, and future, but also as continuing and completed. It can continue in those three relations of time, but be completed properly only in the first two. Hence, therefore, there are here also five tenses, the present, imperfect, future, perfect and plu¬ perfect. The following are general examples : What are you designing or about to do ? Q, u i d estis acturi? % What were you designing to do ? Q u i d e r a t i's a c t u ri ? What will you be about Zo cfo ? Q u i d eritis acturi? What did you design, or were you about to do ? Q u i d fuistis acturi? What had you designed, or been about to do? Quid f u- eratis acturi? TENSES.-PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE. 227 [§ 253. Some definite examples from authors : Hortensius asked his colleague, But you, ichat do you design to do ? (quid acturi e s t i s ?) do you intend to deprive the people of jus¬ tice (erepturi), and to destroy (eversuri) the tribunitial power ? Pompey was about to go (e r a t i t u r u s) to Ariminum to the army. The king ought to permit no army to pass through his country, which designs to wage tear (gesturus erit) with the Roman people. On account of this, Caesar intended to speak (f u i t a c t u r u s) in the sen¬ ate, on the fifteenth of March. The session of the senate urns to have been (f u erat futurus) to-day. You intend to shut up Carthage (es clausurus). You were about to unite (conciliaturi fu¬ istis) with him. When Jupiter was about to precipitate (dejecturus esset) Apollo, Latona prevented him. I have never doubted, that (quin) the Roman people would make (facturus esset) you con¬ sul,—would have made (facturus fuisset). There is no doubt that Brutus icould have done (f acturus fuerit) this. If Flaminius had listened to the auspices, the same icould have happened to him (even¬ turum fuisset). Examples on §§ 222—253. (1)1 went yesterday through the market, with my brother, and wished to visit 1 thy friend. Suddenly a stranger 2 ap¬ proached 3 us, who, as it appeared, was a man of distinction 4 , and asked us this and that. I had heard him speak 5 long 6 of our country, when I at length 7 asked him, whether 8 he wished to remain with us, or 9 to depart 10 . I will remain here, said he, and then 11 , after a few days, will proceed 12 . Have I not 13 sufficient cause to be angry 14 with you, that 15 you have designedly 16 concealed 17 this from me ? And truly 18 I will be angry, until thou hast promised 19 to write as soon as possible 20 . I wish you had sent the letter to me by another. Pompey was with me, when I wrote this, and I told him with pleasure 21 , that 22 you were my most intimate 23 friend. I had not doubted 24 , that 25 I should see you at Tarentum, ts We have not set out upon our journey, because we did not know where we should see your brother. I would write to you of- tener, if my pain had not deprived 26 me of all recollection*. If I shall receive the letter which I expect, and if the hope shall be realized, which is caused 27 by report 28 , I will go 29 to you. The Romans returned sorrowful 30 to their camp ; they must have been considered 31 as vanquished. 1 visere. 2 quidam. 3 acced8re. 4 nobilis (man of distinction). 5 lo- quen3. 6 diu. 7 tandem. 8 utrum. 9 an. 10 discedere. 11 demum, ^pro¬ ficisci. 13 nonne. 14 irasci. 15 qui (that you). 16 consulto. 17 reticere. 18 profecto. 19 polliceri. 20 quam primum (as soon as possible). 21 liben¬ ter. 22 (acc. with inf.). 23 amicissimus (most intimate friend), ^dubi¬ um esse. ^quin. 26 adimere. * mens. 27 afferre. 28 rumor. 29 se conferre. 30 maestus. 31 credere. 228 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 253 . * (2) I wish you would come 1 to Athens. When the sons of Tarquin had executed 2 the commands 3 of their father, they desired 4 to ask 5 , to which of them the empire would come hereafter. They received the answer: He shall have the highest power, who will first give a kiss 6 to his mother. When Theramenes had drunk the poison, he threw 7 the re¬ mainder 8 from the cup in such a manner*, that it reechoed 9 , and he said, I drink 10 this to the beautiful Critias ! For the Greeks were accustomed, at their feasts 11 , to name him, to whom they were about to present the cup. Therefore he jested 12 , when dying, and predicted 13 to him, whose health he drank 14 , the death which followed 15 shortly after. When an assembly 16 was held 17 in Syracuse, Timoleon came into the theatre, drawn 18 by a span 19 of horses. When Camissa- res was carrying on war against the Cadusians, he fell fight¬ ing bravely. As often as 20 a Roman cohort assaulted 21 the Treveri, a great number of the enemy fell. When the young Torquatus heard that his father would be involved 22 in diffi¬ culties 23 , he ran to Rome, and came, early in the morning 24 , into the house of his accuser 25 , Pomponius. When it was announced to him, that he had come, he rejoiced, and im¬ mediately arose 26 from his bed 27 . ./If any one wished, he could view 28 , in these actions, the life of that man, as in a mirror. Cato relates, that the legions often went 29 cheer¬ fully 30 to the place, from which they believed that 31 they should not return. After the battle was over 32 , you (one) could see 33 , how great courage there had been in the army of Catiline. 4 se recipere. 2 perficere. 3 mandatum. 4 cupido incessere. 5 scisci¬ tari. 8 osculum. 7 ejicere. 8 reliquum. * ita. 9 resonare. 10 propinare. 11 convivium. 12 ludere. 13 augurari. 14 cui, praebibere (whose health he drank). 15 consequi. 16 concio. 17 habere. 18 vectus. 19 jumenta juncta (span of horses). 20 quoties (as often as). 21 procurrere. 22 ex¬ hibere. 23 negotium. 24 prima lux (early in the morning). 25 accusator. 26 surgere. 27 lectulus. 28 intueri. 29 proficisci. "alacer. 31 (acc. with inf.). 32 confecto proelio (when the battle was over). 33 cernere. (3) Of the same mind 1 was that Lacedemonian 2 woman, who, when she lost 3 her son in battle, said, I bore 4 him, that he might be one who would not hesitate 5 to die for his coun¬ try. The messengers announced these words of the king at home; and now preparations 6 were making for war on both sides 7 , with great power ; yet the issue of the war made the conflict less mournful 8 . Whoever despises 9 vain-glory, will * 253 .] TENSES OF THE VERB. 229 obtain 10 the true. I wish that you believed 11 , that I would have preferred 12 your will to my own interest, if you had come to me. No one then used his mind without his body ; in peace and in war, good morals were honored ; alterca¬ tions 13 and hostilities 14 they practised with the enemy, but citizens vied with citizens for 16 excellence 10 . O that 17 I may yet see the day, when I can thank 18 you, that you have hitherto 19 assisted 20 me so faithfully 21 . When you come to Athens, we shall be able to come to a conclusion 22 concern¬ ing our whole journey. I will answer you, but not before you have answered me. When there is anything certain re¬ specting this, I will inform 23 you immediately. Aid 24 us by thine opinion 25 ; when thou hast done this, thou wilt pro¬ mote 26 our common 27 interest. O that you may reach 28 that happy age, .that you may be able to enjoy these advantages. A day would not be sufficient 29 , if I wished to defend the causes of the poor. Then the Albans could have been seen 30 , at one time 31 , joyful, at another, terrified 32 . 1 animus. 2 Lacaena (Lacedemonian woman). 3 amittere, ‘‘gig¬ nere. 5 dubitare. 6 parare aliquid (to make preparation for something). 7 jutrimque (on both sides). 8 miserabilis. 9 spernere. 10 habere. 11 ita existimare. 12 anteferre. 13 jurgium. 14 simultas. 15 de. 16 virtus. 17 uti- narri. 18 gratias agere. 19 adhuc. 20 inservire. 21 fideliter. 22 consilium capere (to come to a conclusion). 23 certiorem facere. 24 adjuvare. 25 sententia. 26 inservire. 27 communis. 28 pervenire. 29 deficere (not to be sufficient). 30 animadvertere. 31 modo (at one time). 32 pavldus. (4) I would cheerfully grant 1 all riches 2 to all, if it were lawful for me to live in this manner. Any one 3 could say with truth 4 , that 5 death is a journey 6 to those regions 7 which they inhabit 8 , who have departed 9 from this life. When I had sailed 10 from Epidaurus to the Piraeus, I there visited 11 Marcellus, and spent 12 a day, that 13 I might be with him. On the following day, when I had left 14 him, with the inten¬ tion 15 of 16 going to Boeotia, he wished, as he said, to sail to Italy. Do you wish, while I live 17 , and while 18 the rest of the army is unimpaired, with which I took Carthage, in one day, to snatch 19 the province Spain from the Roman people? There are the Balearian islands, the larger of which has a harbor, where Mago believed, (for it was already the end 20 of autumn,) that he should spend the winter 21 conveniently 22 . But they met 23 the fleet in a hostile 24 manner, so that the ships did not venture to enter 25 the harbor. Thence they passed over 26 to the smaller island. Since 27 the Scipios came 20 230 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 254 , 255 . into our province, they have ceased 28 , at no time, to do what was pleasing 29 to us. But, when we were already on the point 30 of 31 being in a desirable 32 condition 33 , these Scipios diedj Then we seemed truly to be brought back 34 to our former condition*, to 35 see again a new destruction 36 of our state, when you unexpectedly 37 sent to us this Scipio. Catiline knew everything which took place 38 in the state, dared 39 everything, and could endure 40 cold, hunger and thirst. 1 concedere. 2 opes. 3 quispiam. 4 vere. 5 (acc^. with inf.). 6 migratio. 7 ora. 8 incolere. 9 discedere. 10 navi advehi locum. 11 convenire. ,2 consumere. 13 ut. 14 digredi ab aliquo. 15 consilium. 16 (ut with subj.). 17 mene vivo (while I live). 18 cetero incolumi exercitu (while-un¬ impaired). 19 eripere. 20 extremum. 21 hibernare. 22 comrndde. 23 oc¬ currere. 24 hostiliter. 25 intrare aliquid. 26 trajicere. 27 ex quo. 28 desis¬ tere. 29 secundus. 30 prope esse (to be on the point). 31 ut. 32 optabilis. 33 fortuna. 34 retrahere. * status. 35 ut. 36 excidium. 37 ex insperato. 38 geri. 39 audere. 40 ferre. DEPENDENCE OF TENSES. / J 254. In all dependent sentences which are connected by the particles that, in order that, who, which (qui with the subjunctive), and by any of the interrogative words, or in any other manner, and in all those sentences which have a mutual connection with each other, even if they are not de¬ pendent on one another, the tenses of the verbs must agree, i. e. they must be similar.—Examples of sentences dependent on each other: Who is there , that docs not know this ? He requested me, that I would write to him shortly. Pliny read no book, from which he did not make extracts. The follow¬ ing is an example of a sentence, whose parts are mutually connected with, and related to each other : We endure smaller pains, that we may not experience greater ones, as we should , if we did not do this. There are, however, marked differ¬ ences between the dependence of tenses in the English, and the Latin. Some of these will be pointed out in what fol¬ lows, and others will be manifest from the examples. 255. The relative meaning of the principal and subordi¬ nate clauses in a sentence must alone, in all cases, determine the necessary tense. The three primary tenses, the present, § 256 .] DEPENDENCE OF TENSES. 231 perfect and future, are mutually related to one another, in the same manner as the imperfect and pluperfect, neither of which are ever connected with a present or future, though they are with a historical perfect. It is therefore necessary to understand fully the signification of each tense. I. The Present. 256. (1) The present is followed by the present, when the action described by the dependent sentence occurs also in the present, and, therefore, is cotemporary with the action de¬ scribed by the principal sentence; e. g. I wish that I had (u t habeam); thou art (e s) not in circumstances to he ignorant (nescias) of what is (s i t) proper ; where is (e s t) there a state, which has (habeat) not wicked citizens ? I wish (v e 1 i m), that you would write (scribas) tome soon, how you do (quid ag as). So also after verbs denoting/ear, a present, and not a future, is used : Ifear that it will rain (ne pluat). So also in sentences with that, denoting inten¬ tion, wish and command. Comp. § (251. h.) (2) The present is followed by the perfect, when the ac¬ tion denoted by the dependent sentence is past. The Eng¬ lish sometimes improperly uses the imperfect; e. g. Think (cogit a) how fate has hitherto dealt (egerit) with us ; I fear (vereor) that this letter gave (has given) (dederint) you more grief than joy ; where is (e s t) there a state, which has not had (h a b u e r i t) wicked citizens ? I doubt not, that the whole multitude would, have turned to you, quin- con¬ versura fuerit, not fuisset. The present is also employed with the accusative and infi¬ nitive ; e. g. I acknowledge that there have been (fuisse) many men of great mind; but esse would he cotemporary with f a t e o r ( that there are many men). An imperfect also is admissible, only when a repeated action is sig¬ nified ; e. g. It is added to this, that , or besides this (huc accedit) your desire via s (e s se t) more concealed and hidden, —where, more¬ over, huc accedit, could have scarcely any influence, and without 232 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 257 , 258 . it, the sentence would be expressed, Vestra ista cupiditas erat, not fuit. Non dubium est, quin multi, qui naturae vitia haberent, restituerentur et corrigerentur ab natura aut arte atque me¬ dicina,— where also the clause, non dubium est, for sine d u- b i o, has no influence upon the verb. And so in similar places, where there is an apparent departure from the rule. (3) The present is followed by the future, when a future action is spoken of; e. g. I doubt (d u b 11 o) not, that you will think so, existimaturus sis; I know not in what way this icill break out, eruptura sint. Often also the present is sufficient, as in posse, which wants the periphrastic future ; e. g. I doubt not, that I shall be able to overtake you, quin te possim consequi. Sentences which express a fear, and those which denote intention, wish and command, constitute an exception here. For such sentences, see § (251. h.). Remarks. 257. (1) Where the present of a principal sentence is a historical present (see § 224), which is used for an imperfect or a perfect, not only a present, but also an imperfect, and, where the actions are com¬ pleted, instead of a perfect, a pluperfect can follow in the dependent sentence ", e. g. Caesar 'persuades (persuadet) him , that he would undertake this , conaretur for conetar; he makes known (a p e- r i t) to him what he had learned (comperisset, for compererit) from the letter. (2) When, before such sentences as, What xcould you do, if your fa¬ ther should now come ; what would you have done, if your father had come , a present is used, e. g. Tell me, dicas mihi; then such con¬ ditional sentences are wholly independent of that present, and, there¬ fore, the usual tenses remain, viz. the imperfect and pluperfect; d i- ca s mihi, quid fac e re s, si pater nunc veniret (venisset), di¬ cas mihi, quid fe c i s s e s, si pater venisset. Hence, Non dubito quin, si modo esset in republica senatus, statua huic statuere¬ tur (Cic. Sext. 38), is correct. II. The Imperfect. 258. (1) The imperfect is followed by the imperfect, when the action of the dependent sentence, is cotemporary with the other, and is still continuing in the same past; e. g. Apelles used to say (dicebat), that those painters were defi cient (pecca¬ re), who did not know (sentirent) what was (esset) enough. All were waiting (expectabant), what Verres would then §§259,260.] DEPENDENCE OF TENSES. 233 (/o (acturus esset). Thorius used to live (vivebat) in suck a manner, that there was (esset) no pleasure of which lie did not have an abundance, qua non abundaret. (2) The imperfect is followed by the pluperfect, when the action of the dependent sentence is prior to, and not cotem¬ porary with the other; e. g. I'Ve did not k?ww (nescieba¬ mus) till now, what had been done (actum esset) at Rome. Because I was afraid (verebar) that letter had caused (fecissent) you sadness, I immediately sent you this new one. A clause with ut , containing a conclusion drawn from what pre¬ cedes, is often considered wholly independent of anything before, and, therefore, in this clause, a present, perfect or future, can follow even an imperfect. Thus Cicero says, Fin. II. 20, Thorius erat ita non (so little) timidus ad mortem, ut in acie s i t ob rempublicam interfectus. Here an event follows, which took place neither during nor before the other; the consequence of his courage is con¬ sidered independent of what precedes, and moreover, is not cotempo¬ rary with the preceding permanent fact, as, in that case, an imperfect would be more suitable in the conclusion. III. The Be rfe c t. 259. (1) The perfect is followed by the present, when the action of the dependent sentence is confined to the present merely, and has no relation to the past; especially therefore, when the (present) design or result of a past action is stated, which is to be viewed only in the present; e. g. It has been enjoined (tributum e s t) by nature upon the race of ani¬ mals, that each should protect (tueatur) himself and his life. I have undertaken (sumpsi) this new work, that I may not give myself up (d e d a m) wholly to sorrow. Caesar has so distinguished (eminuit) himself by his achievements, that he is considered (habeatur) the greatest general. You have come here to murder (u t juguletis) him. A present also follows a perfect subjunctive, when it is used as a present; e. g. If I deny this, wise men can see (viderint) how justly I do it (facia m). 260. (2) The perfect is followed by the imperfect. In this 20 * 234 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 261 . case, the perfect of the principal sentence is used as a his¬ torical tense, which is its most frequent use. See § 237. When, therefore, the action of the dependent sentence is con¬ sidered cotemporary with that of the principal sentence, and also continuing , the imperfect is employed ; e. g. There were (fuerunt) some philosophers,who denied (negarent) this. I requested (petivi) you to consider (haberes) a//as your friends, whom I shoidd recommend (commendarem) to you. You came here (in a former time) to murder him (ut— jugularetis). Did he not write (nonne scripsit) to you recently, that you might prepare (parares) yourself for this event. At that time, there was scarcely one, to whom gain was (esse t) not pleasing. Clauses denoting a purpose which stands in connection with past time, are expressed by the imperfect alone ; e. g. The father intrusted his son to you, in order that you might instruct him, ut eum insti¬ tueres; he withdrew, that he might not be suspected, ne in suspicio¬ nem veniret. So in, He wrote this book to be useful. Words were invented to make known the mind , ut indicarent. So in clauses which express a wish, command or fear, respecting the past. Comp. § (251. h.) Butin clauses containing a conclusion, the imperfect is used, for the most part, only when there is a repeated, continuing action; otherwise the perfect. Comp. § 261. (3) The perfect is followed by the perfect. This is the case : 261. (a) When a conclusion is drawn from what precedes, which, in respect to time, agrees directly with the action of the principal sentence, and is considered properly as an inde¬ pendent sentence, without any reference to continuance and repetition, denoting only what is past. This often occurs with ut, after the words sic, tam, adeo, tantum, tantus and the like ; e. g. The cruelty of Verres towards the people was so great, that many took their own lives, mortem sibi consciverint. Didst thou so wholly lose thy sense of shame and chastity, that thou didst dare (ausus sis) to say this in a temple ? In this tumult, a senator was so abused,that he lost (amiserit) his life. Yet when such a clause with that, is considered as contin¬ uing during the time of the other, or as repeated and wholly cotemporary with it, the imperfect is used. Comp. § 260. §$ * 262 — 264 .] DEPENDENCE OF TENSES. 235 (b) When qui non and quin stand in the dependent clause, which is cotemporary with the other; e. g. No one came to Messina, without seeing this image, quin- viderit. Was there indeed a conflagration in this city, to which toe did not hasten ? cui non subvenerimus. But when such a sentence denotes a cotemporary and re¬ peated action, the imperfect is better; e. g. Pliny read no hoolc, from which he did not make extracts, quern non excer¬ peret (also excerpserit). So also in the following sen¬ tences : What place was there then so remote, that it was concealed ? (lateret) Who sailed upon the sea at that time, who did not expose (committeret) himself to the danger of slavery ? 262. (4) The perfect is followed by the pluperfect, when the action of the dependent sentence is completed before that of the principal sentence ; e. g. Caligula boasted (gloria¬ tus est) to Caesonia, how much he had done (quantum egis¬ set), while she was asleep at mid-day. Theophrastus, when dying, complained of (acccusavit) nature, because she had given (quod dedisset) so short a life to men. 263. (5) The perfect is followed by the future, when the action is future; e. g. Thou hast brought it to this (effe¬ cisti) by thy faithlessness, that no one will trust (fidem habiturus sit) you in future. The future stands also with the perfect subjunctive, which is used for the present; e. g. We cannot easily say (dixe¬ rimus) how much we shall benefit (profuturi simus) others herein. IV. The Pluperfect. 264. (I) The pluperfect is followed by the imperfect, when the action of the dependent sentence is cotemporary with the other in the past; e. g. I had charged Herodes to write (scri¬ beret) to you immediately. The Gauls had posted the bowmen between the horsemen, that these might come to the assistance of (succurrerent) their friends. 236 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 265 . Nevertheless, in clauses with ut, containing a conclusion, the historical perfect is also properly placed instead of the imperfect, because such sentences are generally considered independent; e. g. Their strength had so much increased, that they attempted it (ut ausi sint, for auderent.) (2) The pluperfect is followed by the pluperfect, when the action of the dependent sentence is completed prior to that of the principal sentence; e. g. When I had heard what had happened (accidisset) to you, I was greatly rejoiced .' V. The Future. 265. (1) The future is followed by the present, when the action is almost cotemporary, already near, and, as it were, taking place. We sometimes use a future instead of a present; but the Latin is here satisfied with the future of the principal sen¬ tence, and puts the other in the present, but always of the subjunctive mode; e. g. I will not doubt, that you tvill faith¬ fully perform (perficias) the duty. Thou wilt see from this letter, hoic I am (sim) disposed towards thee. Where shall we find such, as will not prefer , qui non anteponant. So also in sentences denoting fear; e. g. Thou wilt justly fear, that he may (of will) confess (fateatur) this. (2) The future is followed by the perfect, when the action of the dependent sentence is already past; e. g. I will not al¬ low, that that letter was (fuerint) more pleasing to you than to me. I will tell you (d icam) in few words, why you ought not to have believed (non debueris credere) this report. (3) The future is followed by the future, when the action of the dependent sentence is in future time, but later than that in the principal sentence ; e. g. Any one will indeed he uncertain (dubitabit), what he will accomplish (p e r fe c- tiir u s sit) by his virtue, ivho has already accomplished so much by his authority, —this could not be expressed by per¬ ficiat. Shall we therefore say, that those youth are hopeful, 237 §§ 266, 267.] DEPENDENCE OF TENSES. of whom we shall believe that they will attend to (inservi¬ turos) their own interests, and will do (facturos) what is prof table for themselves ? VI. The Future-perfect. 266. (1) The future-perfect is followed by the present, when the action of the dependent sentence refers to the pre¬ sent time; e. g. When you have (shall have) written me as soon as possible, how you are, (quid agas), then -. I will send you the book, as soon as I have found (shall have found) some one, to whom I can safely intrust it, cui recte commit¬ tam. (2) The future-perfect is followed by the perfect, when the action of the dependent sentence is a past one; e. g. I shall always be anxious respecting what you are doing, till 1 have (shall have) ascertained, how you have done (quid ege¬ ris). Remarks. 267. (1) The two infinitives fore and futurtim esse are followed by the conjunction ut, either with a present or an imperfect after them ; this depends upon the tense of the principal sentence; e. g. / believe that you will easily learn this language , credo fore, ut hanc linguam facile discas. 1 believed (have believed, had believed) that you would easily learn this language , credebam (credidi, credide¬ ram) fore, ut hanc linguam facile disceres. (2) Since the present infinitive, as it denotes cotemporary action, is also the infinitive of the imperfect, and the perfect infinitive, as it denotes priority of action, is also the infinitive of the pluperfect and future-perfect, therefore, according as each is the one or the other, a different construction can follow it; e. g. Many men are wont to la¬ ment , that they are icithout pleasures , multi deplorare (present) so- lent, quod voluptatibus c a r e a n t. These men were wont to complain, that they were without pleasures , hi homines deplorare (cotempo¬ rary past) solebant, quod voluptatibus carerent. Theophrastus re¬ lates that Cimon commanded (imperasse) his stewards , to give all things to every one who might put up at his manor , omnia praebe¬ rent, not praebeant, because it depends on imperasse. Examples on §§ 254—267. (I) What is there, which I could wish more heartily 1 , than that 2 you had returned safe to your country, and that you had obtained 3 the object 4 of your journey ? There will never be a time, when the remembrance of thy favors to me will perish 5 . 238 CONSTRUCTION OF VERRS, [§ 267 . Cato the elder 6 reminded 7 his son in a letter, to 13 take care 8 not 9 to go 10 into a battle, as he was no soldier. Ulysses endured 11 the insults 12 of his slaves, in order that 13 he might attain 14 that which he wished; but he had so deformed himself, that no one recognized 15 him. When the Stoic Dionysius had a pain in the kidneys 16 , he exclaimed, that 17 that was false, which he before believed 18 respecting pain. You ask me to 13 read and examine your books, whether 19 they are worth publishing 20 . Many books of the ancients have so perished 21 , that 22 now they nowhere 23 appear. Let us imagine 24 , that 25 there is one man who has nothing evil, and upon whom fate has inflicted 26 no wound. If night does not deprive 27 us of happy life, I do not know, why the last day of life should de¬ prive us of it. Every one hopes for the fortune of Metellus, just as if 28 , in human affairs 29 , there were anything certain, or, as if it were wiser to hope than to fear. You have been so brought up 30 and instructed 31 , that 32 you must do this, un¬ less you wish to be a different 33 man from 34 what 35 we have learned to consider 36 you. Under the direction of this man 37 , we so conducted 38 ourselves, as to consult rather 39 for all, than for ourselves. Seneca inquired 40 , in his treatise on Pro¬ vidence, why evils 41 befell 42 even the good, when 43 yet there was a Providence. 1 magis ex ammo. 2 ut. 3 assequi. 4 consilium. 6 mori. 6 senex. 7 monere. 8 cavere (to take care). 9 ne. 10 inire aliquid. 11 perferre. 12 contumelia. 13 ut (in order that). 14 pervenire. 15 agnoscere. 16 ex renibus laborare (had — kidneys). 17 (acc. with inf.). 18 sentire. ,9 ne. 20 editio. 21 evanescere. 22 ut. 23 nusquam. 24 finggre. 25 (acc. with inf.). 26 infliggre. 27 adimgre. 28 perinde quasi (just as if). 29 humanae res. 30 educare (to bring up). 31 docere. 32 ut. 33 alius (a different man). 34 ac(from). 35 qualis. 36 cognoscere. 37 hoc auctore (under— man). 38 gergre. 39 potius, ^quaerere. 41 malum. 42 accidere. 43 quum (when yet). (2) I had commanded 1 your brother to 2 write to you ; but I know not how 3 it happened 4 , that 2 he did not write to you. Suetonius say\ in the life of Vespasian, No one 5 will easily 6 be found, who,\vhen innocent 7 , was punished by him, unless he were absent, or it were done without 8 his knowledge and wish. He will never 9 ask of you anything, which will be dis¬ pleasing to you. When Pompey the Great visited 10 Posido¬ nius in sickness*, and said, that he was grieved 11 that 12 he could not hear him, he replied, I will not allow 13 , that 14 my pain should cause 15 so great a man to** come to me in vain 16 . Who is so wretched 17 , that 18 he has not, at certain times of § 267 .] DEPENDENCE OF TENSES. 239 his life, experienced 19 the kindness 20 of the gods, and who must not acknowledge 21 , that 22 there have been many things which he has received from the gods ? I deny 23 that 24 there was any painting which Verres did not search 25 for, examine 26 and carry 27 away. Is 28 he worthy of the name of a rational 29 man, who employs 30 all his life in pleasure ? Who is so de¬ sirous 31 of learning to understand 32 nature, that 33 he does not, when the danger of his country has been announced 34 to him, relinquish all these, even if he thought, that he could survey 35 the vast world? I have contended 36 with no one, who 37 has not yielded 38 to me. We all fear, that 39 this will not eventu¬ ate well 40 . 1 mandare. 2 ut. 3 quo. 4 fieri. 5 (comp. §122). 6 temere. 7 insons. 8 eo ignaro et invito (without—wish). 9 nihil unquam. 10 visere. * (adjective). 11 moleste ferre (active). 12 quod. 13 committere. 14 ut. 15 efficere. **ut. 16 frustra. 17 miser. 18 ut. 19 sentire. 20 benignitas. 21 confitendum esse (must acknowledge). 22 (acc. with inf ). 23 negare. 24 (acc. with inf.) 25 conquirere. 26 inspicere. 27 auferre. i8 njim is est (is he). 29 sanus. 30 collocare in aliqua re. 31 cupidus. 32 perspicere. 33 ut. 34 afferre. 35 metiri. 36 arma conferre. 37 quin (who not). 38 succumbere. 39 ne. 40 feliciter evenire (to eventuate well). (3) There are some 1 disgraceful 2 things, which the wise man would not do, even if he could save 3 his country. Dogs are said to drink from the Nile, while running, that they may not be seized 4 by the crocodiles. Thou wilt find no one, to whom something has not flowed 5 from that most benign 6 fountain of the Deity. From many biographies 7 of renowned men, it is not very 8 evident 9 , what was the disposi¬ tion 10 and virtue of those men, and by what means they ob¬ tained 11 so great renown. Since 12 he has been with me and ac¬ companied me, I have perceived 13 in him so great fidelity 14 , that I value no man more. At the close 15 of your letter, you write, that, if your reasons 16 satisfied 17 me, you would not trouble 18 yourself about what others might think or say re¬ specting them. I will relate, at the proper 19 time, how the son of Arminius was treated 20 at Ravenna. I have let no one pass 21 , to whom I have not given a letter for you. There is no one, who could advise 22 you more wisely, than yourself. Now I will mention 23 his domestic life, and how he lived and conducted 24 himself at home and among his friends. There have been many, who have withdrawn 25 from public business, and retired 26 to private life. Cicero did all these things, that he might reconcile 27 Pompey to himself. Quaedam. 2 flagitiosus. 3 conservare. 4 rapere. 5 manare. 6 benig- 240 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 267 . nissimus. 7 vita. 8 satis. 9 apparere. 10 animus. 11 consequi. 12 ex quo. 13 cognoscere. 14 fides. 15 extremae litterae (the close of a letter). 16 ratio. 17 placere. 18 laborare. 19 suus, "tractare. 21 praetermittere (to let pass), "suadere. 23 referre. 24 se gerere. 25 se removere. 26 ad otium perfugere (retire — life). 27 sibi conciliare. / (4) When Marcellus had taken the city Syracuse, he gave orders 1 , that 2 no one should put to death Archimedes, by whose exertion 3 the city had been so long defended. All those works 4 have been so written, that 5 now they are not even 6 read. There have been many illustrious 7 men in our state, who were wont to explain 8 the civil law to the people. Many believe, that 16 the law is a precept, the force of which is of such a nature 9 , that 10 it commands to do right, and for¬ bids to do wrong 11 . Nature has lavished 12 so great an abun¬ dance 13 of things for the use of men, that 14 all this seems to be bestowed upon us designedly 15 . I will prove, that 16 Ulysses had* a cause for killing Ajax. Have I not 17 suffi¬ cient cause to be angry 18 with you, that 19 you designedly conceal 20 from me all these things ? There will always be persons, who will complain that 21 God has cared 22 less for them, than for others. When the defendant** says, that 23 he has erred from ignorance 24 , the inquiry is 25 , whether 26 he could have known or not 27 . Who is there, that does not know what pleasure is ? It is known to all, that 16 Epaminon¬ das, Julies Caesar, Alexander and Hannibal were the great¬ est commanders. 1 ed icere (to give orders). 2 ne quis (that no one). 3 opera. 4 liber. 5 ut. 6 ne— quidem (comp. § 472). 7 summus. 8 interpretari. 9 is(such a nature). 10 ut. 11 delinquere. 12 largiri. 13 ubertas. 14 m. 15 consulto. 16 (acc. with inf.). *esse. 17 nonne. 18 succensere. 19 quod, "reticere (subj.). 21 quod, "consulere. **reus. 23 (acc. with inf.). 24 imprudens (from ignor.). 25 quaeritur (the — is), "utrum. 27 annon (or not). (5) It is my fate, that 1 no one, for these twenty years, has been an enemy of the state, who has not at the same time de¬ clared 2 war against me also. I do not see, either in my life or in my actions 3 , what Antony could despise 4 . I see no one among this assembly 5 of senators, who has not cared 6 for my good, and to whom I am not attached 7 by the unceasing 8 remembrance of his kindness. There was no one then so infirm at Agrigentum, that 9 he did not, on that night, excited by this report, arise 10 and seize 11 a weapon. Aemilius Pau¬ lus brought 12 so much money into the treasury, that the spoil of this one commander put 13 an end to taxation. Who was there, at that time, at Syracuse, who 14 had not heard, DEPENDENCE OF TENSES. 241 § 267 .] and did not know, that this agreement 15 had been made 1 There is no one among us, who does not, at this very 16 time, wish that 17 Caesar might he conquered as soon as pos¬ sible 18 . I have so lived, that I do not believe 19 , that 20 I have been born in vain. Dolabella w r as so unmindful 21 of humani¬ ty, that he committed insatiable cruelty, not only upon 22 the living, but also upon the dead. 1 ut. 2 indicere. 3 res gesta. 4 despicere. 5 consessus. 6 esse curae, ’obstrictus. 8 sempiternus. 9 ut. 10 surgere. 11 arripere. 12 invehere in. 13 finem alicujus afferre. 14 quin (who — not). 15 pactio. 16 ipse. 17 ut. 18 quam primum. 19 existimare. 20 (acc. with inf.) 21 immemor. 22 in (with ablative). (6) Your kindness and that of your commander toward 1 us has been so great, that we do not regret our defeat 2 . I see not, what more shameless 3 could be said. Hast thou lost 4 shame and modesty 5 to such an extent 6 , that thou darest to say this in this holy temple ? The Carthaginians were so much terrified 7 by this calamity 8 , that they entreated the Romans also to aid them. This one 9 act of Regulus is wor¬ thy of admiration, that 10 he thought 11 , that 12 the captives ought to be retained 13 . To me indeed 14 , the composing 15 of this book has been so pleasing, that it has not only removed 16 all the troubles 17 of age, but has even rendered' 8 age easy 19 and pleasant. Pythius called 20 the fishermen 21 to himself, and requested them to* fish 22 , the following day, before his gar¬ dens. Ambiorix exhorted 23 the Nervii not 24 to lose 25 the op¬ portunity to avenge 26 themselves for the injuries which they had received. He who is in fear 27 that 28 he shall lose 29 some of** his goods, cannot be happy. Metellus was so scrupu¬ lous 30 , that he came to the judges, and said that he was troubled! by the erasure 31 of one name. Who could pardon him, who had taken 32 it upon himself to correct 33 the habits, and to censure 34 the faults 35 of others, when he himself had neglected 36 his own duty ? 1 erga. 2 clades. 3 iinpudens. 4 perdcre. 5 pudicitia. 6 adeone (to— extent), ’perterrere. 8 malum. 9 hoc unum (this one act). 10 quod. 11 censere. 12 (acc. with inf.). 13 retinendum esse. ,4 quidem. 15 confectio. 16 abstergere. 17 molestia. 18 efficere. 19 mollis. 20 convocare. 21 pisca¬ tor. * ut. 22 piscari. 23 hortari. 24 ne (not to). 25 dimittere. 26 ulcisci ali¬ quid. 27 timere (to be in fear.) 28 ne. 29 perdere. **ex. 30 diligentia(comp. §193). t movere. 31 litura. 32 sumere sibi (to take — himself). 33 cor- rigere. 34 reprehendere. 35 peccatum. 36 ab officio declinare (to neglect duty). 21 242 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS, [§§ 268 , 269 . MODES OF VERBS. 268. Modes denote the manner and way of considering an action, whether definitely and certainly, or indefinitely, un¬ certainly and doubtfully, or imperatively, the last indicating that something should or should not be done. When an action is represented in one of these three ways, it is done in rela¬ tion to the subject of the sentence. But it makes no differ¬ ence, whether the action is positive or negative, because the negative sentence may be as definite, as the positive. There are three modes, the indicative, subjunctive and imperative. A. The Indicative. 269. The indicative attributes something to the subject with definiteness and certainty, either positively or negative¬ ly, and therefore it represents an event as an actual fact; e. g. Dum aegroto anima est, vivit, as long as the patient breathes, he lives. The indicative is used, both in principal and subordinate sentences, as the example shows. In the latter it is con¬ nected, either with the pronoun qui, quae, quod, and those derived from it, or with a conjunction. But the pronoun qui, quae, quod, often partakes of the nature of such a con¬ junction, as, in Latin, is followed by the subjunctive. Hence the indicative does not always follow this pronoun, although it might, perhaps, be expected in English, but often the sub¬ junctive. This will be treated hereafter, under its proper head. So there are a number of conjunctions, which always have the subjunctive after them. These also will be treated particularly hereafter. In principal sentences, on the cont ra^, the indicative prevails entirely, as in English, when something definite and certain is predicated of the subject. Sentences beginning with the conjunctions for, lienee, therefore , yet and but , are also principal sentences. MODES.——INDICATIVE, 243 § 270 .] 270. Yet sometimes, the English uses the potential or subjunctive, where the Latin speaks definitely in the indi¬ cative. Here belong: (fi) Such phrases as, It would he too tedious, it were too tedious , expressed by longum , immensum , infinitum, multum est ; it would have been too tedious , expressed by longum — erat ; e. g. it would be too tedious to enumerate all the exam¬ ples (longum e s t). So, It were difficult, difficile e s t; it would have been difficult, difficile e r a t ; I could (possum) quote,—I could have (poteram, potui) quoted many de¬ lights of my country life, but —. The distinction here be¬ tween the English and the Latin consists in this, that in Latin these statements are expressed absolutely and unconditionally (it is tedious), while, in English we express them for the most part with an implied or suppressed condition (it would be tedious, i. e. if I should proceed). (270. a.) (2) When some duty or necessity is denoted; thus with oportere , debere , necesse esse, aequum , par, justum , consentaneum , officium esse, convenire and the like, unless the clause be a part of a conditional sentence. So with the periphrastic conjugation in the passive. In translating the above words, we frequently use the indicative. The Latins think of every duty, as an absolute necessity ; hence the in¬ dicative. They always employ the indicative present, when something present is spoken of, and the imperfect or perfect, when something past is spoken of, the pluperfect indicative but seldom ; e. g. You should (or ought) to strive more (now), debes majorem dare operam ; this should (or ought to) rath¬ er have been taught , illud potius praecipiendum fuit, not fuisset; the coming of this man should (ought to) have been wished for by Sulla himself ’ esse debuit, not debu¬ isset; Verres received the money tvhicli ought to have been given to the states of Sicily, dari oportuit, not opor¬ tuisset; this word should not have been changed, mutari non debebat (debuit), or mutandum non era t( fuit); 244 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 270 . how becoming it would have been (quam bellum erat) rather to confess your ignorance ; it would, be more proper (aequi¬ us est) for you to be silent; it would have been more proper (aequius erat, fuit, fuera t) for you to have been silent. So also, nihil erat, quod, it would not have been necessary that —, not fuisset. The same usage often occurs with the adverbs nearly and almost, paene and prope, when si or nisi with the subjunciive pluperfect follows, even if a matter of fact is spoken of; e. g. The Sublician bridge would almost have furnished the enemy a passage , had it not been for one man , pons Sublicius iter paene hostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset. We often use the indicative, however ; e. g. / had almost forgotten what I ought especially to have written , prope obli¬ tus sum, quod maxime fu it scribendum. (270. b.) (3) After the words whoever, whichever, whatever, wherever, however and the like, we often use the potential, although in the indefinite expression a real fact is contained. The indicative is also very frequently used. But the Latin joins the words quicumque, quisquis, qualiscumque, quantus - cumque, utcumque, ubicumque, quotquot, quoquo modo, cuicui¬ modi, utut and the like, with the indicative, when they be¬ long to a sentence, which, in definite discourse, is expressed by the indicative ; e. g. Whoever this is or may be, quicum- que e s t; this doctrine, from whomsoever it may be, cujus- cumque est; whatever that may be (quidquid est illud), ivhich he thinks ; however matters are or may be, quoquo mo¬ do se res 1^1 bent; wherever this may have happened, ubi¬ cumque, hoc factum est. It is so also with s i v e — s i v e. Comp. § 280. The indicative here denotes that, though we do not know, or do not wish to know, what, where, when, or how a thing is, it is yet actual and really exists under some circumstances or other. Examples on §§ 268—(270. b.) Wherever a parricide 1 may be committed, there it is done maliciously 2 ; and whoever may have done* it, is worthy of the punishments of death. It would be too tedious 4 to reply to all which has been said by you. Good men practice every MODES.-SUBJUNCTIVE. 245 §270.] duty, however 5 it may be called. The curious 6 desire 7 to know all things, of whatever kind 8 they are. These writings, of whatever kind 9 they may be, please my friends. Truly, no 10 wine ought to have been given 11 you, since you are suf¬ fering 12 from a fever. Themistocles did not endure 13 the grief 14 of his ungrateful country, as 15 he ought to have done**. Thy daughter must have died 16 some years after 17 , because 18 she was born a mortal. Volumnia should 19 have been more kind 20 than she has been, and the very things which she has done, she could have done more circumspectly. Cicero then mentioned only a few brave Romans; for it would have been tedious 21 to have named all. This circum¬ stance 22 has escaped 23 me, which perhaps ought not. It would certainly be just for 24 you to write as often 25 as pos¬ sible to your parents. It would have been better, that Aga¬ memnon had not kept 26 his promise. 1 parricidium. 2 improbe. * facere. 3 supplicium (punishment of death). 4 longum. 5 quomodocumque. 8 curiosus. 7 cupere. 8 cujus- cumque modi (of — kind). 9 qualiscumque (in the nom., of — kind). 10 non. 11 dandum esse. 12 laborare. 13 ferre. 14 injuria. 15 qui (in acc.). ** (omitted in Lat.). 16 moriendum esse. 17 post. 18 quoniam. 19 debere. 20 officiosus. 21 infinitus. 22 res. 23 fallere. 24 ut (for — to). 25 quam sae¬ pissime (as — possible). 26 servare. B. The Subjunctive. (270. c.) The subjunctive is used to denote dependence, indejiniteness and doubt , where one considers something only as possible , or, at most, as probable , and leaves it undecided, whether it is real and true. Hence it is employed to express what is conceived in the mind, what is fictitious , to denote everything which one wishes, admits and concedes ; whereas the indicative denotes what is actual , or what is considered as such. The English often corresponds with the Latin, in the use of the modes, and often also differs. The greatest difference is in subordinate clauses, the least in principal clauses. The subjunctive is therefore used especially : (270. d.) (1) Where may, can, might, could, would, etc., occur in English; e. g. It may be so! sit ita ! I would come, if —, venirem si —. Comp. § 232. 21 * 246 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 270 . (2) The subjunctive is used in questions implying doubt respecting the propriety or certainty of an action ; e. g. Why shall I not count myself (numerem) ? What shall or can I do (faciam)? Why shall I enumerate the great number of employments (enumerem)? What could I do (face¬ rem)? These questions are equivalent to, There is no rea¬ son why I should not count myself I do not know what I shall or can do, etc. (3) The present subjunctive often has the signification of an imperative ; then, in a sentence containing a prohibi¬ tion, the word not is expressed by ne; e. g. Let every one learn to know his own mind (noscat) ; learn to know thy own mind (noscas); let every one beware of this fault (ca¬ veat); let the youth not squander his patrimony (n e e ff u n- d a t); now let no inquiry be made (ne habeatur); let us go (e a m u s) ; let us follow nature (sequamur). (4) It stands in hypothetical sentences, in which a possible case is supposed. If this supposed case should happen or should have happened, then something else would happen or would have happened; e. g. If Croesus had been (fuisset) happy, he would have continued (pertulisset) his happy life to the day of his death. If it were not so (esset) I ivould not strive for (haud niterer) glory. (5) The Latin uses the subjunctive in stating the senti¬ ments of another, when they are not given in the words of the speaker, but only in a narrative form, provided the sen¬ tence begins with a relative pronoun or a conjunction. Such a discourse is called oblique, indirect, dependent discourse, oratio obliqua. All kinds of subordinate clauses, there¬ fore, which in direct discourse would have the indicative, re¬ quire the subjunctive, whenever they are to be represented in indirect discourse. This will be treated more at length in its own section. Only a few examples are given here : Sul¬ la wrote to him, that he had done right in not sparing (p e- percisset) any ; — that he should endeavor (daret ope- § 270.] MODES.-SUBJUNCTIVE. 247 ram) to bring under his power (redigeret) those also, who had (haberent) a camp in Megara. Scaptius said, that that jitld which he, when a soldier, had acquired (cepisset) by his strength, lie would now also, when an old man, defend by his voice, the only means by which he teas able (posset). It is a peculiarity of Latin usage, of which examples are numerous in Cicero, that in causal sentences, formed with quod, because, and similar conjunctions, in which the thought or expressions of another are stated as the reason of what is contained in the principal sentence (because he said, because he believed ), the verbs of thinking and speaking (dicare, putare, etc.) are put in the subjunctive, followed by an Acc. with the Inf. ; e. g. I could not obtain from the Athenians the gift of a, place of burial within the city, because they said they were pre¬ vented by religious scruples , quod religione se impediri dice- rent; i. e. quod impedirentur (because they were prevented) ut dicebant. The two clauses,q uodimpedi rentur and ut dicebant, are here blended into one,and dicebant itself takes the mode, which be¬ longs usually to indirect assertions in a dependent causal sentence. 1 peiccive that your letter was too short, because you had supposed that the messenger himself would bring it, quod putasse s, when one would have expected, putaras. The same construction occurs in relative sentences : Verres named the slave, respecting whom he said, that he was the keeper of the flock, quem magistrum pecoris es¬ se diceret, instead of qui, ut dicebat, magister pecoris esset. Examples on §§ (270. c.) (270. d.) Nothing can be so difficult, but that 1 it can be investigated. Let us enjoy the pleasures of life. Kings can retain 2 their kingdoms for themselves, the rich, their riches. Caesar be¬ lieved, that it would not be expedient to wait till 3 the forces 4 of the enemy should be increased, and the cavalry should re¬ turn 5 . Who indeed 6 could justly 7 blame 8 me I Alexander was troubled 9 that 10 a city stood 11 in his way. Since 12 we are at leisure 13 , let us discourse of civil law. I wish that you would define, what pleasure is. Let us strive 14 that death may find as little as possible 15 , which it can destroy 16 . In this region, you can see many old men ; and, if you were there, you would believe, that you were born in another cen¬ tury. May the gods preserve 17 to you this joy and this glory. Plato recommends 18 , that we should consider 19 those as our ad¬ versaries, who carried arms against us, not those, who would 20 defend 21 the state. Even in prosperity, let us avoid pride 22 and arrogance. It is foolish that 23 I should prescribe 18 what you should do 24 . . 1 quin (butthat). 2 habere. 3 dum. 4 copiae. 5 reverti. N^tandem. 248 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 270 . 7 jure. 8 reprehendere. 9 aegre ferre (active). 10 quod. 11 obstare (stand in the way). 12 quoniam. 13 vacuum esse. 14 niti. 15 quam paucissima. 16 abolere. 17 servare. 18 praecipere. 19 existimare. 20 velle. 21 tueri. 22 superbia. 23 (acc. with inf.). 24 agere. (2) If you should perchance 1 find any one 2 , who scorned to look 3 upon the beauty of the world 4 , who would not be charmed 5 by any odor, touch 6 and taste 7 , and would shut 8 his ears against every delight 9 , I should consider him a favo¬ rite 10 of the gods. May this desert and rough 11 way be abandoned 12 by all. Let something be granted 13 to youth, let not all pleasures be forbidden 14 , let not reason always be supreme 15 , Jet desire sometimes 16 vanquish reason, provided 17 moderation is observed 18 ; let youth spare their own modes¬ ty 19 , not plunder 20 the property of another 21 , not squander 22 their patrimony, frighten no one by violence, and be free 23 from crime 24 . The Romans returned in sadness 25 to their camp: one would have thought 26 them vanquished. When the battle 27 was over, one could have seen how great boldness there had been in the army of Catiline. Then, one could have perceived 28 the Albani, now 29 joyful and now trem¬ bling 30 . 1 forte. 2 quis. 3 oculis aspernari (scorn to look). 4 res (plural). 8 ca¬ pere. 6 tactus. 7 sapor. 8 excludere. 9 suavitas. 10 deliciae. 11 incultus. 12 relinquere. 13 dare. 14 denegare. 15 superare (active). 16 aliquando. 17 dummodo. 18 tenere. 19 pudicitia. 20 spoliare. 21 alienus (property of anothei). 22 effundere. 23 carere. 24 scelus. 25 maestus (in sadness), ^credere. 27 confecto proelio (w r hen — over). 28 animadvertere. 29 mo¬ do. 30 pavidus. Further use of the Subjunctive. (270. e.) The subjunctive, in general, expresses depen¬ dence. It almost always depends on another sentence and supposes such a one. Hence, every sentence which depends upon another or is even only so considered, is expressed by the subjunctive ; for whatever is dependent is so far not real. Therefore, when the subjunctive is used, the idea of the future, as yet uncertain with regard to the issue, is implied in it. Purposes and designs , consequences and efects, properties and qualities , i. e. assertions that this or that is so, as well as limitations, in short, all cases of mere possibility are denoted MODES.-SUBJUNCTIVE. 249 § 270.] by the subjunctive. When such relations occur, the event is dependent, being an effect that has happened or should hap¬ pen, from a preceding cause. The subjunctive, therefore, represents the action subject to a certain condition , and not as a real and actual fact. Hence: (270. f.) (1) Interrogative sentences with whether , who, when, where, how, why and the like, when they do not ask definitely, but are dependent upon another sentence, are expressed by the subjunctive. Such interrogative sentences are called indefinite, indirect. Such are, e. g. I know not where thou art (hast been, will be), ubi s i s (f u e r i s, f u t u- r u s sis). Write me soon, how you live (vivatis), and what is doing (agatur) in the city. Remember what plea¬ sant days we have spent (v i x e r i m u s). Hear, why I have done (fe c e r i m) this. Say, when you go thither, e as or proficiscar e. More will be said of such interrogative sentences, in the section on indirect questions, § 319. (270. g.) (2) The subjunctive stands in sentences, which express what is general or universal, and do not speak of defi¬ nite, real persons and actual facts. It stands too in sen¬ tences which contain actions that are repeated and are consi¬ dered possible at all times. Yet this mode does not, in such cases, stand in principal, but only in subordinate sentences, which begin with a conjunction or a relative word, (e. g. qui, qualis, quantus) ; e. g. You can dismiss pain when you wish (quum velis). Use this good, while it is present (dum adsit), and do not long for it, when it is absent (dum a b- s i t). Freedom consists in living as you wish (ut velis). You must make, to those whom you unwillingly injure (o fi¬ fe n d a s), every apology which you can (possis); tell them why that which you did (feceris) was (fuerit) necessa¬ ry ; and why you could not (potueris) have done other¬ wise. Do wrong to no one, although wrong has been done (i 1- 250 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 270 . lata sit ) to you. If, on the contrary, the last sentence re¬ ferred to an actual instance of wrong, that had been done, and the meaning was: Do this man no wrong, although wrong has been done to you , it must be written : illata est. Do not believe, that all men whom you have conquered (viceris), are your enemies ; but: Do not believe that these men whom you have conquered (v i cisti), are your enemies. What de¬ sires can such a one, as has always dwelt (h a b i t a v e r i t) in the country have ? but: What desires will this man have, who has always dwelt (habitavit)? The indefinite you, one, a man, a woman belong, for the most part, to universal or general statements; hence in them the subjunctive is general-. ly used. (270. h.) (3) In stating the thought or action of another, the subjunctive must also be used in all subordinate sentences, which show the intention or reason of the one thinking or act¬ ing, given by himself, why he does or thinks something; in short, the subjunctive is used, when what is said, is the senti¬ ment of the person, whose thought or action is narrated. When, on the contrary, the narrator or writer makes additions of his own, or makes the thought and reason of another his own, the indicative must be used. Therefore, the mode of the verb depends alone upon the thought and will of the wri¬ ter, whether he wishes to make an idea depend upon his own conception, or upon that of another. The following examples will explain this usage : Old age seems to many sad, because it withdraws them from the direction of business, and renders the body[ weak, quod avocet et faciat. If it had been said, quod avocat et facit, this would be my opinion also, and not merely the opinion of the many. J\'o one abhors pleasure itself, because it is pleasure, quia voluptas s i t. Tisagoras spoke for his bro¬ ther Miltiades, because he could not, quoniam non posset. The last, therefore, are the words of Tisagoras, containing the reason why he, and not Miltiades, spoke. Darius placed guards over the bridge, as long as he teas absent, dum ipse abesset. The last clause is the sentiment of Darius, and not the idea of the writer narrating it,—• they should be, as long as he was absent, until he had returned. But when it is said, e. g. He charged it upon him as a crime, that he had banished his son Titus, who teas afterwards called Torquatus, then the last clause is expressed by qui est appellatus; for it §270. MODES.-SUBJUNCTIVE. 251 does not belong to the statement of the complainant, but is an obser¬ vation of Cicero, the narrator. Know , that what ice have done for the good of our country , is -praised by the ichole world , quae nos pro salute patriae gessimus, not gesserimus, because otherwise Cice¬ ro would have stated doubtingly this indisputable fact to which he refers. Remark. It is generally given as a rule, that, in sentences contain¬ ing the accusative and the infinitive or conjunctions which signify that , and in interrogative sentences, all the subordinate clauses be¬ longing to them, must be put in the subjunctive. This is, to be sure, the case in most instances, because these sentences are intimate¬ ly connected with such other sentences, or depend upon them. But this requires great caution, as the foregoing and many other examples prove; because the subjunctive can be used, only when there is a re¬ al dependence on some other sentence. In respect to qui, quae , quod and other relatives, in which there is often concealed a purpose , con¬ sequence or cause , and which then take the subjunctive, as well as in respect to the conjunctions, which are either always, or in certain significations, followed by the subjunctive, see the next following sections. f f f\ | ■ ‘ Examples on §§ (270. e.)—(270. h.) ' /I do not know why 1 you are afraid. No one knows whe¬ ther 2 this is true. Write me as soon 3 as possible, how 4 you are 5 . You do not see, in how great 6 danger you are. Re¬ member what letters I have written to you. I will write to you what I missed 7 in your letter. I know 8 well, how 9 im¬ pudently I act 10 . Thou wilt learn 11 from Pollio, what is do¬ ing 12 here at Rome. It is not easy to write, how 13 things are at present. I know not what resolution our Pompey has adopted, or adopts. I do not believe, that Marcellus was brave at Clastidium, because 14 he had been irritated. Let us see, how powerful 15 are the remedies, which are applied 16 by philosophy to the diseases of the soul. We must 17 strive 18 to 19 obtain 20 those blessings which have been granted 21 to us. Plato says, that those, who contended with one another, in* regard to which of two governed 22 the state best, acted in the same manner 23 , as 24 if pilots should dispute 25 which of them steered 26 best 27 . To restrain 28 your feelings and language 29 , when you are angry, is the mark of no ordinary mind 30 . No¬ thing is more shameful, than to wage war with those, with whom one has lived 31 on intimate 32 terms. Panaetius praises the younger 33 Scipio, because 34 he was abstemious.,\Tt is not contrary to nature, if one can, to plunder 35 those, whom it is honorable 36 to kill. What is more foolish, than to fear, that 37 252 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [$ 270 . you cannot longer" 8 do that, which you do willingly. I be¬ lieve, that such a man will do nothing, except 39 what is use¬ ful 40 to him 41 . It often happens, that he, who has been re¬ commended to some one, values 42 him more, to whom he has been recommended, than him, by whom he has been recom¬ mended. What is freedom ? Power 43 to live as you wish. It is not enough to have virtue, as it were 44 , some art, unless you use it. Can we indeed 45 consider such a one, in any re¬ spect 46 , a commander, in whose army the office of centuri¬ on 47 is bought 48 , and has been bought ? It is difficult to re¬ member 49 what one has heard 50 , unless he makes use of it. 1 cur. 2 num. 3 quam primum. 4 quid. 5 agere. 6 quantus. 7 deside¬ rare. 8 non ignorare (to know well). 9 quam. 10 facere. 11 accipere. 12 agi. 13 ut. 14 quia (comp. §241). 15 quantus. 16 adhibere alicui. 17 (verbal adjective). 18 niti. 19 ut. 20 consequi. 21 dare. * {in regard to is omitted in Lat.). 22 administrare. 23 similiter. 24 ut. 25 certare (im- perf. subj., for they did not contend with one another). 26 gubernare. 27 potissimum. 28 moderari. 29 oratio. 30 ingenium. 31 (2d person). 32 familiariter (on — terms). 33 minor. 34 quod. 35 spoliare. 36 honestus. 37 ut. 38 diu. 39 nisi. 40 expedire. 41 ipse. 42 facere. 43 potestas. 44 quasi (as it were). 45 num. 46 aliquo in numero putare (to consider in any re¬ spect). 47 centuriatus (office of centurion). 48 venire. 49 memoria tene¬ re. 50 accipere. Conjunctions which injluence the Modes of Verbs. (270. i.) Conjunctions connect two events with each oth¬ er, and hence the verb is intimately connected with them. Every conjunction, whatever it be, is followed by the sub¬ junctive, when the sentence denotes what is general, uncer - tain, doubtful , or when a property or quality of a subject, is assumed as merely possible. Hence, where something in¬ definite is predicated of the subject, no Latin conjunction is followed by the indicative, but by the subjunctive. There¬ fore, when conjunctions, which at other times have the indi¬ cative, are followed by the subjunctive, the event is thereby considered only as a possible one, and the words expressive of doubt, perhaps, one would believe, and the auxiliary verbs, may, can and the like, must be supplied in the mind. It can¬ not, therefore, be said with truth, that a conjunction governs a MODES.-CONJ UNCTIONS. 253 §271.] definite mode. The thought contained in each sentence de¬ termines the mode. Yet some conjunctions, in a particular signification, take only the subjunctive. (270. j.) The indicative with a conjunction indicates, that the speaker definitely attributes to the subject the predicate contained in the verb. Therefore, conjunctions, which sig¬ nify because , and denote known, certain and definite causes, e. g. quia, quoniam, quod, quando and others; moreover, all restricting conjunctions, which signify although, e. g. ctsi, quamquam, and all particles of time, e. g. postquam, simul , ubi, quum, etc. take the indicative. The subjunctive, on the contrary, shows that the predicate of the subject is merely conceived of, or is yet to be accom¬ plished. Therefore, conjunctions signifying that, in order that , take the subjunctive, because the result of the action is uncertain, inasmuch as purpose, consequence, effect, wish and command are just as uncertain as the future. But since some conjunctions have different significations, and accordingly admit and require different modes, and many also do not fall within the given rules, they may be divided into three classes: (1) Such as are followed by the indica¬ tive; (2) Such as are followed by the subjunctive; and (3) Such as, according to their different significations, and ac- cording to the idea contained in the sentence, admit both modes. I. Co nj unctions with the In dicativ e. 271. The conjunctions here following take the indicative in every sentence which expresses a definite and certain opin¬ ion or thought. All the instances before mentioned, where the subjunctive is used, § (270. c.)—(270. h.), here form a necessary exception. These conjunctions are: quamquam, etsi, tametsi, postquam, ubi, simul, simulae, ut, quando, quando- cumque, (quandoquidem, quandoque, quatenus, quia, quoniam, quod, si, nisi, ni, sin, sive, etiamsi. 22 * 254 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 272 , 273 . 272. (1) Etsi, cpuanquam, tametsi, (tamenet- si), although. When the speaker expresses and states some¬ thing definite, actual and certain, or declares his own senti¬ ment, the indicative alone is used ; e. g. Although he can, quanquam potest; although this can be censured in ma¬ ny icays , etsi potest; although Hannibal saw, e t s i vi¬ debat; although nothing was more to be desired by me, t a- m e t s i f u i t. The subjunctive follows these particles, when something indefinite, general, possible or doubtful is said, or in the construction of the ora¬ tio obliqua; see § (270. d. 5). The present is used when the case is merely represented as possible, either without reference to a definite time, or with a reference to the present of the speaker; the imperf. or pluperf. either with reference to the past, or to denote something not actual but supposed ; e. g. Although they hare some misfortunes, quanquam sint in quibusdam malis. Epicurus taught, that all feelings of pleasure, although they were judged of by the sensation of the body (quanquam j u d i centur), nevertheless belonged to the bo¬ dy. Some do not venture to express their opinion, a!though it may be (etsi s i t) the best even. Though you had taken nothing else from Sulla but the consulship , yet you ought to have been content with that , (etsi ab¬ stulissetis). So especially quamquam in intermediate clauses, when something is only conjectured ; e. g. Although this may be less wonderful, (quanquam — mirum s i t) to others. Comp. § § (270. c.) —(270. h.) 273. (2) Postquam, posteaquam, ubi(primu m), simul, simulae (p r i m u m), s i m u 1 a t q u e, ut, after that, when, as soon as, as. All these particles of time take the indicative only, when events that have really occurred, and not such as are merely conceived, are spoken of. The most usual tense, when a past event, or rather an event past prior to some other past, is denoted, is the perfect. In¬ stead of this, however, the historic present is often used, but not the imperfect. The pluperfect is generally used, only when still another designation of time precedes, or when it forms a subordinate clause, or when the principal clause has an imperfect, and the other denotes a repeated past action; e. g. As soon as this happened (had happened) (quod ubi accidit), the barbarians fled. When (u t) Hannibal had returned (r ed i i t) to Carthage , he teas made praetor , after § *274.] MODES.-CONJUNCTIONS. 255 that (postquam) he had been (fuerat) king in his ticen- ty-second year. After (posteaquam) the same had come (v e n i t) to the Alps, the inhabitants prevented his passage. The fifteenth day after he died (postquam mortuus erat), I received the account. Every animal, as soon as it is born, simul ut ortum est. As soon as Metellus had placed his foot over the threshold (simulae pedem — ex¬ tulerat), he began to conquer (superabat). The conjunctions ut, ubi, postquam , are followed by the imperfect, only when an event is cotemporary with the event of the principal clause, and simul and its compounds, by the future and the future-perfect, when the events are future; e. g. When (u t) all seas and lands were open (patebant), fortune began to frown. As soon as there shall be anything certain (simul quid certi erit). As soon as I have seen him (simulatque eum videro). When (u t) Hortensius was be¬ ing brought back (reducebatur) to his house, Curio met him. So, postridie, qua m, the day after , is used with the perfect indi¬ cative for postquam, e. g. The day after I left you, postridie, quam a vobis discessi. It is further to be remarked, that when Cicero would make the pri¬ ority of one past action to another prominent, he does not use post - quam, but quum with the pluperfect. Postquam is therefore employ¬ ed but seldom. These particles of time can have the subjunctive, only under the conditions stated above, § § (270. c.)—(270. h.) U b i especially, often takes the imperf. or pluperf. subj. to denote actions frequently repeat¬ ed in the past; e. g. whenever the tribunes aided the lower classes, (ubi essent auxilio). 274. (3) Quando, because, since; quandocumque, whenever, as often as; quandoquidem, seeing that; qu andoque, whenever , because. These particles take the indicative in each of their significations, when the sentence contains a definite assertion; e. g. Since, therefore, there is in every virtue, a certain anxiety, quando i n e s t; since you have given me a noble proof of your judgment, quandoquidem dedisti; because you fought contrary to our commands against the enemy, quandoque pugnasti; as often as 256 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 275 — 277 . (quandocumque) any opportunity had presented itself (o fo¬ tui er at), the Romans broke forth from their rampart (erumpebant). It is now doubted, whether, in the classical writers, quando has the signification of because and since , inasmuch as in all those places, where it occurs in this sense, the reading should be quoniam , as is ve¬ ry often the case in Cicero. Quando has only the interrogative sense of when ? and in direct questions takes the indicative, but in indirect, the subjunctive. The subjunctive is used with these particles, when one of the cases mentioned under §§ (270. c.)—(270. h.) occurs. 275. (4) Quatenus, how far, so far as, since, as soon as, when there is a definite assertion, takes the indicative only, and the subjunctive, only when the cases mentioned under §§ (270. c.)—(270. h.) require it; e. g. So far as he spake of religious scruples, he ivas assented to, quatenus dicebat. Since long life is denied to us, quatenus negatur; as soon as I found an arbiter of this contention, quatenus inveni; but in indirect discourse, the subjunctive is used ; e. g. Pli¬ ny says, that, since long life is denied to us, we must leave be¬ hind us something immortal, quatenus negetur. 276. (5) Quia, because; quoniam, since . These two conjunctions also have the indicative, at least in Cicero, in all cases, when the sentence contains a definite assertion and the reason of the speaker himself, and does not depend upon another sentence. If the sentence is dependent, the subjunctive is used [comp. §§ (270. c.)—(270. h.)] as it is also with non quia, with or without sed quod following, be¬ cause that gives only a conceived reason, and not the true one, and therefore requires the subjunctive ; e. g. j Because we are inclined to these passions, quia sumus; since, on the two previous days, death and pain were treated of, quoniam dictum est; I believe that Marcellus was brave at Clasti¬ dium, not because he was angry, non quia fuerit iratus. The subjunctive is here used to denote the conceived reason, and not the true one, which follows in the indicative. 277. (6) Quod, that, because; propterea quod, on MODES.-CONJUNCTIONS. 257 § 278.] this account that, because; praeterquam quod, besides that. These take the indicative, when the speaker expresses something definite, as his own reason, and does not utter the sentiment or words of another. But in the cases men¬ tioned under §§(270. c.)—(270. h.), the Subj. is used, and also with non ( eo , ideo , idcirco,) quod , followed by sed quod, because these also denote only an imaginary, and not the true reason, and are the same as, non (eo) quo, not that, which also takes the subjunctive; e. g. Because Epicurus was (f u i t) an honest man, and many Epicureans have been (fuerun t) faithful in their friendship, and stillare (s u n t). It is pleasing to me, that you still long for us (quod — re¬ quiris). You write to me, you have only one comfort, that you possess my books instead of me (quod — teneas). Combatants sigh, not that they feel pain (non quod d o 1 e- a n t), but because —; the second quod after sed can also be omitted. When I say, Queritur quod humana vita brevis est, I also admit the shortness of human life, as a truth; but when I say, Queritur quod vita humana brevis s i t, I only quote the complaint of another, without myself admitting this, as a truth. In sentences containing an indefinite general state¬ ment, the subjunctive is also always used after est, non est, nihil est, quid est, which can be translated, there is a reason, no reason, why; it is necessary, that; it is not necessary , that; why ? e. g. Why do you weep ? quid est, quod fleas! You need not weep, non est, quod fleas. It is not necessary for you to hasten, n on (nihil) est, quod festines. Here the subjunctive expresses the idea of necessity or possibility, which would not be contained in the indicative. Comp, also § 303. Respecting quod, so far as, as far as, with the subjunctive, see § 314. 278. (7) S i, if; nisi, n i, unless , if not; sin, but if; si q u i d e m, if indeed; quod si , if then, if therefore, but if; s i v e— s i v e, whether — or, if either — or ; s i f o r t e, if perhaps; nisi forte, unless perhaps ; etiamsi, although, 22 * 258 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 279 , 280 . even if When the sentences with these particles contain certain and definite conditions and refer to something actual, and when the assertion in English is definite, certain and po¬ sitive, the indicative is used; e. g. If nature prescribes this, si praescribit; if then this is so, quod si ita e s t; limbs are amputated, if they have begun to be without blood, and, as it were, without breath, si coeperunt; if then nothing is so contrary to nature as baseness, quod si nihil e s t; ke will desert you, unless you do so, nisi ita facies; even if perhaps there is no means there, etiam si res forte non suppetit. 279. The conjunction nisi forte, when it implies mockery or irony in an actual matter of fact, always takes the indica¬ tive; e. g. Unless it be that youth should long for boyhood, nisi forte adolescentes pueritiam debent requirere. Un¬ less it be, that thy Athens could have retained an ever-endur¬ ing olive tree, nisi forte Athenae tuae potuerunt. 280. So sive — sive take the indicative in all cases, unless there are other circumstances, which require the subjunctive ; e. g. Whether this is so, or in that manner, hoc sive sic est, sive illo modo; be anxious for this, whether you have some hope, or despair, sive habes aliquam spem, sive desperas; whether the bed is soft or hard, cubile seu molle seu durum est; whether they remained or followed, sive manserunt sive secuti sunt. On the contrary, the subjunctive is used according to the conditions stated § § (270. c.)—270. h.) ; especially therefore with what is only possible and conceived, consequently in sentences containing general statements (see § 270. g.), or when the reasons, sentiments and words of another are expressed ; e. g. Some may censure this, if it is done with too Little exertion, si remissius agatur. If any one should happen to wonder, si quis forte miretur. The wise man does not refuse to die, if that be better, si ita melius sit. tl is useless to learn an art, unless you practise it, nisi exerceas, not exerces. It is xcise to accommodate yourself to the time, if you are compelled by necessity, si necessitate cogare (cogaris). Only one thing must be observed, that the burial relates only to the body, whether the sou.1 dies, or continues to live, sive occiderit sive v i g e a t (oratio obliqua). The following clauses are different; If we are angry, denoting anger really felt, and if we are angry, denoting only supposed anger. The former is expressed by si irascimur, the latter by si irascamur. MODES.-CONJUNCTIONS. 259 § 280 .] So also etiamsi , when it signifies, even if , supposing also, although, takes the subjunctive; e. g. Even if it in no respect concerns them, etiamsi eorum nihil intersit. Some believe, that this conjunction takes the subjunctive only, and that it should be so written in all cases. But yet there must properly be exceptions, where actual facts are spoken of, and where the thought is, indeed, this is really so, hut nevertheless ; e. g. Although the Cappadocians are our friends , never¬ theless they do not dare , Cappadbces, etiamsi sunt. Although the truth is not pleasing, yet it is grateful to me, etiamsi jucunda non est. Examples on §§ (270. i.)—280. (1) Alexander was displeased 1 , that 2 a city was in his way 3 . After 4 Gracchus had returned to Rome, he commanded that this exploit 5 should be painted 6 in the temple of Freedom. When 7 a certain Fabius perceived 8 Varus, he thrust 9 his sword 10 at his naked 11 shoulder. Since 12 we are at leisure 13 , we will discourse at length 14 concerning civil law. If a happy life can be lost 15 , it cannot be happy. It is certain, that 16 there is nowhere* a place for virtue and friendship, if every¬ thing is to be referred 17 to pleasure. Tanaquil thinks 18 of another means 19 , if hope should fail 20 her. As soon as 21 Caesar had come to Brundusium, he made 22 an address be¬ fore 23 the soldiers. Say this in the court 24 , or, if you fear the assembly 25 , say it in the senate ; you will do it, unless it is a disgraceful 26 report. Although 27 I am sufficiently mild 28 , yet sometimes I am wont to be a little angry 29 . As soon as 30 the Dictator had seen 31 this, he immediately 32 sent forth his horsemen against the enemy. Why 33 do we blame this orator ? You need 34 not envy the rich. Although 35 old age 36 is deprived of immoderate feasts 37 , yet it can find pleasure in moderate 38 entertainments 39 . So far as 40 I know, there are no holydays this month, t 1 aegre ferre. 2 quod. 3 obstare (to be in the way). 4 postquam. 5 res gesta. 6 depingere. 7 ubi. 8 conspicere. 9 appetere. 10 (ablative). 11 aper¬ tus. 12 quoniam. 13 vacuus esse. 14 copiose. 15 amitti. 16 (acc. with inf.). * neque usquam. 17 referre. 18 moliri. 19 praesidium. 20 destituere. 21 ut (as — as). 22 concinnari (to make an address). 23 apud. 24 judicium. 25 corona. 26 turpis. 27 etsi. 28 clemens. 29 subirasci (to be a little angry). 30 simul (as — as). 31 conspicere. 32 emittere. 33 quid est, quod. 34 non (nihil) est, quod, (there is no need). 35 quanquam. 3 formation of the second question. The iriterrogatives numquid and ecquid often signify no more than man; e. g. Do you therefore perceive hoio this hap¬ pens ? ecquid ergo intelligis quomodo hoc fiat 7 Remarks » 332. (1) But the Latins do not always speak so exactly, at least in indirect questions. They often use num for nc ; very often instead of nonne , merely the enclitic ne, especially with videre and scire , and fi¬ nally, for num, also the indefinite concessive ne ; e. g. Do you not see? vides/ie ? for nonne vides ? Have you ever seen a world besides this ? inundum — unquamne vidisti? for num rnundum — ? Tell me whether you will come to Italy , ecquid in Italiam venturi sitis, for in Italiamne. Besides the connexion, the emphasis which is given to the question, makes the meaning sufficiently plain. (2) The interrogative quidni, why not ? takes only the subjunc¬ tive, as it is a modest and doubting question ; e. g. Quidni possim? zchy should I not be able ? It forms only an independent question. Forsitan, -perhaps , has also in most cases the subjunctive, which depends upon an. (3) The interrogative an always supposes a previous question, or a preceding thought, to which it forms an antithesis; for an does not signify whether, in a question, but or. So a n n o n, or not ? which, however, has often the same signification as an. Hence, it can never begin a discourse, but either continues one already begun, or refers to a question conceived in the mind ; e g. Are the dead in want of the advantages of life ? or can he icho does not exist, be in want of anything ? an potest ille — re ulla carere? It is in our power, therefore, to re¬ move pain , since , if one wishes , it accommodates itself to the time. Or is there a lime to which we do not accommodate ourselves, for the sake of removing suffering ? An est ullum tempus ? Or is not all fear servi¬ tude? Ann on est omnis metus servitus? Such questions often denote wonder, or irony, or conjecture. So they are often the same as questions with num. Hence in conjectures respecting the cause of something, an quod is used. Cicero does not use this an in single indirect questions, nor with the first of two or more questions opposed to each other, consequent¬ ly not an — an, nor even an — necne. Therefore, it is not said, Quaeritur, an hoc verum sit, for hoc verumne sit; neither hoc an verum, a n falsum sit, for hoc verum falsurrme sit. And when, in Cic Catii. II 6, 13 (according to most of the earlier editions) it is written, Quaesivi a Catilina, an nocturno conventu — fuisset nec¬ ne, an must be either erased, or be changed into in, according to most of the recent editions. So also the negative whether not is not expressed by annon, but by nonne. Finally, vero is placed with an, to strengthen it, and is then ren¬ dered really, indeed, then pet haps ; e. g. Or do ice really doubt that this is so? an v e ro dubitamus ? Respecting haud scio (dubito) an, see (10) below. 25* 294 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 333, 334. (4) If an or no stand in a question that implies a negative answer, any one is not expressed by aliquis, but by quis or quisquam ; e. g. Or can any one be angry without distraction of mind ? an quisquam potest — ? Can what is good prove an evil to any one ? potestne bo¬ num c u i q u a m malo esse ? 333. (5) The phrase nescio quomodo often stands as an adverb, sig¬ nifying, in a manner, and then has no influence on the mode of the fol¬ lowing verb ; e. g. There is, in a manner, a presentiment in our minds , nescio quomodo, inhaeret in mentibus augurium. On the con¬ trary, if it is used in its proper sense, the subjunctive follows ; e. g. I know not hoic you have endured the injury, nescio, quomodo injuriam t u 1 e r i s. In the same manner, nescio quis, nescio qui, nescio quid , signifying some one, some thing, are followed by the indicative ; these expressions have merely the force of an indefinite pronoun ; e. g. some one is speaking near me, prope me nescio quis 1 o q u i t u r = prope me loquitur (aliquis), nescio quis (ille sit). 6. The pronouns quis, quid, numquis numquid, and ecquis, ecquid , ‘often followed by the enclitic nam, are the proper interrogatives. But they either stand alone without a substantive, or, if a substantive be¬ longs to them, they take that in the genitive. But when the sub¬ stantive is added in the same case, qui, quae, quod ; numqui, numquae , nurnquod? ecqui, ecquae , ecquod, are used ; e. g. Who said this ? quis hoc dixit ? What man said this ? quis hominum hoc dixit ? What act did he commit ? quid facinoris or quod facinus commisit? Is there any trace of eloquence visible? numquid vestigii or nurnquod vestigium eloquentiae apparet ? What place in Greece is unknown to you? qui locus Graeciae tibi igno¬ tus est? 334. (7) In expressions of wonder, irony and grief, an accusative with the infinitive frequently occurs, with and without the interroga¬ tive ne, where we use the nominative ; e. g. (Shall) I vanquished, give up my purpose? m e n e victam incepto desistere ? (Can) any one be as unhappy, as I am ? adeone esse hominem infelicem quemquam, ut ego sum? Instead of the accusative with the infinitive, the con- unction ut, with or without the interrogative particle, is also used ; e. g. Would any one prefer a conquered to a victorious country? vic- tamne ut quisquam victrici patriae praeferret? Will anything dis¬ hearten you? Will you ever reform ? Te u t ulla res frangat ? tu u t unquam te corrigas ? Ut \s sometimes also omitted; e. g. Should I reject this return? hunc ego reditum repudi a r em ? Finally, when there is no person in the sentence, the infinitive merely is used, as in English; e. g. Not to knoiv this, that this does not belong here! hoc non videre — ! To have seen so much, while the province icas in fear ! itantumne vidisse in metu provinciae ! (8) Questions expressive of astonishment and indignation, as, Shall not I be able to do what Sulla could ? or, If Sulla could do this, why not I? are often formed by inverted sentences, and the second clause is changed into an interrogative one, with or without an interrogative particle; thus, Sulla or an Sulla potuit, egononpotero? The last verb is put in the future, as the sense requires, if something which has not yet happened is spoken of,—in the present, when the action relates to the present,—in the perfect, when the action relates to the past; e. g. Cannot I do what Sulla could ? Sulla pot nit e ffi- QUESTIONS. 295 § 334.] cere, ego non possum? Otherwise, the question is expressed according to the usual mode : Si Sulla potuit, cur ego non possim ? The English then , expressing astonishment, is translated by ergo ; e. g. Ennius then teas permitted to despise the old, hut I shall not be , ergo Ennio licuit — mihi non licebit? (9) The question, / ? denoting astonishment, and standing alone, is always expressed by egone? and the question of surprise, Is it so ? is always expressed by itane ? itane est ? Vcro or tandem is often joined with these for the sake of emphasis ; e. g. Is it then really so ? Itane vero? Itane tandem? Is it not true? Is it not so? are ex¬ pressed by nonne ? P'inally, where we ask with astonishment, Do you mean this ? Are you serious ? the Latin says, Ain’ t u ? (10) Haud scio an (more seldom nescio an) and the subjunctive of a verb connected with it, is used in making a modest assertion, in expressing a belief of something cautiously, and may be translated by our perhaps , without however intimating doubt; e. g. Perhaps that may he better , or I am inclined to think that may he better , haud scio, an illud melius sit. Perhaps ( lam inclined to think) no one is more happy , haud scio, an nemo sit beatior. Hence the first clause is affirm¬ ative, the second, negative. For haud scio , dubito also is used. Some assert, that ullus , quisquam , unquam and usquam are also used in a negative sense in this connection, by the better writers, which is not improbable. Finally, the use of haud scio (nescio, dubito) an, in the sense of perhaps , belongs only to the classic writers, not to those subsequent to the classic period. When these words have their true signification, viz. I know not , an is not used, but ne ; e. g. I know not , whether this is so much to he wondered at , id adeo haud scio mirandum- ne sit (11) Habeo, non habeo, quid, I know not, what —, is not to be confounded with habeo aliquid , nihil habeo, quod. In the former phrase, the clause with quid, is a dependent interrogative clause ; in the latter, quod refers to a preceding aliquid or nihil , and is only a relative. Hence, I know not what I shall write, or what to write, non habeo, quid scribam. I know (or have) nothing to write, nihil habeo, quod scribam. Examples on §§ 315—334. (1) What is right, is manifest 1 ; what is expedient 2 , is doubtful. Think 3 , in what times we have been born. Can the civil law be understood 4 merely from books? Do you believe, that Epaminondas sighed 5 , when he perceived 6 that his life was ebbing 7 together 8 with his blood ? Does every* irregularity 9 of the mind seem to you insanity ? I see, what you demand ; but I could wish 10 to know, what advantage these demands 11 will bring 12 to you? I write to you less frequently on this account, because I do not know 13 , where you are or where you will be. It is evident what Caesar has in mind 14 ; but what I think 15 respecting his plan 16 , I will 296 CONSTRUCTION OF VERliS. B 334. write to you at another time. No one can say where our '.soul is, or what 17 is its nature. Nature reminds us daily of this, how few and how small things she needs 18 . It is of no consequence 19 , whether our body rots 20 in the earth 21 , or in the air 22 . It is uncertain, what place will receive you in future. Write to me as soon as possible 23 , whether this dis¬ course pleases you. Tell me, whether 24 any one has dared to do this. Why do you hasten so much? for I cannot un¬ derstand 25 , why you hasten so much. I know not why he thinks, that 26 Alexander was not a great commander. It is of much consequence, whether our glory is diminished 27 , or 28 is transferred to another. vShall we prefer wealth, or prefer¬ ment, or a beautiful form, or health to friendship ? It is un¬ justly doubted, whether wisdom of 29 itself alone makes man happy or not. Can we destroy 30 the remembrance of the past 31 ? It does not depend 32 upon 33 ourselves, whether we are acute or dull 34 , whether we are strong 35 or weak 36 . 1 apparere. 2 expedire. 3 cogitare. 4 cognoscere. 5 ingemescere. 6 sentire. 7 effluere. 8 una. *omnis. 9 commot,io. 10 velim (could wish). 11 postulatum. 18 afferre. 13 cei tum habere. 14 animus. 15 sentire. 16 con¬ silium. 17 qualis. 18 egere. 19 interesse (to be of consequence). "pu¬ trescere. 21 humus. 22 sublime. 23 quam primum. 24 num. 25 intelligere. 2ti {acc. with inf.). 27 imminuere. 28 aut. "per. 30 delere. 31 res praeteri¬ tae. 32 sto. 33 in. 34 hebes, "valens, "imbecillus. (2) If the criminal 1 says, that 2 he has erred from 3 igno¬ rance, the question 4 is, whether he could know, or not. It must be carefully 5 considered 6 , what is wont to spring 7 from everything. Think 8 , whether in any other way, it can be made more easy. A teacher can easily know, whether his scholars apprehend 9 quickly or slowly 10 what is taught. Shall I not admire him, shall I not love him? There is a great difference, whether any one opposes* my will, or does not do 11 it; whether he takes something from me, or does not give; whether he disappoints 12 our hope, or defers it; whether he acts against us, or for himself; whether from love to another 13 , or from hatred towards us. Does he not fear what will be the issue of that contempt 14 of the laws ? Let us first see, whether the world is governed by the foresight of the gods; afterwards, whether they care for the affairs 15 of men. I could wish to know, whether you read this letter with a troubled 16 or a cheerful 17 mind. Those who rely 18 much upon the pity 19 of others, know not how quickly tears become dry 20 . 1 reus. 2 (acc. with inf.). 3 imprudens (from ignorance). 4 quaeritur QUESTIONS. 297 § 334.] (the question is). 5 diligenter. 6 considerare. 7 evenire. 8 videre. 9 ar- ripere. 10 tarde. * obstare. 11 deesse (not do to). 12 praecidere. 13 alter. 14 contemptio. 15 res. 16 sollicitus. 17 solutus. 18 ponere. 19 misericordia. 20 inarescere. (3) It is uncertain, whether we shall see what we seek 1 , or cease to doubt, whether it is expedient to spare one on ac¬ count of many wicked 2 , or, by the punishment of a single wicked one, to restrain 3 the depravity 4 of many. Shall I be indignant 5 , if I surpass 6 one in courtesy 7 ? Do you refer 8 everything to the body, or is there something which delights 9 you of its own accord 10 ? Have I taken your patrimony from you, or have you consumed 11 it yourself? I have often re¬ flected 12 , whether the power of speech 13 has conferred 14 upon men more good or evil. Ought we not to be most thankful 15 to the man who has so successfully 16 understood 17 the voice of nature, that he leads 18 all the rational 19 in the way of a happy life? I ask you, whether you think, that Homer and Pindar, Phidias and Zeuxis accommodated 20 their arts to 21 pleasure. When any one yields 22 to sensual pleasure 23 in se¬ cret 24 , has he a sufficient regard 25 for honor ? or is it rather something which is disgraceful 26 in 27 itself, even if no dis¬ grace 28 accompanies 29 it ? Shall 30 not our philosophers be able to do that which the Scythian Anacharsis could, viz 31 ., to consider 32 money of no value 33 ? Can any orator be found like Demosthenes and Cicero. ‘petere. 2 improbus. 3 cogrcere. 4 improbitas. 5 indignari. 6 antece¬ dere. 7 comitas. 8 referre. 9 delectare. 10 sua sponte, “comedere. 12 co¬ gitare. 13 (gerund). 14 afferre. 15 habere gratias (to be thankful). 16 fir¬ me. 17 comprehendere. ls deducere. 19 bene sanus. 20 dirigere. 21 ad. 22 parere. 23 libido (sensual pleasure). 24 sine teste. 25 consulere (to have regard for). 26 flagitiosus. 27 per. 28 infamia. 29 comitari. 30 (see § 334. 8). 31 (omitted in Latin). 32 ducere. 33 pro nihilo (of no value). (4) Is it not far better to say something respecting 1 these men, than respecting many wise men ? Is it in our power 2 , what we remember 3 ? Let us ask Zeno, in what way we can spend our life, if we think 4 it is indifferent 5 , whether we are healthy 6 or sick 7 , whether we are free 8 from pain or are af¬ flicted by it, whether we can keep 9 off cold or hunger, or not ? It is indifferent, whether pleasure consists 10 in those things which are first according to 11 nature, or whether it does not consist in these. To 12 begin with 13 the body, do you not see how 14 men conceal 15 the distorted 16 and mutilated 17 limbs ? how they even 18 strive 19 and labor 20 , that 21 a defect of the body may either not appear, or appear as little as possible 22 ? 298 C ONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 335, 336. how, for the sake of curing 23 it, they will endure 24 many pains ? Do we not consider many worthy of hatred, who, by a certain attitude 23 or movement, seem to have despised 26 the law of nature? Can it indeed be doubtful to any one, that 27 virtue is the highest good ? Do you believe 28 , that 29 this befalls 30 the wise ? Do you not therefore believe, that sufferings 31 be¬ fall the wise ? I by no means 32 believe it. I ask you what you think ? I ? I believe, that there is a providence. This happened by accident. Is it so ? This cannot have happened by accident. Are you serious, said 33 he ? 1 de. 2 potestas. 3 meminisse. 4 putare. 5 nihil interesse. 6 valere. 7 aeger. 9 vacare. 9 propulsare. 10 esse. 11 secundum. 12 ut (verb first person singular). 13 a. 14 ut. 15 occultare. _ 16 pravus. 17 debilitatus. 18 etiam, 19 contendere. 20 elaborare. 21 ut. 22 quam minimum (as — possible), ^curatio. 24 perferre. 25 status. 29 contemnere. 27 quin. 29 (verb at the end ; the question with ne ; this is the principal word). 29 (acc. with inf.). 30 cadere in aliquem. 31 aegritudo. 32 non prorsus. 33 inquam. 335. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS. The answers are either affirmative or negative. (a) Affi r mativ e answers. These are not made by the word immo (imo) by which yes is often translated, but: (1) By ita, ita est, sic est, sane, etiam , vero (which can stand here even without a verb) and certe; e. g. Do you icish anything 1 Yes, Numquid vis? Etiam! Does my brother live here ? Yes, Ita est or est ita. Yes, it is so, s i c e s t. Do you wish me to ask you only the most important ? Yes, if you please, sane, si placet. Have you been often in the schools of the philosophers? Yes, Ver o. Yes, it is as you say, est, u t dicis. The words sane, vero, certe and profecto, however, always give a strong affirmative to the question. 336. (2) By repeating that word of the interrogative clause, on which the question particularly depends. This is the most frequent method. Still an affirmative particle, especially the strengthening vero, is usually joined to the word that is re¬ peated ; e. g. Does not the reading of this book delight you ? Yes, Me vero delectat. I icish that you would agree with me in this. Yes, entirely, Prorsus assenti or. ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS. 299 §§ 337—340.] Have you a new edition of this book ? Yes, I have, Habeo vero. Do you wish for me? Yes, Mene vis? Te. Did you come here alone ? Yes, Solus. 337. (3) Sometimes also, the affirmative word is omitted, and something expressing the wish, meaning or opinion of the one answering, is substituted; e. g. Is pleasure to be reck¬ oned among the blessings ? Yes, and, indeed among the great¬ est ! Ac maximis quidem. Do you really mean df'lato ? Yes, him precisely, Istum ipsum. (b) Negative answers. These are made in a manner similar to the affirmative ones: 333. (I) By n o n, no, mini m e, by no means, nequa¬ quam, neutiquam, haudquaquam; with the last three a verb is almost always joined. Moreover, there is of¬ ten connected with all of these, for the sake of emphasis, her- cule, mehcrcule, sane, vero, etc. Vero in particular, when joined with the above negative particles, although without a negative force itself, expresses our ah (O) no! e. g. Can we always observe this order in placing words ? No, N o n s a n e. Do you consider these as orators ? O no, I consider them not so much as worthy of the name, Ego vero lie nomine qui¬ dem dignos puto. Do you not believe this ? No, by no means, M i n I m e vero. Where we say : No, only go on, the Latin says : perge vero or tu vero perge, without negation. 339. (2) By repeating, with a negative particle, that word of the interrogative clause, on which the question particularly depends ; e. g. Is thy brother icithin ? No, Non e s t. Are you pleased with this oration ? No, Non placet or dis¬ plicet. Did you come here alone ? No, Non solus. Does your hand desire anything ? No, by no means, Nihil sane. 340. (3) By the particle immo (imo), particularly when the antithesis of the question is to be expressed, where we 300 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS, L$ 340. say, on the contrary, no rather. Vero is often used here to give emphasis. Hence immo does not usually stand alone, but has something joined with it; e. g. Was Roscius poor? No, he was rich, Immo locuples erat. Was he avaricious ? No, he was always in the highest degree generous, Immo semper liberalissimus fuit. Do you certainly not agree with me ? No, I wholly agree icith you, Immo prorsus assentior. Has therefore utility triumphed over goodness ? No, utility was rather the consequence of goodness, Immo vero hon¬ estatem utilitas est consecuta. Where was Sulla ? at Rome ? No, he was far distant, Immo longe abfuit. Nihil vero minus is used in the same sense, followed by a clause, which denotes exactly the opposite of that which the interrogator said; e. g. Was heat Athens? Surely not, he was at Rome, Nihil vero minus! fuit Romae. Examples on §§ 335—340. Have you heard all, even what I spoke with a low 1 voice ? Yes 2 . Have I not long said, that this would happen 3 ? Yes 2 . Does not that still remain 4 , which relates 5 to nature ? Yes 6 , as you say. If you please, let us speak 7 respecting the first. Yes 2 . Does this man think upon 8 what he says ? By no means 9 . Does death seem to you to be an evil ? Certainly 6 . King Tarquin asked the messengers: Have you been sent by the people of Collatia 10 to 11 give 12 up yourselves and the peo¬ ple ? They answered : Yes 13 . Are the people 14 of Collatia independent 15 ? Yes 13 . Do they give up their city, fields, tem¬ ples, everything belonging to gods 16 and men, into my pow¬ er 17 ? They answered : Yes 13 . Was Catiline then in the Pi¬ cene district 18 ? Surely not 19 , for he was at Neapolis. Do you deny, that 20 virtue is strong 21 enough for a happy life ? Yes 22 , entirely so. Is the case 23 a different one ? No, pre¬ cisely the same. Is there protection 24 enough in virtue to live happily ? Yes 25 . Did I not wish 26 to see you ? No, I wished rather not to be seen by you. 1 surntnissus (submissus). 2 (§ 336). 3 esse. 4 restare. 5 spectare. 6 (§ 335). 7 disputare. 3 cogitare. 9 (§ 338). 10 Collatinus (of Collatia). 11 ut. 12 dedere. 13 (§ 336)- 14 (singular). 15 in sna potestate. I6 divinus (belonging to gods). 17 ditio. 13 ager. 19 (§ 340). 20 (acc. with inf.). 21 posse. 22 prorsus (§ 336). 23 res. 24 praesidium. 25 certe (§ 336). 26 (perf. subj.). § 341.] THE IMPERATIVE 301 C. The Imperative. 341. The imperative includes those forms of the verb, by which one desires, asks, or demands something of another, counsels him, forbids, dissuades or seeks to prevent him. Such wishes, commands and prohibitions are either for the nearest present , requiring something to be done or not to be done, immediately, or for the future , being of a general na¬ ture and left to the will of another, to do or not to do some¬ thing, when the case occurs. The shorter forms are those of the present, the longer, those of the future. The present is confined to a second person present; but the future refers not only to a second, but also to a third person absent, whc is to do or suffer something future. The forms are, e. g. Present. abi Future abito abito abite abitote abeunto The frst show, that something should happen immediate¬ ly; the second, that something should happen at some future time. There is nothing more severe or imperative in the last, than in the first.* As the commands and injunctions of the laws relate only to the future, the second forms are more usual in these. So the future imperative is found oftener, when a clause in the future is connected with the command; e. g. If this shall not happen to you, accuse your injustice, accusatote; praise my courtesy, if I shall not answer you without delay , laudatote. When there is any new and remarkable occurrence, ascertain (investigato) the cause, if you can (si poteris). * Some orammarians, however, regard the shorter as the milder form, expressing merely a command of the speaker himself; the longer form as the stronger, expressing, in addition to this, the higher injunctions of duty or law. See Krilger § 464. liamshorn § 167. Kiifi¬ ner § 8 . Rcisig § 333. 26 r 302 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. L$$ 342, 343. Farther; the Latin says only scito, know, scitote, know ye ; mement o, remember, mementote, remem¬ ber ye; and when Cicero uses habere in the sense of to know, to believe, he says only habeto, habetote ; e. g. Know so much, tantum habeto; know this, sic habetote. So also, finally, in the concessive phrase, Grant that this is so, only verum esto! or merely esto, not sit. The request to one or more to do something in common with the speaker, is expressed in Latin by the first person plural of the present subjunctive ; e. g. Let vs go away, a b e a in u s ; let vs jest, joce- m u r. 342. When a person forbids or seeks to prevent anything, the Latin does not use non, but the particle nc, which is placed before the imperative ; e. g. n e crede, n e credito ; do not go away, n e abi ; n e abito. When a new prohibition is joined to a preceding one by nor, or when in a clause expressing prohibition, neither — nor occurs, neu or neve is used ; e. g. Let magistrates neither receive a reward nor give one, n e capiunto, neve danto. Let no one (nequis) put us to shame, neither (neve) during his life, nor (neu) after his death. Ne is also used with the persuasive clause, let us not; e. g. Let us not exceed the measure, n e modum excedamus. The place of the imperative is also supplied : 343. (1) By the subjunctive present, but in the classical period only very seldom,—and hence it is rather to be avoided ; e. g. Go away, abeas, for a b i; let him go away, abeat, for a b \ t o ; do you go away, abeatis; let them go away, abeant. Here also, in prohibitions, ne is used; e. g. Do not go away, n e abeas, n e abeatis ; be not superstitious, ne sis superstitiosus. In the same manner must the impera¬ tives of impersonal verbs be expressed, the imperatives of these not being used; e. g. Be ashamed, te pudeat; vos pudeat. In prohibitions, the subjunctive perfect is also used with ne, or with a negative word, as nihil; e. a. Do not do tins, n e hoc feceris; fear nothing from me, de me nihil t i m u e r i s. Comp. § 242. § 344.] THE IMPERATIVE. 303 (2) The place of the imperative is supplied by the future indicative, as in English, when one leaves his wish to the per¬ son with whom he speaks, and hopes that he will comply with it; e. g. You will be so good as to go there , instead of, Be so good, etc., In cases of prohibition, ne is not used here, but non ; e. g. Continue in health, attend to my business, and with the help of God, look for me before summer, valebis — videbis — expectabis. Do not delay and polish well the articles you have made, and love us, tu non cessabis — perpolies, nosque diliges. 344. (3) The imperative is also expressed by a periphra¬ sis, and : (a) In commands or affirmat ions, by fac or velim , ut and the subjunctive, in which case, however, ut is generally omitted, or by memento and the infinitive ; e. g. Take care to convince yourself, or convince yourself, fac (ut) tibi per¬ suadeas, velim tibi persuadeas; remember, be careful to do this, or do this, memento hoc facere ; be sure to remember these, etiam atque etiam facite, ut ea recordemini. But where this periphrastic construction is used, the idea is al¬ ways expressed more strongly. This can be indicated in English by, be sure, take care, do, etc. Respecting the peri¬ phrastic jacere, ut, comp. § (541. d.) (b) In prohibitions and negations, the imperative is ex¬ pressed periphrastically, by fac, ne and the subjunctive, by noli and the infinitive, which is more frequent than ne with the imperative, by cave, ne, or without ne, and the subjunc¬ tive, and by vide, ne and the subjunctive. Here, also, with the exception of noli, the prohibitions are expressed more strongly ; e. g. Be careful not to think ( do not think) that any¬ thing is more true, cave, putes; fear not, noli vereri ; take care {be sure) not to do this, cave, ne id facias ; cave, ne id feceris. Finally, when an action has already begun, and one wishes it to cease, where we say no further, no more, no longer, de- 304 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 344. siste or desine with the infinitive can be used ; e. g. Ask no further respecting this , hoc percunctari (percontari) desine (desiste). Examples on §§ 341—344. Associate with good men, and avoid the company 1 of the evil. Lie 9 not, but rather speak the truth 3 , wherever 4 you may be. Do ye approach 5 the gods with purity 6 , show 7 pie¬ ty, put away 8 splendor 9 , do not respect foreign 10 gods, di¬ minish 11 expense upon 19 the dead, and neither bury the dead in the city, nor burn 13 them. Hope not for exemption 14 from the evils 15 of human life. Place 16 this eminent 17 man alone 18 before your eyes, model 19 all which 90 you think or do 91 after 99 his pattern 93 , take care not to turn 94 your eyes to the corrupt 95 custom of the multitude, and do not forget, that 96 thus you will obtain what you wish* for. Travel 97 diligently 98 the di¬ rect road to glory, and, if anything should entice you to leave it, leave it not; follow only your own judgment and my ex¬ hortation. Weep no more, for everything which has hap¬ pened to you, has happened to you according to the com¬ mand and will of God. Let him give me my possessions, let him not take 99 them from me, let him surrender 30 me my goods. Let him who wishes to arrive 31 where he has determined 39 , follow 33 only one way, and not wander 34 through many. Know, that 35 I now write more boldly than before. Be careful to re¬ tain the province in the possession 36 of the republic. Excuse 37 me, that 38 I have not written to you recently. Do so 39 , and love me, and provoke 40 me by writing something 41 . Be sure not to consider 49 this man among 43 your friends. VDo not at¬ tempt 44 what is impossible 45 . Doubt no longer, whether this is useful. Doubt not, that 46 I will do everything. Know 47 this first, that I am thy most ardent 48 friend. Believe that I remain 49 the same, even when you see no one 50 ; therefore 51 honor me as a god. If you will listen to me, avoid 59 animos¬ ities. Farewell, and remember 53 me ever. Societas. 2 mentiri. 3 vera. 4 ubicumque (see § 270. b). 5 adire. 6 cas¬ te. 7 adhibere. 8 amovere. 9 opes. 10 peregrinus. 11 imminuere. 12 in. 13 comburere. 14 immunitas. 15 malum. 16 constituere. 17 summus. 18 unus. ]9 lingere. 20 quicquid (all which). 21 agere. 22 ad. 23 imago. 24 flectere. 20 depravatus. 26 (acc. with inf.). * requirere. 27 ingredi. 28 impiger. 29 adimere. 30 addicere. 31 pervenire. 32 destinare. 33 sequi. 34 vagari. 35 (acc. with inf.). 36 potestas. 37 (§ 344). 38 quod. 39 (§ 343, 2). 40 lacessere. 41 scriptum aliquod. 42 referre. 43 in numero. 44 tentare, INFINITIVE AND GERUNDS. §§ 345, 346.] 305 ' 45 effici non posse. 4G quin. 47 habere. 43 amicissimus. 49 esse. 30 nul- Ius. 51 quare. 32 vitare (§ 343, 2). 33 meminisse. INFINITIVE AND GERUNDS. 345. The English and Latin infinitives, present and per¬ fect, are used in both languages, not only as subjects or pre¬ dicates, but also as objects of the principal verb in the sen¬ tence. (1) As subjects, they are the principal word on which the verb of the sentence depends, and as predicates, they refer to other definite subjects, and in both these relations, they are in the nominative; e. g. To die for one's country (i. e. death for one’s country) is sweet and honorable, pro patria mori, where m o r i is the subject of the verb, and therefore in the nominative, and stands in the place of mors. So, To be without pain (nihil doler e, freedom from pain) is found (inest) only in pleasure. The business of the poets was to sing the praises of heroes, heroum laudes canere. To paint seems more pleasing to an artist, than to have painted, p i n- gere quam pinxisse. In these sentences the infinitives are the subjects of the verbs. And so in the sentence, To learn is nothing else than to remember, nihil aliud est d is- cere, nisi recordari, discere is the subject, and r e- c o r d a r i the predicate. 346. Such an infinitive can also be often translated into English by a noun, as the examples show; e. g. Reverence for the gods, colere deos ; indulgence to his enemies, par- cere inimicis ; remembrance of the past, meminisse prae¬ teritorum or praeterita; the use of life, utivita. In such sentences, the personal pronouns must be used instead of the possessive ; e. g. My preservation, me conservare; our protection, nos tueri. So‘must every adjective be expressed in Latin by an adverb, because the infinitive retains the nature of the verb; e. g. A happy life, beate vivere ; an honorable death, gloriose (honeste) mori ; 26* 306 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 347, 348. such a use, i t a uti; a more just mode of thinking, a e- q u i u s sentire. 347. (2) An infinitive can also stand as the object of another verb, and is therefore its accusative ; e. g. Many de¬ spise the very idea of being conquered, multi ipsum vinci contemnunt. Some think it low to prefer money to friend¬ ship, pecuniam praeferre amicitiae. Here the infini¬ tives are the objects of the principal verbs, and take the place of accusatives. All infinitives which are joined to a large class of verbs, to complete the imperfect ideas expressed by these verbs alone, may be considered as such objects. Here belong verbs denoting, to wish, to be able, ought (debere), to be accustomed, to begin, to continue, to cease, etc.; e. g. No one can divine this, divinare; I ought (debeo) to alleviate thy pain, levare. Most of these verbs admit the full construction of the accusative and the infinitive, or a conjunction with the verb in the subjunctive ; e. g. I wish to be loved by all, volo ab omnibus amari or me ab omnibus amari. When an infinitive, used to complete the idea of another verb, has a predicate which refers to the subject of the principal verb, then such predicate is in the nominative, because both verbs have the same person for their subject. But when the accusative with the infini¬ tive occurs, the predicate is in the accusative ; e. g. IVe 'prefer to be beloved, c a r i esse malumus ; I must be more brief, debeo esse bre¬ vior; I desire to be compassionate , cupio, me esse clementem. HISTORICAL INFINITIVE. 348. In the animated description of actions, following each other in quick succession, or of a restless and irresolute state of mind, the best Latin writers very often use the present infinitive active and passive, for a definite person of the im¬ perfect or the narrative present. With this infinitive, how¬ ever the subject is in the nominative, and the infinitive does not have a governing word on which it depends. ;'e. g. A part (pars) mount (ascendere) their horses, and go against the enemy ; the combat (pugna) becomes more like a highway §§ 349, 350.] GERUNDS. 307 robbery , than a battle; horsemen and footmen mixed together, here cut down (caedere), there heion in pieces (obtruncare); surround many (circumvenir e)from behind. Henceforth Jugurtha trusted (credere) no man, nor place, nor time, feared (metuere) countrymen and enemies alike, looked round suspiciously (circumspectare) at everything and trembled (pavescere) at every sound, now rested (r e- quiescere), now starting from sleep raised (facere) an alarm. In such cases as the above, this may be imitated, since it is the most forcible representation of actions which are capable and worthy of being represented to the senses. Historians frequently employ it for this purpose. GERUNDS. 349. The present infinitive active, e. g. amare, is used in Latin, not merely as the subject of a sentence, and as the object of another verb, e. g. Litteras amare laudi ducitur or laudi ducimus, but it also has its peculiar forms, when it occurs in other relations, in that of the genitive, dative, ac¬ cusative (depending upon a preposition) and ablative. Thus it is a kind of verbal substantive. The declension of the in¬ finitive, the oblique cases of which are called gerunds, is as follows; e. g. Nom. amare, Gen. amandi, Dat. amando, Acc. amare , or with a preposition, amandum, Abi. amando. The governing word alone determines the cases of the ge¬ runds. That word may be a substantive, adjective, verb or preposition. The use of the gerunds is as follows : I. The Genitive. 350. As the genitive of'a substantive is a dependent case, so also is that of the gerunds. It can be used, therefore, only (1) When it depends upon a substantive; e. g. The art of loving, ars amandi; the power of speaking, facultas loquendi (dicendi). 308 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 351—355. A genitive stands in a similar connection after voluntas, occasio , spes, consuetudo , studium , causa (a cause), libido, metus. Also causa and gratia, signifying on account of, for the sake of, take the genitive of a gerund dependent upon them. Then the gerund is placed before causa and gratia; e. g. For the sake of driving, vehendi causa ; for the sake of sleeping, dormiendi causa. 351. The phrases, finem f a c e r e, to make an end , and modum facere, to place a limit, take the genitive only, not the dative ; e g. I will cease writing , scribendi; I cease to speak, loquendi finem facio. So, causam dare, afferre; ansam dare, to give an occasion for something, to occasion something. 352. The phrase, tempus est , has the nominative or the genitive, according to its different significations. When tempus est signifies, there is leisure, nothing prevents, and therefore is the same as otium est, vacat , it takes the genitive ; e. g. 1 have no time to reply to these, non est mihi tempus ad haec respondendi; you certainly have time to tarry here a■ little , certe tibi tempus est paululum hic commo¬ randi. But when it has the sense of, the time is ft, is convenient, one can , must, it takes the usual infinitive, as the nominative ; e. g. JS'ow is the time to speak respecting this affair , nunc tempus est de hac re dicere; it is not noro time to feast sumptuously, nunc non est tempus magnifice epulari. When the subject is definite, the ac¬ cusative with the infinitive is used here ; e. g. It is time , that we should no7C think (we must now —), respecting that unending life, tempus est, n o s de illa perpetua vita jam cogitare. But when tempus est has an adjective, as idoneam, alienum, or the like, the genitive of the gerund is used with tempus ; e. g. It is now an unsuitable time for me to dis¬ pute with you , nunc alienum tempus est mihi tecum expostulandi. 353. (2) An adjective also c^n govern the genitive of the infinitive. Such adjectives have been mentioned above, §§ 150—152 ; e. g. Eager to learn, studiosus discendi; skilful in singing, peritus canendi. 354. The genitive of the gerund governs the same case as its verb ; e. g. Power to crush the people, populum opprimendi; desire to destroy all cities , omnes urbes diruendi; the wish to spare the enemy, hostibus parcendi ; the hope of taking the camp of the enemy , potiundi castris hostium. Yet when the gerund governs an accusative, the Latins usually prefer, instead of the gerund, the ver¬ bal adjective in andus or endus, in which case the construction is changed, and the accusative becomes a genitive; e. g. Populi (for populum) opprimendi; omnium urbium diruen¬ darum. See respecting this, § 365. II. The Dative. 355. The dative of a gerund, like the dative of a substan- §356.] GERUNDS. 309 tive, expresses the object and purpose for which anything hap¬ pens or is done. It depends : (1) Upon adjectives, such as have been specified above, §§ 163—167 ; very few of them, however, are of such a na¬ ture as to take a verb after them ; most of them also require the preposition ad to follow them ; e. g. Antony was very much addicted to drinking , potando erat deditissimus; the season of the year is suitable for sowing, idoneum est serendo. 356. (2) The dative depends upon some verbs, which govern the dative, with the idea of to or for something. Th us, e. g. esse without an adjective, in the sense of, to be ft or able for something, to be in a condition to ; e. g. I can pay, sum solvendo; I can (I am in a condition to) bear, sum ferendo. It is also said further : studere* ali¬ cui, to engage in something; operam dare alicui rei, to bestow labor on something, to strive for, to give at¬ tention to; aliquid insumere alicui, to expend or bestow something upon something; praeficere, prae¬ ponere, to place over something; praeesse alicui, to be placed over something; and so similar verbs; hence, To give attention to writing, oper am scribendo dare; to place some one over the planting , aliquem serendo praepo¬ nere. Especially is it often used with verbs signifying, to choose, to announce i to denote for what the choice or an¬ nouncement is made ; e. g. I choose this place for myself to rest, requiescendo; assemblies of the people were an¬ nounced to choose censors, censores creando (censori¬ bus creandis). Hence, this often occurs in abridged phrases with a noun denoting the office of the magistrate; e. g. Triumvir repub licae c o n s t i t u e n d a e, for * In Cicero, the verb studere rarely occurs with the dative of the gerund or verbal adjective ; when it does not govern these, it takes only the infinitive, except when other datives of substantives precede ; e. g. Cui gloriae, cui virtuti studes ? patrimonione augendo? Cic. Orat. 11. 55, 225. CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 310 [§§ 357, 358, rempublicam constituendo, a triumvir for regu¬ lating the state. a This dative of the gerund rarely governs an accusative, for where the gerund would govern an accusative, it is changed to a verbal adjective, and the accusative, on account of the change of construc¬ tion, passes into the dative; e. g. for operam do litteras scri¬ bendo, the usual construction is, litteris scribendis. See on thisj § 365. III. The Accusative. 357. The accusative of the gerund with the ending andum and endum, is used only when a preposition precedes it; on¬ ly ad and inter , however, are found here ; a d signifying for, to, in order to ; i n t e r, while, during ; e. g. Man is born for reflection and action, homo ad intelligendum et agendum natus est ; even a short life is long enough to live happily, ad beate vivendum; Duilius laid hold of the ships of the enemy with iron hands, during the battle, in¬ ter pugnandum. With this case of the gerund, the accusative is very rarely joined as a dependent case, but is rather the principal word, and the gerund becomes a verbal adjective merely, and must agree with the noun ; e. g. To conciliate the gods , ad deos placandos, for ad deos p 1 a- c a n d u m. Comp, on this, § 365. When the gerund governs a dative or an ablative, it is contrary to Latin usage to place these words directly after ad; e g. To enjoy pleasure, not a d voluptatibus fruendum, but ad fruenduin volup¬ tatibus; to use time wisely, not ad tempore sapienter utendum, but ad sapienter tempore utendum; not ad hostibus par¬ cendum, but ad parcendum hostibus; not ad m e t u ani¬ mum liberandum, but ad animum metu liberandum; not ad procul Roma vitam degendam, but ad vitam procul Roma degen¬ dam. So also with inter, and the prepositions governing the ablative. Finally, that not, in order that not, cannot be translated by ad non and the gerund, but only by ne, because non only denies, and does not pre¬ vent ; e. g. IVe will be silent respecting this, that we may not increase the pain, ne augeamus dolorem, not ad dolorem non augendum. IV. The Ablative. 358. The ablative of the gerund stands, sometimes with, and sometimes without a preposition. The preposition is omitted, when the gerund denotes the instrument and cause; otherwise the prepositions a, de, ex, in, cum and pro are used. § 358.] GERUNDS. 311 Examples: 1By doing nothing, men learn to do evil, nihil agendo; I derive much pleasure from learning , ex dis¬ cendo; moderation must he observed in jesting, in j o c a n- d o ; Plato has said much respecting the manner of living well and happily, de bene beateque vivendo. The accusative of a noun is joined to this ablative of the gerund, only when the object denoted by the accusative is to be made prominent or emphatic ; otherwise it is, in most cases, put in the ablative, and the gerund becomes a verbal adjective; e. g. By suffering lighter pains, doloribus levioribus perferendis, instead of d o 1 o r e s levi¬ ores per fe ren do. Comp. § 365. Examples on §§ 345—358. (In the following examples, the gerund is not to be changed into the verbal adjective). Philosophizing 1 displeases some, and these too 2 not very 3 unlearned. Each is an error, both 4 to believe all and to be¬ lieve no one. I wish to hear what you do not approve 5 . Wisdom is the art of living happily. Economy is the art of avoiding 6 unnecessary 7 expenses 8 , or the art of using one’s property 9 savingly 10 . Avarice is the desire 11 to increase 12 one’s wealth excessively 13 . The night time is more suitable for sleeping, than for working. The memory is strength¬ ened 14 by exercise and getting by heart 15 . In learning, be¬ gin 16 with 17 the easiest 18 . Learn early 19 the art of living happily. Never neglect 20 an opportunity of accomplishing 21 anything useful. A hundred hands are scarcely sufficient 22 to prepare 23 what each one needs 24 daily. It is easy for any one to show 25 why you especially 26 ought 27 not to grieve 28 . When we are wearied by standing or walking 29 , let us sit 30 down upon the ground 31 . Men resemble 32 the gods in no¬ thing more than in making men happy 33 . To be an upright 34 man is always useful. Is it not better 35 to be a dumb 36 man, than to be eloquent for the injury of others ? 1 philosophari. 2 et is quidem (and — too). 3 admddum. 4 et — et (both — and). 5 probare. 6 vitare. 7 supervacaneus. 8 sumptus. 0 res familiaris. 10 moderate. 11 libido. 12 augere. 13 praeter mod uni. , 4 au- gere. 15 ediscere. 16 ordiri. 17 ab. ls (plural). 19 mature. 20 praetermit¬ tere. 21 exsequi. 22 sufficere. 23 (dative of gerund). 24 indigere. ^do- cere. 26 praecipue. 27 debere. 28 dolere. 23 ire. 30 considere. 31 humus. 32 propius accedere (to resemble more). 33 salutem dare. 34 bonus. 35 sa¬ tius. 36 mutus. 312 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 358 . (2) The mind of man is nourished by learning and think¬ ing 1 . I do this for the sake of not grieving 2 thy father. Who is there, who has not at some time 3 put a limit. 4 to his grief 5 ? Many know 6 not, how 7 important 8 true friends are to a good and happy life. No one can have a just cause to take 9 arms against his country. Men are accustomed to judge us according to the society in which we are. A rich miser 10 is like a man who owns a horse, but does not know 11 how* to ride. It is shameful to do a wrong to others; but far more shameful to be ungrateful to those who have bestowed 12 favors upon us. To strive 13 for learning and to consider 14 all other things insignificant 15 , are divine gifts. If our life has fallen 16 among the weapons 17 of robbers, every expedient 18 for pro¬ moting 19 safety is honorable. Pirates 20 wandered 21 about, scattered 22 over the whole sea, when the direction 23 of the maritime war was given to Pompey. When the people judge 24 , they are generally 25 not guided 26 by wisdom to 27 judge pru¬ dently. The drop 28 hollows 29 the stone, not by force, but by falling 30 often. Rhetoric is the art of speaking well; but only the orator knows 31 how 32 to speak well. My brother is afraid 33 of marrying 34 . Cogitare. 2 dolore afficere. 3 aliquando. 4 modum facere. 5 lugere. 6 nescium esse. 7 quid. 8 valere. 9 capere. 10 avarus. 11 noscere. * (omit¬ ted in Latin). 12 praestare. 13 studere. 14 ducere. 15 levis. 1G inciderein aliquid. 17 telum. 18 ratio. 19 expedire. 20 praedo maritimus. 21 vagari. 22 dispersus. 23 gerere. 24 judicare. 25 plerumque. 2G ducere. 27 ad. 2S gutta. 29 cavare. 30 cadere. 31 scire. 32 (omitted in Latin), ^abhor¬ rere ab aliqua re. 34 uxorem ducere. (3) It is our duty to be true to our friends. It is most painful 1 for a man to live despised 2 by others. If to live is pleasant, to whom can it be pleasant to have lived ? Thou hast not injured 3 me by praising 4 my ancestors. The fishing boats 5 furnished 6 a refuge 7 and safety to many who were skill¬ ed 8 in swimming. They spent 9 the following day in burying those slain 10 in battle, on both sides 11 . Everything which 12 was suitable 13 to feed 14 the fire, we collected 15 into one place. Alexander who was wearied 16 by following 17 Darius far, re¬ turned to the tent of his friends, when he had no hope of over¬ taking 18 him. By watching 19 , by activity 20 and by wise 21 counsel 22 , everything succeeds 23 well 24 . A short period is sufficiently long, even for a good and virtuous 25 life 26 . By such a life, you will effect 27 , that 28 every one will favor you. Nothing can be less pleasing to God, than that the way is not open 29 to all to 30 worship 31 him. §§ 359, 360.] VERBAL ADJECTIVES. 313 Acerbus. 2 contemptus. 3 corrumpere. 4 laudare. 5 navis piscatoria. 6 afFerre. 7 effugium. s peritus. 9 consumere. 10 caesus. 11 utrimque (on — sides). 12 quicquid (every — which). 13 aptus. ,4 alere. ^con¬ gerere in locum. 16 fatigatus. 17 persequi. ,8 consequi. 19 vigilare. 20 agere. 21 bene. 22 consulere. 23 cedere. 24 prospere. 25 honestus. 26 vi¬ vere. 27 consequi. 2S ut. 29 patere. 30 (gerund). 31 colere. THE VERBAL ADJECTIVE IN AJYDUS AND EJVDUS. 359. The verbal adjective, e. g. amandus, legendus, has much resemblance to the forms of the gerund. But the re- semblance is not merely in form, but also in sense; and, therefore, the gerund and verbal adjective can be exchanged for each other. The verbal adjective, commonly called the future passive participle, or the gerundive, contains no defi¬ nite time, but only shows, that something happens or is to happen, and, when it is connected with a substantive in one of the oblique cases, and consequently another verb is the principal one, the verbal adjective denotes only an action co¬ temporary or continuing ivhile something else happens, has happened, or will happen; e. g. I am pleased when I read your letters, in reading your letters, litteris legendis de- lector. I have been pleased, when I read, your letters, or in reading, litteris legendis delectatus sum. I shall be pleased when I read your letters, litteris legendis delectabor. Therefore it has reference to all relations of time. Instead of it, in all the above examples, litteras tuas legens might have been used. 360. Those verbs which govern an accusative are the only ones which properly have this verbal adjective; but also the deponent verbs fruor, utor, fungor and potior have, in the best Latin writers, the verbal adjectives f ruendus, utendus , fungendus, poiiundus ^ the first of these especially, is very often used by Cicero. On the contrary, those verbs which govern any other case than the accusative, e. g. the dative , have only the neuter singular of the verbal adjective, which is used impersonally, e. g. from parco comes only parcendum, which, however, can be used, only when it is joined with est, 27 314 CONSTRUCTION OF VEIlllS. [§§ 361 , 302 . crat, etc. without a subject, signifying, it must be spared,he, we, etc. m\ist spare. So also moriendum est, he, we, etc. must die; eundum, currendum, equitandum est and others. This verbal adjective, therefore, has two special significa¬ tions. First, it contains the idea of necessity, obligation and the being worthy ; second, the idea of a continuing or cotem¬ porary action considered passively, in which case it is used in place of the gerund. 1. The verbal adjective containing the idea of necessity, obligation and being wor¬ thy. 361. Verbal adjectives, therefore, contain the idea of ne¬ cessity, which we express in different ways; e. g. a m a n dus, one who must be loved, deserving to be loved, worthy to be loved or of love. In other sentences, this may be rendered by, to be necessary, to need, to require and the like, follow¬ ed by the passive. The verbal adjective is used in this sense: (a) When it qualifies a substantive ; e. g. Wisdom is the knowledge of the things winch arc to be sought and avoided {which must he sought, etc.), rerum expetendarum fu¬ giendarum que. 362. (b) When it is the subordinate predicate, either of a subject connected with a passive verb, or of an object con¬ nected with an active one. As predicate of the subject, it is in the nominative, as predicate of the object, in the accusative. This predicate shows what is to happen to it, or for what pur¬ pose or with what design something is done to the subject or object. We express this in English by the preposition to and the infinitive active or passive, or by for and a substantive ; e. g. The house is given to them to plunder, or to be plunder¬ ed, domus iis diripienda; Antony gives them the house to plunder {for plunder ), domum diripiendam dat. Romulus and Remus were given up to some slaves to expose, §§ 363 , 364 .] VERBAL ADJECTIVES. 315 exponendi; Amulius gave Romulus and Remus to some slaves to expose, exponendos. I have many things to do (which must he done), multa facienda habeo. Have you nothing to learn ? nihilne habes discendum? I have re¬ ceived these for use (profit), haec utenda accepi. Such pre¬ dicates are used principally with the verbs to give, to commit to, to undertake, to send, to have and the like. 363. (c) It stands with the verb esse, as the predicate of a subject, and with esse forms a complete conjugation, which is called the passive periphrastic conjugation ; e. g. amandus, a, uni sum, I must be loved, I am to be loved, deserve to be loved. The following particulars should here be noticed : (l) When the verb is used without any definite subject, the verbal adjective is put in the neuter ; e. g. moriendum est , confitendum cst. This neuter must always be used, when the verb governs a dative or ablative, which cases we gene¬ rally translate into English by the nominative and a passive verb, or by an active verb, using our indefinite we or one as the subject; e. g. The citizens must be helped, we must help the citizens, civibus subveniendum est ; the city must be spared, urbi parcendum est; reason must be used , ratione utendum est. These datives and ablatives cannot be changed into the nominative and become the subjects of the sentence, (Comp. § 223). On the contrary, every accusative, which is govern¬ ed by an active verb in Latin, can become a nominative , as the subject of the verb; e. g. The innocent must be defended , innocens defendendus est, for innocentem defenden¬ dum est, which the best Latin writers very seldom use. For an example of the accusative, see Cicero de Senectute, at the close of chapter II. 364. (2) But when the person is specified, by whom some¬ thing is to be done or must be done, which in English is de¬ noted by the use of the passive and the preposition by, then the dative is generally used, and the preposition a but seldom. 316 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 365 . Yet a is sometimes used when there is still another personal dative connected with the verb, since two personal datives would make the sentence ambiguous; sometimes too, when it is desirable to make the person particularly emphatic ; e. g. I must be esteemed by you, tibi diligendus sum; our pa¬ rents must be esteemed by us, parentes nobis diligendi sunt; the townsmen must be aided by us, oppidanis a nobis sub¬ veniendum est, for n o b is alone; for whom you must con¬ sult, quibus est a v o b i s consulendum ; I think that he should be recompensed even by me, ei etiam a m e referendam gratiam puto ; my cause must be managed by the consuls , a consuli¬ bus mea causa suscipienda est. These datives, as above remarked, we generally express by the nominative; e. g. I must love my father, m i h i (a m e) pater amandus; you must shun sensual pleasure, tibi (a te) voluptas fugienda est; our father must love us, patri (a pa¬ tre) amandi sumus. So, I must die, mi hi moriendum est ; men must die, hominibus moriendum est. 2. Th e v erb a l aclj ective containing theidea of a continuing action, and used instead of a g er un cl, 365. It has already been seen above, § 359, that the ver¬ bal adjective denotes also a cotemporary, continuing action, during the time of which something else takes place, has taken place, or will take place. Hence, it is used instead of the gerund almost entirely, where the gerund would govern an accusative. This is only changing the active idea into the passive. Hence, according to the usage of the ancients, it may be a general rule in writing Latin, to put the verbal adjective in¬ stead of every gerund which governs the accusative of a sub¬ stantive or personal pronoun. By this change, the substan¬ tive or pronoun before dependent upon the gerund, is made to depend upon that word which determined the case of the § 366 .] VERBAL ADJECTIVES. 317 gerund, consequently upon another substantive, adjective, verb or a preposition ; on the contrary, the verbal adjective is treated as an adjective, and agrees with its substantive, since it qualifies it. The following examples will show this in all the cases: Gen. The art of reading a book, Ars libri legendi. - The art of writing a letter, Ars epistolae scribendae. - The hope respecting actions to be accomplished , Spes rerum gerendarum. Dat. Fit to sharpen the mind, Aptus ingenio acuendo. - Necessary for healing the wounds , Opus vulneribus curandis. Acc. To write a letter, Ad epistolam scribendam, or Ad litteras scribendas. - For the purpose of carrying on wars. Ad bella gerenda. Abl. On despising glory, De gloria contemnenda. - Respecting the interchange of captives, De captivis commutandis. _ In choosing the manner of living, In genere vitae deligendo. -- In choosing f riends, In amicis eligendis. - By enduring every toil, Omni labore tolerando. - By praising my ancestors, Laudandis majoribus meis. Remarks . 366. (1) The verbal adjective is not used instead of the gerund, 27 * 318 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 367 — 370 . when the accusative, which stands with the genitive, dative and ab¬ lative of the gerund, is an adjective in the neuter plural (e. g. vera, omnia) or a neuter pronoun singular or plural, because in that case the neuter could no longer be distinguished by the form : for hujus videndi causa would rather designate a hunc than hoc; it would signify for the sake of seeing him, not for the sake of seeing this. The same is true, therefore, of the words vera , falsa, futura , multa, plura, omnia., hoc, haec, id, ea, illud , illa, aliquid , and others similar,—which are connected only with the gerund ; e. g The skill to distinguish the true from the false, scientia v e r a a falsis dignos¬ cendi, not verorum . . .dignoscendorum; the desire to learn this, hoc (haec) discendi, not hujus d i s c e n d i or h o- r u m discendorum; the ai t of conducting his own affairs, s u a administrandi, not suorum administrandorum. But the nominative and accusative form an exception, and admit the ver¬ bal adjective, because in these cases the neuter can be distinguished from the masculine; e. g. All things must be explained, omnia sunt explicanda; to distinguish what is true, ad vera dig¬ noscenda. The verbal adjective can be employed with the other cases also, when a quae indicating the neuter follows it; e. g. To pre¬ pare everything which —, omnibus parandis, quae —. Adjectives in the singular also form an exception, because the neu¬ ter singular is considered and used in all respects as a substantive ; e. g. The desire of finding the truth , v e r i inveniendi, instead of ve¬ rum inveniendi. 367. (2) Sometimes the verbal adjective is not used instead of the gerund, when an unpleasant sound would be produced by too many similar endings, e. g. orurn and arum. Thus, there are not many ex¬ pressions in Cicero similar to novorum favorum fingendo- r u m causa, except that he says, Fin. 1. 10, majorum dolorum effugiendor u m gratia, because he had before said majorum voluptatum adipiscendarum, and Cat. I. 3, 7. tuorum consiliorum reprimendorum causa, on account of the pre¬ ceding sui conservandi. In other cases, he softens such forms by intro¬ ducing words of a different ending. 368. (3) When the ablative stands by itself without a preposition, the gerund occurs as frequently with an accusative, as the verbal ad¬ jective with its noun in the ablative ; e. g Fratrem laudando, by praising my brother, instead of fratre laudando; injurias ferendo, by enduring injuries, for injuriis ferendis. But though Cicero says, Fin. V. 23, 67, Justitia cernitur in s u o cuique tribuen¬ do, he expresses himself more distinctly, De Off. I. 5. 14, by in tri¬ buendo suum cuique, and Brut. 21, in suum cuique tribuendo. 369. (4) By this verbal adjective, many English substantives are expressed, because the verb generally denotes the idea more naturally and clearly than substantives; indeed it is often the case also, that the Latin has no substantive which expresses this idea ; e. g. In stor miner the city, in urbe oppugnanda; in the choice of friends, in amicis eligendi s. Comp. § 464. Here it is to be remarked : 370. (a) That the substantive which stands in connection with the verbal adjective, is the principal one, and that the verbal adjective must agree with it. The case of the substantive is determined by the nature of the sentence ; e. g. Brutus devised the plan of restoring VERBAL ADJECTIVES. 319 371 , 37 * 2 .] the freedom of Rome, consilium libertatis Romanae restitu¬ endae. Here the principal word is consilium which governs the genitive. He attended to everything which was necessary for healing the wound (the wounds) ; here the words for healing are expressed either with the dative or with ad, hence either vulneri (vulne¬ ribus) sanando (sanandis), or ad vulnus (vulnera) sanandum (sananda). (b) Every English adjective agreeing with a substantive express¬ ed in Latin by the verbal adjective, is always translated into Latin by an adverb ; e. g. Wisdom is necessary for the wise administration of the republic , ad rempublicam sapienter administrandam. 371. (5) When the English here employs a substantive, and the possessive pronouns, my, thy, his, their qualify it, these must be ex¬ pressed in Latin by the personal pronouns ; e. g. For my preserva¬ tion, ad me conservandum (conservanda in) ; for our preservation, ad nos conservandos (conservandas). 372. (6) The Latin does not join the verbal adjective to the genitives nostri , vestri , su.i (of several) in the genitive plural, but only in the singular; e. g. For the, sake of inciting us {you, themselves ), nostri (vestri, sui) adhortandi causa, not adhortandorum, or instead of that, nos (vos, se) hortandi causa. (7) Finally, the genitive of the gerund, as a genitive of quality, is used in connection with esse ; e. g. regium imperium, quod initio conservandae libertatis atque augendae rei- publicae fuerat—, properly, which had been of such a nature, that it preserved liberty, i. e. ichich had served to preserve liberty. The remark made above § 357 that ad non with the accusative is not used for ne, is important here also, as well as what was said re¬ specting the false position of some words directly after the preposi¬ tion. Examples on §§ 359—372. (1) Every man must avoid the suspicion of ostentation. Those men are not to be listened 1 to, who believe that one must be angry at his enemies. Such praises are among the most suitable to commend and embellish 2 old acre. Cicero united himself with Pompey for the preservation of the state against Caesar. When the emperor Diocletian perceived 3 , that 4 he was not suitable 5 to manage 6 the government, he re¬ turned to private life. In the first book of the Tusculan questions 7 , Cicero treats 8 of despising 9 death,—in the second, of enduring 10 pain,—in the third, of mitigating 11 sorrow 12 ,— in the fourth, of the other passions 13 , and of calming 14 them, —in the fifth, that 15 the virtue of a happy life is contented with itself. Agriculture is particularly 16 praised by Xeno¬ phon, in the book, which treats 17 of the management 18 of household affairs 19 ; indeed 20 , nothing seemed to him so prince- 320 CONSTRUCTION OP VERBS. [§ 372 . ly 21 as the employment 22 of agriculture 23 . Summer and au¬ tumn are designed 24 for cutting 25 and gathering 26 the fruits. The highest 27 branches of the tree must be stript 28 off, for the sake of checking 29 its luxuriance, and only 30 here and there one must be kept, to renovate 31 the tree. Alexander must n< vv yield 32 to the circumstances of the time 33 ^ and must par¬ don his soldiers; then he must abandon 34 the hope of cross¬ ing 35 the Indian stream. In breaking 36 horses, the masters must observe many rules. Men must early 37 learn the art of using 38 time, and an opportunity of accomplishing 39 some¬ thing valuable must never be omitted 40 . Send the letter back to me, which I sent to you to read. In straining 41 the voice, the whole body is exerted 42 . Verres and others participated 43 in plundering 44 the inheritance of Hercules. 1 audire. 2 ornare. 3 sentire. 4 (acc. with inf.). 3 idoneus. 6 moderari, ’disputatio. 8 disserere. 9 contemnere. 10 tolerare. 11 lenire. 12 aegritu¬ do. 13 animi perturbatio. 14 sedare. 15 (acc. with inf.). 16 copiose. 17 esse. 18 tueri. 19 res familiaris. 20 quin. 21 regalis. 22 studium. 23 agrum cole¬ re. 24 destinatus. 25 demetere. 26 percipere. 27 summus. 28 defringere. 29 comprimere. 30 nec nisi. 31 renovare. 32 cedere. 33 tempora (exig.— times). 34 abjicere. 35 transire aliquid. 36 domare. 37 mature. 38 uti. 39 exsequi. 40 praetermittere. 41 profundere. 42 contendere. 43 partici¬ pem esse alicujus. 44 diripere. (2) Those must be considered brave and magnanimous men, who strive 1 for true glory and to avert 2 all injustice. Every means of promoting 3 one’s safety is honorable 4 . Ly- sanias was present 5 at the writing of the resolution 6 . When time and necessity require it, we must fight with our hands, and prefer 7 death to servitude 8 and disgrace 9 . There are some 10 sports 11 which are suitable 12 to sharpen 13 the intellect 14 of children. In the expulsion 15 of the kings, Collatinus was the partner 16 and the assistant 17 of Brutus’ plans 18 . Tarquin went to Rome, chiefly from a desire and hope of greater honor, for the acquisition 19 of which he had no means 20 at Tarquinii. Reflection 21 is employed 22 chiefly in search 23 of truth 24 . There exists 25 in our minds, for the endurance 26 of pain and the meeting 27 of dangers, a firm and fixed 28 con¬ tempt of pain and death. Courage 29 is seen 30 in the endur¬ ance of hardships 31 ; temperance, in the neglect 32 of pleas¬ ures; wisdom, in the choice 33 of good and evil, and justice in giving 34 to every one his own. For our common 35 cheerful¬ ness 36 and instruction 37 , nature has implanted 38 in our minds a desire 39 for society 40 . We despair of your recall 41 to your country, since many venerable men oppose you. We see § 372 .] VERBAL ADJECTIVES. 321 that man was born for the preservation and protection 42 of men. We must consult 43 for friends, just as 44 for ourselves. 1 stndere. 2 propulsare. 3 expedire. 4 honestus. 5 adesse alicui. 6 de¬ cretum. 7 anteponere. 8 servitus. 9 turpitudo. 10 nonnullus. 11 lusus. 12 habTlis. 13 acuere. 14 ingenium. 15 expellere 16 socius. 17 adjutor. 18 consilium. 19 adipisci. 20 facultas. 21 cogitatio. 22 versari in aliqua re. 23 exquirere. 24 verum. 25 i nesse. 26 perpeti. 27 adire. 28 stabilis. ^forti¬ tudo. 30 cerni in. 31 labor. 32 praetermittere. 33 deligere. 34 tribuere. 35 communis. 36 exhilarare. 37 docere. 38 ingignere. 39 appetitus. 40 (genitive). 41 revocare. 42 tueri. 43 consulere. 44 non minus (justas). (3) When Caesar marched to Spain, he gave Italy to An¬ tony to devastate 1 . Tarquin insisted 2 , that 3 the comitia should be held 4 as soon as possible 5 for the choice 6 of a king. The Furies often ascend 7 from the lower world 8 to excite war, to 9 scatter 10 discord among the people, and to destroy 11 peace. All the rest 12 of the booty was given to the soldiers to plunder 13 . The timid 14 youth committed them¬ selves to Scipio for protection 15 . Every life is a kind of slavery 16 ; therefore, we must accustom 17 ourselves to our situation 18 , we must complain 19 of it as little as possible 20 , and seize 121 every advantage 22 . No one must either grieve 23 on account of the injury of the people, or rejoice on account of their honors, that he may not pass 24 an unquiet 25 life. Nothing contributes 26 more to our happiness 27 than virtue and wisdom. The consul Sulpicius assigned 28 to Amynan- der the AEtolians, to arouse 29 them to war. Many, although they bestow 30 much care in purchasing 31 things unimpor¬ tant 32 , are negligent in the choice 33 of friends, since they do not know 34 , how valuable 35 true friends are to a useful and happy life 36 . Amulius gave to his slaves the children born of Rhea Silvia, to throw 37 them into the Tiber. The sol¬ diers of Caesar gave 38 the enemy no opportunity 39 to collect. Caesar sent Caecina to the river Amisia to disperse 40 the ene¬ my. It was the report, that 41 a third army was prepared to guard the frontiers. The shepherd Faustulus brought the children of Rhea Silvia to his wife to educate 42 . The whole value 43 of philosophy consists 44 in the preparation 45 for a hap¬ py life 46 ; for we all are inflamed 47 with a desire for 48 a happy life 49 . 1 vastare. 2 instare. 3 ut. 4 facere. 3 quam primum. 6 creare. 7 exire. 8 inferorum loci. 9 ad. 10 dividere. 11 lacerare. 12 reliquus. 13 dirlpere. 14 pavidus. 15 custodire. 1(3 servitium. 17 assuescere. 18 conditio. 19 queri. 20 quam minimum. 21 servire. 22 commodum. 23 dolere. 24 agere. 25 in¬ quietus. 26 conferre. 27 beare. 28 attribuere. 29 excitare. 3U collocare. 322 THE CONJUNCTION THAT. [§§ 373 , 374 . 31 emere. 32 exilis. 33 deligere. 34 nescium esse. 35 valere. 36 vivere. 37 mittere. 38 relinquere. 39 facultas. 40 distrahere (fut. part, in dative). 41 (acc. with inf.). 42 educare. 43 auctoritas. 44 consistere. 45 comparare. 46 vita. 47 incensus. 48 (genitive). 49 vivere. THE CONJUNCTION THAT* 373. As the English conjunction that has several signifi¬ cations, it would be natural to suppose, that the Latin, which speaks so definitely and distinctly, would have more than a single word with which to express the force of this conjunc¬ tion. The Latin expresses himself differently, according to the different relation denoted by the word that. He uses, espe¬ cially in affirmative sentences, the conjunction ut or quod, or the accusative with the infinitive, and in negative sen¬ tences for the English that not, ut non, ne, quod non, quin, and the accusative with the infinitive and the adverb non. As everything depends upon the thought contained in that, the student should learn, first of all, to distinguish its differ¬ ent relations and significations, and then he can translate the conjunction. The following ideas are denoted by it: 374. (1) It expresses motive, purpose or design. When the word that denotes a motive, purpose, or design, why or for which another action is undertaken, or has been undertaken, or, moreover, is not to be undertaken, the Latin uses ut in affirmative and ne in negative sentences, or, when the negation is to be made stronger, u t ne, that not. Some¬ thing is to be done, and the question is asked, For what pur¬ pose one does (did) this ? For ivhat purpose this happens (hap- * This includes the construction of dependent sentences introduced by the conjunctions ut, ne, quo, quin, quominus and quod, as well as the construction of the accusative and the infinitive. It will be seen used in these a purpose or by the sequel, however, that other words are frequently constructions instead of that, especially in expressing command, either positive or negative. §§ 375*370.] DEPENDENT CLAUSES WITH U T, ETC. 323 pened) ? What object one has (had) in view ? Hence i d e o, on this account , e o consilio, with this design, often pre¬ cede and refer to the following clause. Instead of that, we also use in order that, in order to, to, for the purpose of. In order (that) the (more, etc.), in order (that) thereby is always expressed by quo instead of ut eo. In negative sentences, the idea of preventing, averting, is contained ; one wishes that something may not happen, which in English is sometimes expressed by lest and from. The Latins use the subjunctive with ne in such phrases as the following: I do not wish to live, n e vivam ; I do not wish to be safe, n e sim salvus ; and in the phrase, I will not say, or not to say, when something stronger than was said before follows ne dicam. i . yfl | i Examples. Laws are made that the citizens may live quietly and hap¬ pily, u t — vivant. Show the wanderer the way, that he may not fall into dangers, n e — incidat. Wars must be under¬ taken on this account, that we may live in peace without in¬ jury, — ut vivatur. I keep silence, that I may not increase thy pain, ne augeam. Many wish to be assisted, not that they may not be debased, but that they may rise higher, non ut ne affligantur, sed ut — ascendant. 375. When, in such dependent clauses, the word not is contained in a negative word, e. g. no one, nothin!?, never, nowhere and the like, tlie preventive ne and affirmative Latin words are employed ; e. g. That no one, n e q u i s, q u i s q u a in, ullus; that nothing, n e quid, q u i d q u a m ; that never, n e unquam; that, nowhere, n e usquam; seldom otherwise. Further : And that not is expressed by neve ; that neither — nor, by ut neve — neve, or ut ne out — avt, or merely ne out — aut. In some few places also, ut neque — neque occurs. 376. (2) That denoting a w ish, care, labor and eff o r t. When in the word that, an implied, not expressed wish, desire, care, labor and effort is contained, that something 324 THE CONJUNCTION THAT. [§ 376 . may happen, or may not happen, ne or nt ne is used in nega¬ tive sentences, and nt in affirmative ones. The question is here asked: What docs he wish ? For what is he anxious ? Here also something is to happen, or not to happen, and there is therefore an intentional effort or exertion. Such sentences are formed by the verbs, to wish, not to wish, to prefer, to care for, to desire, and by the nouns wish, will, desire, also by to strive (operam dare), to be anxious, etc.; in short, by every word or clause which is a motive or ground for action. Words with this construction are volo, rnalo, nolo, opto, cupio , con¬ tendo, nitor, laboro, curo, consuto, prospicio, operam do, id ago, facio, efficio, perficio, evinco, pervinco, impetro, assequor, consequor, adi¬ piscor, caveo and video (to take care), consilium capio, animum or in animum induco. Comp, on caveo and video, § § 407, 408. Negative sentences, here also, contain the idea of prevent¬ ing, averting, as before, § 374, and all which was said under §§ 374 and 375 is also applicable here. Hence, when fa- cere has ne with it, it signifies to take care that something may not happen, to prevent something. The verb studere, to strive, has ut after it, when the subject of both verbs is different, but merely the infinitive, when their subject is the same. Comp. § 396. For the use of the words velle, nolle, malle, and cupere without ut or with the Acc. and Inf., see § 395. Examples. I wish (velim) that your brother would write to me soon, ut — scribat. Take care to (that you) recover your health, ut — convalescas. Take care, that I may know it, permit me to know it, fac, ut sciam. Take care, that he may not hear it, do not let him hear it, fac, n e audiat. I wish that your brother would not associate with this man, ne hoc ho¬ mine utatur. This science aims at this, that we may assent to no one without reason, and that we may never be deceived, necui falso assentiamur, neve unquam fallamur. Care must be taken, that we do nothing imprudently and carelessly (ut) n e quid — agamus. DEPENDENT CLAUSES WITH U T, ETC. 325 § 377.] 377. (3) When an expressed wish, request, incitement or command is stated, ut is also used in affirmative sentences, and ne in negative ones. Sentences of this kind may be called imperative ones, be¬ cause, as principal sentences, they must be stated in the im¬ perative without the conjunction that; e. g. I told him to read Cicero, i. e. read Cicero. These sentences are formed by verba dicendi, i. e. by such as signify, to wish, to ask, to demand, to incite, to coun¬ sel, to persuade, to command, to entrust, to write and the like. Here also belongs i t a, on condition, with the command, in¬ junction. So also after such words as law, duty, and every word or clause, which contains the idea of a command or pro¬ hibition, ut or ne is used. Such verbs are: rogo , oro, postulo, pcsco, flagito, moneo, admoneo , hortor, suadeo, persuadeo, moveo, excito , impello, impero, edico, mando, praescribo, praecipio, censeo (to decree), statuo, instituo, constituo, de¬ cerno, cogo, dico, praedico, scribo (when it implies a command^, placet; lex, jus, munus, conditio. For the omission of ut with many of these verbs, see § 392. The words jubere, to command, and vetare, to forbid, however, form a particular exception here, inasmuch as they are followed almost exclusively by the accusative with the in¬ finitive, not by ut and ne. So Cicero usually constructs im¬ perare with ut in active sentences, but with the accusa¬ tive and the infinitive in passive sentences; e. g. Verres com¬ manded them to receive the tithes, u t accipiant. The same commanded them to be led to prison, eos abduci; seldom ut in passive sentences. This accusative is also used, when the passive periphrastic conjugation is employed, because this contains in itself the idea of should, ought, consequently the force of ut with the subjunctive. For the construction of sinere , pali, permittere and concedere, see § 397 ; of postulare, mo¬ nere, admonere and persuadere with the Acc. and Inf., see §396. In negative sentences, a prohibition is always contained; hence ne can be used, and instead of it ut ye, but only in 28 326 THE CONJUNCTION T II A T. [§ 378 , making a request, and not in a strict prohibition. With i n- te r d i e e r e, to forbid, to prohibit, the Latin mostly uses ne, seldom ut. The remarks made § 375, are applicable here also. Examples . I wish (velim) that you would come (l wish you to come) as soon as possible, ut — venias. Quintilian advises that we should (us to) read Cicero, u t — legamus. Solon com¬ manded, that no one should destroy the graves, nequis — deleret. I request that you would (you to) spare expense in nothing, n e sumptui parcas ulla in re. Themistocles ad¬ vised the Athenians to leave the city, u t — relinquerent. Caesar has written to me that I should (to) prepare every¬ thing, ut — pararem. I have been forbidden to do this, ne hoc facerem, not u t hoc facerem. 378. (4) That denoting result or effect. When in the word that, the result or effect of a past action or a condition, or of a property or quality of something is ex¬ pressed, ut is used in affirmative sentences, and ut non, not ne or ut ne, in negative ones. It is here asked, What hap¬ pens, has happened, ivill happen ? What is the result, conse¬ quence ? Such sentences are indicated by various words; e. g. by so, so very, such a, of such a hind or nature, so far, and all which are qualified by so. Further ; by it happens, it comes to pass, it is the custom, and others, of which the sentences denoting the result are the subjects. Finally after a compara¬ tive with than, where, however, ut is also sometimes omitted. So that the (more, etc.) is expresssed by ut eo, not by quo. Comp. § 374. Examples. The essence of law consists in this (est ea), that it com¬ mands to do right and forbids to do wrong, ut jubeat vetet- que. Many arc of such a nature (tales), that they do not 327 §§379,380.] ACCUSATIVE WITH the infinitive. distinguish between the true and the false, u t — non discer¬ nant. The leaders of the army are so inhuman, that I trem¬ ble in view of their victory, ut — horream. This seems to be too high for us to understand, quam ut — possimus. Zeno preferred to bear all, rather than to inform, against his accom¬ plices, quam — indicaret, instead of q u a m ut indicaret. The following words have this construction : facio , efficio, committo., (to go so far as to), cst (it happens, is the case, is possible), fit, factum est, f uturum esse or fore, multum and tantum abest,-prope est, in eo sum, accidit, incidit, evenit, occurrit, contingit, abest (is not the case), nas¬ citur, mos, consuetudo est, relinquitur, reliquum est, restat, superest, extremum est , proximum est, tempus est, ita,, sic, eo, adeo, usque eo, tam, tantopere, talis, is, hic, iste, ejusmodi, tantus. Comp, on relinquitur sqq. § 390, on fore § 403, and on tantum abest § 410. 379. (5) That denoting conclusion. When the word that denotes a conclusion drawn from something previously stated, ut is used in affirmative sen¬ tences, and ut non, not ne or ut ne, in negative ones. Before such a sentence in English, stands either the word so, or the phrase, it follows from this . Words introducing a conclusion are: sequitur , relinquitur, efficitur, consequens est, probo, efficio (to make out, to prove). Respecting sequitur, relinquitur, and efficitur, comp. § 397. Examples. Sisenna is so childish in his narrations, that he does not seem to have been thoroughly instructed, u t — non videatur. It follows from this, that he was not killed by him, u t non sit occisus. Cicero has omitted nothing, so that he seems to have devoted his leisure wholly to the interest of the orator, u t — videatur. 380. (6) That denoting the object of a verbum sentiendi or dicendi, and of all clauses con¬ taining general statements. (a) When a sentence with that contains the object of a verbum sentiendi, or of a verbum dicendi narrating something, the Latins use the accusative with the infinitive. 328 THE CONJUNCTION T H A T. [§ 381 . Verba sentiendi include all words which relate to an ope¬ ration of the mind or the senses ; e. g. to believe, to think, to perceive, to hope, to observe, to see, to hear; belief, opinion, hope; certain, true, probable, evident, etc. Such words are : audio , video, sentio, puto, reor, judico, animadver¬ to, cognosco , inteUigo, percipio, disco, scio , credo, duco, statuo, memini, recordor, obliviscor, spero , facio (to admit ) ,fac (admit, suppose, grant), efficio (to infer, to conclude), opinio, spes est. Verba dicendi (or declarandi ) include all words which re¬ late to discourse, whether written or spoken; e. g. to say, to answer, to write, to announce; report, message, etc. These, however, must contain only the idea of a narration and in¬ formation, but not a request, a demand, a command, where ut would be used, or a prohibition, where ne would be used. Comp, on these last, § 377. Such verbs are ; dico, trado, prodo, scribo, refero, nuntio, confirmo, nego, ostendo , demonstro, perhibeo, promitto, polliceor, spondeo, indico, doceo (to inform), probo, efficio (to prove). When therefore such sentences with that, denote what some one believed, hoped, saw, heard, related, wrote, or what is to him credible, known, true, or what was the report, the rumor and the like, they form the objects of a verbum sentiendi or di¬ cendi, and the Latin expresses them by the accusative with the infinitive ; e. g. I hear (you say), that you are reading, have read, are about to read, would read, would have read Ci¬ cero, audio (dicis) te Ciceronem legere, legisse, lec¬ turum esse, lecturum fuisse. Here the clause, that you — denotes the object, — udiat I hear, what you say, therefore the object of a verbum sentiendi or dicendi. The question is here asked: What does one perceive? What is thought or related? 381. Such a sentence, in reference to the verbum sentiendi or dicendi, is either its object (genitive or accusative), or its subject (nominative). So in the above example, I hear (you say), that you are reading Cicero, this last clause is the ob¬ ject or the accusative of / hear, or of you say; for it denotes § 382.] ACCUSATIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE. 329 what I hear, and what you say; and in the example, He re¬ ceived information, that the city had been taken, nuntium ur¬ bem esse captam, the last clause is the object of the sub¬ stantive nuntium, consequently the genitive. On the con¬ trary, when I say, It is known that you read Cicero, notum est te Ciceronem legere, then the clause that — is the subject of it is known, notum est. Hence the clause containing the accusative with the infinitive, is the subject or nominative, when the principal clause has no subject; it is the object (genitive or accusative), when there is already a subject, but the object of the governing verb, substantive or adjective, is wanting. It is the subject therefore in such phrases as: est notum, credibile , verum, auditum, nuntiatum, apparet, constat, etc. ; but the object in such phrases as: audio, putamus, pater dixit, ille ignarus est, fama fu¬ it, etc. 382. (b) The Latins also commonly form, by means of the accusative with the infinitive, all general sentences, i. e. such as do not describe a single action occurring at a definite time, if these sentences are subjects of another sentence, even although the principal sentences do not contain a verbum sen¬ tiendi or dicendi, but only remarks of various import in the neuter; e. g. It is expedient that the captives should be re¬ stored, captivos reddi; it is an innate principle with all that there is a God, Deum esse; it is a disgrace that a Roman citizen should be bound, civem Romanum vin¬ ciri. Here belong also such sentences as the following: To be irascible (iracundum esse) is something different from being angry (iratum); to be unacquainted (rude m) with history, is censurable; it is the duty of a good citizen to love (a m a n t e m esse) his country. In these clauses, the accusative aliquem, that some one, is omitted. Such neuter or impersonal phrases are : par, fas, aequum., justum, rectum, utile cst, neccsse, opus est, licet, expedit, convenit, pulchrum est, apparet, constat, certum, manifestum, perspicuum, verum , verisimile est. Comp. § 397. 28 * 330 THE CONJUNCTION THAT. [§§ 383,384. 383. The word that, as the examples show, is omitted in Latin with the accusative and the infinitive, and the subject of the sentence, I, thou, lie, or any other definite person or thing is put in the accusative, and the verb in the infinitive of the proper tense ; e. g. That I hear, have heard, shall (should) hear, shall (should) have heard, me audire, audivisse, auditurum (am) esse, auditurum (am) fuisse; that we are heard, have been heard, shall be heard, nos au¬ diri, auditos (as) esse, auditum iri. Esse is very generally omitted with the future infinitive. When would be able, and would have been able are to be ex¬ pressed by an infinitive of possum, the former is rendered by posse and the latter by potuisse, or both are expressed peri- phrastically by fore, ut according to § 403. The subject of the infinitive cannot ordinarily be omitted. 384. Intermediate clauses expressing comparison, where the clause of comparison contains no new verb, take, in Latin, the accusative as a continuation of what precedes; and so all sentences, which continue the predicate of the preceding sen¬ tence, take the accusative; e. g. You see that nothing is so like death, as sleep, nihil esse, nisi somnum (not somnus). Do not say that he (istum) has done the same, as Cicero, quod Ciceronem. I suppose that you (te) are excited by the same circumstances, by which I myself am, quibus me ipsum. I know that man was born for action, as the horse for running, and the ox for ploughing, ut ad cur- sum equum, ad arandum bovem. So in such clauses as, I believe you also, I believe Cicero also, —abridged for I be¬ lieve that you also —the verb for which is to be supplied from the preceding clause; hence puto etiam te, puto etiam Ciceronem, not tu — Cicero. But if the predicate is changed and a new verb introduced, this accusative cannot be used; e. g. Quis credat, tantum esse solem, quantus videtur, T Vho can believe that the sun is as small as it ap- 331 §§ 385, 386.] ACCUSATIVE WITH the infinitive. pears. Here the introduction of videtur requires a subject in the nominative. 385. With verba sentiendi and dicendi , there is very frequently join¬ ed a superfluous this (h o c, i d), that'(j 11 u d), so (i ta, sic). Care must be taken not to be misled by these to use quod or ut, unless the clause with that refers to these words alone, and depends upon them; e. g. I think this first, that friendship is the highest good, hoc primum sentio, amicitiam summum bonum esse. I think so (am of the opinion), that our soul cannot be mortal , si c sentio, non posse ani¬ mum nostrum esse mortalem. So i t a est credibile, mundum hominum causa creatum esse. Cicero says very frequently, sic e x i s t i m a r e, s i c habere, etc. After credo, mihi crede and puto , the objective clause belonging to them, is frequently not put in the accusative with the infinitive, as dependent on them, but is made independent, as often in English ; e. g. Believe me , one year — icill bring , mihi crede, unus annus — a fife ret, for unum annum — allaturum (esse). Memini , recordor , memoria teneo are regularly followed by the in¬ finitive present, if something is mentioned, which still continued to exist, at the time that it was called to mind ; e. g. / recollect that you were pursuing the study of law from a very early period of your life , te studere memini ; but if something is mentioned, which was already completed at the time of recollection, the infinitive perfect must be used ; e. g. Philip remembered that the JEtolians injured his fame , when he was liberating Greece, obtrectasse meminerat. 336. Finally, care should be taken, not to put every clause, following a verbum dicendi , in the accusative with the infini¬ tive, even if it begin with that. Verba dicendi do not always denote what happens, has happened or will happen, but often something which should happen , and then they have the idea of command, which requires ut. Comp. § 377. A comparison of examples will show the difference ; e. g. I wrote to my father that my brother would come to me in the morning , meum fratrem venturum. Here I narrate something. I wrote to my father that my brother should come to me in the morn¬ ing, u t frater veniret. Here I ask for something, as it were com¬ mand something, viz. that he should come. Who has persuaded you of this, that he is your friend ? hunc tibi esse amicum ? A narra¬ tive sentence. Who persuaded you to this , that you should assent (to assent) to him Put huic assentirere. An imperative sentence. Who has told you, that l am transcribing this book? me hunc li¬ brum describere? A narrative sentence. Who told you, that you should transcribe (totranscribe) this book? ut hunc librum descri¬ beres? An imperative sentence. 332 THE CONJUNCTION THAT. [§ 387. 387. (7) That denoting the cause of an action. When a sentence with that contains not only an action now happening, that has happened, or is yet to happen, but also, at the same time, the reason or cause of something that is as¬ serted, then the Latin has two inodes of expression, either the accusative with the infinitive, or the conjunction quod ( that, because, because that) ; e. g. I am much rejoiced , that you are happy , te hilari anirno esse, valde me juvat; I am much rejoiced, that you have come, quod venisti, valde me juvat. The former, therefore, could have been expressed by quod es, and the latter by te venisse. With the accusa¬ tive and the infinitive, the idea of perceiving, noticing (with joy, grief, wonder and the like), is prominent, with quod, the reason why is made emphatic. This principle prevails with many substantives, adjectives and verbs, particularly with such as denote a state of the mind, praise, blame, accusation , apology, thanks, congratulation, consolation , pardon and boasting. After these, sometimes the thing itself, as something narrated or perceived , is made pro¬ minent by the accusative with the infinitive, sometimes the cause , by quod. With different verbs, however, sometimes one construction is more frequent, sometimes the other. With verbs expressing joy , sorrow, astonishment, displea¬ sure and boasting, the accusative with the infinitive oftener occurs. Such verbs are gaudeo, laetor, doleo, indignor, que¬ ror, miror, glorior, angor. Here belong also jucundum, mo¬ lestum est, animo aequo {iniquo), graviter, moleste, aegre fer¬ re, etc. On the contrary, quod oftener occurs with words express¬ ing praise, blame, accusation, calumniating, reproaching, apo- logy, pardon, repentance, complaint, thanks, congratulation, consolation, anger and pity ; e. g. laudo, vitupero, reprehendo, accuso, gratulor. Here belong also facere bene, prudenter, etc., ft, evenit, cadit, accidit bene, male, commode, percom¬ mode, perincommode; when these are used, the clause contain¬ ing that shows why anything is bene , etc. Comp. § 388. § 388.] QUOD AND THE ACCUS. WITH THE INFIN. 333 Examples. 1 rejoice much that my book is approved by you,Whxxxm meum a te probari. The countrymen are not sorry, that summer has come, aesta¬ tem venisse. IVe do not iconder that you rejoice, te laetari. It teas wonderful to me, that you had changed your resolution, t e mu¬ tasse. You do well, that you assist me, quod me adjuvas. He finds fault with old age, because (that) it enjoys no pleasure, quod c a r e a t. Pardon me, that 1 write so much to you, quod ad te scribo tam multum. / believe that he himself must regret, that he has abandoned his purpose, ipsi poenitendum (esse) puto, quod — decesserit. 388. (8) That in periphrastic explanations. It has been remarked (§ 381) that, when the subject or object of a verbum sentiendi or dicendi is expressed periphras- tically by a clause with that, the accusative with the infini¬ tive is almost always used. The verbs above mentioned, § 387, are here excepted. But sentences without a verbum sentiendi or dicendi also have a periphrastic clause with that for their subject or ob¬ ject. Respecting such sentences, it is to be noticed: (a) When they specify general ideas , and not real actions now taking place, or that have taken place, they are put only in the accusative with the infinitive, according to § 382. (b) When they contain single actual facts and supply the place of the subject-nominative, they are stated in almost all cases by quod; e. g. That I am at Rome, excites suspicion among many, quod Romae sum —. This foolish act , that (quod) he gave himself up to the king, seems sagely devised. Hoc, id, illud, res, hacc res, eares often stand in the principal clause, for the sake of clearer reference to this periphrastic subject; e. g. Between me and you, there is this difference, that —, hoc interest, quod—. This circumstance shows this, that, hoc res declarat, quod—. This one circum¬ stance pains me, that I have not followed him, h ae c u n a res me torquet, quod non eum secutus sirn. (c) When these single facts supply the place of oblique cases, and, as explanations, refer to an expressed or implied eo, ex eo {hoc), ex hac re, hinc, pro eo, in eo, de to, ad id, prae - 334 THE CONJUNCTION THAT. [§ 389. ter id and the like, quod is almost exclusively used. So after praeter quam and nisi, with such sentences as belong here; e. g. Friendship surpasses all blessings in this (hoc), that (quod) it —. The truth of this doctrine is manifest from this (ex eo), that (quod) —. The manor pleases me, except that (nisi q u o d) has involved me in debt. So also only quod follows adde and adjice, add to; mittere, omittere, praeterire, £0 waive , to pass by. (d) Finally, when the sentence with that stands almost wholly by itself and independent of the nearest principal clause, and denotes for the most part a subject alluded to by another, upon which some observation is to be made, the Latins use quocl, which we translate in respect to this that, in respect to; e. g. in respect to your wishing my advice, it is such —, quod meum consilium exquiris, id est tale. In re¬ spect to your exhorting me, I wish that it may be of such a nature —, quod me hortaris, id velim sit ejusmodi. In let¬ ters and conversation, nothing is more frequent. 389. The following table will give a general view of the different sentences, and of the usage with each, whether af¬ firmative or negative. Sentences. 1. Purpose, design, 2. Wish, care, effort, 3. Request, command, 4. Result, effect, 5. Conclusion. 6. Object of a ver¬ bum sentien¬ di or dicendi, and clauses con¬ taining general statements, 7. Cause, reason, 8. Circumstance and explanation. That. u t, u t, u t, u t, u t, Acc. with inf. quod, or the acc. with inf. the same, quod more frequently. That not. n e, u t n e; and that not, neve. n e, u t n e ; and that not, neve. n e ; and that not, n e- v e. u t non; where the principal sentence is negative, also quin. u t non. Acc. and inf. with non; where the principal sentence is negative, also quin. quod non, or acc. and inf. with non. the same. §§ 390-392.] THE CONJUNCTION THAT. 335 Some Additional Remarks . 390. (1) From what has been said thus far, from § 374—389, it is evident, that the right translation of the conjunction that depends par¬ ticularly upon the idea contained in the sentence beginning with that, and therefore upon the relation and connection of that sentence with the principal one. Hence ut does not always follow sic, ita, when the sentence with that does not depend upon them; nor does quod always follow id, hoc, illud; nor does the accusative with the infini¬ tive always follow the verba dicendi. Only the idea which is to be expressed, can determine the construction. Therefore, when Cicero says, This is evident, that roc have been born for action, it is expressed by, hoc apparet, n o s ad agendum esse n a t o s, for the last clause is connected with apparet. , therefore not quod nati sumus, although hoc precedes. But when he says, This is evident ftorn this fact, that we have been born for action, it is expressed by quod nati surnus, be¬ cause the clause with that explains the word this more clearly. You had written me, that you unshed it might prove fortunate, that I had bought this house, ad me scripseras, velle te bene evenire, quod hanc domum emissem ; ut could not stand here instead of quod merely be¬ cause of evenire, for the clause with quod does not depend upon, but is rather the subject of, evenire , inasmuch as the sentence does not denote a consequence, but only the circumstance of buying the house. It appeared very wonderful to me, that you went away, illud mihi permi¬ rum accidit te abisse; where neither illud nor accidit, hui permi¬ rum is the governing word. After the phrases, it remains, r e 1 i n q u i t u r, restat, reliquum est; the last thing is, extremum e s t; the next thing is, proxi¬ mum est; the principal thing is, the main point is, caput e s t, vt is used, because the sentence contains either a wish or a request, and the above phrases signify only, as for the rest, finally, principally; e. g. It still remains that / should console you, reliquum est, u t te con¬ soler ; it remains that, or the last thing is, that I entreat you, extremum est, u t te orem; the principal thing is, that you must think, caput est, ut tibi cogitandum sit. 391. (2) We often omit the conjunction that, and, especially where the verbs of both sentences have the same subject, employ the infini¬ tive. Hence one must not be hasty in translating, but must think of the possible omission of the conjunction that. The following exam¬ ples will show this: / believed. I teas, thou wast, he was sick (that 1, thou, he was sick). He said the soul was immortal. Strive to do everything orderly. God commands us to act uprightly. The laws for¬ bid men to def raud others. Wisely employ time for the purpose of be¬ coming intelligent. I see the wood burn (or bur ning). I hear the thun- dor roll. I perceive death approach (or approaching). 392. In like manner, the Latin sometimes omits ut with verbs which according to § § 376 and 377, would naturally require it after them. Especially is this the case after velim, fac, monere and tire like, which form imperative sentences. But ne can never be omitted here, nor can non be placed with the subjunctive merely. Examples: l wish youwould persuade yourself, velim tibi persuadeas. Take care to have (that you have), fac, habeas. I had told my son to read the book and give 336 THE CONJUNCTION THAT. m 393 — 396 . it to you, dixeram, legeret et daret. Cicero commanded the am¬ bassadors to visit the others, praecepit, ceteros adirent. 393. (3) Sentences with that , after some verbs, can be translated dif¬ ferently, i. e. ut, quod , or the accusative with the infinitive may be used. Here belong: (a) Verbs of joy, grief, complaint, displeasure, wonder, consolation, and others which denote a perception or a verbal expression , but at the same time give a reason. Respecting these, comp. § 387. 394. (b) The verb accedit, it is added, moreover, takes not only quod , which is properly its periphrastic subject (see § 388, b), but also ut ; e. g. It was added (the circumstance) that he was blind , or more¬ over he , etc , accedebat, ut caecus esset. Cic. Cato, 6. And so seve¬ ral times in Cicero. There is however a difference between the two constructions: the additional circumstance introduced by quod is pre¬ supposed as a known fact; introduced by ut, it is represented as new or as yet unknown. 395. (c) The verbs to wish (velle), not to wish (nolle), to prefer (mall e), to desire (cupere), when the sentence with that has a dif¬ ferent subject, e. g. / wish, that you —, are followed either by ut or the accusative with the infinitive ;* e. g. I am unwilling that this error should be forced from me, nolo mihi hunc errorem extorqueri, or ut mihi hie error extorqueatur. Yet after the expressions velim and vellem (l could wish that—) nolim and nollem, malim and mallem, the accusative with the infini¬ tive is but seldom used, but either ut, or, what is still more common, the subjunctive without ut; e. g. / could ivish that you would write to him, velim, ei perscribas. I could zvish you had been present, vellem, adfuisses. 396. Rut when the subject is the same in both clauses, e. g. I wish, that I, either the infinitive alone is used, or (as is often the case in Cicero) an accusative with the infinitive, especially when the subject is to be made prominent. By this construction the idea becomes more distinct and full; e. g. We wish to be beneficent (that we may be beneficent), benefici esse volumus, or nos esse beneficos vol¬ umus. / do not zvish to be preferred, nolo praeferri, or me prae¬ ferri. Many ivish to be considered Greeks rather than Romans, multi Graeci magis, quam Romani haberi volunt, or multi s e Graecos, magis quam Romanos haberi volunt. I would prefer to be an old. man, senex esse mallem, or me senem esse mallem. So studere, which otherwise takes the infinitive, only where the sub¬ ject of both verbs is the same (see § 376), is followed by the accusative with the infinitive, when a wish or inward desire is signified ; e. g. I wish to be acceptable to all, g ratum me omnibus v i d e r i studeo. The accusative with the infinitive is also sometimes used instead of ut, even when the subjects of the two verbs are different; e. g. I earnestly de¬ sired that the disagreement should be healed in the bud, studebam, d i s- sensionem nascentem exstingui. The accusative with the in¬ finitive occurs also with postulare, in the sense of to claim to be some¬ thing, to presume,pretend ; e. g. I presume to know, postulo me scire, whereas postulo ut sciam signifies I demand to know. * There is, however, a difference between the two constructions ; volo, ut mihi respondeas is a much milder expression than volo te mi¬ hi respondere. CLAUSES WITH QUI, ETC. 337 §§397—399.] Persuadere, in the sense of to persuade one to something, al¬ ways takes ut and the subj.; in the sense of to persuade or convince one of something, always the acc. and inf. ; e. g. Themistocles per¬ suaded the people to build a. Jleet, ut aedificaret. Mithridates con¬ vinced Datames, that he hail undertaken an endless wa.r, se susce¬ pisse. So monere and admonere , in the sense of to admonish or ex¬ hort to something, are always followed by ut; in the sense of to remind' of something, always by the acc. and inf. ; e. g. ire admonished him to escape, ut effugiat; / forewarn you that you will find no better op¬ portunity, te esse repertu rum. 397. (a) After the verbs to permit, to allow, to be content with, to suf¬ fer (permittere, sinere, pati), to grant, to concede (conce¬ de r e), and after the phrases, it is true (v e r u m est); probable (v e- r i s i m i 1 e); just (a e q u u m, justum, rectum); useful (utile e s t, e x p e d i t) ; it follows (consequens est, sequitur, e ffi- citur); to prove (probare, efficere); it is jit (c o n v e n i t), either izZ or the accusative with the infinitive follows. They more fre¬ quently, however, take the latter construction ; e. g. It follows from this, that that alone is good, which is seemly, ex quo efficitur, ut, quod honestum sit, i d esse solum bonum, or quod honestum sit, i d esse solum bonum ; many willingly suffer themselves to be conquered, multi, ut vincantur, patiuntur, or multi se vinci patiuntur. 398. (4) Qui can be used instead of ut ego, tu, is in the singular and plural, when ut denotes the purpose or result, and the pronoun of the sentence refers to a preceding substantive. Hence quam qui is used instead of quam ut, when a pronoun follows, which refers to the subject of the principal sentence. And hence quo in the sense of in order that, or that, is almost always used for ut eo. 399. (5) After verbs which signify to hinder, prevent, oppose, deter , stand in the way of and the like, the Latins express the dependent sentence negatively by quo minus. In English we sometimes trans¬ late this dependent sentence by but that , sometimes by without, from. The verbs which belong here, are : impedire , prohibere , tenere, de¬ ducere, obstare, officere, obsistere, resistere, repugnare, adversari, deter¬ rere, morari, moram efferre , recusare, interdicere, vetare , interpellare , non desiderare (not to long for), excusare and others similar, when the idea expressed is, that something is not to be accomplished. Instead of quo minus, ne is often used, and when the governing sentence is nega¬ tive, quin. Examples : Nothing prevents us from being able to do this, quo mi¬ tt u s (q u i n) id facere possimus; Many things prevent other natures from becoming perfect, obsistere — quo minus perficiantur ; Scau¬ rus was prevented by force, from removing his servant from the temple of Diana, quo minus servum suum — abduceret ; an accident pre¬ vented me from doing this, ne (quo minus) hoc facerem ; 7 cannot be restrained ( that I should not. write) from writing to you, quin (quo minus, ne) ad te scribam. Ne and quominus denote a negative pur¬ pose, (that something is not to happen, should not happen), quin a negative result, (that something happens in spite of hindrance, or that thef hindrance is not such, that something does not happen) ; e. g. Non prohibui eum, ne (q u o m i n u s) proficisceretur, 7 did not hinder his going, suffered him to go unhindered; but quin proficisceretur, he went notwithstanding 1 hindered him, 1 could not prevent his going. 29 338 THE CONJUNCTION THAT. [§ 400 . 400. (6) When the principal and the dependent sentences are both negative, the Latins prefer quin in all cases to ut non. They also prefer it to the accusative and the infinitive with non, as with non dicere, negare, haud ignorare, non est suspicio, etc. Further; in the phrase, not but that, non quin stands instead of non quod non — and generally, as an apparent substitute for qui, quae, quod non, yet only for the nominative of that pronoun. It is, however, never used instead of ne and quod non, in imperative sentences (§ 377), in those denoting purpose (§ 374), nor in those denoting cause (§ 387). The question made by quis, ecquis or numquis is also considered as belongingto nega¬ tive principal sentences ; e. g. Who has read this book without being moved ? quin commoveretur ? Was there any one, at that time, who did not know? ecquis illo tempore fuit, quin sciret? So non dubitare and dubium non esse, signifying not to doubt, not to be doubtful, to be certain, to hope, moreover cave dubi¬ tes, num (an) dubitas and the like, signifying to fear, in Cicero, are always followed by the conjunction quin or quin non, and not by the accusative with the infinitive ; but dubitare, dubium esse, sig¬ nifying to doubt, to hesitate, to delay, as also non dubitare, non dubium esse, not to hesitate, generally take the infinitive, seldom quin. On the contrary, dubitare,/» doubt, to be uncertain, and d u- bium esse, to ic doubtful, do not take quin after them, but either an accusative with the infinitive, or what is the most frequent, they are followed by interrogative sentences. Examples. He does not omit to send me a letter each month, non intermittit, quin mihi singulis mensibus epistolam mittat. The power of the Tribunes wa,s of no avail, in preventing the prefer¬ ment of those men, non valuit, quin illi homines praeferrentur. Nothing is wanting to make me most miserable, i. e. / am most mise¬ rable, nihil abest, quin sim miserrimus. It cannot be effected, but that I shall hate, i. e. I cannot be prevented from hating the freedom of the enemy, effici non potest, quin oderim. JYo delay shall be made, but that the city shall be surrendered, i. e. there shall be no delay in surrendering the city, h a u d ulla intercedet mora, quin urbs dedatur. We cannot prevent, but that the others will think differently from us, i. e. we cannot prevent the others from thinking differently from vs, non possumus, quin alii a nobis dissentiant, recusare. I have not given a recommendation to Crassus, not but that I believe this would be valued by you, non quin arbitrarer. There teas no one among all, who did not think, quin existimaret. Nothing is so difficult, but that it can be investigated, qu in investi¬ gari possit. What reason is there, that the Peripatetics are not allotced to say the same ? quid est causae, quin liceat idem Peripateticis dicere ? Who does not know, that there are in fact three kinds of Greeks? quis ignorat, quin tria Graecorum genera sint vere ? / do not doubt, that you waited for me, non dubito, quin me expec- taveris. THE CONJUNCTION THAT. 339 §401.] It is not doubtful, but that I shall remain here , quin hic mansurus sim. We did not doubt (i. e. ice feared ) that ice could not again overtake you, quin te jam consequi non possemus ; without non , the sense would have been, ice hoped to be able to overtake you. The wise man does not hesitate to quit life , ichenthis is best, non du¬ bitat migrare de vita. Aristo is altogether uncertain, whether God is a living being or not, deus animans, necne sit. We doubt whether this is true, a n hoc verum sit; whether this is true or false , verunme a n falsum sit. Finally, 401. (7) Verba sentiendi and dicendi are not always followed by sentences with that, to, etc., but often also by interroga¬ tive sentences. These two kinds of sentences, therefore, should not be confounded with each other ; e. g. / know not how this happened, quomodo hoc factum sit ; you see what you can do, quid valeas ; / know not from whence he came, unde venerit; write me ichy this discourse pleases you , cur oratio tibi placeat. Here the accusative with the infinitive is not used. Still further remarks will be made on the conjunction that hereafter. But some examples for practice will first be given on the rules already stated. Examples on §§ 373—401. (1) We follow this precept, that we may live without anxiety and fear, and free the soul and body from troubles 1 . The writings of this man are so unimportant 2 , that only or¬ dinary learning is manifested 3 . I have commanded 4 this let¬ ter to be returned 5 . The first law of history is, that it should not dare 6 to state 7 anything false. I hope, that I shall be at Athens in the month of September. yEmilius Paulus brought 8 so much money into the treasury 9 , that the spoils of this one commander put 10 an end to taxes. It is pleasing to me, that you long 11 for me ; but doubt not, that I shall be excited 12 the more, to long for you. O how it pleases me, that it will be told everywhere 13 , in what harmony we have lived. I have so lived, that I do not believe, that I was born in vain. The time is such 14 , that every one considers 15 his condition the most unfortunate 16 . I indeed 17 think 18 that it is most un¬ fortunate, that we are at Rome. I am very anxious 19 , that this youth should be so educated 20 , that he may answer 21 your wishes 22 and those of his father. Romulus told Julius Proculus, that he was a god and was called duirinus, and commanded 23 a temple to be dedicated to himself. This youth is not so unacquainted 24 with ancient history 25 as not to 26 know, that the Cimbri and the Teutones were routed 27 by Marius. Nature daily 28 produces 29 sweet 30 flowers, as a 340 THE CONJUNCTION THAT. [§ 401 . striking admonition to man 31 , that that, which blossoms most beautifully 32 , withers 33 soonest 34 . We educate 35 others, in order that 36 they may be better citizens and more useful to their country. 1 molestia. 2 levis. 3 apparere. 4 jubere. 5 referre. 6 audere. 7 narrare. 8 invehere. 9 aerarium. 10 finem afferre alicujus. 11 requirere. ,2 accen- dSre. 13 usquequaque. 14 hujusmodi. 15 putare. 16 miser. 17 equidem. ,8 ducere. 19 curaeesse. 20 erudire. 21 respondere. 82 optatum. 23 edi¬ cere. 24 imperitus. 25 (genitive). 26 quin (as not to). 27 fundere. 28 in diem. 29 gignere. 30 odorus. 31 (genitive). 32 spectate. 33 marcescere. 34 cito. 35 erudire. 36 quo. (2) I believe that it happens 1 to some 2 , to 3 have a dislike 4 for Grecian writings. Cicero thinks 5 , that the Latin lan¬ guage is not only not meagre 6 , but even 7 richer 8 than the Greek. Those who prefer, that something different should be written by me, must 9 be reasonable; for these subjects 10 please me. Do you believe, that these excellent men have done so great deeds without cause 1 Decrepit old men often exclaim 11 , that they were fools, in that they had not lived tru¬ ly 12 . I hope, that I shall soon live in quiet 13 . I know 14 well, that some have stated, that Augustus so much 15 disapproved 16 of the rude manners of Tiberius, that sometimes, when he came, he ceased 17 his joyful 18 conversation 19 . A ugustus praised the pretor, that he had revived 20 the ancient custom of speaking of his ancestors. I believe, that no one could have conduct¬ ed 21 more prudently than you have. As I hear, that your strength 22 has been weakened 23 by continued labors, I beseech you to spare yourself, in order that we may not be grieved 24 by the intelligence that you are sick 25 . I pray the gods to 26 continue 27 you to us, and to grant 28 , that you may now and always be in health 29 . Lysander perceived that he could not accomplish 30 his plan 31 , without the help of the gods. The priests sent messengers to Lacedemon to 32 accuse Lysander of 33 endeavoring 34 to corrupt the priests of the temple. No one can deny, that this pronunciation 35 is correct. Laenius Flaccus was not prevented 36 by the Clodian law from show¬ ing 37 the right of hospitality to Cicero. Brave men prefer to die rather than to be taken captive. I will say nothing more 38 of the pretor of Macedonia, than 39 that he was an excellent citizen and my most intimate 40 friend, but he feared just what others (fear). 1 usu venire. 2 quidam. 3 ut. 4 abhorrere ab aliqua re (see § 177). 5 censere. 6 inops. 7 etiam. 8 locuples 9 debere. 10 res. 11 clamitare. 12 vere. 13 otium. 14 non ignorare. 15 adeo (so much). 16 improbare. THE CONJUNCTION THAT. 341 §401.] 17 abscindere. 18 hilaris. 19 sermo. 20 referre. 21 se gerere. 22 vires. 23 conficere. 24 dolore afficere. 25 languere. 26 ut. 27 servare. 28 conce¬ dere. ^valere. 30 perficere. 31 consilium 32 qui. 33 quod. 34 conari (plu¬ perfect). 35 litterarum appellatio. 30 deduci. 37 praestare. 38 amplius. 39 nisi. 40 amicissimus. (3) Cicero relates, that two Roman knights had been found 1 , who had promised Catiline, that they would slay Cicero by night. Often no hope is held out 9 to a patient, that he will be better; and yet 3 it not seldom happens, that he recovers 4 and has new strength 5 .' Manlius confidently hopes 6 , that by this my letter, he will be agreeable 7 to you ; and that this hope may not deceive him, I earnestly and particularly re¬ quest you so to treat him in all things, that he may perceive, that my recommendation was no 8 common 9 one. Tiberius received 10 the government, complaining 11 that an oppressive 12 servitude was imposed 13 upon him; yet he gave hopes, that he would at some time 14 surrender 15 it again. The same em¬ peror forbade any statues to be erected 16 for him, and he per¬ mitted it only on the condition, that they should not be placed among the statues 17 of the gods. Julius Caesar persuaded a Gaul to 18 go over 19 to the enemy and say to them, that the Romans feared them, and Caesar would be hardly 20 pressed 21 by them, and it would certainly happen, that he would be routed 29 , if they should attack 23 him. Cato believed, that all the cities of Spain would revolt 24 ; he therefore wrote to each one 25 to destroy their fortifications 26 , and he commanded this to be done the same day. You write, that you were not a lit¬ tle 27 troubled 28 by my absence, and that you had only one consolation 29 , viz. that you possessed 30 my books instead of 31 me. I know what cause prevented 32 you from being able to anticipate 33 my arrival in Campania. I wonder that you write, that there were some, who find fault, that I recite my dis¬ courses to others. Who was so inhuman as not to have been affected 34 by the misfortune of that man ? W as there any one 35 who did not weep 36 'I It was written in the Valerian law, that the goods of those who had been proscribed, should be sold 37 . 1 reperiri. 2 ostendi. 3 nec tamen (and yet not). 4 convalescere. 5 ref¬ ici (lias — strength). 6 vehementer confidere. 7 gratiosus. 8 non. 9 vul¬ garis. 10 recipere. 11 querens. 12 onerosus. 13 injungere. 14 quandoque. 15 deponere. 16 ponere. 17 signum. ls ut. 19 transire. 20 graviter. 21 pre¬ mere. 22 fundere. 23 adoriri. 24 rebellare. 25 singuli. 29 munimentum. 27 mediocriter. 28 affic6re. 29 unum solatium. 30 tenere. 31 pro. ^im¬ pedimentum (comp. § 173). 33 praecurrere. 34 commovere. 35 ecquis. 33 lacrimari. 37 venire. 29 * 342 THE CONJUNCTION T H A T. [§ 401 . (4) Augustus wrote to Tiberius, who entreated in behalf of 1 a Grecian client, that he would not grant 2 his request, un¬ less 3 he should be convinced by his own eyes 4 , how just a reason he had for entreating. The same refused 5 the right of citizenship 6 to Livia, who asked it for a tributary 7 Gaul, and offered an exemption 8 from taxation, he protesting that he would more readily grant 9 , that something should be ta¬ ken 10 from the treasury 11 , than that the honor of Roman citi¬ zenship should be made common 12 . 1 perceive, that you be¬ lieve one 13 law must be observed in history and another 13 in a poem. Philosophers believe, that morality 14 is a law 15 , the force of which is this 16 , that it commands 17 to do right and forbids to do wrong 18 . If bodily pain or feeble* health has prevented 19 you from coming to the games, I attribute this to your good fortune. Orgetorix persuaded the Helvetii to depart 20 from their district 21 with all their effects 22 . When we are free 23 from business, we desire 24 to see, to hear, to learn something ; and we are grieved, if we are hindered from do¬ ing** this. When Timoleon had killed his brother, his mother never looked upon him, but that she called him a fratricide. Caesar complained 25 severely 26 of the AGdui, that he was not assisted 27 by them with corn. The Sequani bound 28 the AG- dui by an oath, that they would never refuse 29 to continue under their government. Cleomenes commanded 30 the mast 31 of the ship to be erected 32 , the sails to he spread 33 , and the anchor to be raised 34 ; he also 35 at the same time commanded 36 a signal to be given for 37 the others to follow him. I hope thy parents will come here soon; I hope thy brother also. I would prefer 38 to be a Phidias, rather than even 39 the best carpenter 40 . 1 pro (in — of). 2 dare. 3 aliter quam si. 4 praesens (by — eyes). 5 negare. 6 civitas (right of citizenship) 7 vectigalis. 8 immunitas (ex¬ emption— taxation). 9 pati. 10 detrahere de. 11 fiscus. 12 vulgare. 13 alius. 14 prudentia. 16 lex. 16 is. 17 jubere. 18 delinquere. * infirmitas (feeble health). 19 tenere. 20 exire. 21 fines. 22 copiae. 23 vacuus. 24 avere. ** posse. 25 accusare aliquem. 26 graviter. 27 sublevare. 28 ab- stringere. 29 iecusare. 30 imperare. 31 malus. 32 erigere. 33 pandere. 34 tollere. 3j et. 36 jubere. 37 (acc. with inf.) 38 malle. 39 vel 40 faber tignarius. (5) Divitiacus believed, that the Germans would not re¬ frain 1 from 2 going 3 to Italy, if they should take the whole of Gaul. The tenth legion thanked Caesar, that he had ex¬ pressed 4 the best opinion of them, and they assured him, that they were fully prepared 5 to 6 wage war. The Germans could THE CONJUNCTION THAT. 343 § 401 .] not be restrained 7 from casting 8 their missiles 9 at the Romans. It generally happens that those who report 10 anything favora¬ ble, add 11 something, in order to render what they announce 12 the more joyful. That was the greatest gift which you con¬ ferred) 3 on the state, that you abolished 14 the name of Dic¬ tator. So govern 15 the state, that your fellow citizens may rejoice, that you were born. Our nature has nothing bet¬ ter, than that we wish 16 to aid as many as possible 17 . The pow r er of conscience is so great, that those who have com¬ mitted 18 nothing are without fear 19 , while those who have sin¬ ned 20 , believe that punishment is always floating 21 before their eyes. Who is so unreasonable as to censure this in¬ stitution of Solon ? Curio has done well 22 , that he has not sought 23 for the tribuneship. T hope that men will perceive how very hateful 24 cruelty is 25 to all, and how very lovely honesty and gentleness are. In what danger 26 my welfare is placed 27 , you can know 28 from this, that we have abandoned our houses and even 29 our country. If it be true, that the soul and body perish together 30 , then there is nothing good and nothing evil in death. What could have been more ar- rogant, than that a Greek 31 , who had never seen an enemy or a camp, should give instructions to Hannibal, the greatest general of his time, respecting warfare 32 . We do not won¬ der that you, as a distinguished 33 artist, were pleased 34 with your works. temperare. 2 quin. 3 contendere. 4 facere. 5 paratissimus. 6 ad. 7 cohibere. 8 mittere. 9 telum. 10 afferre. 11 affingere. 12 nuntiare. 13 af- o ferre. ,4 tollere. 15 gubernare. 16 velle. 17 quam plurimus (as— possi¬ ble). 18 committere. 19 non timere. 2u peccare. 21 versari. 22 laute. 23 pe¬ tere. 24 odium (dative). 25 (§173). 26 discrlmen. 27 versari. 28 scire. 29 ipse. 30 alieujus rei idem est interitus (perish together). 31 Grae¬ cus homo. 32 res militaris. 33 egregius. 34 laetari. (6) Do you believe 1 , that Cicero would more willingly 2 have heard your discourse than mine 7 Octavian asked par¬ don 3 , that he used a Greek word. It is the custom of men to be unwilling, that one and the same person 4 should excel in several things. I believe, that we shall be considered 5 as enemies of our country. In all these afflictions, there is this one consolation, that we were born under such a condition, that we ought 6 to refuse nothing which can befal a man. It is certain, that we were born to be just. There is no doubt, that he whom we call liberal and beneficent 7 , regards 8 duty, not gratification 9 . Do you believe that Pompey would have rejoiced 10 in his three consulships and three triumphs, if he 344 THE CONJUNCTION THAT. [§ 402 . had known, that he would be murdered in the desert 11 of the Egyptians ; and that such 12 things would follow 13 his death, as 14 we cannot relate 15 without tears ? But what do we be¬ lieve Caesar would have done, if he could have foreseen 16 , that he would be assassinated in the Curia of Pompey 17 by noble citizens, and 18 that not only no one of his friends, but not even one of his servants, would approach 19 his corpse 20 ? With what anguish of soul 21 do we think he would have pass¬ ed 22 his life? The principal thing 23 in the management 24 of all business and public trust 25 is, that even the least suspi¬ cion of avarice should be avoided 26 . We have heard 27 , that it was counted 28 an honor to Cnaeus Octavius, that he had built a beautiful 29 house on the Palatine 30 hill. We cannot doubt, that those things are most 31 expedient 32 , which are best 33 . 1 censere. 2 libenter. 3 venia. 4 (omitted in Latin). 6 judicare. ® de¬ bere. 7 benignus. 8 sequi. 9 fructus. 10 laetari. 11 solitudo. . 12 ea. 13 con¬ sequi. 14 qui. 15 dicere. 16 divinari. 17 Pompeius (of Pompey). 13 nec modo quisquam. 19 accedere ad aliquem. 20 corpus. 21 cruciatus animi. 22 agere. 23 caput. 24 procuratio. 25 munus. 26 pellere, 27 accipere. 28 du¬ cere (§ 173). 29 praeclarus. 30 Palatium. 31 maxime. 32 conducere. 33 rectus. Further Rem arks on the Co nj unction that . 402. (1) The English infinitive present often supplies the place of the Latin future infinitive, which does not belong to our language. Therefore, when the present infinitive is joined to an English verb, and yet the thought does not relate to the present, but to the future, in Latin the future infinitive must be employed. This is very often the case w T ith the verbs to hope (sperare) and to sicear (j u r a r e), and almost always with the verbs to promise (polliceri, spon¬ dere, recipere in se, promittere) and to threaten (mina- r i), and some others ; e. g. I hope to come home soon , i. e. that I shall come home soon, spero me mox domum venturum. Regulus took an oath to return to Carthage , se Carth. rediturum. I promise to send you money as soon as possible , me missurum. Caesar threat¬ ened to destroy the city , se diruturum. So with others in a sim¬ ilar sense ; e. g. He thought to effect something by going there. I think (expect) to be there the first of January, for which we often say, 1 think of b ring there, 1 think of doing that, where the Latin uses the future infinitive. Sperare (to hope) can also be followed by an infinitive present, when, in the nearest clause, reference is bad only to the present, or when the thing to be hoped for is closely connected with the present, and by an infinitive perfect, when there is reference to past time ; e. g. I hope (that) our friendship needs no witnesses, non egere. / hope (that) / have obtained the praise of honesty, me consec utum esse. THE CONJUNCTION THAT. 345 §§ 403 — 405 .] 403. (‘d) The future infinitive, active and passive, is wanting, in the usual form, in all those verbs which have no supine. This is the case with discere , florere , patere, timere, ingruere, silere, maerere, evanescere, accidere, poenitere, obtinnire, etc. So also with posse. Comp § 383. Instead of this infinitive, the Latins use the periphrastic fore or futurum (e s se), u t, i. e. it will (would) happen, that ; and where something is already accomplished, futurum fuisse, ut, it would have happened, that. But everything which belongs to the sen¬ tence is connected by ut, and the verb is put either in the present or imperfect; in the first, when in the principal clause, there is a pre¬ sent ; in the last, when there is a past tense ; e. g. I hope that you will learn this language in a short time, spero fore, ut discas. I thought that a tempest would fall upon us, putabam fore, ut in¬ grueret. I know that this man will be very much troubled, scio fore, ut angatur. I earnestly hoped, that I should be able to es¬ tablish harmony, fore, u t p o s s e m constituere. I certainly know, that it icould have been for my interest if I had done this, futurum fuisse, u t hoc mihi contingeret. I think it trill be lawful for me, fore, ut mi hi liceat. If other verbs follow, which have an infinitive future, they can have their proper form, without depend¬ ing on fore, ut, when they have their own subjects; e. g. fore, ut Eudemus—c onvalesceret (will regain his health again), et Alex¬ andrum — p e r i t u r u m (will perish). But very frequently, also, the Latins use this periphrasis with fore, ut, where the verbs really have a supine and therefore also the infini¬ tive form in urum esse and um iri ; e. g. The Stoics think, that at some time, the whole world will be burnt, fore aliquando, ut omnis mundus deflagret. 1 know, that you will be praised by all, fore ut ab omnibus collaudere. 404. (3) Two accusatives, denoting persons, are to be avoided with an infinitive active, when they leave it uncertain, which ac¬ cusative is the subject; for, e. g. scio, te me amare, can signify, that you love me, or that I love you. Hence it should be changed into the passive ; thus, 1 knotc that you love me, scio me a t e amari. I know that I love you, scio teame amari. / believe that I shall see Brutus, Brutum visum iri a m e puto, not me Brutum visurum esse. / did not wish you to see me, me a te videri nolui. 405. (4) The impersonals oportere and necesse esse properly signify to be necessary, but they are often also translated by the personal verb must. Hence, in every sentence in which must is used, the verb to be necessary that must be supplied in its place. Both of these verbs are followed either by the accusative with the infinitive, or by the nominative with the subjunctive without ut; e. g. I must come to you (it is necessary that J should come to you), m e ad vos v e n ire opor¬ tet, or (ego) ad vos veniam oportet. You must love me myself, not mine, te oportet me ipsum a m a r e, non mea, or (lu) me ipsum ames oportet. Such a man must be taught, tale m hominem oportet doceri. The most unhappy life must result from this , ex hoc vitam amarissimam necesse est effici, or v i t a ama¬ rissima efficiatur. It was necessary for us to use this means, hac ratione nos uti necesse fuit, or hac ratione uteremur necesse fuit. Licet, in the same manner as oportere and necesse esse, 346 THE CONJUNCTION THAT. [§§ 406 — 410 . is followed by the accusative with the infinitive or by the nomina¬ tive with the subjunctive, ut being omitted ; necesse esse , and licet admit also a dative with the infinitive, as well as an accusative ; e. g. It is not necessary for me to speak of myself, nihil necesse est mi hi de me ipso dicere. I must be on my estates , in praediis meis mihi necesse est esse. I can no longer remain neutra! , m i h i medio or medium esse or me medium jam non esse licet. Where the person is not expressed, medium or medios esse jam non licet, is used. See § 174. 406. (5) Words denoting fear , anxiety, danger and apprehension are followed by ne, ut ne or ut non , in the sense of that, and by ut or nc non, in the sense of that not. But after non vereor, non timeo and other verbs of fearing when negatived, ut is not used, but in its place only ne non. The particles ne non may be separated not only by words, but also by intervening clauses. Examples : I fear, that this war will not terminate favorably, u t (n e non) feliciter cedat. I fear, that Dolabella may become a disgrace to us, n e fieri possit. The apprehension remained, that Hasdrubal would protract the icar, n e ex¬ traheret. There is danger, that ice may be overpowered, n e oppri¬ mamur. I do not fear, that your virtue will not meet the expectation of men, n e non respondeat. The clause with ut expresses what we wish may happen, but fear may not happen: that with ne, what we wish may not happen, but fear may happen. In both cases, it will be seen that ut and ne point to the implied wish, and are employed as if a verb of wishing had preceded, but they are translated respectively by that not and that , to suit the verbs of fearing actually used. In dependent sentences, a future is never used after verbs and nouns of the above signification, but a present, imperfect or perfect. Comp. §(251. h.) In lively and confidential statements, Cicero often uses vide, videte, videndum est, ne, in the sense of, I fear that. But when to fear means to be afraid to do something , it is followed by the infini¬ tive *, e. g. He fears to do or say anything unmanly, veretur quidquam aut facere aut 1 o q u i. 407. (6) The verbs cavere and videre, in the sense of to take care, to enjoin, to see to, are followed by ut in affirmative sentences, and ne in negative ones ; e. g. Epicurus enjoined in his icill, that his birthday should be celebrated, cavit, u t dies ageretur. We must see to it, that we use that generosity which is useful, u t ea liberalitate utamur, quae prosit. We must see to it, that generosity does not prove injurious, videndum est, ne obsit benignitas. 408. The verb cavere, in the sense of to beware of, is followed, espe¬ cially in the imperative, by the subjunctive merely, ne being more seldom used ; e. g. Beware of engaging in anything new, or that you do not engage, cave quidquam novi m o 1 i a r e. Beware of saying or doing anything foolishly, cave, ne quid stulte aut dicas aut facias. Beware of preferring (or how you prefer) Socrates to Cato, cave Catoni anteponas Socratem. 409. (7) With the verb excusare (to excuse), that which one excuses or apologizes for, is expressed by quod, and that by which he excuses or apologizes for anything, by the accusative and the infinitive, in which case dicens can be understood ; e. g. That he had not come yes¬ terday, he excused (by saying) that he icas sick, quod heii non venis¬ set, excusavit, se aegrotasse. . 410. (8) The phrases, to be so far from void instead of, are express- § 411 .] THE CONJUNCTION THAT. *347 ed by tantum abesse. Here there are always two clauses connected with abesse, the second of which wholly reverses the statement of the first; e. or. So far am [from censuring this murder , that I praise it, or, instead of censuring this murder,f praise it. The Latins often place ab eo after abesse, for the purpose of directing attention to the nearest clause containing the principal idea. The Latins usually connect both of such clauses with tantum abesse , by a double ut; thus, tantum abest, ut hanc caedem reprehendam, u t earn laudem. So far ivere the Rhodians from defending our fleet, that they even kept our soldiers from the harbor, tantum abfuit, u t Rho¬ dii nostram classem tuerentur, ut etiam portu prohiberent nostros milites. Instead of assenting to this opinion, I shall even refute it, tan¬ tum aberit, ut huic ^ententiae assentiar, ut eam etiam refellam. The first ut depends upon abesse, the second on tantum. It will be seen from these three examples, that tantum abesse is al¬ ways in. the third person singular, and that its tense depends upon the tense of the clause immediately connected with it, so that when the action is present, tantum abest is used, when it is past, tantum abfuit or aberat or abfuerat, according to the nature of the case, when it is future, tantum aberit. Often, however, the Latins put the second clause without ut, mak¬ ing it a principal clause, by which construction that clause becomes more prominent. But this happens, only when the second clause contains a complete idea of itself; e. g. Instead of seeking for pleasure, they endure even cares, anxieties, and watchings, tantum abest ut hi voluptates consectentur, etiam curas, sollicitudines, vi¬ gilias perferunt. Sometimes they express the first clause by a substantive, and connect it by the preposition a with abesse, which is then a personal verb ; e. g. Your similarity of age is so far from cal¬ umny and envy, that it seems rather to unite you , aequalitas vestra tan¬ tum abest ab obtrectatione invidiaque, ut ea vos concilia¬ re videatur. Etiam and contra, (rather or even) serve to strengthen the second clause. Later writers improperly use potius also. 411. (9) Verba sentiendi and dicendi in the passive. Verba sentiendi and dicendi, e. g. putare , existimare , dicere, tradere, perhibere, ferre (to relate, to declare), nuntiare (to announce), negare (to deny), audire, etc., take their object in the accusative, even when it refers to persons; for one may say, putat me, he thinks that I; di¬ c'd m e, he says that 1. Hence, in the passive, these are personal verbs, which have all the different persons, so that one may say, di¬ cor, diceris, dicitur, dicimur, dicimini, dicuntur. And so of the others. But in English, we very frequently translate these in the third person singular, as impersonal, e. g. It is said , it is related, it is thought, fol¬ lowed by a clause with that; e. g. It is said, that I, or they say, that I; it is said, that we, etc. But, as the Latin verbs in the passive, have all the persons, both singular and plural, the subject standing in the clause with that, becomes in Latin, the subject of this passive, and hence nothing but an infinitive can follow it. Moreover, as the pre¬ dicate of this infinitive refers to the subject of the passive, it must be in the nominative. These verbs, therefore, may be said to take a no¬ minative with the infinitive, not an accusative with the infinitive. 348 THE CONJUNCTION THAT. [§§ 412 , 413 . Examples : lam thought to have followed him, or it is thought that I have followed him, ego hunc secutus esse putor; you are thought, or it is thought, that you, t u — putaris; it is thought that Epicurus, Epicurus — putatur; it is thought that we havefol- lowed him, nos hunc secuti esse putamur; it was announced that the bridge was built, pons effectus (esse) nuntiabatur. 412. The same is true of all other passive verbs, which have all the persons ; e. g. I am found, they find, that I; it is found, that /, r e pe¬ ri o r, i n v e n i o r ; / am ordered, forbidden, it is ordered, forbidden to me, jubeor, vetor. These and all similar verbs are followed by the infinitive, the predicate of which is in the nominative ; e. g. It will be found that the gods have gone from earth to Heaven, D i i pro¬ fecti esse reperientur. And thus this attraction of the sub¬ ject of the second or dependent verb in English^ so as to become the subject (nominative) of the principal verb, takes place with many oth¬ ers, especially where such a construction alone is possible and natu¬ ral ; e. g. Where it is conceded, that these things were done, there it will not be denied, that violence was used, haec (nominative) ubi conce¬ duntur esse facta, ibi vis facta (esse) non negabitur. But it is to be noticed, that narrare in the passive is never so found in a good prose writer, and that only the poets so use narratur. Therefore that use of it is not admissible. In like manner traditur, creditur, nuntia¬ tur, proditur, especially in the perfect form and in the periphrastic conjugation, e. g. nuntiatum est, credendam est, etc., very frequently occur with the accusative and the infinitive. 413. The above principle applies especially to the passive videri, to seem. Although we can say, I seem, thou seemest, he stems, etc., yet we often say instead of these, it seems, or it appears to me, that I, {you, he), etc. But in Latin, this verb is only a personal verb, videor, videris , videtur, etc., and therefore must always stand in a definite person, and the subject must be attracted to it from the dependent English clause ; thus : It seems, that /, videor, etc., which also can be followed only by an infinitive, the predicate of the infinitive be¬ ing in the nominative ; e. g. I seem to be free, or it seems that I am free, ego liber esse videor; it s ems that we are free, nos libe¬ ri esse videmur; it seems to me that men were born for justice, homines n a t i esse mihi videntur; it has seemed to me that you did this unwillingly, hoc invitus fecisse mihi v i s u s e s. It is only when mihi videtur signifies it is my opinion , the same as pla¬ cet mihi, that it takes an accusative with the infinitive, which is the subject of videtur. In this case, which rarely occurs, it forms a sen¬ tence by itself. So also in single intermediate sentences, e. g. as it seems, although ut is used,, the verb must be put in the same person as the subject of the sentence connected with it; e. g. Jls it seems, you do not judge rightly, ut v i d e r i s, non recte judicas. Hence the abridged form, non recte judicare videris. And so in all persons and similar examples; e. g. Iam not in so great fear, as it perhaps seems to you., quam tibi fortasse videor, not videtur; these toords do not signi¬ fy the same, as it seems, ut videntur. §§ 414 — 410 .] THE CONJUNCTION THAT. 349 414. (10) The English of, or in respect to, with Verba sentiendi and dice nd i. With verba sentiendi and dicendi, we sometimes mention the sub¬ ject or object of the following sentence with that, twice ; first, the- preposition of, then by a new pronoun referring to that substantive or pronoun which stands with of; e. g. Of (in respect to) Socrates, we know that, he teas mild. You say of me, that I err. You say of me, that this does not please me. So also in passive phrases : It is thought of me, that I did this. — Such a superfluous use of words the Latins do not approve, but unite both sentences. Hence those examples are ex¬ pressed : Scimus Socratem fuisse clementem. Me errare dicis. Mihi hoc non placere dicis. Hoc fecisse putor. The English also in most cases avoids this repetition. Yet when the person with of is to be made particularly emphatic, the Latins also use de ; then the sentence is expressed thus : De Socrate, clementem eum fu¬ isse scimus. This however occurs but seldom. 415. But witli the pronoun who, which, it sometimes happens, that in English we cannot avoid this construction, because we cannot say, that who, which. — Here also the pronoun, who, which (qui, quae, quod) in Latin, must be attracted to the nearest clause with that ; e. g We trust him (those), of whom ice think, that he {they) is {are) a lover of truth, or who, we think, is {are) etc., qaem(quos) veritatis amantem (amantes) esse arbitramur. I found him of whom 1 did not know , that' he was there. Of what man did you say, that the province had fallen to him by lot? cui viro provinciam obtigisse dixisti P We esteem, those of whom we believe, that these virtues exist in them, in quibus eas virtutes esse remur. So in dependent interrogative sentences, which stand in connection with a relative ; Caesar , of whom it is at least un¬ certain, whether he will imitate Phalaris or Pisistratus, qui quidem incertum est Phalarimne an Pisistratum sit imitaturus ; my property (res familiaris ), of which you well know, how it has been diminished , quae quemadmodum fracta sit, non ignoras. (11) Abridgement and connection of two sentences in one. 416. Intermediate clauses, e. g. as I think, I think, as you say, as it seems ; also phrases, e. g. according to (in) my opinion, according to the account (wish) of all, can be abridged and become the governing verbs of the sentences connected with them, while these verbs form a sentence with that. Then instead of say ing, as I believe, etc , we say, / believe, thou sayest, it seems, (comp. § 415), I think, all relate (wish), i ' is known, I hope. So all similar examples may be treated ; e. g. As I hope, you will soon go home, or, you will, as I hope, soon go home, i. e. / hope, that you — spero te mox domum iturum; the time has come, as you sec, tempus venisse vides; this is, as the Sto¬ ics icish (in the opinion of the Stoics), to live virtuous, hoc esse Sto¬ ici volunt honeste vivere ; the letter of Brutus had not yet come , which, as I certainly know, will be pill of fear, q u a s certe scio plenas timoris fore ; according to the account of the messenger, you are some¬ times wont to be altogether too much troubled, tabellarius te narra- 30 350 CONSTRUCTION OF VERUS. [§§ 417 , 418 . v i t interdum sollicitum solere esse vehementius ; I icas, I remember, many years before , with your uncle, memini me adesse ante plures annos avunculo tuo ; / darenot, he added, act against this law, adde¬ bat se contra hanc legem facere non audere ; was he, in your opin¬ ion, troubled in his mind, f num ilium censes anxio animo fuisse ? What hope have you, in you.) opinion? quam spem tibi esse putas? The Gauls, as is known, first passed over the slips, Gallos primos Al¬ pes transisse constat; Piato , as is believed, traversed Egypt, f 1 a- to iEgyptum peragrasse putatur, or Platonem iEgyptum pe¬ ragrasse putant. 417. With the verbs audire and videre (but not in the metaphorical sense to perceive), the present participle can be used instead of the in¬ finitive, when it contains, in all respects, the same idea of duration ; e. g. / saw Cato sitting in the library of Lucullus, vidi Catonem se¬ dentem (for sede re) ; I heard, the aged Cato speak of old age, in this assembly, Catonem loquentem (for 1 o q u i) audivi. So the verbs fingere, fa cere, in the sense of represent or introduce, are always construed with the participle ; e. g. Xenophon represents ( introduces) Socrates as disputing, Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem. But if the dependent verb is passive, then, as the passive has no pres¬ ent participle, the infinitive must always be used ; e. g. Plato repre¬ sents the world, as constructed by God, mundum construi facit. 418. (12) The position of the accusative with the in¬ finitive. As dependent sentences and cases are very often placed before the words on which they depend, e. g. ubi sis, nescio, instead of nes¬ cio, ubi sis, so the Latins very often place the accusative with the in¬ finitive before the word on which it depends ; e. g. Ego in his prae¬ ceptis vim et utilitatem quamdam esse arbitror. Ille mihi fugisse a Mutina videtur. Hirtium'perisse nesciebam. Ipsam vero urbem vastatam esse, quis ignorat? — But they often insert the governing verb in the sentence, and then usually place it directly af¬ ter the accusative or before it; e. g. Ego me cupio non mendacem putari. Te intelligis errasse. Hi se fatentur ne manum quidem versuros. Cui spero me satisfecisse. Examples for practice on §§ 402—418. (1)1 hope to finish 1 this book in a short time. Since vir¬ tue causes 2 friendship, therefore Jove must 3 arise 4 from this, when it exists 5 . Although 6 you must 7 have had precepts of life in abundance 8 , yet I believe, that that which I teach 9 you, will not be superfluous 10 . Two Roman knights promised Catiline, that they would kill Cicero in the night. It is said, that the Thessalian Lapithae were the first, who contended on horseback 11 ; and in like manner it is said, that the Phry¬ gians 12 first harnessed 13 a two-horse chariot 14 . Manlius hopes by this my letter to gain your favor 15 . 1 then spoke much in § 418 .] THE CONJUNCTION THAT. 351 the Seriate, and, as it seemed, I especially 16 moved the Senate by mentioning 17 your good will 18 . I give you the greatest thanks, that you have shown 19 me so great respect 20 , but it seems to me, that T cannot reward 21 you for it. This error, as it were the germ of all evil, philosophy promises utterly* to eradicate 22 . Not only 23 to others, at least 24 , as it seems, but also 23 to myself, am I displeasing. 'conficere. 2 contrahere. 3 necesse esse. 4 exoriri. 5 contingere. ®quanquam. 7 oportere. 8 abundare (to have in abundance). 9 tradere. 10 supervacaneus. 11 ex equis. 12 Phryx. 1:5 jungere. 14 bigae. 15 esse gratiosus 16 maxiine. 17 commemoratio. 18 voluntas (good will). 19 praestare, "officium. 21 referre gratias. * stirpitus, "extrahere, "cum (not only). 24 quidem. 25 turn (but also). (*2) So far is death from being considered an evil, we think rather that it is a blessing to every man, and that men will live far happier, than at present. If it seems to you that I am foolish, because 1 I hope, know that you yourself have excited 2 many hopes in me 3 , and have encouraged me not to doubt, that future times would be better. I shall be zealously 4 anxious for everything, of which I shall perceive, that it is useful 5 to you. No one can doubt that the state of Athens has brought many arts to perfection 6 ; and, as it is said of Polycletus, that he had perfected 7 sculpture 8 , so it is certain, that at the same time Sophocles had perfected 9 poetry. It seems that the graces themselves formed 10 the style 11 of Xeno¬ phon. It can be doubtful to no one, that the reign of Pisis¬ tratus was very beneficial 12 to Athens ; for he was so far from being tyrannical 13 towards his fellow-citizens, that these after¬ wards even said, that, under him 14 , there was a kind 15 of golden age. It is not unjustly 16 said of Julius Caesar, that he was an accomplice 17 of Catiline’s conspiracy. 'qui. 2 concitare. 3 (dative). 4 studiose. 5 pertinere ad. 6 perfecte ab¬ solvere (to bring to perfection), ’consummare. 8 toreutTce. 9 perficere, "fingere. 11 oratio, "salubris. 13 gravis. 14 eo regnante (under him), "quidam (which agrees with the noun). ' G falso, "socius. (3) It is said of the foliage 1 of the laurel, that it is not struck by lightning. Aristotle says of some small animals 2 , that they live only one day; and such 3 there actually 4 are, as* natural history proves. Historians 5 say with justice of NTima Pom¬ pilius and Servius Tullius, that Rome owes 6 much to their wise 7 regulations. A certain Cynaegirus held 8 , as 9 history says, a loaded 10 ship of the Persians, first with his hands, then with his teeth. If it is true, that the souls of all** the 352 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 418 . truly noble 11 escape 12 most easily at death, from the fetters of the body, of whom do we believe, that his flight 13 to the gods was more easy, than that of Scipio ? I came to Capua yes¬ terday in a very severe 14 storm, as I had been commanded, for the command 15 had been given us by the consuls to come hither. The emperor Claudius commanded 15 a guest 16 , of whom it was believed, that the day before 17 he had stolen 18 a golden goblet 19 , to place before 20 him an earthen 21 cup 22 , the next day. Some, of whom I hear that they have been con¬ sidered wise in Greece, as 23 I believe, have asserted many 24 wonderful things. When Deucalion 25 and Pyrrha had been answered by Apollo, that they should throw the bones of their great mother behind 26 their backs, they were uncertain 27 what Apollo advised 28 . Finally, Deucalion said, We are certainly 29 commanded by Apollo to throw stones behind our backs. The long 30 friendship, which, as you well know 31 , I and my brother had with Caesar, was most serviceable 32 . As it is said of a patient, that he has hope as long as 33 he has breath 34 , so I have not ceased 35 to hope. You look upon 36 me, and, as it seems, in anger 37 . 1 frons. 2 bestiola (small animal). 3 is. 4 vere. * (according to §416). 6 scriptor. 6 debere. 7 bene institutum (wise regulation). 8 retinere. 9 (according to § 416). 10 onustus. ** quisque (compare § 481). 11 op¬ timus (truly noble). 12 evolare. 13 cursus. 14 magnus. 15 jubere. 16 con¬ viva. 17 pridie. is surripere. 19 scyphus. 20 opponere. 21 fictilis. 22 calix. 23 (according to § 416). 24 quaedam. 25 (dative). 26 post. 27 pendere animis. 28 suadere. 29 certe. 30 vetus. 31 non ignorare (according to §416). 32 valere. 33 dum (as — as). 34 anima. 36 desistere. 36 adspi- cere. 37 iratus (in anger). (4) If the interest 1 of the hearer is wearied 2 , the orator must 3 promise to speak more briefly than he had intended 4 . I fear that you do not know 5 the true way to glory, and that you consider 6 it glorious, that you alone are more powerful 7 than all. It is believed, that refinement 8 , learning, religion, fruits, justice and laws originated in Attica, and were dis¬ seminated 9 into all lands. The city of Athens is so old, that it is said, that she produced her citizens from herself. Who wonders that Catiline died fighting against his country, of whom all believe, that he was born for robber) ? We judge rightly, as 10 it seems to us. Everything which you have writ¬ ten to me of hope, is weak 11 , as it seems to me. I pass by this, that it may not seem that we learned that elsewhere 12 , of which it is believed, that we invented 13 it ourselves. Avitus commu¬ nicated 14 what he had heard to the senator Baebius, of whom § 418.J THE CONJUNCTION THAT. 353 all know, how 15 faithful 16 and wise 17 he was. Does it seem, that we are so narrow minded 18 as to think, that everything will perish together with us? The night the temple of the Ephesian Diana was burnt 19 , in this same, as is known 20 , Al¬ exander was born. Those men seemed to use so gentle 21 a poison, that it seemed, that we could die without pain. I would rather pass over the circumstance in silence, but I fear it would not be lawful. So far are these precepts from illus¬ trating human nature, that they rather obscure the whole doctrine 22 by fictions and useless 23 opinions. We hope, that you will excel 24 in this art. I well knew 25 , that this my work would be exposed 26 to much reproach 27 . I believe, that we shall be considered* friends of our country. It seems that we should have been quiet 28 , if we had not been provoked 29 . It seems to me, that you do what seditious citizens are wont to do, when they quote 30 some renowned ancestors, who, they say, were friends of the people 31 . Will it be denied, that Appius Caecus terminated 32 the shameful 33 peace, by the force of his eloquence. It is believed, that we followed the opinion of Epicurus without cause. It must be believed 34 , that we have been united 35 with the gods by sound 36 reason. 1 studium. 2 defatigatus. 3 commodum esse (with acc. and inf.). 4 pa- * ratus. 5 ignorare. 6 ducere. 7 posse. 8 humanitas. 9 distribuere. 10 ut. 11 infirmus. 12 aliunde. 13 parere. 14 communicare cum aliquo. 15 quae. 16 fides (ablative). 17 prudentia. 1S parvus animus. 19 deflagrare, ^con¬ stare (according to § 4J6). 21 lenis. 22 doctrina. 23 inanis. 24 excellere (according to § 493). 25 non esse nescium. 26 incurrere in (according to § 403). 27 reprehensio. * (according to § 403). 28 quiescere. 29 laces¬ sere. 39 proferre. 31 popularis (friend of people). 32 dirimere. ^defor¬ mis. 34 putare (verbal adjective). 35 conciliare. 36 rectus. (5) We hope to be at home in the month of January. You must 1 love me, not mine, if we would be true friends. Whoever distrusts 2 the perpetuity of his possessions, must al¬ ways fear, that he will sometime 3 lose them. King Philip was in fear, that he should lose his life. So far were our soldiers from being put in confusion 4 by this slaughter 5 , that, on the contrary, they were still more incited and inflamed 6 with anger. I feared I should enlarge your work, while I wished to lessen 7 it. It will be found, that those who are considered as gods, have ascended 8 to Heaven from among men. I would hear why you are dissatisfied 9 with him, who alone, I believe, has seen the truth. I did not fear, that I could not support 10 your innumerable kindnesses towards 11 me. 30* 354 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§419, 420. Oportere, diffidere. 3 aliquando. 5 perturbare. 5 clades. 6 accen- dSre. 7 minuere. 8 proficisci. 9 non probare. 10 sustinere. 11 in. ORATIO OBLIQUA. 419. The words, precepts and opinions of another are either stated in such a manner as to undergo no change, or so, as to depend upon the verbum dicendi, which introduces a speak¬ er making his own statement,— in which case, the discourse assumes the form of narrative. Discourse which undergoes no change , and is independent of the verbum dicendi , is called the oratio recta ; e. g. Cicero said : Then all justice was violated by the wiclcedness of aban¬ doned citizens; my household gods were filed with anxiety. Consider in your own minds the results which have followed. Those who were the instigators oj these offences have suffered the punishment they deserve. In this example, we hear the speaker uttering his own words, without any change. Discourse that is changed, and is made to depend upon the verbum dicendi, is called the oratio obliqua; e. g. Ci¬ cero said, that then all justice was violated by the wickedness of abandoned citizens, that his household gods w ere filed with anxiety. They should consider in their own minds the residts which followed, etc. In this last example, we hear the speak¬ er, not in his own words, but another narrates them as if in his name. 420. It will be seen, therefore, that the oratio obliqua , whether it be longer or shorter, is nothing else than a dis¬ course depending upon a verbum dicendi, and that a single clause even, which we make dependent upon the verb by the conjunction that, is oratio obliqua; e. g. Cicero said, that Catiline was an enemy of his country, —instead of, Cicero said : “ Catiline is an enemy of his country .” In a continued discourse, we often begin the first principal sentence with that, and state all the others merely by the sub¬ junctive or potential mode, as the above quotation from Ci- ORATIO OBLIQUA. 355 §§ 421—423.] cero shows ; e. g. They should consider in their own minds , etc. Often, indeed, the first principal sentence is stated with¬ out that. The following sentence may make the distinction between direct and indirect discourse still more manifest: Thus born, and thus elected king, he has favored the meanest class of mankind, whence he himself is sprung; and the burdens, which were formerly common, he has laid on the principal citizens. These words of Tarquin, speaking himself, would be thus rendered: Ita natus, ita creatus rex, fautor infimi ge¬ neris hominum, ex quo ipse est, omnia onera, quae communia quon¬ dam fuerunt, in primores civitatis inclinavit. But when Livy, instead of introducing Tarquin as speaking in his own words, merely relates the sentiment which he expressed, he writes thus: Ita n at u m, ita creatum regem, fautorem infimi generis hominum, ex quo ipse s i t, onera, quae communia quondam fuerint, inclinasse in primores civitatis. — Crombie's Gymnasium. It is necessary here, to distinguish the principal from the subordinate sentences. 1. Principal Sentences. 421. Principal sentences are those which contain the prin¬ cipal thought. They are either not preceded by a conjunc¬ tion, or not by such as form an introductory sentence. Thus the conjunctions for, hence , therefore, thus and the like, form only principal sentences. On the contrary, the conjunction hut forms either principal sentences, when it continues prin¬ cipal sentences, e. g. He has indeed heard this, but he does not believe the report, or intermediate sentences, when it con¬ tinues introductory ones, e. g. Since the body is mortal, but the mind is immortal. So the particle although (quanquam, etsi) does not always form introductory, but also principal sentences. 422. Principal sentences contain either an event, which happens, has happened, or will happen; or a command, which, in oratio recta, the Latin puts either in the imperative or the subjunctive; e. g. Cicero said, that then all justice was violated. They must consider . Here the first clause contains an event in the form of a narrative, the second a command. 423. Since, therefore, after verba dicendi , according to § 377, imperative sentences are expressed by ut , and where 356 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 424. there is a prohibition, by ne , and on the other hand, narrated events , according to §§380 and 386, by the accusative with the infinitive, so in oratio obliqua , special reference must be had to this principle. Hence the words of Cicero just men¬ tioned, are expressed: Cicero dixit, omnia turn jura polluta esse. Circumspicerent animo. Therefore it depends wholly upon the thought of the sentence, wheth¬ er ut (ne) or the accusative with the infinitive is to be used. 424. Imperative sentences are indeed expressed by ut; but this conjunction is used at the most, only when such a sentence is the first in a discourse. But when this sentence follows another of a narrative kind, containing the accusative and infinitive, ut is omitted, and its imperative force is indi¬ cated only by the subjunctive; but the prohibiting ne cannot be omitted; e. g. The messengers announced to the Senate, that the fEqui had pitched their camp in their territory , and had desolated their borders; that the Romans should come and bring aid to them , Legati Senatui nuntiant, in agro suo iEquos castra posuisse, et fines suos depop¬ ulari (narrative), Romani venirent sibiqueaux- ilium ferrent (imperative). Parallel Examples. ORATIO OBLIQUA. The patricians exclaimed, that they (the citizens) should go, and elect consuls from the plebeians , should transfer the auspices (im¬ perative) ; that the patricians might by a decree of the people be dispos¬ sessed of their honors , but had this inauspicious law prevailed also against the immortal gods? that these had vindicated their own au¬ thority (narrative). Patres fre¬ munt, irent, crearent consu¬ les, transferrent auspicia (im- per.) ;potuisse patre s—pelli, num—legem val uisse? Vin¬ dicasse ipsos sua numina.— ORATIO RECTA. The patricians exclaimed : “ Go, elect consuls from the ple¬ beians, transfer the auspices ; the patricians may have been dispos¬ sessed of their honors, but has this inauspicious law prevailed also against the immortal gods ? These have vindicated their own author¬ ity.” Patres fremunt: “Ite, create consules, transferte auspicia ; potuerunt patres— pelli, num lex valuit? Vin¬ dicarunt ipsi sua numina. § 425.] ORATIO OBLIQUA. 357 ORATIO OBLIQUA. ORATIO RECTA. Hirtii necessarii fidem implora- Hirtii necessarii fidem necessa- runt Pompeii, praestaret, rii implorarunt Pompeii: prae- quod recepisset.—Dux dixit, om- sta, quod recepisti.—Dux dix- nia esse perdita; milites suae it: omnia sunt perdita; con- saluti consulerent. sulite, milites, vestrae saluti. The verbum dicendi , which introduces the discourse, is sometimes of such a nature, that it seems to admit only one of the two kinds of sentences, i. e. either the narrative or imperative ; e. g. nuntiare, to announce , admits only narrative sentences, petere, orare, to ask, only imperative ones. But very fiequently the orator changes the train of his thought, and such a definite and more restricted verb is selected, only with reference to the first sentence. Therefore where the construction is changed, such a word as dicens or orans is understood ; e. g. Caesar entreated his soldiers , that they icould fight bravely ; (saying) that victory could not be gained without the greatest exertion , Caesar oravit milites acriter pugnarent; (dicens) sine summa contentione victoriam reportari non posse. So in the example above, the word nuntiant is appropriate only to the ac¬ cusative and the infinitive, and not to the subjunctives venirent and ferrent. 2. Subordinate Sentences. 425. Subordinate sentences are formed either by such con¬ junctions as designate introductory ones, e. g. since, because, if, when, after, etc., or by the pronoun who, which. Those formed by conjunctions are connected with a principal clause, and either precede it, as introductory sentences, or follow it as adjunct, or are inserted in it, as intermediate clauses. In these subordinate sentences, the subjunctive is used ex¬ clusively, and therefore the conjunctions have here no influ¬ ence upon the modes, because the language is wholly narrative. Examples: My father said that he rejoiced that I had re¬ turned from my journey, Pater dixit, se gaudere, quod ex itinere redissem. — Caesar said, that he would fortify the camp, after the enemy had been routed, Caesar d i x i t, se, postquam hostes fusi essent, castra muniturum esse. So: Ennius non censebat lugendam esse mortem, quam immortalitas consequeretur. The tenses, which are used in subordinate sentences, and even in principal ones, which contain a command, depend 358 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 426, 427. upon the tense of the verbum dicendi, which governs the whole discourse. The laws of the dependence of tenses must therefore determine whether a present or an imperfect, a perfect or a pluperfect should he used. 426. When the verbum dicendi is in the present or future, the prevailing tenses in what follows, are the present, perfect and future, according as the one or the other is necessary. The perfect here also takes the place of the future-perfect, because in oratio obliqua with the future-perfect, there is re¬ ference only to what is past. But if the present of the ver¬ bum dicendi is a historical present, e. g. nuntiant for nuntia¬ runt, then in what follows, an imperfect also can be used in¬ stead of the present, and a pluperfect instead of the perfect. Hence both are often interchanged. Some examples : Epi¬ curus said, that, among all things which wisdom had provided for a happy life, nothing was more important than friendship, dicit, omnium rerum, quas ad beate vivendum sapientia comparaverit, nihil esse majus amicitia. Epicurus teaches, that every animal, as soon as it is born, seeks for pleasure, and avoids pain as much as it can, E. docet, omne animal, simul atque natum sit, voluptatem appetere, et dolorem, quantum possit, a se repellere. Liscus affirms, that he does not doubt, that, if the Romans should conquer (future-perfect) the Helvetii, they ivould deprive the yEdui of liberty, L. p r op on i t, se non dubitare, quin, si Helvetios superaverint Romani, JEduis libertatem sint ereptu¬ ri. The Gauls send messengers to Crassus (to say), that he should send back their hostages, if he wished to receive his friends again, Galli mittunt, si velit suos recipere, obsides sibi remittat. Fabius wrote to Marcellus, either to come himself, or, if Nola detained him, to send Gracchus to him, Fabius Marcello scribit, vel ipse veniret (veil i- a t), vel, si eum Nola teneret (teneat), Gracchum ad se mitteret (mittat). 427. After a historical present or historical infinitive, ORATIO OBLIQUA. 359 §428.] when they describe events in the narrative form, the Latins, for the most part, used the imperfect and pluperfect. On the contrary, when precepts, opinions and general principles are denoted, the present is followed by the present and perfect. 428. But when the verbum dicendi is in the imperfect, per¬ fect or pluperfect, then the prevailing tenses, in what follows, agreeably to the dependence of tenses, are the imperfect, the pluperfect, and to denote what is future, the imperfect of the periphrastic conjugation. Then the pluperfect takes the place of the future-perfect, as does the perfect, according to §426, where the verbum dicendi is a present. But to pre¬ vent confounding the imperfect and pluperfect, it must be re¬ membered, when the one and when the other is to be used, since, in English, we sometimes use the latter, where the Latins cannot. The conjunctions quum (cum) and dum, both in the sense of while, cannot have a pluperfect, but only an imperfect. Some examples : Scipio said, that great dis¬ sensions usually arose, when one demanded something of his friends, which was not just, magna dissidia nasci plerumque, quum aliquid ab amicis, quod rectum non esset, postu¬ laretur. The senators proclaimed, that no one should make Quinctius a consul; if any one should have made him such (fut. perf.), they icould not regard his vote, ne quis Quinctium consulem faceret; si quis fecisset, se id suffragium non observaturos. Aristotle relates, that while Eudcmus teas on his way to Macedonia, he came to Pherae, quum in Mace¬ doniam iter face ret, Pheras venisse. Caligula boasted to Caesonia after she awoke, that he had done great things, while she had been (or was) asleep, se magnas res gessisse, dum meridiaret (not meri d i a s s e t). Finally, the Latins often put a present instead of the imper¬ fect, and a perfect instead of the pluperfect, for the purpose of expressing and exhibiting with more vivacity, that some¬ thing must happen, or must have happened; and especially is this done, when not an actual event, but a general remark applicable at all times, is introduced in the discourse. 360 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 429,430. Some further Remarks. 429. (1) Questions belong either to the principal or the subordi¬ nate sentences. To the principal sentences belong those questions which may be called oratorical ,— which the spirited orator introduces, without wish¬ ing an answer, because he himself imagines one in his own mind. Therefore, they are only interrogative exclamations , or expressions of wonder , and could be expressed with less vivacity without an inter¬ rogative, either affirmative or negative ; e. g. Who doubts this? c u i dubium esse? What use is it to shut up the harbor ? quid atti¬ nere claudi portum ? For what slave were ever chains the punishment of falsehood? c u i servo unquam mendacii poenam vincula fu isse? Would they not hope to be able to ascend the Capitolium ? nonne se speraturos Capitolium ascendere posse? When such principal sentences are in the form of a narrative, they stand in the accusative with the infinitive. Sometimes interrogative pronouns precede, some¬ times interrogative particles. Some historians, however, as Julius Caesar, seem to have preferred the subjunctive to the infinitive. But to subordinate sentences belong the actual questions , to which the speaker expects an answer. Hence they are also joined to verba dicendi , and depend upon them ; therefore, their verb stands in the subjunctive, as something yet uncertain to the speaker ; e. g. The sen¬ ators ordered that it be proposed to the people : Do you tcish and com¬ mand (whether they wished and commanded), that war should be commenced? vellentne, juberentne. The consul asked the Fetiales : Shall war be declared on king Jlntiochvs himself (whether war should be declared on king Antiochus himself)? or—Consul ad Fetiales retulit, ipsi ne regi Antiocho bellum indiceretur—. If questions in oratio recta are already dependent questions in the subjunctive, they remain so in oratio obliqua. 430.- (2) The pronoun qui properly forms intermediate dr parenthetic sentences , by which a preceding thought is to be completed and more definitely explained, and therefore these are not independent sen¬ tences ; but when qui stands for et hie , nam hie , and is only a for¬ mally connecting word, and the clause contains the ground and rea¬ son of the preceding statement, then it can form principal sentences ; —especially is this the case when qui , quae , quod , does net refer to a single word of the preceding sentence; e. g. There is no greater evil than the desire of wealth , and the struggle for glory and honor , from which (for from this) the most bitter enmities have often arisen , ex quo inimicitias maximas saepe extitisse. Your city , like a bulwark , opposes the enemy , near which the royal fleet has twice suffered shipwreck , apud quam classes— fecisse. Bcttius named Lucullus , by whom Tannins had usually been sent to him , a quo solitum esse ad se mitti Fanni u m, and then Domitius , ichose house had been fixed upon (as the place) from whence to break forth , cujus domu m constitutam esse, unde eruptio fieret. Yet similar pas¬ sages in Cicero and others are found, in which we expect the same treatment of sentences as principal, and nevertheless they are treated as relative, and stand in the subjunctive. Upon many passages, opinions are divided, especially since many sentences may be repre¬ sented both as principal and subordinate sentences. ORATIO OBLIQUA. 361 §§ 431,432 ] 431. (3) As qui, quar, quod often forms an independent principal sentence, so also the conjunctions quia and quippe analogous to it in signification, and standing for nam (although they have no qui with them, for with qui they take only the subjunctive), moreover quan- quam and etsi , often form independent principal sentences and take- the place of nam, etenim and tamen ; e. g. The Campanians were more hostile to everything which bore the Roman name, than any other people. Therefore, he kept them shut vp within the walls, because (for) whoever had escaped by any means, wandered through the country, like wild beasts, and tore in pieces and destroyed whatever fell in their way, ideo se tenere eos ; q u i a, si qui evasissent aliqua, velut feras bestias, per agros vagari, et laniare et trucidare, quodeumque ob¬ viam detur. Here quia does not refer to ideo, otherwise the subjunc¬ tive must have been used, for the sentence because, etc. does not give a reason of the immediately preceding sentence, but simply expands the first principal sentence, and quia takes the place of nam, and thus forms an independent principal sentence. The conjunction quippe, when not followed by qui expressing a leason, has, in oratio obliqua, only the accusative and the infinitive, because it is always used merely to connect one principal sentence with another ; e. g. The Fundani and the Formiani had not been excited to rebellion by them, for they could be satisfied with their own strength , if they desired war, quippe minime poenitere se virium suarum, si bellum placeat (Liv. 8, 23). The use of the particles of comparison, quemadmodum and vt (sicut) with the accusative and the infinitive, where ita or sic follows, is also worthy of notice. The last sentence with ita or sic, as an actual prin¬ cipal sentence, requires the accusative with the infinitive, but the first does not. For it is only when in both sentences but one subject is spoken of, and the actions of both sentences fall within the same time (so that the relation is expressed by as well — as ; not only — but also; on the one hand — on the other), that both sentences are in the accusative with the infinitive, because then the first also is regarded as an independent principal sentence ; e. g Ashe would consider the treaty as broken. if she was not given up to him , so he would return her inviolate to her frit nds, when she was given up, quemadmodu m, si non de¬ datur, pro rupto se foedus habiturum, sic deditam inviolatam ad suos remissurum (Liv. 2, 13). If, on the contrary, the particle as (quemadmodu m, u t) with the following so, signifies in the same manner as, then the sentence is treated as a merely subordinate sen¬ tence belonging to another, and the verb is put in the subjunctive ; e. g. As he anew and repeatedly appealed to the people, so he anew and- repeatedly summoned him before the judge, proinde u t ilfe iterum ac saepius provocet, sic se iterum ac saep-us judicem illi ferre (Liv. 3, 57). Yet when there is a real comparison drawn from nature, the sentence is sometimes treated as a general, principal sentence, stand¬ ing independent, and is expressed by the accusative with the infinitive ; e. g. As some animals never become tame, so the heart of this man is cruel and implacable, ut fe r a s quasdam nunquam mitesce re, sic immitem ('t implacabilem ejus viri animum esse (Liv. 33, 45). 432. (4) The classical writers use the verb inquam almost exclu¬ sively in direct discourse, and aio in indirect. Hence, in changingdi- rwtf discourse to indirect, the verb aio must be substituted for inquam, and in changing the indirect to the direct , inquam for aio. Aio can be 31 362 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 433 , 434 . used in direct discourse, only when ut is placed before it; e. g. Plato says, Philosophy is nothing else than a gift of the gods , philosophia, u t a i t Plato, nihil est aliud ; but without ut, the idea must be expressed : Philosophiam ait Plato nihil esse aliud, or: Philosophia, inquit Plato, nihil est aliud. 433. (5) Vocatives can be introduced into oratio obliqua, only by a change of case ; e. g. Quirites , resume that disposition ; in oratio ob¬ liqua, that they should resume that disposition , illos repeterent animos Quirites. Interjections must be wholly omitted in oratio obliqua ; but words of asseveration, e. g. the ancient Hercule, are introduced into indirect discourse; e. g. And it teas truly to be wondered at, et Hercule mirandum fuisse. 434. (6) It is important to notice the use of the reflexive and de¬ monstrative pronouns in oratio obliqua. According to the rules given above, §§ 110 and 115, the reflexive refers to the speaker and those for whom he speaks; the demonstrative, on the contrary, is used in reference to all subordinate persons. But if the speaker gives his own words in a narrative form, the first person remains in everything which refers to him. It is to be remembered, also, that the words he, she or they, when they refer to the speakers, are to be expressed by se. Yet when many principal sentences, which have for their subject he, she or they, follow one another, it is sufficient to use the pronoun with the first only. - If, by the use of the pronouns, there would be doubt to whom they referred, it is better to use the name of the persons, who are de¬ noted by the pronouns; e. g. He had delivered the Falerii into their (the Romans) hands, Falerios se in manus Romanis (for e i s) tradi¬ disse. Further ; that which is present to the speaker, and which he ex¬ presses by hie or iste, is past to another, who narrates it. Hence, in oratio obliqua, ille or is is generally used instead of hie and iste. Therefore, it is said : This is not the first day of his fidelity, non i 1- lum primum diem fidei suae esse, not hunc. So also even now in such discourse is expressed by etiam tum, not by etiam nunc or etiamnum. The indirect narrative form of discourse prevails in the first part of the following examples for practice ; then follows a series of examples, from which narrative sentences are to be formed. Examples on §§ 419—434. (1) Dicearchus says, the soul is absolutely 1 nothing; nei¬ ther in a man nor in a beast is there a soul, and all that power by which we either do 2 or perceive anything, is diffused 3 alike 4 in all living bodies, nor is it separable 5 from the body.— Simonides,while at table,was requested to go out (being* told) that two young met) were standing at the door, who wished to speak with him.— Orgetorix persuaded the Helvetii to 6 de¬ part 7 from their territory 8 with all their effects 9 ; (saying) it was very easy for them to obtain 10 the government of all Gaul, since they excelled 11 all in valor.—Caesar replied to the am- ORATIO OBLIQUA. 363 § 434.1 bassadors of the Helvetii, that he would appoint a day for de¬ liberation 12 ; that they should return the thirteenth of April 13 , if they wished anything.— Scipio said, that, in a situation 14 so disastrous, there must be daring 15 and action, and that they should immediately go with him, armed.— Polyaenus said, he praised them, that they had taken arms promptly 16 ; but he would praise them still more, if they would use them, only 17 when forced by the last 18 necessity.— Scipio said, that great and generally just contentions 19 arise 20 , when something is demanded by friends, which is unjust 21 . Scipio told the Sen¬ ators, if they would appoint 22 his brother L. Scipio to the province of Greece, that he would go with him as legate. 1 esse omnino nihil (is — nothing). 2 agere. 3 fundi. 4 aequabiliter. 6 separabilis. * (omitted in Latin). s ut. 7 exire. 8 fines. 9 copiae. 10 po¬ tiri. 11 praestare. 12 deliberare. 13 Idus Apriles. 14 tantum malum (situa¬ tion so disastrous). 13 audere (part, in dus). 16 impigre. 17 nisi. 18 ulti¬ mus. 19 dissidium. 20 nasci. 21 non rectus. 22 decernere. (2) The senators cried out 1 in indignation 2 , that, if there were magistrates in the state, there would have been no as¬ sembly 3 , except 4 one commanded by the state 5 . Now the state was dispersed and divided 6 into a thousand curiae and assemblies 7 . Truly 8 , a single man, such 9 as Appius Claudius was, would have scattered 10 those assemblies 11 in the twink¬ ling of an eye 12 .— Tullus cried 13 out to his horsemen with a loud 14 voice, to 15 return; that there was no need of fear 16 ; that, at his command, the Albanian army wheeled 17 round, for the purpose 18 of assaulting 19 theFideni.— Tanaquil addressed 20 the people from the upper 21 part of the house, (telling 22 them) to be of good courage 23 ; that the king had been stunned 24 by a sudden 25 blow 26 , that the weapon had not descended deep 27 into his body, that he had already come to himself, 28 and she confidently hoped 29 that they would see him the next day. In the mean time, they should obey Servius Tullius; he would discharge 30 the duties 31 of the king.—I exhorted the king to use the royal prerogative 32 against those who plotted 33 for his life, to punish 34 those who must 35 be punished, and to use the protection 36 of my army, as a terror to those who are in fault 37 ; (saying) that all would perceive, as soon as 38 they could learn the decree of the Senate, that I would assist 39 him, if it was necessary. 'clamare. 2 indignans. 3 concilium. 4 nisi. 5 publicus (one — state). c dissipatus. 7 concio. 8 profecto. 9 qualis (such as). 10 discutere . "coe¬ tus. 12 momento temporis. 13 acclamare. 14 clarus. 15 ut. 16 trepidatio. 17 circumduci. 18 ut. 19 invadere in aliquem. 20 alloqui. 21 superior. 364 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 434 . 29 (omitted in Latin). "animus. 24 sopitus. 25 subitus. 26 ictus. 27 alto, "redire, "confidere (confidently hoped). * propediem. 30 obire. 31 mu¬ nera. 32 jus. 33 insidiatores (those who plot). 34 poena afficere. 35 ne- cesse esse. 36 praesidium. 37 esse in culpa. 33 quuin(as—as), "prae¬ sidio esse. (3) The ambassador of the Helvetii spoke 1 with Caesar in the following manner 2 : If the Roman people would make peace with them, they would go to that quarter 3 and there remain*, where Caesar had appointed 4 and wished them to remain; but if he should continue 5 to pursue them with war, he should remember not only the old defeat 6 of the Roman people, but also the ancient 7 bravery of the Helvetii. That he had unexpectedly 8 attacked 9 one district 10 , when those, who had gone over the river, could not assist their friends; therefore lie should neither attribute too much to his bravery, nor despise' 1 them; they had learned 12 from their parents and ancestors, that they should contend more by bravery than by art, or (than) they should rely 13 upon treachery 14 . Therefore he should not permit 15 , that that place, where they had en¬ camped 16 , should receive 17 its name or be remembered 18 by 19 a defeat 20 of the Roman people. ‘aggre. 2 ita (following manner). 3 ea pars. *esse. 4 constituere. 5 perseverare. 6 incommodum. 7 pristinus. s improviso. 9 adoriri. 10 pa¬ gus. 11 despicere. 12 ita discere. 13 niti. 14 insidiae. 15 committere. 13 consistere. 17 capere, "prodere memorite. 19 ex. 20 internecio. (4) Caecinna told his soldiers, that their only deliverance was in arms; but that these must be used 1 with judgment 2 , and they must remain within the rampart 3 , until the enemy should come up 4 nearer; then they must break 5 forth on 6 all sides; by this sally 7 , they would come to the Rhine. But if 8 they should flee, still more forests and deeper 9 marshes 10 would remain 11 ; but honor and glory would be the lot 12 of the conquerors.—Romulus visited 13 the indignant Sabine women and informed 14 them, that this had happened by the arrogance of their fathers, who had refused 15 marriage 16 to their neighbors; yet they (the women) would live in matri¬ mony, and share 17 in all their fortunes and in the state. That they should only mitigate 18 their auger, and give their affec¬ tions 19 to them, to whom fate had given their bodies. That friendship 20 had often afterwards arisen from injury, and they would have* so much better husbands 21 , because each would strive 22 to his utmost 23 to allay 24 desire for their parents 25 and country. ORATIO OBLIQUA. 365 § 434.] 1 temperare. 2 consilium. 3 vallum. 4 succedere. s erumpere. 6 ab. 7 eruptio. 8 quod si. 9 profundus. 10 palus. 11 superesse. 12 obtingere. 13 circumire. 14 docere. 15 negare. 10 connubium. 17 in societate esse. 18 mollire. 19 animus. 20 gratia. * uti. 21 vir. 22 eniti. 23 pro se (to his utmost). 24 explere. 25 (genitive). (5) After the death of Augustus, Tiberius discoursed 1 much, in the senate, of the extent of the empire, with the modesty peculiar 2 to himself. He said, that the mind 3 of the divine Augustus alone 4 was capable 5 of so great a weight 6 , that he (Tiberius), whom Augustus had called to share 7 his duties, had learned by experience 8 , how arduous and subject 9 to fate is the charge of ruling' 0 everything. Hence, in a state, which had such an abundance 11 of distinguished men, they should not impose 12 all things on one; if several would unite 13 their labors, they would perform 14 the duties 15 of the state more easily. When, after the death of Augustus, disturbances 16 had broken out 17 in Pannonia, Blesus said with much art, that the wishes 18 of the soldiers must not be conveyed to Caesar by sedition and insurrections 19 . Neither the ancient 20 sol¬ diers had demanded 21 of their commanders anything so un¬ precedented 22 , nor had they themselves, of the deceased 23 Augustus; that the cares of the new sovereign had been in¬ creased 24 at an unfavorable time 25 . Yet, if 26 they endeavor¬ ed 27 to seek 28 it peacefully 29 , why did they think 30 of violtnce? They should appoint 31 ambassadors, and should give com¬ mands to them in his presence 32 . 1 disserere. 2 suus (peculiar to himself). 3 mens. 4 solus. 5 capax. 6 moles. 7 in partem. 8 experiri. 9 subjectus. 10 regere. 11 refertum esse (to have abundance). 12 deferre ad aliquem. 13 sociare. 14 exsequi. 15 munia. 16 motus. 17 exoriri. 18 desiderium. 19 turba. 20 vetus. 21 ex¬ postulare. 22 novus. 23 divus. 24 onerare. 25 parum in tempore (at — time). 26 si tamen. 27 tentare. 28 tendere. 29 in pace. 30 meditari. 31 de¬ cernere. 32 coram (in presence). (6) The ancients relate a very wonderful dream: When two friends 1 , from Arcadia, were travelling 2 together 3 , and had come to Megara, one took lodgings 4 with a landlord 5 , the other with a friend*. When (ut) they had retired to rest 6 after eating 7 , at midnight 8 , while asleep, it seemed to the one who was entertained 9 by his friend, that the other asked him to come to his help 10 , because the landlord was preparing to kill him. He, frightened 11 by the. dream, at first rose up; afterwards, when he had collected himself, and thought that he must consider 12 the dream as nothing, he laid down again 13 . 31 * 366 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS, [§ 434 . Then it seemed to him, while asleep 14 , as though 15 the same asked him, because** he had not come to help him while alive 16 , not to suffer 17 his death to be unrevenged 18 ; that he had been murdered by the landlord, and placed 19 in a cart, and that dung 20 had been thrown 21 over 22 him; he asked him to be at 23 the gate in the morning 24 , before the cart went out of the city. Moved by this dream, he was present 25 at the gate early with the teamster 26 ; he asked him, what be had in the cart; he frightened, fled,—the dead man was dug 27 out, and the landlord, after the affair had been made known 28 , was punished 29 . 1 familiaris Arcas (a friend from A.). 2 iter facere. 3 una. 4 deverte¬ re ad aliquem. 5 caupcf. * hospes. 6 quiescere. 7 coenatus (after eat¬ ing). “concubia nox. 9 in hospitio esse (who — friend). 10 subvenire. 11 perterritus. 12 visum pro nihilo habere (dream — nothing). 13 recum¬ bere. 14 dormiens. 15 ut. ** quoniam. 16 vivus. 17 pati. 18 inultus. 19 in¬ jicere. 20 stercus. 21 conjicere. 22 supra. 23 adesse. 24 mane. 25 praesto alicui esse. 26 bubulcus. 27 eruere. 28 patefacere. 29 poenas dare. II. Examples of direct discourse, from io hick narrative discourse is to be formed. (1) Caesar Octavianus wrote back 1 to Tiberius, who asked for a Grecian client: I will not grant 2 it, unless I shall have persuaded 3 myself, with my own eyes*, how just reasons you have to ask. Drusus read aloud 4 the letter of his father, in which it was written: 1 have 5 a special concern for the bravest legions, with whom I have waged very many wars. As soon as my mind shall have recovered 6 from grief 7 , I will deliberate 8 with the fathers respecting 9 your demands 10 . In the mean time, I have sent my son to grant 11 , without de¬ lay 12 , what can be immediately allowed 13 ; the rest must be reserved 14 for the Senate. Tiberius, who wished Germanicus to return from Germany, reminded him in many 15 letters (saying): Return to the appointed 16 triumph: you have fought successful and great battles; but remember 17 also the dreadful 18 losses 19 which the wind and floods have occasioned 20 . I was sent nine times 21 , by the god-like 22 Augustus, to Germany, and have accom¬ plished 23 more by wisdom 24 than by force. The Cherusci and the other people of the insurgents 25 can be left 26 to their internal 27 dissensions 28 , if the resentment 29 of the Romans is satisfied. ORATIO OBLIQUA. 367 §434.] describere. 2 dare. 3 persuadere. * praesens (with — eyes). 4 reci¬ tare. 5 esse. ° requiescere. 7 luctus. 8 agere. 9 de. 10 postulatum. "con¬ cedere. 12 cunctatio. 13 tribuere. 14 servare. 15 creber. 16 decretus. 17 meminisse. 18 saevus. 19 damnum. 20 inferre. 21 novies 22 divus. 23 perficere. 24 consilium. 23 rebellis. 26 relinquere. 27 domesticus. 28 dissidium. 29 ultio Romana (resentment of Rom.). (2) The inhabitants 1 of Praeneste, enemies of the Romans, pitched 2 their camp not far from the river Allia, and boast¬ ed 3 to* each other : We have occupied a place unfortunate 4 for the city Rome. There will be fear and flight from this place, as 5 there was in the Gallic war. For, if the Romans fear 6 the day, distinguished 7 by the name of this place, how much more will they tremble 8 before Allia itself. Truly, the fierce 9 forms 10 of the Gauls, and the sound of their voices will be before their eyes and ears. The Romans, on the contrary, said 11 : Wherever the La¬ tins are, there we know well, that they are such 12 as we have conquered 13 at lake Regillus, and, by a peace of a hundred years, held** subjects 14 to us. The place, distinguished by the memory of the defeat, will rather incite 15 us to efface the remembrance of the disgrace 16 , than cause 17 fear, that any ground will be inauspicious 18 to our victory. Nay 19 , if the Gauls even 20 should present 21 themselves to us in this place, we would fight as we fought at Rome, in regaining 22 our country, and as at Gabii, on the following day, we effected 23 that no enemy, w'ho had entered 24 the city 25 Rome, could carry 26 home the news of success 27 or defeat. 'Praenestini. 2 ponere. 3 jactare. * inter. 4 fatalis. 5 ac. 6 timere. 7 insignis. 8 reformidare. 9 trux. 10 species. 11 (omitted). 12 is. ^devic¬ tus. ** tenere. 14 obnoxius. 15 irritare. 16 dedecus. 17 facere. 18 nefas¬ tus. 19 quin. 20 ipse. 21 offerre. 22 repetere. 23 efficere. 24 intrare locum. 25 moenia Romana. 26 perferre. 27 secunda advereaque fortuna (success or defeat). (3) When Scipio had conducted 1 very kindly 2 towards the Spaniards, the multitude which had crowded 3 around him, with great unanimity 4 called him king. Then, when he had requested* silence by a herald, he said : My greatest name is Imperator, by u'hich my soldiers have named me; the name of king is, in other places 5 , great; in Rome, intolera¬ ble; I have 6 a kingly heart: if you consider that noble 7 in the mind 8 of man, think 9 so in silence 10 , but forbear 11 the use 12 of that word 13 . Answer was made 14 by the Gauls to the ambassadors of the Romans: Although we, for the first time, hear of the name 368 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. ft 434. of the Romans, yet we believe, that you are brave men, since the inhabitants 15 of Clusium, in their trouble 16 , have asked 17 your aid ; and because 18 you have preferred 19 to protect your allies by an embassy 20 , rather than by arms, we by no means refuse 21 the peace which you offer, if the inhabitants of Clu¬ sium, who have more 22 land than they cultivate, will give 23 to us who are in need 24 , a part of their territory 25 ; otherwise 26 peace cannot be obtained 27 . We wish not only to hear and answer in your presence 28 , but, if the land is refused 29 us, we will also 30 fight in your presence, in order that you may be able to announce 31 at home, how far the Gauls excel 32 other men in bravery. gerere. 2 perhumaniter. 3 circumfusus (which—him). 4 consen¬ sus. * facere. 5 alibi. 6 esse in aliquo. 7 amplus. 8 ingenium. 9 judicare. 10 tacite, "abstinere. 12 usurpatio. 13 vox. 14 dare. 15 Clusini. 16 res trepida. 17 implorare. 18 quoniam. 19 malle. 20 legatio. 21 aspernari. 22 latius. 23 concedere. 24 egere (participle.) 25 fines. 26 aliter, ^impe¬ trare. 28 coram. 29 negare. 30 idem. 31 nuntiare. 32 praestare. (4) Hannibal sent messengers to the petty kings 1 of Gaul with this commission: I wish in person 2 to speak with you; either do you come 3 nearer to Illiberi, or I will come* to Ruscino, that the meeting 4 may be easier from a near 5 place; for I will receive you early at rny tent, nor will I delay 6 to come to you myself. For I have come, as a friend 7 of Gaul, not as an enemy, and, if you permit 8 it, I will not draw 9 the sword, until I shall have come to Italy. Alexander, at a feast, dared to disparage 10 the actions of his father. The famous battle at Chaeronea was my work 11 , said he, and the glory of the great achievement has been taken 12 from me by the envy 13 and jealousy of my father ; I protected 14 the body of my father by my shield, and his as¬ sailants 15 were killed 16 by my hand. This he never willing¬ ly 17 acknowledged 18 , since he was unwilling 19 to owe 20 his life to his son. ’regulus. 2 ipse. 3 accedere. * procedere. 4 congressus. 5 propin¬ quum, (near place). 6 procedere cunctanter (delay to come). 7 hospes. 8 per me licet (I permit). 9 stringere. 10 obterere. 11 opus (in geni¬ tive). 12 adimere. 13 malignitas, "protegere. l5 ruere. 16 occidere. 17 aequo animo. 18 confiteri. 19 invitus. 20 debere (indicative). (5) When the report of Alexander’s death had been brought to the wife of Darius, she lamented 1 the dead and the living at the same time. For who, said she, will now care 2 for me and my daughter ? Who will be another Alexander ? Twice 3 § 434.] ORATIO OBLIQUA. 369 have we been taken prisoners; twice have we lost 4 the king¬ dom. Truly 5 , we shall find no one who regards 6 us. After Syracuse was taken, Titus Manlius spoke as follows in the Senate: War must be waged with tyrants; Syracuse, that most beautiful and famous city, the granary 7 and formerly 8 the treasury 9 of the Roman people, has been destroyed 10 , by whose munificence and gifts, the state has been assisted and embellished 11 in many times of difficulty 19 , and, finally 13 , in this very 14 Punic war. If king Hiero, the most faithful ad¬ herent 15 of the Roman government, should arise 16 from the grave 17 , with what countenance 18 could one show 19 to him Syracuse or Rome, since, when 20 he has beheld the half-de¬ stroyed 21 and plundered 22 country, he will see, as he enters 23 Rome, the spoils of his country at the vestibule of the city. ‘deplorare. 2 agere curam. 3 iterum. 4 excidere aliqua re. 5 utique. 6 respicere. 7 horreum, ^quondam. 9 aerarium. 10 perire. 11 ornare. 12 tempestas (time of difficulty). “denique. 14 ipse. “cultor. ‘ 6 exis- tere. 17 inferi. 18 os. 19 (see § 218). 20 ubi. 21 semirutus. 22 spoliatus. 23 ingredieris locum. (6) Gracchus, when surrounded 1 by the multitude of the enemy, sprang 2 from his horse, and ordered 3 the soldiers to do the same, and animated them, (saying): Let us honor 4 by our bravery the only thing which 5 fortune has left 6 to us. But what is left to some few, who have been surrounded in a valley, shut 7 in by woods and mountains, but 8 death? The only question 9 now is, whether we, delivering 10 up our bodies like beasts*, shall be slain 11 unrevenged 12 , or whether, stain¬ ed 13 with their blood, we shall fall among the accumulated 14 corpses of the expiring enemy.— Furius impaired 15 the author¬ ity of his colleague Camillus, when he said: Wars are de¬ signed 16 for young men. Courage grows 17 and decays 18 with the body; from a most efficient 19 warrior 20 , Camillus has be¬ come a loiterer 21 , and he, who at his coming 22 , was wont to capture 23 camps and cities, in the first assault 24 , now sits in¬ active 25 within 26 the walls, and wastes 27 time. The measures 28 of an old 29 man are inefficient 30 and weak 31 ; and he has not only lived 32 long enough, but has obtained 33 glory enough. Of what use 34 is it to suffer 35 , that the strength of the state, which ought 36 to be immortal, should grow feeble 37 with a single mortal body ? ‘circumvenire. 2 desilire. 3 jubere. 4 cohonestare. 5 quod unura (the only thing which). 6 reliquus facere. 7 septus. 8 praeter. 9 id modo re¬ ferre. 10 praebere. * modo. “trucidare. 12 inultus. 13 perfundere, “cu¬ mulare. “elevare. 16 dare. 17 vigere. 18 deflorescere. 19 acerrimus. 370 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 434. 20 bellator. 21 cunctator. 22 adveniens. 23 rapere. 24 impetus. 25 esse re- sidem. 20 intra. 27 terere. 28 consilium. 29 senex. 30 frigere. 31 torpere. 32 vitae satis alicui esse. 33 esse. 34 attinere. 35 pati. 36 decere. 37 conse¬ nescere. (7) After Perseus had given a successful battle to the Ro¬ man consul, and the king was holding 1 a consultation 2 re¬ specting his situation 3 , some friends ventured to give him counsel, to use his good fortune 4 for 5 the stipulation of an honorable 6 peace. A man, prudent and deservedly 7 successful, said they, knows 8 how 9 to be moderate 10 in his success*, and not to trust 11 too much the serenity 12 of present fortune. Send ambassadors to the consul, to 13 renew an alliance on 14 the same conditions 15 , on which your father Philip obtained peace of the Romans. A war is not ended more honorably than after 16 so remarkable 17 a battle. But if even then, the Romans, according to their natural 18 stubbornness 19 , reject 20 just 21 con¬ ditions, gods and men will be witnesses both of your modera¬ tion and of their insolent 22 haughtiness.—When Alexander had treated the captive wife of Darius very kindly 23 , she thus said : O king, you deserve 24 that we should entreat 25 for you what we once entreated for our Darius; and you are worthy, since you have surpassed so great a king, not only in fortune, but also in equity. You, indeed 26 , call me mother and queen ; but I confess that I am your slave 27 . It concerns 28 you very much to show 29 rather by kindness 30 than by cruelty, what you have the power 31 to do towards us. habere. 2 consilium. 3 summa. 4 fortuna secunda. 5 in (with acc.). 6 honestus. 7 merito. 8 esse alicujus. 9 (omitted in Latin). 10 modum imponere. * res secundae. H confidere. ,2 serenitas. 13 (see § 311). 14 in (with acc.). 15 lex. 16 a. 17 memorabilis. 18 insitus. 19 pertinacia. 20 aspernari. 21 aequa (just conditions). 22 pervicax. 23 humaniter. 24 mereri. 25 precari. 26 quidem. 27 famula. 28 interesse. 29 testari. 30 cle¬ mentia. 31 licere (to have the power). (8) Because many embassies of Antiochus had before been in vain 1 sent to the Romans, respecting 2 peace, a new ambassador appeared, who said: I have 3 confidence 4 , that I shall obtain 5 what former ambassadors have not obtained. For hitherto many cities in Asia Minor and Lysimachia in Europe, have been a bone 6 of contention in those quarrels 7 . Of these, the king has given 8 up Lysimachia, that it may not be said, he possesses anything in Europe. But those cities, which are in Asia, he is ready to surrender, and whatever 9 others the Romans wish to claim 10 from the royal dominion, because they hav e been on our side 11 ; the king will also pay 12 §§ 435, 436. SUPINES. 371 half 13 of the expense to the Roman people. The rest of his speech was nearly as follows: Remember human destiny 14 , and be sober 15 in your prosperity 16 , and do not aggravate 17 the misfortune 18 of another. Terminate your kingdom by Europe; this is already immeasurable. Single parts 19 can be more easily obtained 20 by conquest 21 , than the whole 22 can be held 23 together. But if you wish to take 24 a part of Asia also, only 25 do not bound 26 your kingdom by doubtful 27 lands. For the sake 28 of peace and union, the king will permit 29 his moderation to be surpassed 30 by Roman cupidity. 'nequicquam. 2 de. 3 esse. 4 fiducia. 5 impetrare. 6 jactari (to be — contention). 7 disceptatio. 8 cedere aliqua re. 9 si quis alius. 10 vindi¬ care. 11 partium alicujus esse. 12 praestare. 13 pars dimidia impensarum. 14 res humanae. 15 inoderari. 16 fortuna. 17 urgere. 18 fortuna aliena (misfortune of another). 19 singula (single parts). 29 parare. 21 acqui¬ rere. 22 universa. 23 tenere (held together). 24 abstrahere. 20 dummodo ne. 26 finire. 27 dubius. 28 causa. 29 pati. 30 vincere. SUPINES. 435. Both the supines are considered as parts of the verb. But only the first in urn can be properly so viewed, inas¬ much as it alone can govern the same case as its verb. On the contrary, the second, in u, never governs a case, and actu¬ ally occurs only in a very few verbs. Neither of them ad¬ mits an adverb ; we cannot say, suppliciter rogatum, to ask in a suppliant manner ; patienter toleratu, to he home patiently. Their use is as follows : First S up in e in u m. 436. This supine depends upon a verb, which implies a motion, in order to do something. The English verb which denotes the design of that motion, is expressed by the supine in urn. We indicate this design by to or in order to. This supine governs the same case as the verb; e. g. I have come to ask you, t e oratum (rogatum); Hannibal was re¬ called to defend his country, patriam defensum. It also occurs without an accusative; e. g. I give him a place to sit, eum sessum recipio ; the hoys go to play, lusum CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 372 [§§ 437—439. eunt; the cattle go to drink, aquatum; let us go to bathe, lavatum. 437. Sometimes also it can be rendered by a substantive or a preposition and a substantive, especially after the verb to go; e. g. To go a fishing, piscatum ire; to go a hunting, ire venatum; to bed, dormitum or cubi¬ tum; into exile, e x u I a t u m ; to go for plunder, prae¬ datum ire, etc. 438. The verb ire with the supine, denotes the aiming at something, to wish, to be ready, to make preparations, to in¬ tend, the resolution to do something; it is often used, also, for the simple verb from which the gerund comes, to express the idea with more vivacity and force ; e. g. Why do you hurry to destruction, or why will you destroy yourself ? Cur te is perditum? instead of perdes; dishonest men will take (are ready to take) from the deserving their rewards, ereptum eunt; preparations are making to besiege the city, urbem oppugnatum itur. Hence ire with the supine can be used in many connections for the future active infinitive ; e. g. I believe that he will besiege the city, eum urbem oppugnatum ire, for oppugnaturum esse. So also, the future infinitive passive consists of iri and the supine. According to the preceding remarks, verbs of motion, when they denote that for which the action is done, often take a su¬ pine. But it is to be noticed, that verbs of haste, fe s t i n a r e, properare, accelerare, maturare are exceptions, as they never admit a supine, but take the infinitive simply; e. g. Scipio hastened to besiege the city, oppugn a r e fes¬ tinavit ; Caesar hastened to return to his country, redire properavit. 439. As even this first supine occurs but seldom, not be¬ ing found at all in many verbs, and in others, although it has an apparent existence, not being used, other constructions supply its place. § 440.] SUPINES. 373 Here belong: (1) Constructions with ut, for which also qui can be sub¬ stituted ; e. g. instead of veni vos liberatu m, I came to free you, it can also be written, ut (q u i) vos liberarem. Antiochus sent ambassadors thither to manage the affair bet¬ ter, ut (qui) rem melius agerent; where, on account of melius, a supine is never admissible. (2) With causa and the genitive of the gerund, or the ver¬ bal adjective, where it occurs; e. g. V o s 1 i b e r a n d i cau¬ sa, or vestri liberandi causa; rem melius agen¬ di causa, or rei melius agendae causa. (3) With ad and the accusative of the gerund or verbal' adjective; e. g. Ad vos liberandos, ad rem melius agendam. (4) With the future active participle, which must refer to the person, whether expressed by a substantive or pronoun, who is described as wishing to do something, e. g. Vos li¬ beraturus (I who would wish to free you) ; legatos rem melius acturos (ambassadors who would wish to do). Care should be taken, not to use this supine after words which do not imply motion, although the purpose is denoted by to or in or¬ der to ; e. g He gave me a book to read, not lectum; I have selected this country-seat to spend my life there , not actum. Second Supine in u. 440. This supine, which occurs still less frequently than the other, and which we translate sometimes actively, and sometimes passively, is used : (1) With some adjectives, in order to show more definite¬ ly, in what respect the adjective belongs to the substantive, which it qualifies. Thus, e. g. Auditu, lectu, cognitu, dictu, signify, in respect to hearing, reading, knowing, saying or relating. This supine depends on such adjectives as worthy, useful, remarkable, easy, difficult, pleasant, unpleasant, cred¬ ible, incredible, clear, dark, likely, fit, disgraceful, laudable, large, etc.; e. g. This book is useful to read, lectu utilis 32 374 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 441,442. est; this wine is pleasant to drink, potu est jucundum; what is better to be avoided, what to be sought, quid est melius vitatu, quid petitu? Here, also, belong the substan¬ tives,/^, nefas and opus, which are so often used. 441. (2) With some verbs which denote a removal from some place or thing. But the few supines occurring in such connections, are evidently nothing but substantives ; e. g. To arise from bed, c u bl t u surgere ; to return from hunting, venatu redire. 442. Since this second supine occurs so seldom, and with most verbs is not used at all, its place can easily be supplied by another construction. Thus with dignus and indignus, qui is oftener used. Comp. § 309. The use of ad with the gerund particularly belongs here. Thus, in Cicero, difficilis ad intelligendum, for intellectu; facilis ad ju¬ dica n d u m, for j u d i c a t u ; jucundus ad audiendum, for auditu, and so others. Cicero says of pain, which is difficult to be borne, in one place, difficilis perpessu, in other places, difficilis ad patiendum tolerandum que. Examples on §§ 435—442. In panegyrics 1 , it is most pleasant to hear the virtues of justice, clemency and generosity. Alexander determined to cross the Hyphasis, which was difficult to cross. The sol¬ diers, who, for the purpose of forage 2 , had gone too far, could not return. Whoever goes to bed at 3 the tenth hour and rises at the fifth hour, follows 4 the prescriptions of physicians. To go a hunting is a healthful exercise. It is an excellent pre¬ cept of Quintilian, that parents should do nothing in the presence 5 of their children, which is base 6 , nor say what it is disgraceful to hear. A common 7 soldier, who had gone from the camp to fetch water 8 , found a concealed 9 way to the fortress 10 , which was very difficult to ascend. Although every¬ thing which happens here, is painful 11 to hear, yet it is more supportable 12 to hear than to see it. The shorter a narration is, the more clear 13 and easy to be understood 14 will it be 15 . If the sleeping did everything they dream 16 , all who go to bed, ought to be bound 17 . Tarpeia, at that time, had perchance 18 § 443.] PARTICIPLES. 375 gone out of the fort, to fetch 19 water for the sacrifice 20 . The sons of Ancus went to Suessa Pometia into exile. Pain is something which is severe 21 , contrary to nature 22 and hard to endure 23 . A united 24 cry is something which is unimportant 25 to mention 26 , but of great importance 27 in an engagement 28 . When Virgil and Maecenas had come to Capua, the former went to sleep, but the latter to play. You came into these regions rather to weep 29 than to swim 30 . How 31 is it, Cassius 1 Shall 32 we sit, although we have not come to annoy*, but to encourage you ? The human mind can be compared with no other 33 than with God himself, if it is proper 34 to say this. 'laudatio. 2 pabulari. 3 sub. 4 sequi. 5 coram. e foedus. 7 miles gre¬ garius. 8 aquari. 9 opertus. 10 castellum, "acerbus. 32 tolerabilis. 13 dilucidus. 14 cognoscere. 15 fieri. 16 somniare. 17 alligare. 18 forte. 19 petere. 20 saera,-orum. 21 asper. 22 contra naturam. 23 perpeti. 24 con¬ gruens. 25 parvus. 26 dicere. 27 momentum. 28 res agenda. 29 plorare. 30 natare. 31 quid. 32 ire (with the interrogative ne). * flagitare. 33 alius nullus. 34 fas. PARTICIPLES. 443. The Latin, like the English, has a present and perfect participle, the former active, denoting a continued or cotem¬ porary action , e. g. amans, loving , the latter passive, inclu¬ ding our perfect and compound perfect, denoting an action completed or prior to some other ; e. g. a m a t u s, loving , hav¬ ing been loved. The Latin has no participle corresponding with the English comp. perf. active, except in deponent verbs; e. g. locutus, having said. Besides the above, the Latin has a future active participle, and a passive verbal adjective or fut. pass. part, in andus or tndus , which denotes what must be done. Deponent verbs have all the participles for the three different relations of time, present, past and future. Accord- ingly, from the verb doceo and hortor , the following participles come: (1) Docens, one who teaches , teaching ; hortans, one who exhorts , exhorting. (2) Docturus, one who will teach ; hortaturus, one who will exhort. <3) Doctu», one who has been taught , had been, will have been ; hortatus, one who exhorted , has , had , will have. 376 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 444-447. (4) Docendus, one who must be taught; hortandus, one who must be exhorted. The verbal adjective has been treated above in its appro¬ priate place. Here the usage of the other participles will be spoken of. 444. Participles abridge the discourse, as the English par¬ ticiples also show ; for, the singing bird enlivens the woods , is the same as the bird, when it sings (which sings), enlivens the woods. Here the participle serves merely to explain or de¬ fine the substantive. 445. Not only relative sentences with who, which, can be abridged by participles, but also such as begin with con¬ junctions, e. g. since, if, when, because, while, after, although, and the like, and properly form introductory sentences. Sentences, also, connected by and, can be abridged, and, as will be shown in the sequel, many substantives governed by prepositions, can be changed into participial sentences, be¬ cause they can be resolved and expressed by conjunctions with a verb. 446. In Latin, the participles unite two sentences in one. Where this is done, the case of the participle and the noun or pronoun with which it agrees, either depends upon a verb or another word in the sentence and is governed by them, or the participle with its noun or pronoun is independent of any other word. The English uses the former construction more frequently than the latter; e. g. You heard me when I said this, me id dicentem audivisti. An example of the lat¬ ter is: t e recte loquente, gaudeo, when you speak rightly, I rejoice, —where the ablative te does not depend on gaudeo. Two sentences, therefore, are either connected with and are dependent on each other, or they are not. The former may be called dependent, the latter independent sen¬ tences. 447. When the subject of that sentence which can become a participle, that is, the subject of a participial sentence, is PARTICIPLES, 377 §§ 448, 449.] repeated in the principal clause, and thus both sentences are in an intimate grammatical connection, they are dependent sentences, and therefore, even in English, can be abridged by a participle; e. g. When I say something to you , you believe , i, e, you believe me saying something to you. Here the subject /, refers to the word me, in the principal clause. When I speak , my father beholds me, i. e. my father beholds me speaking. Here also the subject I, refers to (he word me, in the princi¬ pal clause. Thus both sentences are connected with, and are dependent on, each other. 448. But when the subject of the participial sentence is not repeated in the principal clause, and so the two sentences do not stand in an intimate grammatical connection with each other, they are independent sentences, and, in English, are not usually abridged by a participle; When I say any¬ thing to you, do not believe all. When you speak, let the other keep silence. In both these examples, the subjects of the participial sentences, viz. I and you , are not repeated in the accompanying principal clauses. These introductory sen¬ tences, therefore, can indeed be abridged in Latin, but they form independent sentences, containing a complete idea in themselves. The Latin usage will now be more definitely stated. 449. When participles are used, the conjunctions and rela¬ tive pronoun qui are omitted, and the English verb becomes a participle, and such a participle as the sentence and con¬ nection require. The tenses compounded with the auxiliary sum,, omit the auxiliary and retain the participle. Hence pater qui docet (docebat), is equivalent to pater docens; pater, qui doce¬ bit (docturus est) = pater docturus; pater, qui doc¬ tus est (erat, erit) = pater doctus. Since, as above remarked, participial sentences differ according to the difference of the sentences from which they are formed, this wilt now be considered more definitely. 32* 378 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§450-452. (1) D epen dent (or united) Participial Sen¬ tences. 450. Dependent participial sentences, therefore, are those whose subject is repeated in the principal clause, and thus the two form a whole. By rejecting the conjunction or the relative who, which , one sentence is formed of two, while the verb of the principal clause becomes the governing verb, and, hence, often changes the case of the subject. The subject, therefore, with its participle, is put in that case, in which the word referring to it in the principal sentence, stands; e. g. When the sun rises, the Persian worships it; or, the Persian worships the sun, when it rises. This is expressed in one sen¬ tence; The Persian worships the rising sun, Persa sol e rn orientem adorat. When tico sentences are thus brought into one , the word which now becomes superfluous, must be omitted, consequently all pronouns, which refer to a substantive that is now definite. But the substan¬ tive should not be separated too far from its participle, and should rather be placed before, than after it; e. g. When you are dead, how will the bite of wild beasts injure you? or ; How icill the bite of icild beasts injure you, when, etc. ? Quid tibi mortuo ferarum morsus oberit ? Such united sentences are formed : 451. (1) By the pronoun who, which, when it is in the nominative. As the participle contains that pronoun in it¬ self, it is considered as a clause explanatory of that, to which the pronoun refers; e. g. This could perhaps have hap¬ pened to Hercules, who teas the son of Jupiter, Herculi Jo¬ vis satu edito. Many employ eloquence, which has been given by nature for the safety of man, to destroy the good, elo¬ quentiam a natura ad salutem hominum datam. 452. When the pronoun who, which, is indefinite and is equi¬ valent to he, who, i. e. any one, such, those, who, or that or those, which, these pronouns are omitted, because they are contained in the participle; for docens signifies he, who teaches, i. e. any one, who; e. g. The knowledge of heavenly things gives en¬ larged views to those (indefinite) who behold the works of God, PARTICIPLES. 379 §§ 453, 454.] affert Dei opera cernentibus. We readily yield to those who speak the truth, verum dicentibus facile cedimus ; that which is lightly got, is lightly spent, male parta male dilabuntur. So: Imperaturus (one who is to command) omnibus eligi debet omnibus. Facilius est currentem (one who is running) incitare quam commovere 1 angue n- t e m (one who is faint). But when who, ichich, refers to a definite pronoun, e. g. this, that person or thing and the like, this pronoun must be used in Latin; e. g. We must gratify him (definite), who, perhaps now for the first time , hears this, h u i c nunc hoc primum fortasse audienti. 453. (’2) Such sentences are also formed by conjunctions which mark introductory sentences, viz. as, since, because, when, after, while, although, etc. When the subjects of these introductory sentences are repeated in the principal senten¬ ces, with which they are connected, then they become united or dependent sentences; e. g. When Masinissa heard this , he wept profusely, Masinissae haec audienti lacrimae ob¬ ortae sunt. When we look upon the heavens, it is certain to us that the world is the work of God, nobis coelum conspi¬ cientibus certum est. The loss of time is irreparable , when it is spent in idleness, jactura temporis segnitie peracti. After Romulus died, Numa Pompilius succeeded him, Romulo mortuo (dative) successit N. P. The authority of these, even when they are dead, might continue to live! horum etiam mortuorum auctoritas! The following’examples arc of the same nature: When the Athe¬ nians made known their distress, help was procnised (promittere) them. What hope have (esse) you, when you stand here idle ? After the enemy had been driven into the valley, the Romans surrounded (cingere) them. The Grecian language must be well understood by him, who wishes to read this book. The Romans levelled (aequare) Corinth with the ground, after it had been taken. (2) / n d ep en d cn t Participial Sentences. 454. Independent participial sentences are those whose subject is not repeated in the principal sentence, and where, 380 CONSTRUCTION OR VERBS. [§§ 455,456. consequently, each sentence stands by itself. The Latins abridge such sentences by the use of their independent ab¬ lative, which, on account of the completeness of the idea, is called ablative absolute. The ablative is particularly appro¬ priate, because it denotes time, cause , and other relations. Here the subject and participle are put in the ablative, and the conjunction is omitted. 455. Such sentences are formed only by the conjunctions mentioned above (§ 453); e. g. When the sun rises, the stars vanish, sole oriente. After Tar quin had been banished from Rome, Brutus was chosen consul, Tarquinio urbe expulso. Friendship prevails between good, men and God, because virtue unites them , virtute conciliante. The Romans wished to fght, although Cicero opposed, Cice¬ rone clamante. When the nature of all things is known, we are free from fear, omnium rerum natura cognita. Perfect passive participles in the neuter, are also used in the ablative absolute without a substantive; e. g. audito , cognito, etc., for quum auditum, cognitum esset. This is fre¬ quent in the historians. So also auspicato , augurato, for quum auspicatum, auguratum esset, after the auspices, etc., had been consulted; sortito, when the lot was cast. Cicero and others use these often in the ablative. Remarks. 456. (1) As many of the foregoing examples show, participial senten¬ ces in Latin, can denote the various relations of time, manner, cu use, mo¬ tive or purpose, and condition or concession. For the sake of a complete and connected view of the subject, some examples are here added to illustrate each of these relations. (1) Time: e. g Pluto died while writing, scribens; after the death of Trajan, Hadrian was made emperor, mortuo Trajano; Tiberius, when he was about to cross the Rhine, sent over his provisions, trajecturus. (2) Manner : So¬ crates often, uttered truth in a jesting wav, ridens. (3) Cause : I as¬ sert nothing, from doubt and distrust of myself , dubitans et imhi ipse diffidens; the Athenians alleged, that Alcibiades was unwilling to take Cyme, •because he had been bribed by the king, corruptum noluisse; Cue! ms writes that Flaminius fell at Thrusimenvs, because sacred duties had been neglected (because he had neglected, or on ac¬ count of his neglect of sacred duties), religione neglecta. (4) PARTICIPLES. 381 §§ 457, 458.] Motive or purpose : The general retired to a hill to defend himself se defensurus. Comp. § 465. (5) Condition or concession: Letters displease, if not delivered at a fitting time , non loco redditae; the greatest virtues must lie dormant, if. pleasure rules, voluptate dominante; if ( although) all be lost, yet virtue can sustain itself, perditis omnibus rebus. Laughter bursts out so suddenly, that we cannot restrain it, if (although or however much ) we desire to, ut cupientes tenere nequeamus. (2) As there is no participle to mark past action in the active, and the sentences so expressed are often better in an abridged form, such active English sentences may be changed into passive ones, because the passive has a past participle : for is, quern amavimus, is the same as amatus a nobis ; urbem, quam v i d i s t i = urbem a te visa in. When such a change takes place, different participial sentences arise, for the introductory sentence either does, or does not refer to its principal sentence ; consequently, the participial sentence is either united with the principal sentence as one, or it is expressed independ¬ ently by the ablative absolute. It is here to be noticed, that, when the subject of the principal sentence occurs in both sentences, it is stated but once , in Latin, and is joined with the principal verb. Examples : After Alexander had taken Thebes, he commanded it to be destroyed, i.e. Alexander, after Thebes had been taken by him, commanded it to be de¬ stroyed (a depend, particip. sentence), Alexander Thebas captas dirui jussit( the words by him to be omitted). Many employ eloquence, which nature has given for the safety of man (which has been given by nature), to destroy the good, eloquentiam a natura ad salutem h. datam. Our ancestors lost this field, which they received from their fathers, hunc agrum acceptum a patribus suis. Cleom¬ brotus, after he had read Plato's booh ( after Plato’s book had been read), threw himself from the wall into the sea, lecto Platonis libro. After Horatius had killed the three Curiatii, and had lost his txco bro¬ thers, he returned home victorious, i. e. H., after the three Curiatii had been killed by him, and his two brothers had been lost, returned, occi¬ sis tribus Curiatiis et duobus amissis fratribus. 457. It is very easy to translate such a sentence actively, when a deponent verb can be used, because then there is a past participle with an active sense, therefore, no change into the passive is needed; e. g. After the consul had taken much booty, he returned to his camp, ' consul ingenti praeda potitus in castra rediit. A fierce contest threatened with the Vejentes, who began the war, cum Vej entibus bellum exorsis. And so conspicari can be used for videre or conspicere ; opitulari, auxiliari, for opem ferre ; loqui for dicere ; hortari, exhortari, for monere, admonere ; nancis- c i for accipere ; pati, perpeti, for tolerare, sustinere ; egredi, for exire ; digredi for discedere, and many others. The following participial forms have such an active sense : c e na¬ tu s (c o e n a t u s), after he had supped; juratus, when he had sworn ; injuratus, conjuratus, pransus and potus; e. g. When the boys had taken their supper, they went to bed, pueri cenati cubitum ierunt, for quum cenassent. 458. (3) When two principal sentences are connected by and, and one of these can be resolved by which or a conjunction, a participial 382 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§§ 459—461. sentence can be formed from it. When a participle is used, and is omitted ; e. g. Decius left the curia, and mounted his horse, i. e. Decius , after he left the curia, mounted —, Decius egressus c u r i a or cu¬ ria relicta equum ascendit. The ambassadors were plundered by robbers, and came trembling into the city , Legati a latronibus spo¬ liati veniunt. The ambassadors asked for friendship, and were an¬ swered, Legatis amicitiam petentibus responsum est. The consul praised the soldier , and then honored him with many presents , consul militem collaudatum multis praemiis ornat, The Egyptians embalmed their dead and buried, them , iEgyptii mortuos inunctos condebant. The Latins look the Volsci , and led them to Rome, comprehensos Volscos duxerunt. An opportunity was given me , and 1 went to Rome , i. e. when an oppor., etc., occasi¬ one oblata R. profectus sum. Alexander threw aicay his arms, and plunged into the cold stream , A. projectis armis se dejecit. 459. (4) When of two or more introductory sentences with a con¬ junction, or of two or more intermediate sentences with the pronoun who , which , only one can be abridged by the participle, the conjunc¬ tion or pronoun must remain with the one which is not changed, but the connective and must be omitted; e. g. Fabius said to Salinator , who had fled into the fortress and ivas boasting —, Salinatori, qui fugerat in arcem, g 1 o r i a n t i dixit Fabius. When the feelings of both parties had been irritated, and the people had become courageous, the senators dared , irritatis utri usque partis animis, quum spiri¬ tum plebs sumpsisset, patres ausi sunt. When they were deliberating respecting the conditions , and the ambassadors inquired what were the demands of the people, Icilius asked , q u u m de conditionibus agere¬ tur, quaerentibus legatis, quae —. 460. (5) But when both introductory sentences connected by and, are changed into participial sentences, then the word and (et) must not con¬ nect them, if the sentences are of a different kind, that is, if one sen¬ tence has an ablative absolute, while the other is united in one with the principal sentence ; e. g. The Carthaginians put Regulus to death by watching , after they had cut off his eye-lids , and confined him upon a machine , C. Regulum resectis palpebris illigatum in ma¬ china vigilando necaverunt. On the contrary, two ablatives absolute are connected by Cicero and others, sometimes with, sometimes with¬ out et; e. g. After Xerxes had built a bridge over the Hellespont , and dug through Athos, he icent on foot over the sea , X. Hellesponto juncto, Athone perfosso, mare ambulavit. After Horatius had killed the three Curiatii , and had lost his tico brothers —, Hora¬ tius, occisis tribus Curiatiis et duobus amissis fratribus. 461. (6) The conjunctions velui, ut, quasi, tamquam (as if), remain, even when the verb is changed into the participle ; e. g. You live as if you would live always, vivitis tamquam semper victuri. It must also be noticed, that the genitive plural of the future active participle is to be carefully avoided on account of the harshness of its sound, except in futurus , a, um. Hence, not auditurorum, auditu¬ rarum. Too many participial sentences, in succession, should be avoided, that the clearness or fulness of the idea may not be lost by abridging it. and that the period may not be injured. Moreover, no sentence, PARTICIPLES. 383 § 461.] which is to be made emphatic by its relative pronoun or conjunction, can be expressed by a participle. Other remarks will be made on the participle hereafter. But pre¬ viously, the following examples on the rules already given, may be written. Examples on §§ 443—461. (1) Even 1 death will not terrify 2 the wise man, who fears nothing in 3 the world. When we die, the hope of immortali¬ ty consoles us. When Servius Tullius reigned at Rome, Pi¬ sistratus was tyrant at Athens. The Stoics call bravery the virtue which contends 5 for right. Lucretius triumphed over 5 the Aequi and Volsci, who had been conquered, and his le¬ gions followed him, when he was triumphing. The good¬ ness 6 of God, that cares even for beasts, which are without* reason, is so great, that it cares for even the smallest beast. O schools, you are the only hope of the country; when you are healthful 7 the state is health ul, when you are sickly 8 , the hope of the country expires. It is known 9 , that Julius Cae¬ sar, when he saw the head of Pompey torn 10 off, shed 11 tears. When we consider 12 the aspect of the world, the thought 13 must 14 immediately come to our minds, that there is a being 15 greater than man. When Romulus was king, almost con¬ stant 16 wars were waged with the neighbors. Many wander 17 about without 18 a purpose, and seek business. How 19 can those who fear death, which threatens 20 hourly 21 , be com¬ posed 22 ? Will you rather 23 believe that man, when he has sworn 24 in his own case 25 , or these, who have not sworn in another’s ? 1 neque (even not). 2 terrere. 3 omnium rerum. 4 propugnare. 5 de. 6 benignitas. * carere. 7 valere. 8 aegrotare. 9 constare. 10 avellere, "fundere. 12 contemplari. 13 cogitatio. ,4 necesse esse. 15 natura. 16 continuus, "vagari. 18 carere. 19 qui. 20 impendere. 21 omnibus ho¬ ris. 22 animo consistere. 23 potius. 24 jurare. 25 lis. (2) When men observe 1 certain bounds 2 in food, dress and other expenses*, frugality is ascribed to them ; and when they exceed 3 these, luxury. Antony first gave to Caesar, when he wished 4 to disturb 5 all things, a cause for waging 6 war against his country. When the Greeks of Europe had taken 7 the sea- coast 8 of Asia, they surrounded 9 it with cities. After Pompey the Great had taken 10 Jerusalem 11 , he touched 12 nothing of the renowned temple. Polyidus foretold the death of his son, when he went 13 to Troy. Why are trees planted 14 , which will give 384 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. [§ 461. nothing but shade 1 What anxiety 15 would trouble 16 the wick¬ ed 17 , if the fear of punishment were removed 18 ? When this has been granted 19 , that also must be granted. When Quinc¬ tius Cincinnatus, the deliverer of a besieged 20 consul and ar¬ my, had been called 21 from the plough, he became 22 Dictator, and, after 23 he had laid 24 down the fasces, returned again to his forsaken 25 estate 26 ; and so Fabricius returned, after Pyrr¬ hus had been driven from the bounds 27 of Italy, and Curius returned again to his paternal lands 28 , after he had subju¬ gated 29 the Sabines. Caesar saved 30 these men of Pompey, and sent them home. The faults of Dolabella were unknown 31 to me, because I did not inquire 32 . Two Arcadians supped 33 to¬ gether 34 in a tavern 35 , and when they had supped, they laid down 36 . When physicians have found the cause of a disease, they think the cure 37 has been found. Servare. 2 modus. * cultus. 3 transire. 4 cupere. 5 perturbare. 6 in¬ ferre. 7 occupare. 8 ora maritima. 9 cingere. 10 capere. n Hierosolyma, -orum. 12 attingere. 13 proficisci (compare § 71.4). 14 conserere. 15 sol¬ licitudo. 16 vexare. 17 impius. 18 tollere. 19 dare. 20 obsidere. 21 vocare. 22 venire. 23 (contained in partic.). 24 deponere. 25 relinquere. 26 here¬ diolum. 27 fines. 28 rus. 29 domare. 30 conservare (part.). 31 occultus. 32 inquirere. 33 coenare. 34 simul. 35 caupona. 36 discumbere. 37 curatio. (3) The dignity 1 of Sparta’s government was shaken 2 by the battle at Leuctra 3 , and fell 4 . When 5 an important letter had been given to Archias, while he was sitting 6 at 7 the feast, he put it under 8 his cushion 9 , sealed 10 as it was, and said : Serious 11 matters I postpone 12 till the morning. The tyrant, Alexander, seized 13 Pelopidas and threw 14 him into prison. Epaminondas made war 15 upon the former 16 and recovered 17 the latter. Every man, when he has committed 18 a crime 19 , is tormented 20 by the stings 21 of conscience; for the crime pursues 22 him, when he sits 23 at the table, floats 24 before his mind, when he sleeps 25 , and rises 26 anew 27 , when he wakes 28 . Should a tempest arise, he fears he shall be struck with light¬ ning 29 ; he does not draw 30 a peaceful breath 31 , because con¬ science always keeps the crime before 32 him, and threatens 33 him with punishment which will follow. Alexander besieged Miletus, which resisted him, and when he had taken 34 it, he marched 35 to Halicarnassus; and, after he had taken all the intervening 36 cities, he besieged this strongly-fortified 37 city, and having conquered it without trouble, levelled 38 it with the ground 39 . Then, when he had subjugated 40 all Caria, he went 41 to Lycia, and from thence, when he had subdued 42 the rebel¬ lious people of Pisidia, marched 43 against Darius and entered 44 §§ 462, 463.] PARTICIPLES. 385 Phrygia. Shortly after he came to Tarsus, and there the clearness' 15 of the river invited the king, who was covered 46 with dust and sweat, to* wash 47 his body, still warm. There¬ fore, he put off 48 his dress, and, in the sight 49 of the army, descended into the river. But, when he had entered 50 , his limbs 51 began to stiffen 52 from the sudden 53 chill 54 . His ser¬ vants carried 55 him, nearly senseless 56 , to his tent 57 . Although the disease increased 58 from day to day, yet by the skill 59 of his- physician, in a short time, he was restored 60 , and went against the army 61 of Darius. After Pompey had conquered Mithridates in a battle, he compelled him to flee to the Bos¬ phorus. ‘majestas. 2 percellere. 3 Leuctricus (at Leuctra). 4 concid&re. ° Archias quum ei—. 6 accubare. 7 in. 8 subjicere (part.). 9 pulvlnus. 10 signare, “serius. 12 dilferre. 13 comprehendere. (part.). 14 conjicere. 15 bello persequi (part.). 16 ille. 17 recuperare. 18 patrare. 19 scelus. 20 conficere. 21 morsus. 22 exagitare. 23 accumbere. 24 observari. 25 dor¬ mire. 28 insurgere. 27 denuo. 28 evigilare. 29 de coelo tangere. 30 ducSre. 31 spiritus. 32 objicere (to keep before). 33 comminari. 34 potiri. 35 profici¬ sci. 36 interjacere. 37 munire. 38 aequare. 39 solum. 40 subigere. 41 ten¬ dere. 42 vincere. 43 contendere. 44 ingredi. 45 liquor. 48 perfundere. * ut. 47 abluere 48 deponere (part.). 49 conspectus, "ingredi. 61 artus. 52 rigere. 53 subitus. 54 horror. 55 deferre. 56 non satis compos mentis (nearly senseless). 57 tabernaculum. 58 ingravescere. 59 peritia. 60 restituere (part.). 61 copiae. Other Remarks on the Participles. 462. (1) Although the verb esse has no participle in the present and imperfect, yet even when this is wanting, a substantive arid adjecti ve, a pronoun and adjective, or two substantives, are often considered as participial sentences. English clauses, containing the pronouns w/to , which, and the verb to be, or such as contain the introductory con¬ junctions, then, while, after, etc., can frequently be translated by such participial sentences. The subject of the participial sentence with its predicate (whether it be a substanti ve or an adjective), either agrees in case with the word to which the subject refers, or, when the sentence is independent, is put in the ablative absolute. The predicate word, therefore, whether it be a substantive or an adjective, must here sup¬ ply the place of the omitted participle. Examples : I began to honor him, when he was not yet very old, eum nondum admodum gran¬ dem natu. Let us honor nature, since she is our teacher and guide , naturam, nostram magistram et duce in. Modesty must bo preserved., especially when nature herself is our teacher and. guide, prae¬ sertim natura ipsa magistra et duce. This happened when /im.« a /;ow (when we were boys), puero me (pueris nobis). 463. (2) Instead of many conjunctions, in English we use prepo¬ sitions ; and instead of verbs, substantives. Such prepositions ares in, during, after, upon, icith, by, etc., when they can be resolved by a 33 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 386 l§ 464. conjunction and a verb ; e. g. at his death , i. e. when he died, raoriens; after his death, i. e. after he died, mortuus. Many substantives contain not precisely a verb, but a personal sub¬ stantive with the verb to be; e. g. the consulship, i. e. to be a consul; e. g. in my consulship, i. e. ze/te/i I was consul. So others: leading, direction, i. e. to be a leader, etc. In like manner, the word advice is often translated by adviser, auctor , suasor , — impulse by impulsor , assistance by adjutor , and so with others. Other substantives contain the force of an adjective ; e. g. presence — present , praesens; absence — absent , absens; life — living , v i- vus. So we express ?c/7// consent, by libens or non invitus; with full consent, the greatest willingness , libent issimus; against my will, invitus; knowledge, sciens ; xcithout hnoicledge, inscius, insciens. The resolution by a conjunction will show the necessary changes to be made in translating such a sentence. >SWc Examples. The most honorable men were accused in their absence (when they were absent), honestissimi homines a bsentes. Pythagoras came to Italy in the reign of Superbus (when S. was reigning), Superbo regnante. The conqueror must do many things, even against his own will, victori etiam invito multa facienda sunt. This hap¬ pened against my will (while [ did not wish it), me invito. This was done with your approbation, vobis approbantibus; with the approbation of gods and men, diis hominibusque approban¬ tibus; before my eyes, me inspectante; during the consulship of Caninius, no one breakfasted (while C. was consul), Caninio con¬ sule. I know not whether Capio died during the life, or after the death, of his father (when his father was alive, etc.), vivone patre suo, an mortuo. This happened in my questorskip (when I, etc.), me quaestore. This 'ook place under my direction and counsel, me duce et me auctore. Defend me in my absence, me ab¬ sente in. You did it in my absence, me absente. I consoled, my¬ self by believing, existimans. Who does not esteem Aristides after his death ? Aristidem mortuum? I believe that nothing is better , with the exception of wisdom, excepta sapientia (abi. absol.). In the beginning of spring (ineunte vere), the buds put forth. The son bought the house with the permission and advice of his father, permittente patre ac suadente. 464. (3) Other prepositions, however, remain in Latin, because their force cannot be expressed by a participle ; but yet the English substantive can be translated by a participle of the verb having the same signification as the substantive. Such prepositions are : before, ante; on account of, o b, propter; until, to, a d, u s q u e ad; for, pro; from, after, since, a, a b ; concerning, out of, d e, e x. Also af¬ ter (post) is often used, when a limitation of time precedes, or when post signifies since, and something is stated, which took place in the period subsequent. But with all of these, the perfect passive partici¬ ple is used, only when an event already actually accomplished, is spo¬ ken of; for when a continuing or future action is spoken of, the ver¬ bal adjective or participle in andus or endus is used. §§ 465 — 407 .] PARTICIPLES. 387 Some Examples. Homer and Hesiod lived before the building of Rome , ante Ho¬ rn a m c o n d i t a in. A few years after the expulsion of the kings, pau¬ cis annis post reges ex pu.lsos. After the recovery of Capua., there teas more anxiety for Spain than for Italy, post receptam Capua m. From the building of Rome to the birth of Christ, a b ur¬ be Roma condita (usque) ad Christum natum. The re¬ gal government of Rome continued from the building of the city, till its liberation , ab condita urbe ad liberatam. On account of the fortification (completed) of the city Verrugo , ob communitam urbem Verruginem. On account of fortifying (not yet done) this city, ob communiendam hanc urbem. For the restora¬ tion (completed) of your health, p r o valetudine tua restituta. For the restoration (not yet done) of your health, pro valetudine tua restituenda. 465. It was said above, when treating of the supine, § 439, that the purpose of a person who wishes to do or is to do something, can also be denoted by the future active participle. When, on the contrary, the person or thing is passive, i. e. when something is to be done to them, the verbal adjective or participle in andus or endus is used, which has been treated at length above, § 362. The sentences, in both instances, are dependent. In English, we often translate parti¬ ciples in andus and endus actively, especially after verbs signifying to give, commit to, intrust to. Some Examples. The Athenians sent ambassadors to Delphi, to consult the oracle, 1 e- gatos oraculum consulturos. A hundred knights ivere sent to plunder, centum equites praedaturi missi sunt. Faustulus gave Romulus and Remus to Acca, to tiring up, Romulum et Remum nu¬ triendos. Romulus and Remus were given to Acca, to bring up, Romulus et Remus nutriendi. 466. (5) Also sentences with that, which depend upon a substan¬ tive, can be formed by the genitive of a participle. Here also one must consider, whether an action already accomplished , or yet unac¬ complished, is spoken of. In the former case, the perfect participle is used ) in the latter, the verbal adjective in andus or endus. Some Examples. The report., that the city Vaga had been taken, nuntius urbis Va¬ gae captae. The consciousness, that danger is incurred by guilt , conscientia contracti culpa periculi. Pompey gave Cicero evi¬ dence, that he had saved his country, testimonium patriae conser¬ vatae. 467. (6) So the preposition without, with a substantive or participle, is translated by a participle with non, or another negative word. With¬ out anything , is nihil, non quidquam ; icithout any, nullus. Instead of non, nisi can also sometimes be used, when there is already a nega¬ tion in the sentence. Comp, also § 538. 388 CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. L§ 467. /Some Examples. Kind nature gives the flowers food and clothing without their labor, floribus non laborantibus. Many men eat without being hungry, non esurientes. / never drink without being thirsty, nunquam nisi sitiens bibo. Oar tears often flow without our will, nob i s nolenti bus. Whoever acts without regard to God and virtue, will seldom act right, nulla Dei virtutisque habita ratione. The nature of man pursues knowledge without being induced by any advan¬ tage, nullo emolumento invitata. The. mother sent array her son, without suspecting any evil, nihil m a li suspicans. Without having used any violence, nulla adhibita vi. Examples on §§ 462—467. (1) By the advice 1 and under the direction 2 of a deserter 3 , the Bruttii blockaded 4 Crotona. It was the Persian Magi, by whose advice Xerxes commanded 5 the temples of Greece to be set on fire 6 . Innumerable arts have been invented, under the instruction 7 of nature. The Stoics changed 8 the names 9 , without changing 10 the things. Ancient historians 11 tell us, in whose consulship 12 the embassy of philosophers came from Athens to Rome. Tell 13 me, whether Crassus died during the lifetime 14 of his father, the ex-consul Publius Crassus. The glory of great deeds 15 will be taken from no one in his life, and the knowledge 16 of the best 17 arts, not even after his death 18 . All the rest of the booty, the commanders gave to the soldiers to plunder 19 . Few have been found, since 20 the human race was born, who, for their country, have exposed 21 their lives to the weapons of the enemy, without the prom¬ ise 22 of reward. Many men range 23 through houses, theatres and markets 24 . If you ask one of these, at his departure 25 , Whither do you wish to go 1 he will answer you, Truly, I know not. Without knowing 26 why they live, they ramble about and seek employment. The Lacedemonians, from jealousy 27 of the Athenians, and from their indignation 28 that they had lost the command of the sea 29 , attempted 30 to rouse 31 many of the cities of Greece against them. The emperor Constantine, who, after the murder of Licinius, had usurped the government, conquered 32 the Goths, who were plunder¬ ing 33 Thrace, and obtained 34 a glorious victory over 35 the Barbarians. Two years after peace was obtained 36 , Indian ambassadors came to him with gifts. With your assistance 37 , we will resist this 38 detestable 39 barbarity. As long as these two live 40 , we shall never have a republic. Alexander went to PARTICIPLES. 389 § 467.] Jupiter Ammon to consult respecting 41 his origin. The cap¬ tives were hewn in pieces 42 , in the presence 43 of many thou¬ sand men. Piso and Gabinius took 44 the two provinces, Syria and Macedonia, as 45 a reward for 46 the destruction 47 of the state, wliolly against their will 48 . All this happened without my knowledge 49 and will 50 . I hope, that this will yet hap¬ pen 51 in our life 14 . 1 auctor. 2 dux. 3 profuga. 4 corona cingere. 5 jubere. 6 inflammare. 7 docere. 8 immutare. 9 vocabulum. 10 commutare. 11 auctor. 12 consul. 13 certiorem facere. 14 vivus. 15 res. 16 scientia. 17 bonus. 18 mori. 19 di¬ ripere. 20 post. 21 objicere 22 proponere. 23 pererrare. 24 forum. 25 ex¬ ire. 28 insciens. 27 invidere. 28 indignari. 29 imperium maritimum. 30 tentare. 31 concitare. 32 perdomare. 33 populari. 34 reportare. 35 a. 36 parere 37 adjutor. 38 iste. 39 immanis. 40 vivus. 41 de. 42 occIdere. 43 inspectare. 44 occupare. 45 pro. 46 (omitted). 47 evertere. 48 invitus (superlative). 49 imprudens. 50 invitus. 51 esse. (2) The Athenians sent Cimon to Asia, to recover 1 the confederate cities, which the Persians had taken 2 . When he had conquered many cities in Lycia and Caria, he dispersed 3 the fleet of the Persians, which fought bravely under the command of Tithraustes. When Germanicus was returning from Egypt, a violent disease attacked 4 him. The terrible 5 violence of this strengthened the conviction 6 , that 7 he had received* poison from Piso. Amulius gave the boys, born of Rhea Silvia, to his servants to throw 8 them into the Tiber. But they were preserved 9 , as the Tiber by some accident 10 had overflowed 11 its banks When they had been left by the retiring stream, the shepherd Faustulus found them, by whom they were brought to Laurentia, his wife, to be educated. Cicero made journeys in the company 12 of his freed-man, Tiro. The enemy made an assault 13 without our men fear¬ ing anything. Verres stole two silver goblets, in the presence of the guests. It is known, that Diogenes, when Alexander came to Corinth to him, remained sitting 14 , without paying any regard 15 to the majesty of the king. Many years before the right of citizenship 16 was given at Heraclea, the renowned poet, Archias, settled 17 at Rome. The Roman people, under the command 18 of Lucullus, opened 19 Pontus, which was de¬ fended 20 by the very 21 nature of the country; the army of the Roman people, under the direction 22 of the same, routed 23 innumerable armies of the Armenians ; also the enemy’s fleet was sunk 24 , when Lucullus fought. That Fulvius, who waged war with the JEtolians in company 25 with Ennius, did not hesitate 26 to consecrate the spoils 27 of Mars to the Muses* 33* 390 POSITION OF WORDS. [§§ 468—470. Something useful will grow 28 from fertile 29 land 90 , even with¬ out the cultivation 31 of any one. Virgil consented 32 , that the JEneid should be published by the poets, Tucca and Varus, but without adding or changing any 33 thing. The earth spontaneously 34 gives 35 various food 36 to animals, with¬ out their labor. It has happened 37 to me and Cotta, contra¬ ry to our hope 38 , but according to the wish 39 of both 40 of us, that we have come to you to-day. Now I am destitute of all the friends by whose help 41 I once defended the state. At the instigation 42 of Caesar, and by his help, Metellus was re¬ conciled 43 with Cicero. 1 recuperare. 2 occupare. 3 tundere. 4 tentare. 5 saevus. 6 persuasio. 7 (particip.). * accipere. 8 mittere. 9 servare. 10 forte quadam (by— accident). 11 effundere. 12 comitari. 13 impetus. 14 immotus, ^ratio¬ nem habere. 16 civitas (right of cit.). 17 collocare domicilium. 18 impe¬ rare. 19 aperire. 20 vallare. 21 ipse. 22 dux. 23 fundere. 24 deprimere. 25 comes. 26 dubitare. 27 manubiae. 28 nasci. 29 uber. 30 terra. 31 colere. 32 permittere. 33 ulla res. 34 ipse. 35 fundere. 36 pastus (plural). 37 cade¬ re. 38 insperans. 39 optare. 40 uterque. 41 adjutor. 42 impulsor. 43 in gra¬ tiam redire. POSITION OF WORDS. 468. Many words have a definite, and, among good prose writers, an almost uniform place in a sentence. The place of other words is more dependent on the idea, which is con¬ tained in the sentence. Both of these will now be treated. It is to be particularly noticed, that words, which are con¬ nected together by the sense, are not to be separated, other¬ wise the sentence is unintelligible and wholly unmeaning. Some words stand only in th ejirst, others only in the sec¬ ond or still more remote place, in the sentence; others again must stand before or after the word to which they be¬ long. 469. (1) The conjunctions sed, at, verum , sin, nam, nam¬ que and etenim, stand first in a sentence. Of this no exam¬ ple is needed. Yet nam, designed to strengthen an interrog¬ ative, stands as an enclitic after that word; e. g. Quisnam — numnam — numquisnam. 470. (2) The conjunctions vero, autem and enim, stand POSITION OF WORDS. 391 § 470.] after one or two words of a sentence, seldom after more; they generally separate the substantive and adjective; e. g. Negat enim; uterque enim; ipse enim Cicero; qui autem voluptatem; illud autem ipsum; tu autem considera; id est autem malum; quum vero illa; Spar¬ tae vero pueri; omne e n i m malum. On the contrary, the strengthening vero (truly), in answer to a question, can stand; e. g. V er o ac libenter. When the sentence begins with a preposition, these words (also etiam and igitur ) do not come between the preposition and the word governed by it, but stand in the third place; e. g. In principiis autem, in quo v e r o, cum his e n i m, a me autem, ex hac enim parte, de nostris autem re¬ bus. The monosyllabic enclitics que, ve , and the interrogative nc are appended to the words to which they belong; e. g. Propter summam familiaritatem summumgwe amorem ; quae audivit, viditve; videswe — ? When que connects a sentence containing a preposition, it is very seldom appended to the preposition, but to the word following it; e. g. In foro que —in r eque —ex Hispania^wfi—ad nummosywe—abs t eque —a meque ipso—inter nos que —ab eodemjwe—ob eam que causam, etc. So also quam primum^we, and as soon as possible. In a sentence, which unites the predicate with the subject by the verb esse, these particles (also etiam and igitur) stand sometimes before and sometimes after the verb. It will be observed: (a) They stand before the declarative esse, when the sen¬ tence is complete, and the subject stands before the verb, and the predicate follows it, even if this predicate forms a sen¬ tence of its own w 7 ith the infinitive or at; e. g. Cupiditates e n i m sunt insatiabiles. Id autem incognitum est minus. Id en i m est maxime vitandum. Omnia enim sunt posita ante oculos. Haec enim plena sunt. Genus autem est id, quod sui similes — duas aut plures complectitur par¬ tes. Sanctitas autem est scientia colendorum deorum. 392 POSITION OP WORDS. [§ 471. This is especially the case in definitions, as in the last two examples. General and indefinite sentences, whose subjects are either the in¬ terrogative quis, quae, quid, or the negative nemo , nihil , generally form an exception to this rule; e. g. Quis est en i m tarn excors ! Quid est e n i in praeclarius ? Nihil est enim tam insigne. Nemo est enim tain senex (Cic. De Sen. 7), not Nemo enim .est—. (b) But when such a sentence begins with the predicate, whether this be a substantive, adjective or participle, or in¬ deed, when the subject stands first, but its predicate follows in a sentence of its own with qui or with quin containing this qui, or when the verb with or without non is emphatical¬ ly placed first, these particles are properly always placed after the verb; e. g. Ars est e n i m philosophia vitae. Alia est enim verborum definitio. Haec est enim vetus et Socra¬ tica ratio. Facilius est enim currentem incitare. Incre¬ dibile est e n i m. Suavis est autem et vehementer saepe utilis locus. Satis est enim. Necesse est enim. Lon¬ gum est e n i m. Tanta est e n i m. Moriendum est enim omnibus. Verisimile est igitur. Cluis est enim, cui non.—duid est a u te m, quod deos veneremur ? Temperantia est enim, quae monet. Ratio est enim, quae praestet omnibus.—Nemo est enim, quin putet. Nihil est enim, quod ad artem redigi possit. Sapientia est enim Hna, quae maestitiam pellat. Non est e n i m philosophia similis artium reliquarum. Non sunt e n i m alia sermonis. Sunt enim quaedam animi similitudines cum corpore. Est autem im¬ pudens luctus. When the first clause is complete, and therefore contains a subject and predicate, then, where the predicate stands first, the particle can occupy even the second place, when the verb is further removed; e. g. Fundamentum autem justitiae est fides. Habenda autem ratio est. Yet this position, in very many passages, in the Latin writers, is questionable,—and some scholars consider the position of the parti¬ cles after esse as the only right one, although quis enim est, qui _ occurs frequently. Therefore, both positions seem to have been used together with little difference in the sense. 471. (3) The conjunctions quoque (also) and quidem (at § 472.] POSITION OF WORDS. 393 least, indeed), stand immediately after the words to which they refer; etiam , on the contrary, stands before the word to which it gives emphasis ; e. g. I doubt not that this is trou¬ blesome to you also, t i b i quoque. A matter o f great im¬ portance requires experience also (usum quoque) and prac¬ tice. At least according to my opinion, mea quidem sen¬ tentia. This is pleasing in appearance at least, specie quidem. I add this also, etiam illud —. The conjunction quidem is often added to the pronouns ille or is, which are used after some other words that contain ad¬ ditional remarks, to make the nouns to which they refer, more prominent; e. g. Lycurgus ysQOvrag Lacedaemone appellavit nimis is quidem paucos duodetriginta. Respecting ille equidem, comp. § 552. 5. So quidem is often joined to et, ut and certe, where it gen¬ erally strengthens the thought and signifies truly, indeed; e. g. And truly all things of great excellence are rare, et quidem omnia praeclara rara ; as indeed I think, u t qui¬ dem ego sentio ; as indeed the cause now is, u t quidem nunc se causa habet. The following is different; As the cause is now at least, ut nunc quidem se causa habet. When quidem is connected with the name of a Roman, who is also designated by his given name, it usually stands after the given name : Lucius quidem Philippus. Also etiam , enim , eque and the other postpositive particles, as well as the pronoun ille take the same place ; e. g. Publius etiam Po¬ pilius, duintus enim Pompeius, Caiusgwe Tuditanus, Cneii autem Octavii eloquentia, Lucius vero Appuleius, Cn. ille Pompeius. So also with given names subsequent to the time of the Romans, the particles are generally placed only after the first; e. g. Hieronymus e n i in (quidem, a u t e m—) Wolfius; Johannes e n i m (q u i d e m—) Frede- ricus Gronovius. 472. (4) Hence, the particles ne quidem, not even, cannot stand together, because ne stands before the word to 394 POSITION OF WORDS. [§§ 473, 474. which it belongs, but quidcm after it. Therefore, the word or words, and even the sentence, to which the negation in the ne quidcm refers, stands between the two particles. So with n e c quidem, and not even ; e. g. Your philosophers un¬ derstand not even this, ne hoc quidem: he was not even then unhappy, ne t u m quidem ; I cannot even be angry at those, whom 1 love much, ego ne irasci possum quidem iis — ; I have not heard even Xenocrates, ne Xenocra¬ tem quidem ; the old man has not even anything to hope, ne quod speret quidem; and this not even wild beasts them¬ selves do, nec fer ae quidem ipsae; also not even in one, ne in u n o quidem quoque. 473. (5) The particle of wonder, tandem,/ ask, I pray, in all the world, then, usually stands directly after relative words, when it belongs to them; hence, after quis, qualis, quantus, etc., seldom does any other word or words come be¬ tween; e. g. What I ask? quae tandem? Of what kind is this, I ask ? quale tandem hoc est ? How long, I pray, will you suffer ? quousque tandem patiere? How much, I ask, do you value this ? quanti tandem aestimatis ? But when the particle relates to another word, it is put after that; e. g. What must we then do, — ? quid nos tandem fa- cere debemus ? Here it refers to nos. So, quis me tan¬ dem jure reprehendat ? 474. (6) The particles itaque, idcirco, igitur, ergo, are, for the most part, so placed in the sentence, that itaque and idcirco, as they have a connective and demonstrative force, stand first, igitur generally takes the second or third place; —the place of ergo, on the contrary, is almost wholly arbi¬ trary, sometimes before, sometimes after other emphatic words. The position of igitur, also, is somewhat arbitrary, but only in conclusions and questions, where it often stands first; e. g. Therefore, this custom always pleases me, itaque mihi sem¬ per — ; therefore, let us despise all folly, contemnamus i gi- t u r ; therefore, this whole circumstance must not be regarded, §§ 475, 470.] POSITION OF WORDS. 395 totus igitur locus; therefore, that which is good, is honor¬ able , bonum igitur quod est, honestum est, or igitur omne bonum honestum ; consequently , no fool is happy, i gl- tur nemo stultus beatus; therefore, the men must not be heard, non ergo erunt homines —; therefore, shall a vete¬ ran soldier be able to do these things, but a sage not, ergo haec veteranus miles? on this account I had begotten him , idcirco eum genueram. The particle igitur lakes the third place, in such cases as are mentioned above, § 470, where eni/n and autem are spoken of. Hence, Duplex est i gl t u r ratio veri reperiendi. Singularis est igitur quae¬ dam natura. Quid est igitur, quod requiras? Qualis est igitur haec conspiratio virtutum. Adhibita est igf- tur ars quaedam. But in the short question, Why is it therefore, to which nothing else belongs, the Latins say, Quid igitur est? Quid ergo est? 475. (7) The particle tamen, yet, nevertheless, when it lias a particular emphasis, and indeed generally in the con¬ clusion of a conditional or concessive sentence, or in a ques¬ tion, takes the first place ; yet it often also stands immediately after that word in a sentence, which is to be made emphatic ; e. g. Although glory has nothing in itself worthy of a wish, yet it follows virtue as a shadow, tamen virtutem sequi¬ tur ; although this may be said, yet it is not said unadvisedly , non inscite tamen dicitur; yet they so dispute this, haec tamen ita disputant; yet, before Pericles, there, was no writing, to which the embellishment of style had been given, tame n ante Periclem, littera nulla est. What ! if I pro¬ duce the testimony of the most virtuous men to Ids innocence, yet shall the unanimity of the Gauls have more weight ? t a- m en lie plus valebit ? he is exempted from the punishment of death, but yet is fined, multatur tamen pecunia. 476. (8) The particle non always stands before the word to which it belongs. When there is only one verb in the sentence to which it 396 POSITION OF WORDS. [§ 476. belongs, it stands before this ; e. g. I doubt not, non dubito ; me non delectat; non dissolvit. When there are two verbs, whether the verb esse with a participle, or an auxiliary verb and an infinitive connected with it, and when neither the participle nor infinitive is anti¬ thetic to another participle or infinitive, non is placed before the auxiliary verb; e. g. These things were not overlooked, praetermissa non sunt. I have not been banished from, the city , pulsus ego civitate non sum. This art is not to be censured , non est reprehendenda. There must be no delay, non est cunctandum. I dare not say this, non audeo haec dicere. The matter could not longer be concealed, diu¬ tius tegi non potuit. The accuser did not cease to recite these, recitare non desivit. Exceptions to this are rare. A change in the position of the negative with respect to the governing verb, may sometimes entirely alter the sense ; e. g. I am not able to read, n o n possum legere, but I am able not to read, i. e. 1 can leave off reading, possum non le¬ gere. So, Fompey had not determined to fight, dimicare non constituerat, but had determined not to fight, non di¬ micare constituerat. For non nemo, nemo non, and the like, see § (541. c.). When non is used to negative an adjective or adverb, it is usually placed before such a word ; e. g. It is not easy to find friends, non facile est. It is not probable, non veri¬ simile est. I do not take this ill, non moleste fero. It is not necessary, non necesse est, non opus est. Yet where adjectives occur with the verb esse, non can al¬ so be placed before the verb, when the adjectives are not an¬ tithetic; e. g. N o n est verisimile, non e s t necesse, n o n est notum. Liberi mei orbi n o n erunt. Hoc mihi no¬ tum non era t. But when non is not designed to negative the adjective or adverb, then it does not stand before it; e. g. You cannot live pleasantly there, ibi jucunde vivere non potes, —not § 477.] POSITION OF WORDS. 397 non jucunde. I cannot longer remain in this life , diu¬ tius esse non possum,—not non diutius. What is by chance, cannot be certain, non possunt esse certa, — not non certa. In a few examples it is otherwise ; e. g„ Quod in Matii familiaritatem venisti, non dici potest, quam valde gaudeam, for dici non potest. (Cic. Fam.. VII, 15). When non or a word containing non , e. g. nemo, nullus, ni¬ hil, is connected with one of the pronouns or adverbs used in negative sentences, as quisquam , ullus , usquam , unquam t (see § 527), it always stands first; e. g. Non memini me unquam te vidisse. Nihil unquam mihi negavit. When two substantives, adjectives, participles and the like, are contrasted with each other, and before one of them the word not is used, while before the other the word but is either used or implied, then non is placed before the former word; e. g. In these words regard was had, not to brevity, but rather to beauty , non brevitati servitum est, sed magis venustati. It is not pleasure that is the opposite of pain, but it is the absence of pain, non voluptas con¬ traria est, sed doloris privatio. He was not led from the court, but dragged, non ductus, sed raptus est. This ship was not taken by our feet, but teas found at Megaris , non capta est, sed inventa. We preserved him for prison, not for the city, carceri, non urbi. The image was not made by the hand of mail, but it fell from heaven, noil humana manu facta, sed —. 477. The words not so — as are always translated, noli tarn — quam ; not more — than non plus, quam ; e. g. Non tarn facile est. Further, when not so stands before an adjective or adverb, it is always expressed by non ita ; e. g. Not so old , n o n it a antiquus. In this one point you do not so much praise Pompey, non ita valde probas. In negative asseverations, where we use double negatives, 34 398 POSITION OF WORDS. [§ 477 first no, then not, the Latins use non but once, and place it first; e. g. No truly, I have not suspected this, n on, meher- cule, suspicatus sum. No! that is not the man, non is vir est. In conclusions, non usually comes before the words igitur and ergo; e. g. Therefore friendship does not look at utility, non igitur utilitatem amicitia sequitur. Therefore those men are not to be heard, non ergo illi sunt audiendi. But yet igitur and ergo very frequently stand in the third place: e. g. Therefore trouble does not befall a wise man, n o n cadit ergo (igitur) in sapientem aegritudo. The words nonnisi, in the sense of only, are always se¬ parated by the classical writers, so that non always stands be¬ fore the verb, but nisi before the word to which only belongs ; e. g. This can happen only to a brave man, id accidere, nisi forti viro, non potest. He was wont to do this before, only on feast days, hoc facere, nisi festis diebus, antea n on sole¬ bat. When a negative principal sentence is connected with a sentence with if, if not, unless (nisi), non usually stands first in its own sentence ; e. g. If this were not to be found in old men, our ancestors would not have called the highest council, a Senate, n o n sum mum concilium—appellassent Senatum. If it stands before the conditional sentence with if, etc. it gains a special emphasis; e. g. non, si tibi ea res grata fuisset, esset etiam probata. But this position is less frequent. As an accusative with the infinitive is closely connected with the governing verb, where such accusative with the infinitive is negative, non almost always stands before the governing verb; e. g. / think this is not possible, non ar¬ bitror hoc fieri posse. He thinks that this direction does not relate io him, die non putat ad se praeceptum pertinere. Hence also, negare, to say, that not. Comp. § 529. Finally, in phrases, as, Who is there (there is no one), to whom this is not clear, non is placed almost at will, but gene- POSITION OF WORDS. 399 $§ 478, 479.] rally after the relative; e. g. Quis est (nemo est), cui non perspicua sint ilia. What state is so strong, that it cannot be shaken by discord ? quae non — everti possit ? There is nothing which length of time cannot attain, quod non — assequi possit. Whom has Pom pry not. preserved ? q u e in n o n Pompeius servavit ? I am not so unfeeling as not to be moved by the grief of my brother , qui fratris maerore non movear. There is no one to whom my safety was not dear, cui mea salus non cara fuerit. Such questions contain affirmations, and therefore the verbs do not require the nega¬ tive. 478. (9) Tn many connections, the particles ita and sic have generally a uniform position ; e. g. No, it is not so, non est i t a,-—more seldom non ita est, but never est non ita or i t a non est. I think so precisely , i t a pror¬ sus sentio (censeo, existimo, etc.), seldom prorsus ita sentio. I under st arid it perfectly, i t a prorsus intelligo. But, Yes, it is so precisely, is written, prorsus ita est or i t a pror¬ sus est, not prorsus est ita. Further; when in the phrase, The thing is so, the word so refers to what precedes, then sic (ita) usually stands first; S i c se res habet, more seldom res se s i c habet ; but when, moreover, that (ut) follows, and so refers principally to what follows, it is written some¬ times res sic se habet, ut—, sometimes s i c se res habet, ut —, sometimes s i c ( ita) resjse habet, ut—, and, when it relates to what follows without ut, sic usually stands at the end ; e. g. The thing was so done, acta res est s i c or res acta s i c est. 479. (10) The pronoun ille (that), when it does not refer to a person or thing previously mentioned in the discourse, but only to the celebrity of a person or thing, stands in the sentence, for the most part, after its substantive, or after an adjective belonging to the substantive ; e. g. Dux ille Grae¬ ciae; triginta illi viri; vetus i 11 u d probatumque prover¬ bium; dominans i 11 e in nobis Deus; imitor Archytam il¬ lum Tarentinum; Cyrus ille Perses; crudelissimus i e 400 POSITION OF WORDS. [§§ 480, 481. Phalaris ; Nonae illae Decembres; crebro mihi vafer ille Siculus insusurrat cantilenam illam suam ; ut ait poeta ille noster; L. Bruto illi, nobilitatis vestrae principi. So hic, iste, ipse, if the substantive is antithetic, or, from its importance to the whole thought of the sentence, is to be made emphatic, stand after it; otherwise they, as well as ille, commonly stand before the substantive, or between an ad¬ jective and substantive; e. g. Disputationem hanc de oratore, etc. malim tibi et Bruto placere, eloquentiam autem meam populo probari. Neque Aristotelem is tum desidero. Caedem hanc ipsam contra remp. decrevit. 480. (11) The pronoun quisque (each, every one), in all its cases and numbers, is placed after the word to which it belongs, in three circumstances; viz. (a) After the reflexive pronouns sui , sibi, se and suus ; e. g. S i b i quisque carus est ; ipse se q u i s q u e diligit ; de se quisque bene sentit. Each one is chiefly influenced by his own desire, suo quisque studio. All advice must have reference to the peculiar nature of each one, ad suara cujusque naturam. The Stoics call everything by its own name, suo quamque rem nomine appellant. Every one ought to defend his friends, suos quisque debet tueri. The best L.atin writers put the reflexive pronouns after quisque, only when quisque is placed in a subordinate sentence standing first, but yet belongs to the principal sentence, as its subject, or when the reflexive pronoun must, for the sake of emphasis, stand last in the sentence ; e. g. Whul every one knows to be his own, let him take (let every one take what he knows to be his own), quod quisque suum agnoverit, toliat. As much as every one esteems himself, so much will he be esteemed by his friends, quanti quisque se ipse facit, tan¬ ti fiat ab amicis. That suits each one best, which is peculiar to each, id maxime quemque decet, quod est cujusque maxime suum. Comp. § 506. 481. (b) Quisque is placed after superlatives, when it be¬ longs to these, and stands instead of omnes ; e. g. Every truly good man shows this by the very act, optimus quisque. This is most pleasant in every intimate friend, in amicis¬ simo quoque. Among all the most noble, there is a strife POSITION OF WORDS. 401 §§ 432—484.] for honor, in optimis quibusque. On the contrary, in the phrase, ut quisque (comp. §95) with the superlative, it stands before the superlative. 482. (c) Quisque is placed after the ordinal numbers , in the sense of every; ever if fifth year (every five years) Sicily is taxed, quinto quoque anno. Every tenth, decimus q u i s q u e. 483. (12) When for the purpose of inspiring confidence in one’s self, the English phrase believe me is used, mild gen¬ erally stands before crede and credite , in Cicero ; e. g. Believe me, whatever you have heard is false, m i h i crede. Cice¬ ro has placed it after the verb only occasionally ; others do it oftener. 484. (L3) Substantive pronouns are most commonly in¬ serted between two closely connected words, and especially between an adjective pronoun and its substantive; e. g. Res tuae quotidie faciliores m i h i et meliores videntur. Officiis diligenter a me sancteque servatis. Hic me dolor angit, haec m e cura sollicitat. Hac ego religione non repulsus. Quod i 11 e periculum vitavit. Ut in illa quisque aetate esse poterat. Quo quidquid animo fiat. Quo quisque loco cecidit. Two pronouns in a sentence, referring to each other, are usually placed near one another; e. g. You icish him to send something to me, tu eu m vis aliquid ad me mittere. I have all these common with you, haec omnia m i h i tecum sunt communia. I wish to be praised by you, me abs te cupio laudari. So also pronouns of the same person are very fre¬ quently placed next to one another, e. g. Tuae tibi oc¬ currunt injuriae. Hunc tu tua voluntate remove metum* Sua ipsi frumenta corrumpunt. Suis s e laudibus con¬ solari. The pronoun ipse, when it is in the same case with another pronoun, e. g. me, mild, and has no special emphasis, follows that pronoun, therefore me ipsum, mihi ipsi and the like; yet 34* 402 POSITION OF WORDS. [§§ 485—487. when it is emphatic and has the sense of even, it stands be¬ fore ; e. g. of me myself ', even of me, de i p s o me; even to me, ad ipsum me ; as much as I myself (even), quantum ipse ego. But when it stands in the nominative, since it refers to the subject of the verb, it can stand before or after the other pronoun; e. g. qui ipse sibi assentatur, et se max¬ ime ipse delectat. In the sense of very, just, it is always placed after the other pronoun to which it refers ; e. g. ille ipse, hie ipse. Comp. § 126. 485. (14) When phrases, e. g. as I believe, think — u t cre¬ do, arbitror, opinor, etc., also similar ones without u t: credo, censeo, opinor, stand by themselves, without another sentence being dependent on them, then those words are usually placed not before or after, but within the other sentence, and generally after the most important word; e. g. I believe Endymion is not yet awake , Endymion nondum, opinor, est experrectus. My feelings towards you were not changeable, as you write , in te non fui, u t scribis, an¬ imo mobili. I believe, Verres designedly left this word out of his testimony, Verres hoc verbum consulto, arbitror, ex testimonio suo omisit. 486. (15) The adjective omnis, for the most part, stands after pronouns; e. g. all these, all those, hi omnes, illi omne s, not omnes hi, omnes illi. So also in Greek : ovzoi ndvzeg, zavza 7Tavzu. Hence, e. g. The Stoics define all these, haec omnia definiunt Stoici. I am moved by the tears of all these , horum omniu m. But a few pos¬ sessed the places of honor, the provinces and, all other tilings et a 1 i a o m n i a. So also, omitto et haec et alia permulta. 487. (16) The position of inquam is to be noticed in two respects: (a) It is never placed before the words of the speaker, but is inserted among them; e. g. Plato says justly: No wise man punishes, because a fault has been committed, recte Plato : Nemo prudens, inquit, punit. — Tum ille: nempe POSITION OF WORDS. 403 §§ 488, 489.] eum dicis, inquit, quo —. Istum ipsum, inquam, d i- c o librum. (b) When inquam has its subject joined with it in the dis¬ course, the subject usually stands after the verb, as some¬ times in English, said I, said Plato; e. g. Said Cotta, it seems to me so truly , mihi vere, inquit Cotta, videtur. Julius said, What if I assent to Antony ? quid si, i n qu i t Julius, assentior Antonio ? So in all similar intermediate phrases, the subject is mostly placed after the verb; e. g. Scribit Cicero, putat Plato, censuit Caesar. The subject of the formula, ut ait, has also the same posi¬ tion ; e. g. A diseased mind, as Ennius says, always errs, ut ait Ennius. Ut ait idem Terentius. As Socrates says in Xenophon, ut ait apudX. Socrates. The sub¬ ject stands before the verb, only when two subjects are con¬ trasted with each other, or when is followed by qui, is the subject; e. g. As he says, whom we follow, ut is ait quern sequimur. So also with other similar verbs, ut scribit Ci¬ cer o, ut refert Livius, ut censet Zeno, etc. 488. (17) The explanations of a proper name usually stand after it, because they contain nothing which has any effect on the sentence. Hence, Cicero con s u 1; Tib.Grac¬ chus tribunus plebis; Laevinus Praetor; Thales Milesius; Dionysius tyrannus; Sardanapalus opul¬ entissimus Syriae rex. The explanatory word stands before the name of a person, only when it is to distinguish one person from another ; e. g. When Mucius the augur leas dead, I went to Pontifex Mucius, Mucio augure mortuo, mead p o n t i fi c e m Mucium contuli. Or when something emphatic is contained in it, as when Cicero says: Scythes Anacharsis hoc potuit, nostrates philosophi facere non possunt? or when he relates that, Cinna commanded the head of his colleague, the consul Octavius , to he cut off, Cinna, collegae sui, consulis Cn. Octavii prae¬ cidi caput jussit; or when the name itself stands emphatically at the end of a sentence ; e. g. The senate decreed an inquiry against the con¬ sul, viz. Caepio, decreta a senatu consuli quaestio Caepioni. Yet many predicates stand first; e. g. rex, urhs, oppidum, Athenien¬ sis, and the like, as it seems, without any special reason. 489. (18) The phrase ut ita di cam, so to speak, stands 404 POSITION OP WORDS. [§$ 490,491. either directly before or after the word, for the use of which an apology is to be made; e. g. In our herd, so to speak, in nostro, ut ita dicam, grege. The best and most beau¬ tiful furniture of life, so to speak , optima et pulcherrima vitae, ut ita dicam, supellex. This is a low and by no means, so to speak, noble origin of friendship , et minime generosus, ut ita dicam, ortus. 490. (19) Certain phrases, proverbs and titles have the position of the words of which they are composed, almost al¬ ways fixed. These often stand differently in English ; e. g. By sea and land, t e r r a marique, seldom et terra et mari, et mari et terra, mari terraque. With fire and sword, ferro ignique, ferro atque igni, fer¬ ro flammaque; but flamma et ferro. With might and main, with all speed, manibus pedibusque, velis remisque or ventis rerais, equis viris or equis v i r i s q u e. To forbid one the use of fire and water , alicui interdicere aqua e t i g n i. In peace and in war, domi militiaeque, domi bellique. Neither in peace nor in war, nec domi nec militiae. Neither peace nor war, neque pax, neque bellum. Between hope and fear, inter spem metumq ue. Human and divine right, jus f a s- que. Further: JBdilis curulis ; Tribunus plebis, Tribunus militum or militaris ; Patres conscripti; campus Martius; populus Romanus ; dii immortales ; jus civile ; res militaris; via Appia, and so similar forms. Further ; it is always said sursum deorsum ; huc, illuc ; hic, ubi; ultro citroque, ultro et citro, ortus et occasus, diem noctemque, dies noctesque or noctes et dies ; aequi et boni or aequi boni; Deus optimus maximus; aequius melius seldom melius aequius. 491. (20) When a substantive belongs to two or more prepositions, which govern different cases, it does not stand after the last, but either after the first, or is repeated with each preposition, or instead of the substantive, a pronoun referring to it, is used with the second; e. g. Both in and out § 492.] POSITION OF WORDS. 495 of the body, o tin corpore et extra, not et in et extra corpus. Inquire what happened before, what with, what after the event, quid ante rem, quid cum re, quid post re in evenerit. Much had, been said for and against the Li¬ ciniem law, 1 pro lege Licinio contraque earn inulta dicta erant. So, et in consulatu tuo et post consula¬ tum; contra legem p r o q u e lege; pro tabulis et contra tabulas; pro testibus et contra tes¬ tes, etc. Yet ante can be connected with post by et, be¬ cause both are also adverbs for antea, postea. Hence, ad Herenn. IV. 55, quae ante et post et in ipsa re facta erunt, is rierht. On the contrary, when both prepositions govern the same case, they can be connected either by et or que, and their substantive be placed after the second preposition or as be¬ fore ; e. g. The Gauls dwelt on the hither and farther sides of the Po, citra et ultra Padum or citra Padum ul- traque. So, intra extraque munitiones; ante signa circaque. But two prepositions without a substantive are never con¬ nected with each other by et. Therefore, pro et contra (for and against) instead of in vtramque partem, in contrarias partes, does not accord with Latin usage. Two prepositions also, which belong to different substantives, cannot be placed after each other; e. g. ad inter pugnam eum adjuvandum for ad e u m inter p. a d j u v. Ante diem in the calendar forms an exception to this, where in and ex can stand before ante. 492. (21) The prepositions versus and tenus never stand before their cases, but always after them ; e. g. Curio trav¬ elled from Asia towards Rome, Romam versus. Spain as far as the ocean is a witness, oceano tenus. The preposition cum is always placed after the ablatives, me, tc , se, nobis, vobis —,can stand before and after quo, qua, quibus, but always stands before other pronouns and sub 406 POSITION OF WORDS. [§ 492. stantives. Hence mecum, tecum , vobiscum, quocum, cum quo, cum ilia, cum Deo. When an adjective or pronoun with a substantive belongs to one preposition, the Latins very often put the preposition between them; e. g. hanc ob rem, hanc ob causam, alia in causa, multis in rebus, quo de genere mortis, quod propter studium, etc. Yet is generally follows the prepo¬ sition ; e. g. ob eam rem, d e ea re. But a preposition cannot stand between a substantive and an adjective following it; e. g. causis de multis, for multis de causis; res ad rusticas, for ad res rusticas ; castra in minora venit, for minora i n castra. Cicero, especially in legal phrases, has frequently placed the prepo¬ sition after the single qui, without a substantive : e. g. qua d e agi¬ tur, qua de judicatum est, quo de quaestio est, quos ad, quos propter, quem contra, quem penes, etc. The poets and later writers put prepositions, especially those of two syllables, after sub¬ stantives. This Cicero never does, and it is not to be imitated. We do not therefore say spem praeter , but praeter spem. It is also to be noticed, that Cicero never puts the preposition between the adjective medius and its noun, but before the adjective ; e. g. in medios hostes , not medios in hostes ; and in like manner with is, ea, id, — earn ob rem, ea de re, eam ob causam, ea de causa are as little used for ob earn rem, ob eam causam , except when by is, ea, id, the object is to be made em¬ phatic, and the pronoun signifies such a. A preposition may also be separated from its case. This is most frequently done by a genitive of attribute, or an adverb, which, with the word they limit or qualify, like adjectives, form as it were but a single idea. E. g. / cannot think virtue sufficient for a happy life, ad b e- a t e vivendum ; not for a contest of opinions, but — , non ad j u d i c i o- rum certamen. Even an explanatory clause may be added to this g'nit ye, end thus the p eposition be removed still farther from its case; e. g. officia pertinent ad earum r e r u m, quibus utunturhom- ines, facultatem. More rarely by other limiting words, and here, too, only by such as form with the word which they limit,as it were but one idea. E. g. In bella gerentibus. Cum i g n oin i n i a dignis. Ad beneficiis obstringendos homines. In suum cuique tribuendo A nescio qua dignitate. So, too, a con¬ junction, like the enclitics que, ve , also autem , vero, tamen, quidem, enim and other particle's, is often inserted between the preposition and its case, yet Ihese conjunctions often stand after the case governed by the preposition. E. g Exque his. Deve dictatura, d e v e coloni¬ is. Post v e r o Sullae victoriam. Post e n i m Chrysippum. Prop¬ ter vel gratiam vel dignitatem. But in is not commonly thus separated from its case; thus, in il]o autern, etc., not in autem illo. §§ 493, 494.] POSITION OF WORDS. 407 493. (22) When sentences with et — et; vel — vel; aut — aut; cum — cum; turn — turn; non modo — sed (ve¬ rum) etiam — etc., have some common substantive, pronoun or adjective, then this is either placed before the first particle, or in some proper place in the second sentence; e. g. Who is governed not only by the mind and will of the other, but also by his look and nod, qui ad alterius non modo sen- sum ac voluntatem. Both by better regulations and laws , melioribus et institutis et legibus. How great was either the admiration or complaint of the men ! quanto hominu m erat vel admiratio vel querela ! He did not expose himself to the danger either of death or of slavery, non se aut mortis aut servitutis periculo commisit. So also, ab onini non modo fortuna, verum etiam spe ; tali vel scientia vel natura; summam ingenii non laudem modo, sed etiam admira¬ tionem ; sine ulla non modo religione, sed etiam dissimu¬ latione. 494. (23) In such phrases as, I think that this must be done, the pronoun when emphatic is placed first, therefore hoc or id censeo esse faciendum, not censeo esse hoc fac. I took it very ill that I saw, — illud plane moleste tuli, quod. Yet I wish you to know this, — hoc tamen te scire volo. Examples for practice on §§ 468—494. (1) To despise 1 riches is a mark 9 of a great mind, but 3 to deprive 4 another of something for his advantage, is contrary to nature. I do not believe this at least 5 . This also 6 does not seem to me probable. Pythagoras did not wish to offer a victim 7 even to the Delian Apollo. Dionysius said 8 laugh¬ ing : See, ye friends, how much 9 the gods favor 10 us ! Every one offered something to Socrates, according to 11 his ability 12 . Only a few entreat 13 the all-powerful 14 and good 15 God to 16 make them just and wise. Many praise that which is not to be praised. It is not proper to follow 17 virtue for the sake of praise; but 18 , when praise follows 19 after, then the desire to strive 20 for it, is doubled. The Grecians waged many wars with the Persians, by sea and by land. Xerxes desolated 408 POSITION OF WORDS. [§ 494. Greece with fire and sword, and spared not even the temples of the gods. Here you have a gift, which, at least in my opinion, is great. It is certain, that almost every one cares more for himself than for others. Old men also 6 still hope to live long. When the city is besieged, every one must 21 be concerned 22 for himself. God has given to every animal 23 its own peculiar nature. This letter was not sent 24 the day on which it was written. Great 25 , indeed, is the genius of the boy, but yet fickle 26 . I cannot be longer 27 in this life. It is not necessary to mention all. On that day, great slaughter was caused 28 on this side and on that. A place without a haven cannot be safe for ships. The orator considers 29 times and persons; for I believe, that we may* not always speak either with, or against, or for, or of every one, in the same manner. We can perhaps render 30 some 31 assistance 32 to our friends, each according 11 to his ability. What has occurred to my mind 33 for and against this, I will briefly explain. We are not accustomed to believe a liar 34 , even when 35 he speaks the truth. 1 contemnere. 2 (see § 142.). 3 autem. 4 detrahere. 5 quidem. 6 quo- que. 7 hostia. 8 inquam. 9 quantopere. 10 favere. 11 pro. 12 facultates. 13 implorare. 14 maximus. 15 optimus. 16 ut. 17 sequi. 18 sed. ^conse¬ qui. 20 appetere. 21 oportere. 22 timere. 23 animans. 2, dare. 25 (for em¬ phasis, ille is added after magnus , and pueri ingenium is put at the end). 28 multiplex. 27 diu. 28 inferre. 29 respicere. * licere. 30 ferre. 31 ali¬ quid. 32 ops. 33 mens. 34 mendax. 35 (participle). (2) All 1 the truly 2 wise and noble 3 are exposed totheenvy of wicked men. Every one hopes the best for himself. Stil¬ po was asked, whether he had lost anything. He said 4 : no¬ thing; for l carry 5 everything of mine with me. Many do not call even that proper, which they call good. We consi¬ der Europe the smallest portion of the earth, but yet it is the most cultivated 6 . It is not so, as most have hitherto 7 believed and every one has hitherto dreamed. The yEtoiians besieged Chalcis by sea and land. I do not ask you, but the poet him¬ self. No consular man, not only not 8 by his voice, but not even by his look, gave assent 9 to Piso. Nature has desired that everything should be perfect in its kind 10 . Everything which he has related, has not happened. When a great quan¬ tity of gold and silver was carried in a procession 11 , Socrates said : How many things I do not desire 12 . Believe me, that I am nowhere more pleased 13 , than with you. You refer 14 me to the philosophers, who do not often go 15 to battle. Epi- § 494.] POSITION OF WORDS. 409 curus does not know what pleasure is, therefore 16 , let us pass him by 17 . He refers us to nature; but 18 she not only permits this, but 19 even demands 20 it. We are more diffuse 21 , than it is necessary ; for who is there, to whom all this is not plain 22 ? Panaetius used unnecessary evidence in a case not doubtful. Distinguished 23 men are animated 24 by wisdom and virtue; for* in these is the highest good. A field can¬ not be fruitful 25 without cultivation 26 . Nature is the mother of all these things. Publius Scipio Nasica was also 27 consi¬ dered an eloquent man. So shameful 28 an act 29 cannot be believed; for 30 great is the influence of humanity. There were no examinations 31 respecting these things 32 before; for Lucius Piso first made a law respecting extortion 33 . With what despatch this has been done 34 , is not to be pass¬ ed over 35 by me. Fire and water were forbidden 36 Cicero. Who 37 , therefore 38 , does not admit, that this is true ? When 39 I think 40 of your travels, many things occur to me for and against. ’quisque. 2 sapientissimus (truly wise). 3 optimus. 4 inquam. 5 por¬ tare — cum. 6 cultus. 7 adhuc. 8 non modo (not only not ; the verb must stand in the second clause, see § 540). 9 assentire. 10 genus. II pompa. 12 desiderare. 13 libens. 14 revocare. 15 prodire. 16 igitur. 17 omittere. 18 vero. 19 verum. 20 postulare. 21 longus. 22 perspicuus. 23 praestans. 24 excitare. * etenim. 23 fructuosus. 26 cultura. 27 etiam (is placed in the sentence). 28 nefarius. 29 res. 30 enim. 31 quaestio. 32 res. 33 res repetundae. 34 gerere. 35 praeterire (periph. conjugation). 36 interdicere. 37 quis est, qui. 38 igitur. 39 (participle). 40 cogitare. (3) When you also 1 think 2 the same, I will continue as I have begun 3 . Antony said 4 : often have I heard this at least from 5 Crassus. P. Mummius at least can testify this to me. Innumerable things might be named, but it is not necessary. Life does not seem to have been taken from L. Crassus, but death to have been given. It is deeply impressed 6 on our minds 7 , that death is not a destruction, but a kind of journey. I do not speak* of a certain unusual 8 , but of the common 9 prudence. Every truly wise man dies most calmly 10 . Every thirty days, Antiochus paid thirty talents to the Roman state. The sense of sight, as Plato says 11 , is the most acute w'e have. There is no mortal who escapes pain, as Hypsipyle says in Euripides. When that Oilus 12 in Sophocles had heard of the death of his son, he became broken hearted 13 . At every third word, he called 14 me by name. No one of all those is more dear to me, than you. All perceive, that that was not praise 15 but insult 16 . Many do all this, thinking 17 that it 35 410 POSITION OF WORDS. [§ 495. must 18 happen. Ido not intend 19 to mention 20 everything, which is wont to he said for and against these men. 1 do not know, whether 21 bribery 22 has been committed 23 or not. The custom of the Peripatetics pleases me, viz., to argue 24 upon all subjects for and against. 1 quoque. 2 existimare. 3 instituere. 4 inquam. 5 ex c haerere (deep¬ ly impressed). 7 mens. * disputare. 8 excellens. 9 vulgaris. 10 aequo animo. 11 aio. 12 (subject stands before the conjunction). 13 frangere. 14 appellare (to call by name). 15 laudatio. 16 irriso. 17 opinari. 18 opor¬ tere. ,9 esse in animo (to intend). 20 relerre. 21 ne. 22 largitio. 23 lier*. 84 disserere. Continuation of the preceding subject. 495. (1) The pronoun qui, quae, quod, when it refers to something preceding, or has attracted the substantive belong¬ ing to it into its own sentence, always stands first in the sen¬ tence. The Latins use this pronoun oftener than we do our relative; for they very frequently employ it for the demon¬ strative pronouns hic, haec, hoc. In a sentence with the con¬ junction that, where qui, quae, quod is used for hir, liaec, hoc, the principal sentence must be inserted in the other. So, ex quo is used for ex eo ,from this ; therefore is expressed by qua (de) re,quam ob causam (rem), quapropter, quocirca, qua de causa; there, by ubi for ibi; thither, by quo for eo; from thence, by unde for inde. All of these must begin the sen¬ tence. There is need of care in changing and placing these relative words. Examples. When I had said (his, quae (quod) quum dixissem. If this is so, quod si ita est. Since this is so, quae quum ita sint. Although this excites no doubt, quod quamquam dubitationem non habet. One saying of Epicurus among these , I thought I understood , e quibus unum Epicuri dictum mihi videbar cognoscere. Since the violence of this contention is so great, cujus contentionis quum tanta vis sit. When Kama had sat down there, u b i quum N. considisset. When I was going thither, quo quum me conferrem. Because now it had been inscribed upon these, in quibus quod inscriptum erat. When the ensign could not at that lime —, quo tempore quum signifer non posset —. Because Castor and, Pollux in this buttle —, qua in pmjna quia Castor et Pollux —. When this had happened —, quod quum factum esset, or briefly, quo facto. Herodotus writes, that this hud POSITION OF WORDS. 411 § 496 .] been advised to Croesus, quod Croeso scribit Herodotus esse prae¬ ceptum. The event has shown, that this was true, q u a in r e m veram fuisse eventus declaravit. So in such sentences as, When you had come thither. When I could, obtain this by a icord. When l had read the life of this king. Examples for practice. Many of our institutions 1 are derived 2 from the Greeks; I omit these 3 , that we may not seem to have learned else¬ where 4 . Two passions remain 5 ; if these 3 shall not trouble 6 the wise man, his mind will always be tranquil. There are many infirmities 7 of the mind; all these 3 arise from a certain fear of those things which we avoid and hate. Distempers 8 of the body can exist 9 without guilt, not so 10 those of the mind ; for 11 ail the diseases of this 3 arise from the neglect 12 of reason. Great is the number of brave Romans; the Greeks do not know 13 all these 3 . It is very pleasing to me that these men have wished, that I should be in health 14 . When these 3 men made known 15 to me the unjust remarks 16 , I was very much grieved. Therefore 17 , I defended the cause of Crassus in the Senate, and 18 you write, that you heard it. I wonder, that this 3 topic 19 has not been touched 20 by Posido¬ nius. Do we not see the mode of life 21 of the Lacedemoni¬ ans 22 , in their Philitia 7 When Dionysius had supped 23 there he said 24 , that he did not like 25 that black broth. When there had been great assemblies 26 in these cities, I determined to travel to Cilicia. ‘institutum (comp. § J45. 6). 2 ducere. 3 qui. 4 aliunde. 5 restare. 6 cadere in aliquem. 7 aegrotatio. 8 offensio 9 accidere. 10 non item (after the genitive). 11 (omitted). 12 aspernatio. 13 noscere. 14 salvus. 15 perferre. 16 sermo. 17 quam ob rem. 18 (omitted). 19 locus, ^tangere. 21 victus (mode of living). 22 (genitive). 23 cenare. 24 negare (which contains the following not). 25 delectari. 26 conventus. 496. (2) But when qui, quae , quod refers to something following, especially to is, ca, id, in the following clause, then other words which seem to be more important in the sentence, can stand first. The conjunctions mentioned above (§ 469), which do not refer to this relative introductory sen¬ tence, but to the principal sentence following, are here placed before the relative; e. g. But what is plain, ought not to he long, sed quae perspicua sunt, longa esse non debent. What has been brought to Rome, may be seen near the temple 412 POSITION OF WORDS. [§497. » of honor, Romam quae asportata sunt. Let him who de¬ votes himself to the government of the state, btivare, a d r e m gerendam qui accedit. Those, who have these vir¬ tues, are called talented, eas virtutes qu i habent. Instead of e a s virtutes, quas virtutes could have been used. There¬ fore, before such a qui, still another qid, used for hic, haec, hoc, can stand, because it refers to something preceding; e. g. Nothing is more worthy of praise than virtue; whoever shall have obtained this, will be esteemed by all, quam qui adeptus erit, ab omnibus diligetur. 497. (3) When an introductory and a concluding sentence have a common subject, this subject almost always stands be¬ fore the conjunction of the introductory sentence, because, as subject of the leading sentence, it is the principal word. Also all words which belong to the subject, must stand in the first part of the sentence. An exception occurs, when some¬ thing else stands in the sentence, which refers to what pre¬ cedes, and hence requires to be placed first; so also, when the subjects I, thou, we, ye, are not sufficiently emphatic to be placed first, as single words. But when the subject of the two sentences is not common, but yet designates the princi¬ pal person spoken of, then also it is placed first. There is seldom an exception. Some Examples . When Darius, in his flight had drunk muddy water, he said —, Darius, quum — bibisset, dixit. After Dionysius the elder, had plundered the temple of Proserpine, he set sail for Syracuse; and when he was sailing with a favorable wind, he said, Dionysius major, quum — expilasset, Syracusas navigabat ; i s q u e, quum — navigaret, dixit. If commerce is small, it is unworthy of attention, mercatura si tenuis est, sordida —. If that elevation of mind, which is manifested in dangers, is without justice, it is faulty, ea an¬ imi elatio, quae cernitur in periculis, si justitia vacat, POSITION OF WORDS. 413 §§ 498, 499.] in vitio est. But because I am now compelled to speak, map my voice be of service to them, ego qutem quia nunc loqui cogor, vox rnea iis serviat. As soon as Crassus heard this, being moved thereby, he arose , quod ubi audivit, commotus Crassus surrexit, or q u o d Crassus ubi audiv. When Aristides had heard this , he came to the assembly , quod Aristides quum audivisset. 498. (4) In like manner, the Latins usually place the sub¬ ject of a principal sentence before the introductory sentence, even when this subject, in English, is in the introductory sen¬ tence, and they supply, in the latter, the place of this subject, by a demonstrative pronoun in an oblique case ; e. g. When it had been announced to Anaxagoras, he said —, i. e. Anax¬ agoras, when it had been ann. to him —, Anaxagoras, quum e i nuntiatum esset — dixit. When it had happened to the consul L. Paulas, he perceived , L. P a u 1 u s consul, quum ei contigisset — animadvertit. When a certain one asked Sophocles, he aptly replied, bene Sophocles, quum ex eo quidam quaereret, respondit. This construction occurs particularly with participles, when the subject of the principal clause is mentioned and must be sought in the participial sentence ; e. g. When Xenophon consulted Socrates, he said to him , Socrates Xenophonti consulenti dixit. After the enemy had learned this circumstance , they command Lutetia, to be set on fire, h o s- te s, hac re cognita, Lutetiam incendi jubent. Yet when qui. is used, it is put in the case required by the sentence which stands first, beginning with a conjunction ; e. g. IVhcn it had been announced to him, he arose, c u i quum nuntiatum esset, surrexit, not qui, quum ei nunt. Comp. § 521. 499. (5) In like manner, the Latins usually place the com¬ mon object of two sentences, the one an introductory, the other a concluding sentence, before the conjunction of the introductory sentence. This is especially the case, when the object is emphatic; e. g. If circumstances will favor this change, we will make it the more easily, eam mutationem, si tempora juvabunt, facilius — faciemus. This rule is observed also, when the object belonging to the subordinate clause, is the most important in the discourse ; 35* » 414 POSITION OF WORDS. [§§ 500 , 501 . e. g. But you wish to knoiv, wherefore I have defended and praised Vatinius , Vatinium autem scire te velle ostendis, quibus rebus adductus defenderim et laudarim; Vatinius is here the principal person of the subsequent discourse. 500. (6) Those words, which refer to what precedes, gene¬ rally stand first in the sentence. It is for this reason, that de¬ monstrative pronouns and the relative, when they relate to a preceding substantive, are always placed first. So also sub¬ stantives, which refer to something before said, usually take the first place in the sentence, in preference to all others, even conjunctions and relatives ; e. g. But when we say, that folly and injustice must be avoided, stultitiam autem et i n- justitiam quum dicimus esse fugiendam. Since I embrace this opinion, hanc ego quum teneam sententiam. When it comes to this, ad ea quum accedit. Those who place this in virtue alone, id qui in una virtute ponunt. But as for what you say, that there is leisure, to this I assent, otium au¬ tem quod dicis esse, assentior. Since the violence of this con¬ test is so great, we will use it, hujus (cujus) conten¬ tionis quum tanta vis sit, utemur. If this sighing brought any relief —, qui gemitus si levationis aliquid afferret —. 501. (7) Interrogative words are often placed after the subjects and other words of the principal sentence, which, in respect, to the idea, and the connection with what precedes, are more important. Even in indirect questions, the direct governing questions are placed after the indirect; e. g. But what shall I expect from the tribuneship of C. Gracchus ? de C. Gracchi autem tribunatu quid expectem 1 They know not of what nature and hoiv great is this strength of friend¬ ship, nesciunt, haec vis amicitiae qualis et quanta sit. What diseases, I ask, can be more afflictive in the body than these two, sorrow and desire ? quibus duobus morbis, aegri¬ tudine et cupiditate, q u i tandem possunt in corpore esse graviores ? But who knoios what will be the state of the re¬ public? tempora autem reipublicae qualia futura sint, § 502 .] POSITION OF WORDS. 415 q u i s s c i t ? This is the question, whether it is more proba¬ ble,, that he icho was slain at Rome, toas slain by him who —, hoc quaeritur, eum qui Romae sit occisus, utrum verisi¬ milius sit ab eo esse occisum, qui —. The position of the words here is particularly worthy of notice. 502. (8) All conjunctions, which form introductory sen¬ tences, e. g. quum, si, quia, nisi , etc., can, as many of the preceding examples have shown, stand after other words of the sentence. Therefore, they sometimes begin the sentence, and sometimes an emphatic word is placed before them ; e. g. .Si indigetis pecuniae, pecuniam non habetis. Mors si e s t misera, miseriae finis esse nullus potest. But they must always stand after other words, when one of the conjunctions, which are uniformly placed first, e. g. et, narn, ctenim, sed, verum, at, itaque , stands with them. Hence, so often, nam quum, sed quoniam , etenim si, sed quia, itaque quum, etc. Examples for practice on §§ 496—502. Whoever 1 censures the study of wisdom, considers 2 nothing worthy of praise 3 . If the wise man compares the life of the fool with his, he enjoys 4 greater pleasure 5 . When cranes go 6 to warmer regions 7 and fly 8 over the sea, they form 9 the figure of a triangle. Whoever admires this, may confess, that he does not know what a good man is. When ambassadors had brought 10 fifty talents to Xenocrates from Alexander, he re¬ fused 11 them. When Timotheus, that illustrious man of Athens and the first of the state, had supped 12 with Plato, he said : Your supper 13 is pleasant, not only the present, but also the following day. If Sophocles had said this 14 same, in a review 15 of the combatants 10 , he would not 17 have been blamed. If these philosophers wish to be consistent 18 , they cannot speak of duty. Do we not 19 see the frugal mode of living 20 among the Lacedemonians 21 , in their Philitia? When a man 22 of low origin said to C. Laelius, that he was unworthy of his ancestors, he replied 23 : But 24 truly, you are worthy of yours. When Mettus asked 25 Tullus Hostilius, whether this propo¬ sal 26 pleased him, he answered : Yes. When Alexander had conquered 27 Darius, at Issus, he marched 28 to Phoenicia. 416 POSITION OF WORDS. [§§ 503 , 504 . When two young men, who were sitting on white horses, told Vatienus on his journey* to Rome, that Perseus was con¬ quered, he announced it to the senate. When I had made known 29 to the augur, Spurinna, your former 30 mode 31 of life, he announced 32 great danger to the state, unless 33 you re¬ turned 34 to your former habits 35 . I wait to see what this course of Caesar through Apulia to Brundusium, effects 36 . 1 (§ 500). 2 putare. 3 laudandus. 4 afficere. 5 voluptas. 6 petere (par¬ ticiple, but not in the second subordinate clause). 7 loca. * transmit¬ tere. 9 facere. 10 afferre. 11 aspernari. 12 cenare. 13 cena. 14 hic idem. 15 probatio. 16 athleta. 17 reprehensione carere. 1S consentaneum esse. 19 (§ 501). 20 victus (mode of living). 21 (genitive). 22 quidam malo ge- nerenatus. 23 inquam. 24 at hercule. 25 interrogare (participle). 26 con¬ silium. 27 fundere (participle). 2S proficisci. * (participle). 29 exponere. 30 superior. 31 vita. 32 nuntiare. 33 nisi. 34 reverti. 35 consuetudo. 36 ef¬ ficere. End of the preceding subject. 503. The preceding paragraphs have shown, both what words have a definite , unalterable place in the sentence, and also, that many, from their reference to a preceding or follow ing sentence, obtain a more prominent position. But the po¬ sition of all words in a single or compound sentence, gene¬ rally depends as little upon the option of the writer, as the po¬ sition of those which have been mentioned. 504. The best Latin writers regarded three things in the position of their words, viz .perspicuity, emphasis and euphony. These fix the position, sometimes before , sometimes in the mid¬ dle, , sometimes at the end. Perspicuity was the first law according to which words were placed, even when they were removed out of their natu¬ ral logical connection. The emphasis , tone or force, by which many words were made prominent for the sake of contrast, must have given to them a more conspicuous place, than they had according to their common and natural position. But finally, euphony also had much influence in giving to words a position different from the common one. Even for the un¬ derstanding itself, as well as for the ear, there is need, in a complete sentence, of a gradual rising and a corresponding falling of the words, so that the important words serve, some- § 505 .] POSITION OF WORDS. 417 times for the rising, sometimes for the falling, and the oth¬ ers belonging to the sentence are placed in order, in the mid¬ dle ; for the most emphatic words never stand in the middle. Thus the euphonic construction often contributes to the em¬ phasis, and yet both must be so arranged as not to injure the perspicuity of the sentence. Hence, it is an almost uniform law, that words which are to be made prominent in a sentence, are either placed frst or last, or, at least, do not retain their common position. On this subject the following particulars are to be noticed. 505. (1) When a sentence contains nothing more than a subject and predicate, and neither is to be made emphatic, they retain their natural or logical position ; e. g. homines sunt mortales. JPater meus mortuus est. A change would give a special emphasis to mortales or mortuus est. An adjective stands, in its common position, after the sub¬ stantive, when it is not emphatic; when it is emphatic, be¬ fore; e. g. Vita h u m a n a est fragilis. Liber tuus mihi placet. In some connections, this is almost always the case; e. g. Pontifex maximus, Tribunus militaris, campus Martius, populus Romanus, via Appia, mola salsa, Dii immortales, jus civile, res mili¬ taris, res familiaris, homines nobiles, patres con¬ scripti, frater germanus, fratres gemini and many others. Compare above § 490. In many cases, a particular meaning depends upon the position of the adjective; e. g. bona dicta, witticisms; mala res (in the phrase, abi in malem rem), ill luck. Res with an adjective always re¬ tains the first place, when, for want of a simple substantive, an abstract idea is to be denoted thereby; e. g. res publica , res familiaris, res domestica, res navalis, res gesta. Only for the sake of contrast is this position changed. Indefinite pronouns, such as quidam, aliquis, quispiam , ullus , etc. are either placed, like adjectives after substan¬ tives, or inserted between the adjective and substantive; 418 POSITION OF WORDS. [§ 50 ( 3 . but if the pronoun be emphatic, then, like the adjective, it stands before the substantive; e. g. Membra quaedam amputantur. Est gloria solida quaedam res. Quae¬ dam Socratica medicina. Every case depending on a verb, when it contains nothing emphatic, stands before its verb; e. g. Litteras tuas ex¬ specto, t i b i liberos meos commendo. Memoriam tuam admiror. Mortem malum judico. An adverb, which more nearly defines an adjective, verb or adverb, also stands before its word, unless it is to be made emphatic; e. g. Ego te valde rogo. Is p 1 a n e perspicit* Mors quotidie imminet. As to the arrangement of the limiting adjuncts of the verb, where there are several, of them, no general rule can be laid down. It may be observed, however, that those limitations, which modify the idea of the verb itself, commonly stand next to it, the verb as it were blending with them into one idea. Here belong (1) accusatives, in constructions such as facere fortem , dare assessorem (as an advi¬ ser), which, as attributes of the object of the verb, follow this ob¬ ject, and thus stand in immediate connection with the verb; e. g. Lacedaemonii regibus suis augurem assessorem dederunt. Necessitudo etiam timidos fortes facit. ( 2 ) The genitive or any other case, that supplies the place of such an attribute; e. g. Caesar omnes honores sui beneficii fecit. Caesar Galliam omnem in obsequio habuit. (3) The dative with esse and other verbs, in answer to the question for what; e. g. Caesar T. Sextium lega¬ tum castris p r a e s i d io reliquerat. Tibi sanguis non modo volup¬ tati, sed etiam quaestui fuit. (4) The genitive or ablative , with such verbs as without these cases would express only an incomplete or indefinite idea; e. g. Afficere (poena, beneficio, morbo), damnare (capitis, capite), absolvere, liberare and the like. Me ipsum ex tua erga Lucceium benignitate maxima voluptate affici. (5) Designations of place in answer to the question whither? or supines with verbs of motion ; e. g. Ex epulis in cubiculum venit. Anci liberi Suessam Pometiam exsulatum ierant, (b’) For the rest, the broader limitation usually precedes the narrower , the less neces¬ sary, that which is more necessary, the personal object, that of the thing; e. g. Valerius in templum ad tribunos venit. Brutus Ardeam in castra est profectus. Caesar in Galliam ad conven¬ tus agendos profectus est. Fulci ni us uxori grande pondus argenti in atr i q ue partem bonorum majorem legavit. 51)6. (2) When, on the contrary, a word is emphatic in a sentence, especially by a contrast which is either contained in what precedes, or is expressed in the sentence itself, then § 506 .] POSITION OF WORDS. 419 such a word always has a prominent place, either first in the sentence or at the end. So also, when a word is emphatic by some other special distinction, since then adjectives stand be¬ fore the substantives; e. g. Est (there is really) magna spes. Ars est enim philosophia vitae. Mathematicorum iste mos est, non est philosophorum. Stoicorum autem ignoras quam sit subtile disserendi genus. Quis li¬ benter exercitationem ullam corporis suscipit laborio¬ sam? Graeco verbo utamur, si quando minus occur¬ rat Latinum. N e c e s s i t a t i s inventa antiquiora sunt, quam v o 1 u p t a t i s. Romae regnatum est ab condita urbe ad liberatam ducentos quadraginta quatuor annos. Hoc tibi non sine magna mercede continget. Eum genui mortalem. Rem opinor spectari oportere, non verba. Praeclara vero auspicia, si esurientibus pullis res geri poterit, s a t u4 i s non geretur. Therefore, without emphasis it is said ; e. g. bellum Punicum p r i m u m (secundum, tertium); but the second Punic war was the most bloody , is expressed by, Secundum bellum Punicum. So also, always b o n o, la e to, hilari animo esse. Therefore, the possessive pronouns meus, tuus, suus, noster , vester , stand before their substantives, when they signify my own , etc., and generally, when they have emphasis; but when they stand after their substantives, they only point out more definitely the person to whom the substantive belongs; in¬ deed, they are for the most part wholly omitted, when the con¬ nection determines the person; e. g. Neque praetores suis opibus, neque nos nostro studio quidquam proficimus. N ostra haec fuerunt officia. Flaminius id suo more neglexit. Hoc praestantius mihi fuerit, si in tua scripta pervenero, quam si in c e t e r o r u m. Hence the Latin says only mea, tun - causa; men , tua - sponte; mea, tun , sua - voluntate {goodwill); mco - nomine , meis — verbis , in my name. Seldom otherwise. It is only when a remark is placed at the close of the sentence, that they stand 420 POSITION OF WORDS. [§§ 507 , 508 . either always at the end, or are separated from their substan¬ tive and placed first; e. g. quas (sententias) exposui arbitra¬ tu meo. T u o id quidem, inquam, arbitratu. Remarks. Hence, the emphasis and prominence given by an otherwise unu¬ sual position, shows that Cicero (ad Q. f'rat. 1,1, 38) says, Ajfyia via for the usual via Appia , in order to contrast it with the Asiatic icuy; that (Lael. 16) he says, quam multa, quae nostra (nostri) causa non facimus, facimus causa amicorum, not amicorum c a u s a, as the usual rule requires, in order to make, by the last place in the sen¬ tence, the genitive amicorum, more prominent, as being contrast¬ ed with n o s t r a (n o s t r i); and that (Off. 1. 31. 113) he says, Id maxime quemque decet, quod est cujusque maxime s u u rn, since, according to the common rule (§ 480), it must have been written, quod maxime suum cujusque est. But by this position, suum would have been without emphasis. So he says also : o m n i a, judi¬ ces, haec amissa sunt, for which he could also have said : haec, judi¬ ces, amissa sunt omnia, but not haec omni a, jud. amissa sunt, with the same sense. Elsewhere : sed plena sunt errorum o m n i a. 507. (3) When an adjective belongs to two or more sub¬ stantives, if it is emphatic, it is placed before, or after the first substantive ; if it is not emphatic, after the last; but it never stands before the second ; when emphatic, it is also repeated with each substantive; e. g. The bulls contended with the greatest violence and ardor , summa vi impetuque. This instruction specifies certain principles and rules of speaking , rationes certas et precepta dicendi. Volusenus was a man of great sagacity and valor , et consilii magni et virtutis. Zc.no ivas an inventor , not so much of new things as of new ivorcls, Zeno non tam rerum inventor fuit, quam verbo¬ rum novorum. I have devoted all my exertions , labor , care and diligence to Mild’s consulship, ego o m n i a in e a studia, omnem operam, curam, industriam. Trusting to a consciousness of my duty and to my benevolence, fretus con¬ scientia officii mei benevolentiaque. So, Utinam tibi ope¬ ram meam s t u d i u m q u e navare potuissem. 508. (4) A genitive depending upon a substantive or an adjective, in its natural position, stands after the substantive. So always, Tribunus plebis, Tribunus m i 1 i t u m, ma- § 509 .] POSITION OF WORDS. 421 gister equitum, praefectus annonae, urbis, prae¬ torio —, and all other offices. But when this genitive is more important, and the mind thinks first of the idea contained in it, the Latins generally place the genitive before the substan¬ tive ; e. g. Care of health, valetudinis curatio. With¬ out fear of pain, sine doloris metu. The life of glut¬ tons is to he censured, luxuriosorum vita est reprehen¬ denda. The laws prefer the good of all to the good of in¬ dividuals, leges omnium salutem singulorum saluti anteponunt. Hence so often, Animi magnitudo, terrae motus, juris scientia, juris consultus, juris peritus,, pugnandi avidus, etc. When two genitives depend upon a noun, one of the subject, the other of the object, the genitive of the subject (subjective) generally stands first; e. g. Cognoscit hominis principium magistratuum gerendorum. When a genitive contains something emphatic, it is often separated from the word which governs it, and is placed either at the beginning or at the end of the clause; e. g. I dare not impose on you any burden, oneris tibi imponere non audeo qu idqu am. I see that you have had sufficient time to investigate these things, satis video tibi — ad ea cog¬ noscenda — fuisse temporis. So, Ut hoc saltern in maximis malis boni consequamur, where boni stands near malis, because it is contrasted with it, (see §513). Ini¬ tium quod huic cum matre fuerit simultatis, audistis. 509. The Latins very frequently place such a genitive before the substantive, when this latter has an adjective agreeing with it, so that generally the adjective stands first, then the genitive, and the substantive last. The adjective is seldom last. This position is necessary, in most instances, for perspicuity ; e. g. The highest study of eloquence, sum- mum eloquentiae studium. Further: Universa A g ri¬ geri tinorum multitudo. Omnes vitae casus. In sum¬ ma bonorum ac fortium civium copia. Haec pe¬ cuniarum effusio. Propter hoc injuriae genus. Rec- 36 422 POSITION OF WORDS. [§§ 510 — 512 . tarn vitae sequuntur viam. Contemplare nocturnam coe¬ li formam. Considera omnem membrorum et totius corporis figuram. 510. Hence, between the adjective and substantive, the Latins often place words depending upon the substantive, or sometimes, conversely, they place even the governing sub¬ stantive between the genitive of a substantive and adjective; e. g. Mea in te pietas. Merita erga me tua. Aliquod erga me singulare beneficium. Hoc mutuae inter nos caritatis pignus. Propter plurimos in omnibus fere carminibus locos. Ex illo coelesti Epicuri de natura volumine. Nostra in amicos benevolentia. Magnitudo tuorum erga me meritorum. Tu quoque ean¬ dem de mea voluntate erga te spem habes. Saepe miror nonnullorum insolentiam philosophorum. 511. (5) The ablative, which often follows a comparative, and which is used for quam with a nominative or accusative, is placed before the comparative, when perspicuity and em¬ phasis require it; e. g. Ita mundus erit homine deterior. Nihil est in historia pura et illustri brevitate dul¬ cius. Nihil est virtute amabilius. Negamus quidquam hac sententia esse absurdius. Illo homine nemi¬ nem unquam vidi deformiorem. 512. (6) When an infinitive, as a predicate, stands in con¬ trast with a negative infinitive following, it is placed first in the sentence; e. g. Decipere hoc quidern est, non judicare. Praecipitare istuc quidem est, non descendere. But when the negative sentence stands first, it begins with hoc, and the infinitives are placed nearer together; e.g. Hoc est non dividere, sed frangere. Hoc est non conside¬ rare, sed—. So in a single question, with a negative sense ; e. g. Hoc est auxilium plebi ferre? And so, finally, when there is merely an affirmative sentence without a negative: Hoc quidem est amicitiam ad calculos revocare. Vim POSITION OF WORDS. 423 §§513, 514.] hoc quidem est afferre, where Cicero has only placed the most forcible word, first. 513. (7) Words which are contrasted, whether they have the same or a different sense, generally stand together, in or¬ der to heighten the emphasis contained in them ; or, when they stand in two sentences following each other, fehe Latins bring them as near as possible, so that one may stand at the end of the sentence, the other at the beginning of the next. In this way, a sameness of similar sentences is avoided. Quaedam falsa veri speciem ferunt. Rebus injustis justi maxime dolent. Imponenda sunt nova novis rebus nomina. Multa multis de jure suo cedit. Quamobrem voluptas expe¬ tenda, fugiendus dolor est. Non omnia omnibus cupienda sunt. Concordia maxima, minima avaritia erat. Philosophia medetur animis, inanes sollicitudines detrahi t, cupiditatibus liberat, pellit timores. Urbem incendiis, caede cives, Ita¬ liam bello liberavi. Quorum altera prosunt, nocent altera. Nobis miserum, invidiosum vobis est desertam rempublicam invadi. Patent hominum illustrium illustribus hospitibus domus. Artemisia quamdiu vixit, vixit in luctu. Ea quum tempore commutantur, commutatur officium. Et excessus e vita, et in vita mansio. Catilinae erat satis loquentiae, sapientiae parum. Nemo parum diu vixit, qui virtutis perfec¬ tae perfecto functus est munere. And so many similar expres¬ sions. Finally, 514. (8) The Latins, not only in their orations, but also in their letters, and universally, wherever beauty and force of ex¬ pression were aimed at, paid very great regard to a euphonic, energetic rise and corresponding fall of the words, and ar¬ ranged the other words in a proper and harmonious succes¬ sion, at the same time avoiding obscurity and indistinctness. Some examples : Nunquam praestantibus in republica gu¬ bernanda viris laudata est in una sententia perpetua perman¬ sio. Cic. Fam. I, 10. Hoc velim tibi persuadeas, magnam te ex eo et perpetuam voluptatem esse capturum. Cic. Fam. III, 2. Quod tu si tanti facies, quanti ego semper judicavi faciendum esse, facies sapienter, et ages victor ex inimicorum dolore tri¬ umphum justissimum. Cic. Fam. III, 10. Decimus quidem Brutus, summus ille vir et imperator, Attii carminibus tem¬ plorum ac monumentorum aditus exornavit suorum. Cic. 424 POSITION OF WORDS. [§ 514 . Arch. XI, 27. Videmusne, nullum ab iis, qui in id certamen descendant, devitari dolorem ? Cic. Tuse. II, 26. Nulla in judiciis severitas, nulla religio, nulla denique jam existiman¬ tur esse judicia. Cic. Verr. I, 15, 43. The attentive reader will frequently meet with such pas¬ sages in Cicero’s writings, snud he will particularly notice, thtt Cicero does not arbitrarily separate words from each other. Examples for practice on §§ 50o—514. The Roman people, at a certain time, surpassed all nations in bravery. I beseech the immortal gods, that no misfortune may prevent you. The pure 1 are restrained' 2 from lewdness by the fear of disgrace 3 . We see the faults of others, forget our own. Yes, this is indeed to wish 4 , not to teach. This is truly not to covet 5 , but to plunder. We ought to honor, protect and preserve 6 the common union 7 of 8 the whole hu¬ man race. Take care 9 of my children, as thy good will to¬ wards 10 me and my children deserves. Nothing is dearer to man, than wisdom. Of these ways, one is longer, the other shorter. If there are no gods, what in the nature of things 11 can be better than man ? I am the more indebted to you, the more noble 12 your generosity 13 was to 14 me, than mine to you. The dispute 15 is wholly* respecting the dignity of vir¬ tue. No forgetfulness will efface my remembrance of your kindness towards me. When 16 this is established 17 in philoso¬ phy, then all is established. We agree 18 in respect to the thing itself, in language we differ 19 . Amongall the shameful crimes 20 of all, I have not 21 seen nor 21 heard of any more shameful. We magnify 22 the future by fear, the present by sorrow 23 . I indeed 24 would prefer wisdom, poor in words 25 , rather than babbling 26 folly. The Greeks have 27 a rich 28 lan¬ guage, the Romans a poor 29 one. When Zeno had found any uncommon 30 thing, he gave 31 this thing also 32 an un¬ heard of name. This is not to consider, but, as it were 33 , to choose by lot 34 , what you say. I believe, that we should** have regard 35 to things, not to words. One of the enemy cried out: Romans, that is to boast 36 , not to wage war ! No one has lived too short 37 a time, who has performed 38 the per¬ fect office 39 of perfect virtue. Excess 40 disturbs 41 the whole 42 condition 43 of the mind. Wickedness always prefers 44 the vil to the good. The multitude 45 of things begets 46 a multi- ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 425 §515.] tude of words. You have considered my friend as your friend. This we have said in our way 47 , the Epicureans say it in theirs. New names must be given 48 to new things. ’pudicus. 2 arcere. 3 infamia (comp.§508). 4 optare. 6 concupiscere. ®servare. 7 conciliatio. 8 (§508). 9 tueri. 10 (§510). n (§508). 12 celsus. 13 humanitas. 14 (§510). 13 contentio. * omnis. 16 (participle). 17 con¬ stituere. 18 consentire. 19 pugnare. 20 flagitium (shame, crime). 21 nul¬ lus (not any). 22 augere. 23 maeror. 24 equidem. 25 indisertus. 26 loquax. 87 uti. 28 copiosus. 29 inops. 30 inusitatus. 31 imponere. 32 quoque. 33 quasi. 34 sortiri. ** oportere. 35 spectare. 36 ostentare. 37 parum diu. 38 fungi. 39 munus. 40 intemperantia. 41 conturbare. 42 omnis. 43 status. 44 anteponere. 45 copia. 46 gignere. 47 mos. 48 ponere. ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 515. When a principal thought is expanded by several sub¬ ordinate ones, Cicero and the other classic Latin writers usu¬ ally arrange these different sentences, which are mutually re¬ lated to each other, in such a manner, that those, whose oc¬ currence is first in point of time, or is conceived to be first, are placed before the others. Therefore, sentences which denote a cause, occasion, con¬ dition, hindrance, concession, a circumstance which makes something necessary, a preceding historical event, etc., are usually placed before the others, or are inserted within them. Hence, sentences with as (ut, quamquam), which contain a comparison, generally stand before the others. Here it is to be noticed, that the following sentence then begins with sic or ita, but these words are not added, when the order of the sentences is inverted. Finally, all relative sentences with qui, quicunque, quisquis, qualis, quantus, quot and the like, generally stand before those with which they are connected, consequently before their de¬ monstrative sentences; or, if this is not the case, they are, at least, placed as near these as possible; e. g. Is it strange, if the human mind has not attained that, which divine power can¬ not attain? nurn hoc mirum est, quod vis divina assequi non possit, si id mens humana adepta non sit 1 If I reflect with myself on those calamities with which fortune has sever e- 36* 426 ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. [§§ 516 , 517 . ly visited me, si e os casus, in quibus me fortuna vehe¬ menter exercuit, mecum ipse considero. Here, also, belong all dependent interrogative sentences, which are often placed before the governing sentence; e. g. Hut who knows what the condition of the state will he? tempora autem reipublicae qualia futura sint, quis scit? You ask, against whom I say this, in quern hoc dicam, quaeris. What shall I say, respect¬ ing what number of slaves he has ? familiam quantam habeat, <1 u i d ego dicam? Comp. § 501. 516. Where this transposition of sentences takes place, it is often necessary to remove some substantive, which is com¬ mon to two sentences, from one of them, and insert it in that whicli is placed first, that this may not be ambiguous, and, on the other hand, to put in its place a demonstrative pronoun. And so also the conjunctions igitur, autem, etc., which pro¬ perly belong to the principal sentence, are placed in the pre¬ ceding relative sentence ; e. g. I regret that you share in the expense, which must he borne, illud doleo, quae impensa facienda est, in ejus partem te venire, instead of illud doleo, te in partem impensae venire, quae facienda est. With¬ out doubt, those desires which rove too far, exceed their limit and measure, qui appetitus longius evagantur, i i sine du¬ bio finem et modum transeunt, for ii appetitus finem et m. transeunt, q u i longius evagantur. Why, therefore, shall we not engage in those studies, which have no connection with the business of the state ? quae igitur studia vacationem habent publici muneris, i i s cur non utamur ? The following passage is worthy of notice : You have determined, that you must acquire those qualifications, by which those noble deeds, the glory of which you have eagerly desired, are accomplished; thus in Cicero (F am. II, 4): Tu hoc statuisti, quarum lau¬ dum gloriam adamaris, q u i b u s a r t i b u s eae laudes com¬ parantor, in i i s esse elaborandum. 517. In those sentences which contain a concession and begin with although, where the subordinate sentence lakes the first place, the principal the second, the word tamen isge- § 518 .] ARRANGEMENT OF SENTENCES. 427 nerally inserted at or near the beginning of the principal sen¬ tence ; e. g. The name of this business , we achiowlege is new , although toe see that it is itself very olcl , q u a m r e m anti¬ quissimam quum videamus, nomen tamen confitemur esse recens. Some f urther examples for this section. 518. The science of living is derived f rom law, since this ought to correct the vices and commend the virtues, Quoniam vitiorum emen¬ datricem legem esse oportet, commendatricemque virtutum, ab ea vivendi doctrina ducitur. As we ought to rise that language in ichich we were horn, so we should show no disagreement in our actions and in our whole life, U t sermone eo debemus uti, qui natus est nobis, s i c in actiones omnemque vitam nullam discrepantiam conferre debemus. They ran to arms with a loud cry, as soon as these things had been re¬ hearsed, Haec q u u m recitata essent, cum magno clamore ad arma discursum est. Wherever you look, your evil deeds, like furies , meet your eyes, Quocumque adspicis, u t furiae, s i c tuae tibi occurrunt injuriae. I pass over what I had foreseen besides , Quae praeterea providerim, praetereo. I icish to learn, how you do, and what istaking place , Quid agas, q u i d q u e agatur, certior fieri volo. If any one is very elevated in his views, he conceals, from shame, his desire for pleasure, however much he may be captivated with it, si quis est erecti¬ or, quamvis voluptate capiatur, occultat et dissimulat appetitum voluptatis, propter verecundiam. He predicted what we all then feared icould happen, ille praedixit ea, quae omnes eo tempore ne accide¬ rent, timebamus. And now I have, as 1 think, satisfactorily shown, how morality , upon ichich duty depends , is derived from those things which rest in the justice of human society, Atque ab iis rebus, quae sunt in jure societatis humanae, quemadmodum ducatur honestum, ex quo aptum est otficium, satis fere diximus. These and similar passages show, with how much art, the Latins often arrange their sentences and interweave them with each other. But they do not always do this. Very often their sentences stand just as the English is usually arranged. Examples on §§ 515—517. We must contend against old age, as 1 against a disease. We serve 2 him especially 3 , from whom we hope the most, al¬ though 4 he 5 needs it the least. All pleasure is referred 6 to the mind, although it is judged of by the bodily 7 " 1 sense. We now surrender ourselves to you heartily 8 and wholly, as before in a great measure 9 . He can in no way live with a tranquil 10 mind, who fears what cannot be avoided 11 ; but he obtains 12 a great security 13 for a happy life, who does not fear death, not only because we must*' die, but also because death has nothing 428 SENTENCES CONNECTED BY Q U I. [§§519,520. that is to be feared 14 . What pain ought not willingly 15 to be en¬ dured 16 , in order to 17 escape 18 these faults. Verres sought 19 everything which he sought, not to 17 preserve' 20 it but to carry 21 it away. That, I will now 22 pass over, because it will seem unimportant 23 . I would not venture to speak in this place, if impudence had as much influence 24 in the forum and the courts, as 25 boldness has 26 in the field 27 and in retired places. Most urgently 28 I ask you to 17 do this for the sake of my honor. It is folly not to be willing to receive gifts from those, whom we ask 29 for them, when 30 they present 31 and give them. I have read, with great pleasure, the book which you recently sent to me. I will most zealously 32 continue 33 the defence of thy merits 34 , which I undertook in thy absence 35 . Hanquam. 2 inservire. 3 potissimum. 4 etiamsi. 5 ille. 6 referri. 7 cor- pus. 8 penitus. 9 magna ex parte. 10 quietus. 11 vitare. 12 comparare. 13 praesidium * necesse esse. 14 horrendus. 15 ultro. 16 subire. 17 ut (in order to) 18 effugere. 19 requirere. 20 servare. 21 asportare. 22 jam. 23 levis. 24 valere (to have — influence). 25 quantum 2e posse. 27 ager. 28 etiam atque etiam. 29 precari ab aliquo aliquid. 30 (participle). 31 por¬ rigere. 32 studiose. 33 permanere in aliqua re. 34 dignitas (singular). 35 absens. CONNECTION OF SENTENCES, ESPECIALLY BY MEANS OF THE PRONOUN QUI, QUAE, QUOD. 519. Cicero but seldom, and then only in spirited narra¬ tion, uses disconnected sentences; most of them are connect¬ ed with others. Besides the frequent use of nec in negative sentences, (for which see § 528), he employs the pronoun qui, quae, quod , referring to preceding substantives, to con¬ nect his sentences. But since we use the pronoun who, which, only in explanatory sentences and such as define an object more exactly, we cannot often, in our language, connect sen¬ tences by who and which, as the Latin does by qui, quae, quod , but we must be satisfied with our personal and demonstra¬ tive pronouns. The following particulars are to be noticed respecting the use of qui, quae, quod: 520. (1) Qui , quae, quod often supplies the place of our pronouns this, he, I, and thou, when they refer to persons or things before mentioned. Since this qui continues what pre¬ cedes, according to § 495, it must stand^rstf in the sentence; § 520 .] SENTENCES CONNECTED BY QUI. 429 e. g. There arc very many disgraceful acts (turpitudines); why they do not belong to the wise, it is very easy to show, quae cur non cadant in sapientem. The state cannot be properly man¬ aged by me. In how great danger it is, Iwill describe as brief¬ ly as possible, Q, u a e quanto sit in periculo. Hence, from this, is 90 often express«d by ex quo; thifher, by quo; wherefore, by q u a in o b rem, qua d e causa, etc. Com¬ pare § 495. We generally connect single sentences which refer to each other, by the conjunctions and, for, but, therefore, hence and the like, but in Latin, where the pronoun qui is used instead of hie, is, etc., these conjunctions must be omitted ; e. g. Uniformity in one’s lohole life, is most honorable ; but (and) you cannot preserve this, if —, q u a m conservare non possis, si — not quamque or quam autem. And so always in phrases, as : And this is the source of many evils, q u i fons est multorum malorum. On ihe following day, and that was (or which was) the fifth of September, he came to me, qui fuil dies Nonar. Septembrium, ad me venit, for which the Latins also say, i d est (erat) Nonis Sept., or is dies erat— ; the day before Easter, and that is to-day, q u i dies hodie est. Comp. Cic. Phil. XIV, 5, 14. Thai the conjunc¬ tions, as ut, quum, quod, are contained in the pronoun, and that the verb must therefore be in the subjunctive, has been sufficiently shown above, §§ 308—314. Where qui, quae, quod, stands in a sentence introduced by a conjunction, we generally use a demonstrative or personal pronoun ; e. g. He ought to be instructed in these arts; for if he has made these his own in his earlier years, he will be more fit for something greater, q u as si, durn est tener, com¬ biberit. £ have done everything for the sale of my fellow-cit¬ izens, and if Pompcy had not been envious of me —, c u i nisi invidisset Pompeius. Compare § 521. It has already been remarked, that with such a qui, which refers to a preceding substantive, et (que), autem, vero, enim, 430 SENTENCES CONNECTED BY QUI. [§ 521 . nam, igitur, are not joined, since they are contained in qui. On the contrary, when qui refers to a substantive standing in the same clause with itself, or to a demonstrative is placed af¬ ter it, then but, for, therefore, are expressed in Latin by the appropriate words ; e. g. But I mil specify in what way we can obtain this, quibus autem rationibus hoc assequi possi¬ mus, dicemus. But he who wishes to obtain true glory, must be kind, qui autem adipisci veram gloriam volet, i s. On the contrary, tamen (yet) can be joined with qui , even when qui refers to a preceding substantive. In order to make the use of this pronoun still more clear, some additional examples will be added. Examples ; Rulers must take care, that there be a sufficient supply of provisions. How the procuring these is usually effected, it is not necessary to show, duarum qualis comparatio fieri soleat, non est necesse disputare. Nothing holds a state more firmly together than truth and confidence (fides), and this cannot exist., if —, quae esse nulla potest, si —. These things were attempted with arms, by people of every class, but I withstood them, q u i b u s ita restiti. Antipater thinks Paenatius has passed over two points. But I think that these two points were passed over, because —, quas res a summo philosopho praeteritas arbitror, quod —. To this kind of comparison belongs that of Cato the elder. When he teas asked, what —, Ex q u o genere comparationis illud est Catonis senis. A quo quum quaereretur, quid—. We cannot forget Epi¬ curus ; for we have not only his image —, cujus imaginem non modo habemus. 521. (2) The pronoun qui and the similar qualis, quantus, often form an explanatory sentence, which we also must be¬ gin with ivho, which, how, such; but the translation is diffi cult, because either a new relative word or a conjunction fol¬ lows qui, qualis, etc., which, in English, is not admissible. Hence, where these words occur together, some change must f equently be made in translating into English; e. g. Epicu- § 521 .] SENTENCES CONNECTED BY Q U I. 431 rus non satis politas erat iis artibus, quas qui tenent, eruditi appellantur, the possessors of which arc called learned. Quam te decebat h i s verbis uti, quibus si philosophi non uterentur, philosophia nunquam ipsa egeremus, without the use of which as employed by philosophers, we never —. In these two sentences, we might also translate the relative clause literally, which they who possess , which if philosophers did not use, but in the first not with equal elegance. Errare malo cum Platone, quem tu quanti facias, scio, whom you , as I know, esteem very highly , or, respecting whom I know, how highly you esteem him. Q,uid dico te a Velia amari ? quem quis non amat 1 whom every one loves (without a question). Tanturn vales apud Dolabellam, quantum si ego apud sororis filium valerem, jam salvi esse possemus —where we must say, so that if I had as much influence, we now could. Ille tribunus plebis fuit talis, quales si omnes semper fuis¬ sent, nunquam seditiones ortae essent—, reas of such a char¬ acter, that if all had always been such, never —. Hoccine regnum appellabitur, cujus vicarius qui velit esse, invenire nemo potest ? when no one can be found, ivho is willing to be its representative ? In like manner, relative words are merely connected in case with the sentence which follows, whether it be introduc¬ ed by a relative, or a conjunction. The same takes place, when the relative word belongs equally to the following sub¬ ordinate, and the following principal sentence. In this in¬ stance, the English connects the relative in case with the principal sentence. Hence, for qui (or any other case) quum ejus, the Latin says, cujus quum; for qui, quum ci — eui cpium; for qui, quum cum — quern quum ; for qui , quum ah eo—a quo quum. And so in all similar cases. Then, in the principal sentence, ille or is referring to the relative word, often follows in the necessary case. Examples : Cornelia had two children , respecting whom she rejoiced, when she saw them successful , liberos, quos quum florentes videbat, (iis) laetabatur, for de quibus, quum eos fl. vid., laetab. You 432 SENTENCES CONNECTED BY QUI. [§§ 522 , 523 . mourn for his death, who must at least have died in a few years, if he had, not died now, qu i si hoc tempore non diem suum obisset, paucis post annis tamen ei moriendum fuit, for cui, si i s — obisset, mori* endum fuit. That Prometheus , icho , when it had been said to him, re¬ plied. , cu i quum dictum esset, respondit. On account of the expecta¬ tion of the ambassadors, from whom there had as yet been no news of what they had done, qui quid egissent, nihil dum nuntiatum erat. And so this form of speech is employed in similar cases. It is said, e. g. I mention Alexander the Great , who, if he had lived longer , would have subjugated the whole world , qui si diutius vixisset, or cujus vita si longior fuisset, or c u i si vita longior fuisset, or q ue m si diu¬ tius vivere licuisset, totum terrarum orbem subegisset. 522. (3) Since in qui the particle nam is included, a phrase containing qui and a substantive with the verb esse, may be explained by it. When we say, According to thy love for me, which the Latins usually translate by pro tuo in me amore, they can also represent the thought in this form : For such is thy love to me, ox for thou hast such love to me . Hence the phrase, Qui (for nam is) tuus est in me amor, or (with the ablative of quality) quo tu es in me amore. According to the mildness and gentleness of my disposition or for so mild and gentle is my disposition, quae mollitia est mei ani¬ mi et lenitas, or qua mollitia sum animi et lenitate. When something already past is spoken of, the perfect tense is used ; e. g. Caesar pardoned most according to his hind disposition, quae ejus lenis fuit natura, or qua leni fuit natura. 523. (4) Qui, quae, quod occurs very frequently in the ablative before a comparative; e. g. Quo nihil potest esse stultius, which we translate, Than which nothing can be more foolish, nothing can be more foolish than this, or which is most foolish. In such a phrase there is always a negative word, or the interrogative quis, quae, quid, which contains the force of a negative. When the English substantive to which qui, quae, quod belongs, stands alone and unconnected with any sentence, qui takes this in its own sentence; e. g. A mad¬ ness, which is the greatest, or there is no greater madness than this, quo furore nullus major est, or n i h i 1 majus est, or quo nullus furor major est. Nihil and quid can be § 523 .] SENTENCES CONNECTED BY Q U I. 433 used even with persons; e. g. Than whom what can he or who can be more sluggish ? i. e. who is of all the most slug¬ gish, than whom nothing can be more sluggish, quo quid potest esse ignavius ? quo nihil potest. Further examples : You despise solitude, tohich is most dear to me, solitudinem, qua nihil mihi amicius. These are boys, who are most happy , quibus nihil (quid) potest esse felicius. This is an expedient , which is the most foolish that can be thought of, quo nihil (nullum) potest cogitari stultius. Cato, who at that time teas the oldest and wisest, Cato, quo erat nemo senior temporibus illis, nemo prudentior. A work which is indeed most splendid, or what can be more splendid than this work? quo quidem opere quid potest esse praeclarius? / see, and this is the most painful, that —, video, quo nihil est acer¬ bius —. Remark. A parenthesis, if it is intended to explain a single word, is usually- placed after it, but if it serves to illustrate a whole thought, it is com¬ monly placed before it. So also a sentence with id quod (§ 539) is either placed before, or inserted in that sentence to which it refers, seldom placed after ; e. g. Gazing upon the villa of Curius (for it is not a great distance from me), I can not sufficiently admire —, C. vil¬ lam contemplans (abest enim non longe a me), admirari satis non possum. The parenthetic clause explains why he could view the country-seat, and therefore follows contemplans, if our country is our delight, xchich it most certainly ought to be, or if, as it most certainly ought to be, etc., Si nos, id quod maxime debet, nostra patria delec¬ tat. What alone teas for the present most earnestly desired, after the consular election, he returned to winter quarters, Id quod unum max¬ ime in praesentia desiderabatur — in hiberna rediit. After along pa¬ renthesis, Cicero usually repeats, in other words, the beginning of the sentence interrupted and resumes by igitur , autem , ergo, sed tamen, inquam, or sed ut redeamus. Examples on §§ 519—523. (1) The praise of the good is the echo 1 of virtue, and be¬ cause 2 it is generally the attendant of good 3 actions, it ought not to be despised 4 by good men. Wisdom is the know¬ ledge 5 of divine and human things. He who censures the study of it, would consider 6 nothing worthy 7 of praise. We must 8 now speak of beneficence and liberality, which indeed are best adapted 9 to human nature. When young men wish 10 to give 11 themselves to pleasure 12 , let them beware of excess ; and this will be the easier, if they, at least in such 13 things, would permit older men 14 to be present 15 . Young men are 37 434 SENTENCES CONNECTED BY QUI. [§ 523 . most easily and favorably 16 known 17 , who have attached 18 themselves to wise men; for when they frequently 19 asso¬ ciate with these, they raise 20 the expectation, that they will be like them. Great is the admiration of a man, who 21 speaks fluently 22 and wisely ; for those who hear him, believe that he is wiser 23 than the others. Even in animals 24 , the power of nature can be perceived 25 ; for when we observe 26 their cares, and the labor of bringing 27 them up, we seem to hear the voice of nature herself. A philosopher must do this the more; for an art is the philosophy of life, and whoever 28 discourses 29 upon it, must not employ 30 common 31 words. Now Torqua¬ tus, most noble 32 man, floats 33 before my eyes, and how great was his zeal for me at those times, you both must 34 know. Great is the power of conscience; for those who will disre¬ gard 35 it, will often discover themselves. Never can philoso¬ phy be sufficiently praised ; since he who is governed 36 by it, can pass every period of life without 37 trouble. Beneficence* is often destroyed by beneficence; for the larger the number towards whom one has practised 38 it, the less able is he after¬ wards to practise it towards many. Nothing is more worthy of love than virtue, and he who shall have obtained 39 it, will be esteemed 40 by us, wherever 41 he may be. I will mention 42 two young 43 men, who, if their lives had been longer, would have acquired 44 great renown in eloquence 45 . 1 resonare alicui. 2 quia. 3 recte factum. 4 repudiare. 5 scientia. Spu¬ tare. 7 laudandus. 8 (participle in dtts). 9 accommodatus. 10 velle (see § 234). 11 dare. 12 jucunditas. 13 ejusmddi. 14 (omitted). 15 interesse. 10 in optimam partem. 17 cognoscere. 18 se conferre ad. 19 frequens esse cum aliquo. 20 afferre opinionem. 21 (participle). 22 copiose. 23 sapere plus. 24 bestia. 25 perspicere. 2(3 cernere. 27 educere. 28 (participle). 29 disserere. 30 arripere. 31 de foro. 32 bonus. 33 versari. 34 necesse esse. 35 negligere. 36 parere. 37 sine molestia. * benignitas. 38 uti (second per¬ son, see § (270. g.). 39 adipisci. 40 diligere. 41 ubicumque gentium. 42 mentionem facere. 43 adolescens. 44 consequi. 45 (genitive). (2) You will cheerfully take care 1 of our business, with your usual courtesy 2 . If you had permitted 3 me, I should have accomplished 4 the whole thing, such is my love for you. You will obtain 5 everything which you wish from Caesar, since he is so generous 6 . Ulysses, in accordance with his habitual cunning 7 , endured the insults 8 of slaves and servants. By such doctrines, these philosophers remove 9 friendship from life, which is the best and most pleasing* gift 10 , that we have from the gods. When 11 the cluster has ripened 12 , it becomes sweet 13 ; and what can be more beautiful to the eye 14 than § 523 .] SENTENCES CONNECTED BY Q U I. 435 this 1 Solon said, he grew old and 15 learned 16 much from 17 day to day,—a pleasure of the mind than which none cer¬ tainly can be greater. Not only planting 18 , but also grafting 19 , which, of all agriculture has discovered, is the most ingeni¬ ous 20 , affords pleasure. O glorious 21 day, in which 22 1 shall re¬ turn to a friend, who 23 is the best and most remarkable 24 for his affection 25 , that has been born. What are these 26 for¬ tunes 27 , the possessor 28 of which may be most unhappy ? We see this opinion confirmed in that most sacred 29 Hercules; for after 30 his body was burnt 31 , immortality is said to have fol¬ lowed 32 his life and virtue. Often important 33 events occur, so that one must leave 34 his friends ; but he, who wishes to prevent them, because*'* he cannot endure his ardent 35 longing [for friends], is not 36 only weak 37 and effeminate 38 by nature, but 36 also far from 39 true friendship. By nature, we zealously strive 40 for that 41 which brings honor; hence, when we per¬ ceive 42 , as it were, a glimmer 43 of it, we are ready to endure everything to obtain 44 it. When I was at my country-seat, I received your letter, and after 45 I had read it, I saw 46 , that you had arrived safe 47 . Demosthenes was the greatest orator of anti¬ quity, and I know 48 no one, whom I could prefer to him. That Torquatus was the one, who, if life had been continued 49 to him, would have been made consul. Do we not wonder at Theodorus, a by no means 50 obscure 51 philosopher, who, when king Lysimachus threatened 52 him with the cross, said 53 , With such 54 frightful things, threaten thy courtiers 55 ! 1 curare, ’comitas (§ 522). 3 permittere. 4 conficere. 5 impetrare. 8 humanitas. 7 calliditas 8 contumelia. 9 tollere. * jucundus (§ 523). 10 (omitted). 11 (participle). 12 maturare. 13 dulcescere. 14 adspectus (§ 523). 15 (participle). 1(5 addiscere. 17 in dies (from — to day), ^con¬ sitio. 19 insitio. 20 sollers (§ 523). 21 praeclarus. 22 quum. 23 (nemo is repeated with each adjective). 24 praestans. 23 pietas. 2e iste. 27 bona. 28 qui habet. 29 sanctissimus. 30 (participle). 31 amburere. 32 excipere. 33 magnus. 34 discedere. ** quod. 35 desiderium. 36 et. 37 infirmus. 38 mollis. 39 parum (far from). 40 studiosissimum esse (to strive zeal.). 41 honestas (that — honor). 42 adspicere. 43 lumen. 44 potiri. 45 (parti¬ ciple). 46 cognoscere. 47 incoldmis. 4S noscere. 49 suppeditare. 60 haud. 51 ignobilis. 52 minari. 53 inquam. 54 isle. 55 purpuratus. (3) Antony, in disguise 1 , gave 2 a letter to his wife, and while she was reading it, the compassionate man 3 could not endure 4 it. Cicero, when young 5 , engaged 6 in the unhappy Pompeian war. Yet, when in this war, Pompey placed 7 him over one 8 wing 9 , he gained 10 great renown in 11 the army. Most shun 12 labor and pain, and can endure 13 everything, to 14 436 PARTICULAR RULES. [§ 524 . be free 15 from them. Antony asks rewards for his legions al¬ so 16 ; but if he desires 17 that they should be pardoned, he may well be considered 18 as most shameless. Our country is the mother of us all, for which no 19 good man hesitates to die 20 , if he can do her service 21 . These twelve days have effected 22 , that he, whom no one then offered to 14 defend, has now 23 consular men for his advocates 24 . Marcellus wished to pre¬ serve Archimedes, and therefore, when he heard that he had been killed, he was very much displeased 25 . 1 velare. 2 tradere. 3 homo. 4 ferre. 5 adolescens. 6 interesse. 7 prae¬ ficere. 8 alter. 9 ala. 10 consequi. 11 a. 12 fugere. 13 perpeti. 14 ut. 15 ca¬ lere. 16 etiam. 17 (with the subjunctive). 18 judicari. 19 quis (this inter¬ rogative pronoun is used in animated discourse for nemo, nullus ). 20 mortem oppetere. 21 prodesse (subjunctive of the periphrastic con¬ jugation). 22 proficere. 23 jam. 24 patronus. 25 permoleste ferre. VARIOUS PARTICULAR RULES FOR WRITING LATIN. 524. (I) The Latin relative words, both declinable and in¬ declinable, often have the sense of our as, when demonstrative words referring to them, stand before them. Hence it is to be observed, that, tantus is followed by tantidem <( talis tt toties tt tot tt tam it tantopere, t( t a rn d i u (t idem t( i s tc ejusmodi It e a t e n u s ti quantus, quanti, qualis, quoties, quot, quam, quantopere, quamdiu, dum, quoad, qui, qui, qualis, quatenus. Those of the above words that are declinable, must agree in number and gender with the substantive to which they re¬ late ; but their case depends upon the verb of their sentence; e. g. Xerxes made war upon Greece with such a force (t a n- § 524.] PARTICULAR RULES. 437 t i s exercitibus, tantis copiis), as (quantos, quantas) no one ever ltd either before or since. I have seen some such (tale s) towards you, as (q u a 1 e s) you have seen towards me. Pisander was of the same feeling (eodem s e n s u), as (quo) Alcibiades. I do not receive letiersfrom you so often (toties), as (quoties) they arc sent me by your brother. So, con¬ versely, when the relative words stand first, then the demon¬ strative words belonging to them must follow in the principal sentence ; e. g. As the head, so the herd , qualis rex, talis grex. As great as your love has been for me, so great has mine been for you, quantus tuus in me amor fuit, tantus meus in te. What has been remarked, § 515, should here be borne in mind, viz. that quantus , etc., with the words belonging to them, when they stand in an interrogative sentence, can be placed before the demonstrative sentence with tantus, etc., when that order seems preferable. After idem, aeque,perinde, pariter, as is generally express¬ ed by ac or atque. So often after talis. In the same manner, than is expressed by ac or atque after alius. Examples. Whom has your letter rejoiced 1 so much, as us all ? Among such men, friendship gives 2 such great advantages 3 , as (that) I can scarcely name 4 [them.] I ask 5 you, that you would show 6 yourself such as you have hitherto proved 7 yourself. The citizens are usually* such in a state, as the rulers are. Many wish to have such friends, as they cannot be themselves. We do not wish to terminate our renown by the same limits, as our life. Such friendship will continue 8 as long, as ad¬ vantage will arise from it. Let us have the same feeling 9 towards our friends, as towards ourselves. Upon no temple were there so many decrees of the senate, as upon Cicero’s house. Everything is such in its kind, as nature wishes it. Albinus bought the estate 10 of Laberius for as much 11 , as they were worth 12 before the civil war. I rest 13 as long as I am either writing to you, or am reading your letters. This is not so pain¬ ful 14 as it seems. When you will so regard 15 this envy of others, 37 * 438 PARTICULAR RULES. [§ 525 . as I have always believed 16 that it ought to be regarded, you will act 17 wisely. A slave has 18 the same nature, as the master. I enjoy 19 here by no means as much pleasure, as I had hoped. The father of the Gracchi will be praised, as long as the re¬ membrance of the Roman state 20 shall continue 8 . Honor these the same 21 as myself. It is the same 22 , as if you had denied it. Duilius was, during his whole life, as 23 dear to the senators, as to the people. gaudio afficere. 2 habere. 3 opportunitas. 4 dicere. 5 quaeso. 6 se impertire. 7 praebere. * solere. 8 manere. 9 animo esse. 10 praedium. II tanti. 12 stare 13 requiescere. 14 tantus labor (genitive). 15 tanti facere. 16 judicare. 17 facere. 18 esse (with genitive). 19 capere. 20 res Roma¬ nae. 21 aeque. 22 idem. 23 pariter. 525. (2) The words and not are expressed either by et (ac) non or nec, neque. But the use of each is different. Et non, ac non, are used: (a) When a single word is to have a negative sense, in the place of which also another negative word might be put; e. g. He taught what is to he done and not (et n o n) to be done. On account of a small and not (e t non) necessary pleasure. So it is often put before necesse, opus, satis, etc., particular¬ ly when the idea of and above all not, is contained in it. Hence especially: (b) When there is a particular contrast, or when an em¬ phasis is contained in them, and the idea, and by no means, and not at all, and not rather, and yet not, but not, is to be expressed. Here, however, ac non is mostly used; e. g. You indeed think right, if they differed in respect to the thing, and not (ac non) in respect to the words. You mention a very trifling dispute and not (ac non) such as decides everything. Why do I call him merely happy and not rather [et non ) the happiest of men ? Is this to advise against and not rather (a c non) to overturn everything ? It is possible that any one may think correctly, and yet not be able to express elegantly what he thinks, et — polite eloqui non possit. Neque is used : PARTICULAR RULES. 439 §§ 526 , 527 .] 526. (a) When the word not connects a whole sentence ne¬ gatively, rather than a single word ; e. g. Epaminondas had Lysias for his teacher , and he did not dismiss him before —, neque eum prius dimisit, quam —. Epicurus believes that that is the same , and does not distinguish pleasure from the absence of pain, n e c distinguit a non dolendo volupta¬ tem. (b) When and not has the sense of, and not even; e. g. Cato had a strong desire to read , and it could not even be sat - isftd, n e c satiari poterat. (c) But it stands also, frequently for et non of the first case mentioned above, when it contains no contrast, e. g. This will seem shameful and not worthy of a man , neque viro dignum. I burn with an incredible, and as I think, not censurable desire, neque — reprehendenda. Yet when two words are connected by ar\d not, and et is placed before the first word, et non follows in all cases; therefore, hoc e t tur¬ pe et viro non dignum videbitur ; et incredibili, et non reprehendenda. Neque also signifies merely not even ; e. g. I ought not even to promise this, neque debeo. I do not even think, that the Lacedemonians doubt, neque arbitror. Here the stu¬ dent must be cautious not to use etiam non. When not even signifies not so much as, it is expressed by ne — quidem ; e. g. n e legere quidem scit, he cannot so much as read, 527. But whenever another negative word stands instead of the word not, e. g. no one, nothing, never, etc., then the negative is removed from this word and united with and or even in neque. Hence it is said ; and no one, neque quis- quam, neque ullus ; and nothing, neque quidquam ; and nev¬ er, neque unquam ; and nowhere, neque usquam ; and not yet, neque dum ; and never anything, neque quidquam unquam ; and never any one, neque quisquam unquam. As here the negation is removed from one word and is placed in another, so it also takes place without and, in such 440 PARTICULAR RULES. [§ 527 . English expressions, as, never any one , nemo unquam ; never anything , nihil unquam, or nunquam quidquam ; never any one anything , nihil quisquam unquam ; no one anything , ni¬ hil quisquam ; no one yet , nondum quisquam ; nothing yet , nihildum or nondum quidquam ; never any one else , nemo unquam alius. Examples on §§ 525—527. This is a great work, and requires not a little practice. If this philosopher is consistent 1 with himself, and is not some¬ times overcome by kindness of nature, he cannot respect friendship. The mind enjoys 2 the present pleasure, foresees the future, and does not permit 3 the past to escape 4 . I came to Athens and no one recognized 5 me. Hannibal said, he had seen no one who was a greater fool 6 , than Phormio. And in truth 7 not unjustly 8 .—So Cicero said of himself, and did not lie in his boasting 9 . P. Scipio did not indeed 10 speak much, and not often, but he excelled all in wit 11 and pleas¬ antry 12 . Friendship prevails 13 through the whole 14 life, and no age is without 15 friendship. The earth never resists 16 the dominion of man, and never returns without usury, what she has received. We have heard nothing of this. Seldom and reluctantly 17 do good men indulge 18 in censure, and never un¬ less 19 compelled. The earth gives to animals and to men many and various comforts; and yet the highest good of the animal 20 and of man can in no way be the same 21 . Then all things w T ere 22 under the control 23 of one, and nowhere did sa- gacity and worth 24 have influence 25 . Never will a wise man believe, that a traitor ought to be trusted 26 . I have never said, nor done anything, which could have been against your reputation 27 . I believe that no one can do anything preemi¬ nent 28 , except what pleases 29 him. This is a very long 30 and not sufficiently sure way. They were known to all; but yet no one knew you. Never has there been any one, neither poet, nor orator, who has believed, that any one was better than he. I would write to you more at length, if the matter required 31 words, and would not speak for itself. Never has any scholar said, that the change of resolution was fickleness. Consentire. 2 percipere. 3 sinere. 4 praeterfluere. 5 agnoscere. 6 de¬ lirare. 7 rnehercule. 8 injuria. 9 gloriari. 10 quidem. 11 sal. 12 facetiae. 13 serpere. 14 omnis. 15 expers. 16 recusare. 17 invitus. 18 venire ad. 19 nisi. 20 pecus. 21 idem. 22 teneri. 23 dominatus. 24 existimatio. 25 locus § 528 .] PARTICULAR RULES. 441 esse, ^credere. 27 existimatio. 23 praeclare. 29 libere. 30 perlongus. 31 desiderare. 528. (3) The particles, for not, but not, yet not , are ex¬ pressed in Latin either by neque enim , neque vero , neque ta¬ men, or non enim, non vero, non tamen. When neque or nec is used for non, the nearest sentence is connected with the preceding by one of these alone, as often by qui, and then nee signifies, not even. Hence, neque enim, neque vero, neque tamen, are so often used to connect two sentences; e. g. The Stoics say, pain is contrary to nature, yet not an evil, neque tamen malum. My friends do not miss me; for I have never subscribed to that ancient proverb, n e c e n i m unquam. It is sometimes lawful for man to sigh, but a cour¬ ageous man never sighs, except to strengthen himself, n e c v e r o unquam ingemiscit. Yet nothing else delights me, neque tamen ulla res alia me delectat. But Cicero says only neque or nec vero, not n e q u e (n e c) autem. In sentences, as : For those subjects are neither so dark nor so doubtful —the Latin savs: neaue enim illae res aut ita sunt obscurae, aut ita dubiae. When the negation is expressed by any other word than not, the usage stated under § 527 is applicable; e. g. For I do nothing, neque enim quidquam facio. For he never laughed, neque enim unquam risit. Yet non enim , non vero and non tamen, are also often re¬ tained; (1) in a parenthesis, where, however, the others fre¬ quently occur ; (2) when there is a contrast with 'sed or non tarn — quam, and generally, when not is used to distinguish a single word from another, with which it is contrasted, and (3) when the writer wishes to make the negation more prom¬ inent, which is uniformly the case where yet not stands in the conclusion of a sentence introduced by although ; in short generally, where no connective also or even can be supplied in thought, which is very often the case with non enim ; e. g. By very many indeed (for I cannot say otherwise) 1 am 442 PARTICULAR RULES. [§ 528 . honored, non e n i m possum aliter dicere. This orator must he read by the young; for he not only sharpens the intellect, hut he nourishes it also, non enim solum. For the advan¬ tage obtained by a friend does not please so much, as, non enim tam utilitas — quam. For we ought not to become tired of friendships, as of other things, non enim amici¬ tiarum. For what does this mean 1 for I do not understand it, Quidnam est istuc 1 non enim intelligo. But these are not so much to be censured, as yourself, non v e r o tam isti, quam tu ipse. As much as I wish it, yet I cannot, tamen non potero. For the places where neither non vero nor neque vero is proper, see § 530. Examples. But no one can judge of this with truth 1 . Yet I knew 9 very well, when I wrote this. To no one of these three opin¬ ions do I give my full 3 assent; for that first is not true. The power 4 of many very influential 5 persons excludes true friend¬ ships ; for fate itself is not only blind, but generally blinds* those also, to whom it has become attached 6 . That ease of mind 7 is frequently 8 to be thrown 9 off; for it is not becom¬ ing 10 , not to undertake any honorable 11 action in order not to be anxious 12 . The honorable and brave 13 citizens will so guard 14 the state, that he may take care 15 of all. But he will, also, make no one odious 16 by false accusations 17 . Let us do nothing inconsiderately and carelessly ; for we have not been so born as to seem to be made for sport and jest. Wisdom is like Phidias, for she has not produced even man himself, but has preserved him after he was begun 18 by nature. I have stated 19 to you the reason of my wish (for I will not say, my desire), in my former 20 letter. Curius rejected 21 the gold offered to him by the Samnites, for it did not seem to him honorable 22 , he said, to have gold, but to command 23 those, who had gold. Were. 2 non nescium esse. 3 prorsus assentiri. 4 opes. 5 praepotens. * caecum efficere. 6 complecti. 7 securitas. a multis locis. 9 repudiare. ,0 consentaneum esse. 11 honesta res. 12 sollicitum esse. 13 fortis. 14 tueri. 15 consulere. 16 in odium vocare. 17 crimen. la inchoatus. , 9 exponere. 20 superior, 21 repudiare. 22 praeclarus. 23 imperare. PARTICULAR RULES. 443 § 529.] 529. (4) As neque is very often used for et non, so the force of dicere (to say) with non following, is usually express¬ ed by the verb negare (to deny), where this is possible, and gives the proper sense; e. g. Who can say, that loisdom is not old? Quis negare potest, sapientiam esse antiquam ? for dicere, non esse. So also nolle is used for non velle. Hence, I will not and cannot, is expressed by Nolo n e c possum. When instead of not, another negative word is employed, then, in Latin, the corresponding affirmative word is used in its place, according to § 527; e. g. I say that there is no one, Nego quemquam esse. I wish that no one were af¬ flicted, Nolo quemquam d olere. Before ne — quid em, not even, and before nec, negare is used in the sense of our English say, ajjirm ; e. g. Epicurus says, that he cannot even conjecture, Epicurus negat se posse n e suspicari quidem. He said that neither this nor that pleased him, Negavit ille sibi nec hoc nec illud placere. But the verb must stand in the first part of the sen¬ tence, and not at the end ; for in that case neither negative destroys the other. In like manner a negative word can precede ne — quidem., but not follow it; when it is placed after, an affirmative word must stand in its place; e. g. No one commits not even the least crime without cause —is expressed either by, Nemo ne min¬ imum quidem maleficium admittit —or Ne minimum quidem malef. q u i s q u a m admittit. Di cere and non are retained only when a contrast with sed follows, with which the affirmative dicere is expressed or un¬ derstood, or when the word not (non) refers to a single word, and not to the whole sentence ; e. g. I say therefore, that 1 do not wish this, but take it, itaque ilia non dico expetere, sed sumere. I have not said to you that this is true, tibi non dixi. 444 PARTICULAR RULES. [§ 530. v Examples. Many affirm, that the mind cannot think 1 without the body. Epicurus says, that a long discussion 2 is not here necessary 3 . The Stoics have affirmed, that no one can be a good man, except 4 a wise man. Scipio said, that no language 5 was more dangerous 6 to friendship, than that of Bias. I affirm that no one can live happily, unless he also lives virtuously 7 . I affirm rather, that this decision 8 is not right, because it is not ex¬ pedient. Epicurus says, that pleasure is not diminished 9 even by length 10 of time. It is foolish not to be willing to receive that which is offered. Cicero would not, and could not agree 11 with Caesar. 1 intelligere. 2 disputatio. 3 opus esse. 4 nisi. 5 vox. 0 inimicus. 7 honeste. 8 sententia. 9 minuere. 10 diuturnitas (length of time). 11 as- sentiri. 530. (5) When bat stands in a negative antithetic sen¬ tence, which is placed after an affirmative one, it is omitted in Latin, as sometimes in English, and the emphatic non, placed before the antithetic word, is considered sufficient; e. g. This happened by my fault, but not by thine, non tua. These are the faults of character, but not of age, non senec¬ tutis. Sed non, non autem, nec vero, are incorrect. So in short single confutations of an affirmation: Eat falsely, falso, non recte. This also often happens, when the negative sentence stands first, and the affirmative follows, yet only when the verb is common to both sentences and is re¬ peated : e. g. The consulship cannot be taken from him, but life jc an, consulatus ei eripi non potest, vita potest. Even in two short affirmative, antithetic sentences, but is omitted ; e. g. My house is open to you , but to me it is shut, mea domus tibi patet, in i h i clausa est. Instead of but , we also use and in such connections ; e. g. in the above sentence, and not of age. This and likewise is not translated. In similar phrases non item (not so) is used, and placed last, or the principal word is repeated ; e. g. The spectacle was § 531 .] PARTICULAR RULES. 445 phasing to you alone , but not so to the others, ceteris non item; for the mind, that was sufficient, but not for the ears, auribus non s a t i s.—Ceteris satisfacio omnibus; mihi ipse nunquam satisfacio, I satisfy all the others, but never myself Examples. This certainly is to deceive, not to judge. This was done 1 by the powers of the mind, but not by those of the body. Friendship has been given a by nature, as a promoter 3 of vir¬ tue, but not as a partner of vice. Timidity arises 4 from things, and not from words 5 . Those often speak the truth, but these never. So the powers of the body are strength¬ ened 6 , not weakened 7 . 1 have sometimes repented of hav¬ ing spoken, but never of having been silent. Dionysius took 8 the golden bowls 9 , which were held 10 by the extended 11 hands of the gods, and said, that he accepted them, but did not take 8 them away. 1 effici. 2 dare. 3 adjutrix. 4 nasci. 5 vocabulum. 6 reficere. 7 oppri¬ mere. 8 auferre. 9 patera. 10 sustinere. 11 porrectus. 531. (6) Substantives denoting persons are often used for substantives denoting things; e. g. Consul for consulatus (consulship); P r a e t o r for praetura ; dux for ductus (guidance, direction); auctor and suasor for auctoritas (counsel); in fa ns for infantia; puer for pueritia; se¬ nex for senectus, and soothers which can be changed in this manner. So adjectives and participles are often used for substan¬ tives; e. g. vivus, in the life (lifetime); insciens, ig¬ narus, ignorans, nescius, from ignorance, without knowledge; imprudens, necopinans, without think¬ ing, without knowing ; sciens, with knowledge ; invitus, contrary to one’s icill; praesens, in the presence of; a b- s e n s, in the absence of; properans,?» haste, etc. Comp. §§-80, 4G3 It should be here noticed, that with this change, the gov¬ ernment of the words is often changed also. 38 446 PARTICULAR RULES. [§ 532 . Some Examples. Scipio died before my censorship , Scipio ante me censo¬ rem mortuus est. In my consulship (when I was consul), me consul e. Many live in want in their old age (when old), multi senes in egestate vivunt. I follow the guidance of nature , naturam ducem sequor. To me contrary to my tcill , m i h i invito. Me in my absence , me absen¬ tem. During my absence (while I was absent), nothing new happened , me absente. Examples for practice. We highly esteemed 1 those old men in our youth. Scipio answered 2 the expectation, which the Romans had formed 3 of him in his boyhood. I was permitted 4 in my youth, to devote 5 myself to this study. This happened in my pretor- ship. By the advice 6 of Cratippus, Cicero, when young 7 , devoted 5 himself to the philosophy of the Peripatetics. P. Sulla, in the dictatorship of his uncle 8 , permitted the goods of the proscribed 9 to be sold. The sons of Gracchus were esteemed 10 by the good, neither in their life nor after their death 11 . I have done this at your entreaty 12 . What has been done 13 in your consulship without arms? The con¬ queror must 14 do much, even against his will. To no good man can anything evil happen 15 , neither in his life nor when he is dead. By the counsel and under the direction of Bru¬ tus, the death of Lucretia was the cause of the freedom of Rome. I know not, whether Cn. Caepio perished by ship¬ wreck in the lifetime of his father, or after his death. This book has come 15 into the hands of the people without my knowledge 16 and will. In 17 and after the consulship of Ci¬ cero and Antony, no war was carried on abroad 18 . We have written this in haste. 1 diligere. 2 respondere. 3 habere. 4 licere. 5 versari in aliqua re. 6 auctor. 7 puer. 8 patruus. 9 proscriptus. 10 probare. 11 mortuus, ^hor¬ tator. 13 oe re re. 14 (verbal adjective). ,5 evenire. 16 prudens. 17 (comp. § 491). 18 foris. 532. (7) When the other or each other follows a substan¬ tive or pronoun, and suggests this same substantive or pro¬ noun to tiie mind, the Latin does not use alter , but repeats the §533.] PARTICULAR RULES. 447 word, and usually places one directly after the other, so that the subject is made to stand before the oblique case; e. g. One hand washes the other , manus manum lavat. One egg is very much like the other, ovum ovo est simillimum. The one has more strength than the other , alius alio plus habet virium, or, when two definite persons are spoken of, alter altero plus h. v. Each is concerned for the other, uterque u t r i q u e est cordi. 1 r The reciprocal each other, when it refers to several, can also be expressed by a double alius after the definite substan¬ tive; e. g. The soldiers call each other, milites alius alium appellant; when two are referred to, alter alterum is used. Uter is usually followed by another liter, not by alter ; neuter by another neuter; but uterque, sometimes by another uter - que, sometimes by alter; therefore, Uterque alteri est cordi. Examples for practice. One guest murdered the other. Citizens envy each other. Which 1 of the two surpasses 2 the other ? One day presses up¬ on 3 another. The judge determines 4 what each ought 5 to ren¬ der to the other. Which of the two laid 6 an ambush for the other 1 It is contrary to nature, that one man should promote his interest by the injury of another. Men can be especially 7 serviceable to each other. When both armies stood 8 opposite 9 to each other, both commanders advanced 10 . The virtues are so connected 11 and united 12 , that all participate 13 in each other, and 14 no one can be separated from the others. 1 uter (which of two). 2 praestare. 3 trudere. 4 statudre. 5 oportere. c facere. 7 maxime. s esse. 9 contra. 10 prodire. 11 copulatus, ^con¬ nexus. 13 participem esse. 14 nec alius. 533. (8) The phrase, the one this, the other that, the Lat¬ ins express more briefly by a double alius or alter. Alius is used, when the number is indefinite, but alter only of two, and is to be used but seldom. These words are put in such cases as the nature of the sentence requires. Instead of the second word, adverbs derived from alius are also used, where it is necessary, e. g. aliter , alio, aliunde, alias; e. g. One 448 PARTICULAR RULES. [§ 534 . thinks this (so, one thing), another that (so, another), alius aliud cogitat. This seems best to one, that to another, or one thing seems best to one, another to another, alii (aliis) aliud videtur optimum. One went here, another there, alius alio concessit. One is moved in one way, another in another , alius alio modo movetur. Examples for practice . The one is more useful 1 in one thing, the other in another. Some think a happy life consists in this, others in that. Those orators are deficient in two very important 2 things, one 3 in this, the other in that. This disaster 4 befell 5 one, that another. The infant Hercules seized 6 the serpents, one with one hand, the other with the other. One will prefer to excel in one vir¬ tue, another in another. No one of the ancient poets em¬ braced the whole 7 department 8 of poetry, but one selected 9 this, another that branch, in order to cultivate 10 it carefully. The same things in one 11 place are named in one way, in another, another. One mind is inclined to this vice, another to that. 1 utilis. 2 magnus. 3 alter. 4 clades. 5 opprimere. 6 apprehendere. 7 universus. 8 genus. 9 sibi seponere. 10 elaborare (to — carefully). 11 alibi, 534. (9) The word namely,\s often employed in English, to specify definitely the names of persons or things, which before had been mentioned only generally or indefinitely. This word is, for the most part, omitted in Latin, but if expressed, it is done by using dico or inquam after the word first named, but not by scilicet, videlicet, nempe, nimirum , —which have a different signification ; e. g. Zeno abused not only those then living, namely, Apollodorus, Syllus, and the rest, but also, qui tum erant, Apollodorum, Syllum ceterosque. We have neither the external parts in vain, nor the internal, namely, the heart, the lungs, the liver and the others, nec in¬ teriora, cor, pulmones, jecur, cetera. He feared, more than all, that which he thought not fearful, namely, death and the gods, mortem dico (I mean) et deos. In the phrase, On the following clay, namely, the first of April —and in similar ones—the Latins say either, Postridie, PARTICULAR RULES. 449 § 535.] qui fuit dies Kalendar. Aprilium, or Id est Kal. April. Comp. § 520. Examples. He must be most respected, who possesses 1 the gentler 2 vir¬ tues, namely, modesty, temperance and justice. Man, as Aristotle says, is born for two things, namely, to think 3 and to act. The ancient musicians, who were at the same time 4 also poets, devised 5 two things for pleasure, namely, verse and mu¬ sic 6 . Both 7 of these therefore, namely, melody 8 of tone 9 and the harmonious 10 arrangement of words, the orators transfer¬ red 11 from poetry to oratory. This man violates two most sacred things, namely, truth and friendship. 1 ornatum esse. 2 lenis. 3 intelligere. 4 idem (at — also"). 5 machi¬ nari. 6 cantus. 7 duo. 8 moderatio. 9 vox. 10 conclusio (harmonious ar¬ rangement). 11 traducere. 535. (10) The English both can be translated by the sin¬ gular uterque, and also by the plural utrique, yet the best Latin writers distinguish between them. The singular uterque is used, (1) when it refers to two pre¬ ceding words in the singular ; e. g. To Caesar and Pompey — both , uterque; to justice and equity — both, utraque. (2) When a substantive belongs to it, which in English is in¬ deed in the plural, but yet only individual persons or things are to be understood by the word both. Therefore, the sub¬ stantive must conform to the singular uterque; e. g. Both brothers , uterque frater; both armies , uterque exer¬ citus. When these are the subjects of the sentence, Ci¬ cero uses the verb only in the singular; e. g. Both waged war, uterque gessit; both brothers died , uterque frater mortuus est. Hence it happens also, that we find in Ci¬ cero only uterque nostrum (both of us or ice both), uterque horum (both of these) and the like, when only two individuals are meant. As uterque is the principal word, it takes only the third person singular of the verb, even with uterque nostrum, we both, and uterque vestrum, you both ; e. g. I'Ve both agree, uterque nostrum consentit. Comp.§ 145. Both the others is expressed by uterque alter. 38* 450 PARTICULAR RULES. [§ 536 . The plural utrique is used, (1) when it refers to two pre¬ ceding words in the plural,—when therefore two parties are spoken of; e. g. Of the partisans of Caesar and Pompey , utrique; of the sterner and gentler virtues , utraeque; of orators and poets — hath these , hi utrique; we both, nos utrique. (2) When a substantive is connected with it, which is used only in the plural, at least, in a certain sense, only in the plural; e. g. Both camps, utraque castra; both armies , utraeque copiae. The same distinction is made between uter and utri» Examples. If 1 eternity is taken 2 away, Jupiter is in no respect happier than Epicurus ; for both enjoy the highest good. At that time, Gracchus and Carbo lived ; both were very distinguished 3 ora¬ tors. There is nothing so unlike, as Cotta was to Sulpicius ; and yet both very far excelled 4 their cotemporaries 5 . Cicero came to help 6 both provinces. The body of Curio swayed 7 to both sides 8 . The ambassadors of the Achaeans and yEtoli- ans came to Rome; an assembly 9 of the senate was granted 10 to both. The world is, as it were, a common house of gods and men, or a city of both. We will both rest in company 11 at this country seat. These both, as I know, have commended their children to you. In this studio, you both find 12 your pleasure. 1 (participle). 2 demere. 3 summus. 4 praestare. 5 aequalis. Subve¬ nire. 7 vacillare. 8 pars. 9 senatus (assembly of senate). 10 dare. 11 una. 12 delectari. 536. (11) Our expressions, voluntarily, of one’s self ’, of one’s own accord , are very often expressed in Latin by sponte. But to this is usually added one of the possessives mea, tua, etc., according to the difference of the subject; e. g. I did this of my own accord , ego hoc feci mea sponte ; we do this of our own accord , nostra sponte hoc facimus. In these phrases, the possessives are regularly to be placed before, and not after sponte , because they are emphatic, except when the person is made prominent by an ipse standing in the sen¬ tence, as in Cicero (proSext. 47), audaces homines nutu im- § 536 .] PARTICULAR RULES. 451 pelluntur, et ipsi etiam sponte sua contra rempubli- carn incitantur. So the mode of translating the English with each other, de¬ pends upon the difference of the subject, since it can be ex¬ pressed by inter nos, vos and se ; e. g. We contend with each other, contendimus inter nos. But when it does not re¬ fer to the subject of the sentence, but to a subordinate sub¬ stantive, inter se is not used, but either inter ipsos, or the substantive is repeated ; e. g. The association of men with each other, societas hominum inter ipsos or inter hom¬ ines. The English perhaps is most commonly expressed, in Ci¬ cero, by fortasse, or by forsitan, which is almost exclusively joined with the subjunctive, but not by forsan, which is po¬ etical and unclassical, nor' by fortassis, which was more used by later writers, nor by fors, fors sit, jortassc an or forte an. It is also expressed by forte, but only with si, sin, nisi and ne, with which the foregoing words are incorrect; e. g. if anything perhaps was lost, si quid forte; unless perhaps, nisi f o r t e. Examples. Must you be exhorted 1 by us, or are you inclined 2 to it of your own accord even ? We have said to each other what we have never said. Pompey was often accustomed to speak of you to me, of his own accord. We hate Hannibal, and perhaps with reason. You advise us to do what we have been doing of ourselves for some days. When you are with each other, say whatever 3 you wish. The Romans and Sabines made 4 an alliance with each other. You contend with each other, with words, but not with arms. There is nothing which reaches 5 farther, than the connection 6 of men with each other. If you perchance know 7 any one, who is more attached 8 to you than to your circumstances 9 , gladly indeed 10 rank 11 him among your friends. 1 adhortari. 2 propensus. 3 quidquid. 4 facere. 5 latius patere. Con¬ junctio. Cognoscere. 8 amans. 9 vero. 10 adscribere ad suorum num¬ erum (rank am. one’s friends). 452 PARTICULAR RULES. [§ 537. 537. (12) The two following modes of expression are con¬ trary to all good classical usage : (a) The participial phrases, viz. the so called, above, be¬ fore, after named, just mentioned, and the like, which often occur in English, are frequently translated by participles ita (sic) dictus, supra (prae, ante, post) dictus, modo (proxime, ante) memoratus, nominatus. But such constructions were used first by writers after the time of Augustus, whereas the classical writers employ only a periphrasis with qui; e. g. The so called, greatness of soul, altitudo animi, quae dici¬ tur or quam dicimus. I and our Atticus have heard the philosophers I just named, philosophos illos, quos modo nominavi. A tax was imposed upon the inhabitants of the province, called the stipendiarium, quod stipendiarium d i- c i t u r. In Italy is situated the so called Magna Graecia, or M. G. as it is called, Graecia, quae magna dicta est. The meadows of Quinctius, as they are called, or the so called etc., prata duinctia, quae nominantur. At Sybaris, now called Thurii, Sybari, qui nunc Thurii dicun- t u r. In the book entitled “ The Natural Philosopher,” in eo libro, qui Physicus inscribitur. Together with the one last named by me, unacum eo, quern proxime nom¬ inavi. In the phrases above, before, just named, mentioned, when the active verb is used, its personal form shows, who named or mentioned the object. The connection, however, makes this plain in English. (b) When we say in English : The word idleness is de¬ rived from the adjective idle, knowledge from the verb know, the name Cicero from cicer, and the like, in such instan¬ ces in Latin, every declinable word is really declined, and considered as depending on a word of the sentence, and is put in the necessary case, but is not allowed to stand in the nominative. Usually also the English expletives, the word, adjective, verb and the like, are omitted; e. g. What PARTICULAR RULES. 453 § 537.] we call lenitas , others call by a faulty name, lenitudo, Q,uam lenitatem dicimus, alii vitioso lenitudinis nomine appellant. The poets say Ceres instead of fruits, Liber in¬ stead of wine, Neptune instead of the sea, poetae Cererem dicunt pro frugibus, Librum pro vino, Neptu¬ num pro mari. The ancients say, that the name Neptune, is derived from nare (to swim), veteres Neptunum dicunt appellatum esse a nando. From fari comes the word fa¬ num, from voluntas and from volatus, the verb volo, a fando dictum est fanum, a volatu volo. Tjet us avoid the ambiguous name, invidia, effugiamus ambiguum nomen i n- v i d i a e. The name Apollo is a Grecian name, A p o 11 i- n i s nomen est Graecum —. I ani more to be blamed because 1 added the word in, quod in addidi —. But no change is made by declension, where one form of a word stands for another, or where for a single word, this or that other one should have stood ; or where, from their nature, the words must remain unchanged ; e. g. S o d e s pro si audes; nolle for non velle; pro industriae dicendum erat industriam; nosquid juvat vox ista veto (that word veto)', quam crebo usurpat et consul et Antonius (how often he uses the words the consul and Antonius). Examples for practice. We assembled in this gymnasium, called Ptolemaeum. Phalaris did not perish by 1 ambush, as Alexander, just 2 men¬ tioned by me. The stoics do not reckon 3 the seven wise men, as they are called, among 4 the wise. Upon 5 Lentulus, Cethegus, and the others mentioned above, capital 6 punish¬ ment was inflicted 7 . Did 8 old 9 age compel Homer, Hesiod, did it compel those before named, Isocrates and Gorgias, to be speechless 10 ? The books of Plato on the state, the so call¬ ed Politics, were held 11 in high respect 12 among the ancients. This book is in no respect better known, than the three books before mentioned by you. Your so called life, is death. The word aratrum has its name 13 from arare, messis from metere, scriptor from scribere , hosticus from hostes. The 454 PARTICULAR RULES [§ 538 . word tibicen comes 13 from tibiae and canere. What the Latins call furor, the Greeks call pelay^oh'a. The name Bacchus, is Greek, on the contrary, the name Liber, is Latin. I believe, that Juno was named from juvare , as the name Janus was derived 14 from ire. What the Greeks call evfioh'a, it is more proper 15 to call bona fama, than gloria. The word 16 piety seems to be too feeble 17 for your kindness to me. 'ex. 2 modo. 3 habere. 4 in numero. 5 de. 6 supplicium. 7 sumere. 8 (num is used to ask questions.) 9 senectus. 10 obmutescere. 11 esse. 12 honor. 13 dici. J4 duci. 15 aptus. 16 noir.en. 17 levis. 538. (13) The word without is expressed in different ways: (a) By a substantive with the preposition sine or such a word as nullus ; e. g. I dismissed him, without praising him, sine laudatione; without any fear, n u 11 o timore; icithout any merit of mine, nullo nieo rnerito. (b) By ut non (so that not), or, where a negative sentence precedes, by quin, or also by ut and a negative verb; e. g. Apelles passed no day without practising his art in drawing, quin (ut non) exerceret artem. The Decii devoted them - selves to their country , without in the least thinking of their own advantage, nihil u t de commodis suis cogi¬ tarent. Can L. Cornelius be condemned, without the deed of Marius being condemned, u t n o n Marii factum condemne¬ tur 1 Without mentioning, ut taceam, ut omittam. (c) By qui non, followed by a subjunctive. This is espe¬ cially the case, when there is a pronoun in the sentence, which refers to a substantive previously mentioned. But when qui non would follow in the nominative, quin is generally used in its place. Compare § 400. Verres saw nothing valuable in Sicily without carrying it away, quam non abstulerit. Who has sailed upon the sea without exposing himself to the danger of death ? quin (qui non) se mortis periculo com¬ mitteret. (d) By a negative participial sentence, which is the most usual. Respecting which see above, § 4G7. (e) By the ablative of the gerundive or the verbal adjec- § 538 .] PARTICULAR RULES. 455 tive with a negative word; e. g. Who, without carefully plowing the field, can expect rich fruits ? agro non diligenter arando. (f) By neque (and not), when this analysis is appropriate; e. g. Horatius Codes swam over the Tiber, without throwing aicay his arms, neque arrna dimittit. (g) By quum and a negative word, when the clause admits such an analysis; e. g. He left the city without having seen anything, quum nihil vidisset. Finally, (h) By negative adjectives, among which may be particu¬ larly mentioned, such as begin with in; e. g. inscius, i n- sciens, ignarus, without knowing ; immemo r, without thinking; also imprudens, incognitus, etc. These are treated as praticiples ; e. g. Many lie without knowing it, multi mentiuntur ignari. Datames came without any one 1 s knowing it, D. omnibus insciis eo venit. The commander has betrayed you, without your knowing it, dux vos ignaros prodidit. The connection must decide what mode of translation is most natural; and there may be cases, where a different mode of translation from those here stated, might properly be used. Examples. Our age gradually 1 becomes old' 3 without its being per¬ ceived 3 . How can we pass 4 our life without fear 5 ? Even he who hates men cannot live without seeking 6 some one 7 , with whom to vent 8 the poison 9 of his bitterness. A rumor does not easily 10 arise without some reason 11 . The elder Pliny read nothing without making extracts 12 from it. The consuls returned home without having accomplished 13 any¬ thing worthy of notice 14 . The youth wept long, without speaking 15 . Perseus went 16 to the camp, without another of his soldiers as a companion 17 . Minucius announced, that, at Locris, money had been stolen from the temple of Proser¬ pine, without. 18 there being any traces to whom the crime be¬ longed 19 . Two young Acarnanians had gone 20 into the tem¬ ple of Ceres without being acquainted 21 with the religious 22 456 PARTICULAR RULES. [§§ 539 , 540 . usage. I have torn 23 the letter without its deserving 2 ** it. Magnify the dignity of Arrian, without his expecting 25 it, without his knowing 26 it, yea 27 , even perhaps without his wishing 28 it. Many have done 29 much without the know¬ ledge 30 of Sulla. Many cannot lose their fortunes in a state, without drawing many others into the same calamity. In this matter, nothing has been done by my colleague without my knowledge 31 . ‘sensim. 2 senescere. 3 sensus. 4 degere. 5 metus. 6 anquirere. 7 aliquis. 3 evomere. 9 virus. 10 temere. 11 subesse. 12 excerpere aliquid. 13 gerere (participle). 14 res memorabilis. 15 tacitus. 16 ingredi. 17 comes. 13 (with neque). 19 pertinere. 20 ingredi. 21 imprudens. 22 religio (reli¬ gious usage). 23 conscindere. 24 innocens. 25 i nop!nans> 26 nesciens. 21 imo. 23 nolens. 29 committere. 30 imprudens. 31 insciens. 539. (14) The pronoun is, ea, id, when it refers to a fol¬ lowing who, which (qui), is very often either omitted, or, when the sentence with qui precedes, is put emphatically in the first part of the principal sentence that follows ; especial¬ ly, when qui, quae, quod, attracts to itself the substantive, which belongs to is, ca, id; but the omission takes place, for the most part, only when both are in the same case. Yet the pro¬ noun is stands as frequently before qui, when definite expres¬ sion is required. Comp. § 123. But when an intervening explanatory sentence with and this, and that or what, refers not to a single substantive, but to an entire preceding or following remark, and the sentence is only parenthetic, then the Latins generally employ the full expression id quod; e. g. Whoever sufficiently understands, and that is clearer than the light, that —, id quod est luce clarius. But that Greek, and that was an evidence of a wise and distinguished man, believed —, id quod fuit sapientis et praestantis viri. 540. (15) The phrase not only not, followed by but not even, but scarcely and the like negatives, is expressed by non moelo (solum) non, followed by sed ne — quidem ( sed viz and the like): (a) When both clauses are complete, so that they have § 540 .] PARTICULAR RULES. 457 their own predicates, which are to be negatived, whether the subjects are the same or different. Examples. Non so lam excellentes viri deterriti non sunt, sedi ne opifices quidem se removerant. Id non modo non feci,, sed ne potui quidem facere. Hic non modo non huic proelio, praeerat, sed ne intererat q u i d e m. (b) When both clauses have indeed a common predicate,, but this stands with non modo in the first clause. Since the first is to be negatived, non cannot be admitted after non modo; the predicate must be understood in the second, and as here ne — quidem denies, therefore both are negative. Examples. Horum summorum imperatorum non modo res ges¬ tas non antepono meis, sed ne fortunam quidem ipsam. Non mo¬ do pristinam voluntatem recuperare non potui, verum ne causam quidem elicere. Dolabella non modo proficisci non potuit, sed vix in oppido consistere. On the contrary, merely non modo (solum) without non r followed by .sec? ne — quidem [sed vix and other negatives), is used, when the common predicate of both clauses is ap¬ pended to the second clause, in which case it is negatively understood in the first. Examples. Ego non modo praemiis (not only not by rewards), sed ne periculis quidem compulsus sum. Hae virtutes non solum in his hominibus (not only not i?i these men), sed vix jam in libris re- periuntur. Ita non modo querendi (not only no end ofcomplaining), sed ne lugendi quidem finem reperimus. Remarks. (1) Instead of the second not in the first clause, another negative word can also be used, e. g. no one, nothing, never, etc., for which, in the last case with non modo without non, the words quisquam , quid - quam, unquam are used. But natural as it seems, that in the first two cases, non modo non r and in the third case, merely non modo should be used, and although this is the predominant construction, yet there are many passages in Cicero and others, where in the first two cases non modo is found, and in the last, non modo non, and more especially in this last case, per¬ haps that by the negation, the antitheses may be made more promi¬ nent; e.g. Quum filius non modo non mortuus, sed ne natus quidem esset: ita ille vivit, ut non modo homini nemini, sed ne cupiditati quidem ulli serviat. But whether non modo has been also used for non modo non, before sed etiam, is very doubtful. (2) The position of the clauses may be inverted, so that ne quidem stands first. The following non modo is then translated by not to say , much less ; e. g. The oracles of JJpolio never satisfy even an ordinary 39 458 PARTICULAR RULES. [§ 540 . man, much less (not to say) a wise man, n e mediocri quidem, non modo prudenti probata sunt.^ Even swine would not like that, much less he, ne sues quidem id velint, n o n modo ipse. So, / had nothing at all, much less a ; great deal, etc., nihil habui sane, non modo multum. (3) Similar, but not to be interchanged with non modo, is the pre¬ ventive nedum, which is also translated by not to say, not to say that. By this something is rejected as not conceivable, because something else, that might more easily happen, does not happen. It generally takes a complete sentence in the subjunctive ; e.g. In the ebst times, the greatest men could not bear up against the power of the tribunes, not to say that ice, or, much, less can we, in our times, be safe, nedum his temporibus — possimus. This sentence is sometimes abbreviated, and nedum stands like an adverb, without a finite verb. E. g. Ill could the shock of such a multitude unarmed be sustained , much less armed,, aegre inermis tanta multitudo, nedum armata, sustineri potuit, (in full), nedum arm. sust. potuerit. Examples for practice. Flattery 1 is not only not worthy of a friend, but not even of a freeman. Not only no one of his friends, but not even one of his slaves went 9 to the body of the murdered 3 Caesar. Such a man ought not only not to be considered 4 as a commander, but in general 5 , not even a freeman. Such a government is not only to be suffered by no Roman, but not even by a 6 Per¬ sian. Roscius has not only not committed this crime 7 , but could not even have done it. You have not only not been in Rome, but far from this city. A good man will not only not dare to do anything, but not even to think of anything, which he cannot dare to speak 8 of openly. Then, it was not only not lawful for the Senate to assist 9 the state, but not even to mourn for it. I not only do not accuse 10 you of this crime, but I do not even blame 11 you with just censure 12 . Antony can not only not endure the voice, but not even the look 13 of any one. If perhaps letters have been sent 14 to you more seldom by me than by others, I ask you not only not to 15 attribute this to my negligence, but not even to my business 16 . Whatever shall befall 17 me in a state so ungrateful, will find 18 me not even declining 19 , much less opposing 20 it. Scarcely under 21 our very 22 roofs is the cold avoided, much less on the sea is it easy to escape 23 the rigor of the season 24 . I could not think that even immortality was to be accepted against the interests of 25 the state, much less could I wish to die to 26 the ruin of the state. 1 assentatio. 2 accedere. 3 trucidare. 4 habere. 5 omnIno. 6 quisquam. 7 facinus. 8 praedicare (to speak openly). 9 juvare. 10 argu6re. 11 repre- PARTICULAR RULES. 459 §541.] hendere. 12 reprehensio. 13 vultus. ,4 reddere. ,5 ut. 16 occupatio. ,7 ac- cidere. 18 evenire (with dat.). 19 recusare. 20 repugnare. 51 in. 22 ipse. 23 abessc. 24 tempus 25 contra. 26 cum. (541. b.) (16) It is very common to express an affirmative superlative by a negative comparative, therefore by nemo, nullus, nihil, or the interrogative quis, quid, where the sen¬ tence admits it, especially in relative sentences, respecting which see § 523. Examples . The, elephant is the most discerning of all animals, ele¬ phanto belluarum nulla pru dentior est. Man is the cnost beau¬ tiful of beings, quid (nihil) homine est pulchrius ? (541. c.) (17) The Latins frequently express affirmative ideas by two negatives ; e. g. Non ignoro, non nescio, non sum ignarus (nescius),/ know well; non pos¬ sum non (followed by an infinitive), or, non possum facere, quin —, I cannot but, I must; neque non, and (for et), neque tamen non, and yet —and the like; ne¬ mo non, everyone; nullus non (as an adjective), each one, every one; nunquam non, always; nusquam non, everywhere; nihil non, everything, all; non n i- s i, only (comp. § 477); nihil nisi, only that, only this. Yet, non nemo signifies many, many a one, some one; non nullus, some; non nihil, something; non nunquam, some¬ times ;—when the words are thus placed, non diminishes the negative force of the following word. (541. d.) (18) In Cicero and others, the full periphrastic construction with facere, ut, for the single verb following, is very frequent, and is to be imitated. Examples. Come, or, be sure to come, fac venias. You can men¬ tion this, tu potes id facere, ut commemores. I reluctantly banished him from the senate , invitus fe c i, u t eum e senatu ejice¬ rem. 1 thought I must write to you, fac i e n d u m rnihi putavi, u t tibi scriberem. Here belong also v e 1 i m quaeras, ask him ; n o- 1 i m te existimare, do not believe. Respecting non committere, ut, as the negative of facere, vt, see § 552. 6. (541. e.) (19) When a sentence begins with, As it respects this, that, or simply with that, in reference to the words of another, or with ut or ne, e. g. That you may perceive, that I must do this, ut intelligas, then the phrases, As it respects 460 USE OF PREPOSITIONS. [§ 542 . this, hear (audi), know (scito), I will say to you (tibi dicam), which are almost necessary in English, are generally omitted in Latin, while that, which any one should know or hear fol¬ lows immediately in the oratio recta with the indicative. Examples. In order that you may understand this, (know,) that as soon as Varro came to the forum, he visited me, ut hoc intelligas, quum primum Varro — venit, se contulit, rind, that my oration may commence where this whole cause originates, (know, or / will inform you ) that — atque ut inde oratio mea proficiscatur, unde haec omnis causa ducitur, bellum grave vestris vectigalibus infertur. Jis it re¬ spects this , that you tcish (as to your wish) to know what is the feeling of each one, know that (I will say to you) it is difficult to speak particu¬ larly of each one, quod scire vis, qua quisque voluntate sit; difficile dictu est de singulis. Examples on §§ (541 b.)—(541. e.) I will not vex 1 thy mind with complaints 2 . Every one must 3 especially 4 praise thy resolution. I thought I must 5 answer your letter briefly. Philosophy has always been most dear 6 to me in life, and it is the great gift that has been conferred up¬ on the human race. I have succeeded 7 , by every indulgence*, in being most dear 6 to both. Although all know well, how things stand 8 , yet I will mention some. What I have said, must 3 be said honorably 9 for you. After you have departed, remember 10 what I have said of you in the senate. He per¬ mitted me to 11 swear only this. You desire 12 my letters ; but I have always 13 furnished 14 a letter for you, when it was told me that any one was going 15 . As it respects your request 16 , that I would send you my writings, know that there are some of my speeches which I have given to Menocritus. That you may not wonder, why I now so earnestly ask respecting this, I will tell you : The desire of haste 17 incites 18 me. 1 angere (accord, to no. d ). 2 querela. 3 non possum non. 4 maxime. 5 (accord, to no. d.). 6 carus (accord to no b.). 7 efficere ut. * obsequium. 8 se habere. 9 honorifice. 10 recordari (accord, to no.d.). n ut. 12 requirere. J3 (accord, to no. c.). 14 dare. 15 ire. 16 rogare. 17 festinatio. 18 incendere. USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 542. In the use of prepositions, we differ, in many respects, from the Latins. The force of many of our prepositions is expressed in Latin by the genitive case depending on a sub¬ stantive ; e. g. Desire of glory, gloriae; fear of punish - USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 461 §§ 543, 544.] rncnt, poenae. Comp. § 134. Further; the force of En¬ glish prepositions is often expressed by the genitive or dative depending on adjectives; e. g. Useful for the body, c o r po r i; skilled in law, juris. Finally, we often join prepositions with verbs, where the Latins put merely the appropriate case after the verb ; e. g. To strive for glory , petere gloriam. Remark. The difference between the Latin and English, in the use of prepositions, is owing mostly to the fact, that the Latin nouns are declined, while the English are not. The termination of the La¬ tin nouns, therefore, can indicate the relation which must be ex¬ pressed in English by prepositions. On the other hand, we often find prepositions used in both languages, but in Latin not always those we should expect, according to the English. The greater attention must there- fore be paid to the various and unexpected constructions that occur, and to a proper choice from among them. Thus, Contrary to expectation, is expressed by praeter expecta- tionem ; in and of — self, by per se ; you have my permis¬ sion, by per me licet, also simply by per rr>rf; to speak ac¬ cording to, govern one's self by the will, pleasure, etc., of some one, by ad voluntatem, ad nutum abcujus loqui, se confor¬ mare, accommodare; to happen according to one's wish, ex sententia. Per is sometimes used where we say on account of; e. g. I could come on account of my health, or my health allowed me to come, per raletudinem potui venire. I could not come on account of the weather, per tempesta¬ tem venire non proii. Hence a good lexicon must be used, and, if accessible, some book on Latin particles. Only the following will be mentioned here: 543. (1) Many English adverbs are best expressed in Latin by a preposition and substantive; e. g. Literally, ad litte¬ ram ; unexpectedly, ex improviso; heartily, ex a n i- m o; slanderously, per calumniam; insidiously, trea¬ cherously, per i n s i d i as, etc. Comp. § 211. Rem. (1.) 544. (2) The Latins often join participles with certain 39* 462 USE OF PREPOSITIONS. [§ 544 . substantives, especially with such as denot e feeling or an af¬ fection of the mind, e. g. From (by) fear, on account of this in¬ jury, for the purpose of expressing the ideas contained in the substantives more fully, than they otherwise would be. Such a participle is chosen as is adapted to the idea of the substan¬ tive, and as will express the thought most appropriately and vividly. The most usual participles are: motus , commo¬ tus, permotus, ductus, adductus, inductus, incitatus, im¬ pulsus, incensus, inflammatus, perterritus, victus, doctus, corruptus, impeditus, deterritus, captus, coactus, etc. ; e. g. From displeasure, from disgust, taedio victus; on account of this injury, ea contumelia commotus; from experience , re doctus; from (by) love, amore captus; from want, inopia adductus; from (by) desire, aviditate incensus; from fear, metu coactus, timore perterritus; from .rage, furore impulsus; on account of feeble health, vale¬ tudinis imbecillitate impeditus; from pity, misericordia oaptus; font folly, stultitia obcaecatus; from shame , verecundia deterritus. So, benevolentia impulsus, odio inductus, spe. inductus, familiaritate inductus (adductus). He did not do it from religious scruples , re¬ ligione impeditus; why, wherefore, quibus rebus ad¬ ductus, and so others. In English, however, we often supply words similar to the LatV«. In like manner, instead of adjectives ot the simple ablative of qual¬ ity, the participle praeditus is often used in wiping to designate inter¬ nal and external endowments, but only with persons ; e. g. Tu tali capientia praed i t u s, you, so icise a man ; Cuuo, summo ingenio et prudentia praeditus, a man of the greatest understanding and wisdom. Further; Insigni p-etate, virtute, fide, crudelitate, singula¬ ri immanitate, beneficiis, audacia, cupiditate, scelere, spe, njetu im¬ perio, potestate, auctoritate, sacerdotio praeditus,— and so’with -other ablatives. The participle usus is joined with a noun, to denote that which is used as a means by which or with which something is done ; e. g. With his help , auxilio, ejus ope usus; by this mode of life , hac vitae ratione usus; by this fortune, ea (qua) fortuna usus; by many ma¬ chines, tormentis multis usus, and so others. So, with is expressed by ornatus, instructus, and without by non ornatus, non instructus; e. g. Without knowledge or learning, nulla cognitione rerurn, nulla scientia ornatus. CONSTRUCTION OF SEVERAL VERBS. 463 § 545.] In such phrases as, Of a distinguished, low, obscure family, natus is used : Summo loco, humili atque obscuro loco natus. Where we say of writings, in Greek, Latin, in prose, in verse —, scriptus, compositus and the like are added ; e. g. I have sent you a sketch of my consulship in Greek, commentarium consulatus mei Graece compositum misi ad te. Finally, in the phrase, He moved in the splendour of a triumph, afes- tivc parade and the like, circumdatus, fulgens, celebratus, or a similar word, must be added to splendore. CONSTRUCTION OF SEVERAL VERBS. 545. In the section on the government of cases, many verbs have been already mentioned, which have a construc¬ tion different from the English. But they could not all be stated there, and even in this section all the others will not be adduced. The student should refer throughout to good lexicons. But every construction there quoted is not to be imitated, unless it has the authority of the best writers. Let the student therefore be cautious in their use. Only certain verbs will here be introduced. Abdere se in locum, to conceal one's self in a place. Hence, ab¬ dere sedomum, to conceal one's self at home, in his house ; R o- m a m, in Koine ; in Graeciam, in Greece. But the participle ab¬ ditus is sometimes construed with in and the ablative, because the act of concealing is already completed. The figurative phrase, to be ab¬ sorbed in letters, or to devote one's self to letters, is expressed by, se in litteras or se litteris abdere. Abdicare se aliqua re, to free one's self from something, to resign, to lay down; e. g. Consulatu, to resign the consulship; tutela, to give up the guardianship. Abire ab aliqua re, to go away, to depart from something ; e. g E loco, from a place. But magistratu, to resign an office. Abjudicare aliquid ab aliquo, to take something from some one , by sentence or verdict; but sibi aliquid, to take something from one's self, to say and judge that one has not something. Accommodare aliquid ad al quid, to jit something to something, to adjust according to something , se ad aliquid, to accommodate one's self to something, to adapt, both in the figurative sense, in the phy¬ sical sense, to fit something to something, to attach is expressed by, ac- com. aliquid alicui, e. g. capiti, but when the personal object is in the dative, by ad caput; e. g. e i coronam ad caput accom Also to lend something to some one is expressed by, accom. aliquid alicui, and to be obliging to one, by accom. se alicui. Actum e s t de me, it is all over with me. Adire aliquem, locum and ad aliquem, ad locum, to go to one, to go to a place. But ad i t u s ad aliquem, access to, audience with some one. 464 CONSTRUCTION OE SEVERAL VERBS. [§ 545 . Adjungere alicui, ad aliquem, to connect with something. Admonere aliquem de aliqua re, to admonish one of something , to remind; aliquem alicujus rei, to remind one of something. A d sp i rare ad aliquid, to strive for something, to seek to obtain something ; in is used only with places, i n locum. Adsuesccre, see assuefacere. Ad u lar i aliquern and alicui, to flatter one ; before Livy aliquem , after alicui. The word does not occur in Caesar. Advenire in locum, to come to a place. Hence, He came home , to Delphi, advenit do mum, Delphos. So also the substantive, adventus in locum, e. g. in urbem. Where ? quo? here, hue; there , illuc, istuc. A ffe r r e alicui aliquid, or ad aliquem aliquid, to bring something to some one, to procure for,to announce something to one. In the passive, affertur mihi or ad me de aliqua re, something is announced to me. Yet only aft’, alicui vim, manus, necem and the like. Alienare aliquem ab aliquo, to make one dislike another, to es¬ trange one from another. Appellare aliquem, to name one, to call to, to appeal to one. Appelli ad locum aliquem, to be driven to a place, to land some¬ where ; e. g. Navis appellitur ad littus, milites navigiis appelluntur in Africam. Where ? quo? there, e o. In the active, only of the person, who causes a ship to land, or drives it somewhere : nauta, (or who¬ ever is in the ship, or even ventus) appellit navem. Assuefacere alicui rei, ad aliquid, to accustom one to something. So, assuefieri, assuescere, assuetus. Attende re aliquid or aliquem, to attend to something or some one, to be attentive to ; but w r ith animum or animos — ad aliquid (ad aliquem ). Attinere ad aliquid, ad aliquem, to concern anything, any one, to relate to; e. g. This in no respect concerns me, hoc nihil ad me attinet, and briefly, nihil ad me. Audire aliquid, to hear, to listen to something; aliquem, to hear, to listen to some one, to give car to, to obey some one ; de aliqua re or aliquo, to hear of or concerning some person or thing , but also ex or de aliquo, to hear something from one, who relates something ; Cicero seldom says ab aliquo. Audire bene (male) ab aliquo, to hear good (ill) of one's self from some one, i. e. to be held in good (evil) repute, to be praised (blamed) by some one. The participle audi¬ ens in the sense of obedient has the dative alicui, in the best writers alw r ays with the additional dicto ; e. g. Audiens alicui dicto, obe¬ dient to the word of any one. Auferre ab aliquo aliquid, to take, to tear something from one. Auspicari ab aliqua re, to begin with something. Comp incipere. Cadere animo or animis to let one's courage fail,to despair ; cau¬ sa or in judicio, to lose one's suit; in aliquem, to meet any one, to be exposed to any one, to be applicable to one, to suitany one ; sub sensum aliquem, sub oculos, to be perceived, to be seen ; in aliquid, to etui in or with something. Canere aliqua re, to play upon something, to pi ay something ; e. g. Cithara, tibiis, fidibus. Canere receptui, to sound a retreat. Cedere loco, ex and de loco, to leave a place; alicui aliqua re, to yield something to some one ; alicui (in) aliqua re, to be inferior to one $ 545. J CONSTRUCTION OF SEVERAL VERBS. 465 in something; nihil cedo alicui, I am in nothing inferior to some one. Circumspicere aliquem, aliquid, to look round for or after some one, something, to consider, to attend to some one, something ; e. g. Co¬ mites, omnia. Cogitare aliquid, to think of something, to reflect vpon something ; de aliqua re, to meditate upon something, to have something in the mind, especially future things j secum, to think with one's self, to muse; in locum, to design to travel to a place ; e. g. Cogito Romam, in Italiam. Cognoscere aliquid, to make one's self acquainted with, to learn by examination, to inquire into, investigate something ; aliquid ex ali¬ quo, to learn something from one who relates it. Coire in aliquem locum, to go together somewhere. So coitio. Collocare aliquid in aliquo loco, to place something in something ; e. g. In navi, in foro, Romae, at Rome; hie (not hue), here ; beneficium apud aliquem, to show a kindness to one ; alicui filiam, to give a ; daughter in marriage to one. Communicare aliquid cum aliquo, to communicate something to some one, to make common with one ; inter aliquos, to share among some, with some. Conciliare sibi amorem, benevolentiam ab aliquo or alie u- j u s, to gain the love of one ; aliquem alicui, to join one with one ; al iquos inter se, to join some together or with each other. Concurrere in aliquem locum, to run together into some place ; ad aliquem, to come together to one. So concursus , as hereafter confluere . Conferre aliquid in aliquem (aliquid), to attribute something to some one, to bestoiv, to give; also ad aliquid, to bestow upon something; e. g. Curam ad philosophiam ; inter se, impart to one another ; cum aliqua re, to compare with something; se in fugam, to betake one's self to flight ; se in locum , to goto a place ; se ad locum, to turn one's self to something. Confluere in aliquem locum, to flow together into a place ; hence, where, quo; here, hue; there, e o. Conquiescere in aliqua re, to find one's peace and satisfaction in something. Conscendere in aliquid or aliquid, to mount something, to climb upon; ab aliquo loco, to embark at some place ; e. g. There, inde, ab eo loco, ichere, unde; at Ephesus, ab Epheso or Epheso. Constare inter omnes or omnibus, to be known to all; sibi, to be consistent with one's self; in aliqua re, to persevere in something, tore - main true to, to rest upon something ; alicui r e i, or cum aliqua re, to agree with something ; ex aliqua re, to consist of, to be composed of something. Consumere aliquid in aliqua re, to employ something upon some¬ thing, to spend in something. Contendere ab aliquo, to ask one earnestly. Conterere tempus (etc.) in aliqua re, to spend time upon (with, on) something. Convenire aliquem, to visit some one ; in aliquem, to suit or be¬ long to one ; in locum, to come together to a place ; e. g. In forum, to the market; hence, where, q u o, not ubi ; there, e o, not ibi ; in the same place, e o d e m, not ibidem ; hoc conven’d mihi, this is suitable 466 CONSTRUCTION OF SEVERAL VERBS. [§ 545. for me; hoc convenit mihi cum aliquo,/ agree with some one in this ; hoc convenit inter eos, these agree in this. Also the substantive conventus in aliquem, locum. Convertere de (ex) aliqua lingua, to translate from a language ; e. g. De (ex) Graecis, from the Grech. Dare poenas alicui, to be punished by some one ; dare poenas ali- cujus rei, to suffer punishment for something. Luere , pendere , depen¬ dere , expendere , solvere, persolvere, suscipere , sustinere, are also used for dare. Defendere aliquem ab aliquo, to defend one from or against one. Contra, is seldom used for ab. So tueri ab aliquo. Defigere aliquid (e. g. oculos) in aliqua re, to direct , to fasten something upon something. Desiderare aliquid ab aliquo, to miss something in some one. Desilire d e or e x aliquo loco, to leap down from some place. Desistere de or ab aliqua re, also aliqua re, to desist from some¬ thing. Detrahere de aliqua re aliquid, or alicui aliquid, to draw some¬ thing from something ; de aliqua re, to diminish something, to disparage. De turbare aliquem ex aliqua re, to deprive one of something. Devertere ad (in) aliquem locum, to put up somewhere ; e. g. Ad (in) cauponam, at an inn ; ad aliquem (not apud aliquem), ivith some one; e. g. Ad hospitem, with a host. Hence eo devertit, he put up there ; quo dev., where he —. Deversari is different from this, signifying to be a guest somexohere; apud aliquem, in alicujus domo (domi alicujus). Disputare aliquid, to say something, to discuss , only with neu¬ ter pronouns and adjectives; e. g. Haec, multa — disputo; disputo de aliqua re, to speak respecting something ; in alicujus sententiam, to speak in defence of the opinion of some one ; in nullam partem, for no party; in contrarias partes, in utramque partem, for and against. Dissentire cum and ab aliquo (not alicui), to be of a different opinion from some one, to dissent from ; inter nos dissentimus, we dif¬ fer from each other in opinion. Dissidere as above dissentire. Dubitare de aliqua re, to be in doubt about something; but, hoc, illud, to doubt this, that. Ducere aliquem in aliquibus or in numero aliquorum, to reckon one among certain persons. Efficere aliquid in aliquo (not in aliquem), to do somethingto, (against) some one. Comp, exercere. Erudire, in the general sense of to instruct ,— with the ablative alone, wherein; e. g. Artibus et disciplinis, Graecis Romanisque lit¬ teris, institutis et praeceptis. But when it is merely of instruction in a single art or science, it has in with the ablative ; e. g. In jure civili. Excidit hoc ex ore, this falls from, escapes the mouth ; but, hoc mihi excidit, this escapes me, I have forgotten this. So, hoc excidit ex animo, the mind forgets this, this is forgotten. Exercere aliquid, to practise something; se (or exerceri) in ali¬ qua re, or aliqua re, to exercise (employ) one's self with (in) something. Hence, exercere crudelitatem, iracundiam, and the like, in aliquo, to practise cruelty on one. Whether Cicero has said, in aliquem is to be doubted. Comp, efficere and expromere. CONSTRUCTION OF SEVERAL VERBS. 467 § 545.] Exire in aliquem locum, to go out somewhere, alight, land. Comp. conscendere. Exordium sumere ab aliqua re, to begin with something . Exprimere de aliqua lingua, to translate from a language; e. g. de Graecis, from the Greek. Expromere aliquid, to bring forth something, to show; aliquid in aliqua re, to show something in (to) something. Hence, as before, expr. crudelitatem in aliquo, to show cruelty to some one. Comp, ex¬ ercere. Figere aliquid in aliquam rem and in aliqua re, to fasten, to hang something upon something. So also, telum figere in aliquo, to thrust a dagger into some one ; studium figere in aliqua re, io bestow labor or pains on something , and so only in an intellectual sense. Gigni ex aliquo (aliqua), to be begotten, to be born of any one. Comp, the concluding remark at the end. Grat u 1 a r i alicui aliquid or de aliqua re, to congratulate one on account of something. Impedire aliquem ab aliqua re, or alicujus rem, to hinder one in something. Imprimere, incidere, inscribere, insculpere aliquid in aliqua re, to stamp , to engrave something upon something. Seldom with in and the accusative. Incipere ab aliqua re, to begin with something ; hinc, inde, with this ; unde, with which , where. Intercedit aliquid (e. g. amicitia) mihi tecum or inter me et te, 1 and you. have something. Intercludere aliquem (ab) aliqua re, and alicui aliquid, to shut one up from something , to deprive one of something. Invadere in aliquem, in locum, to make an assault upon one, upon a place. Cicero uses only this construction, other writers omit in ; it occurs only once (Fam. XVI. 12, 2) with the dative, after the manner of the poets. Invehi in aliquem, to inveigh against, to chide, to accuse. Involvere aliquid aliqua re, to wrap, to envelope something in something ; e. g. Tenebris, in darkness; nubibus, in clouds. Laborare aliqua re, and ex aliqua re, to suffer, to be in pain, to be sick in something , when a single diseased part is mentioned ; e. g. (ex) capite, pedibus, renibus, alvo. Cicero uses ex, Celsus the abla¬ tive merely. So also ex invidia , ex desiderio. But aliqua re, when only the disease is mentioned; e g. Morbo, febri. Celsus: ex par¬ tu lab., where the active cause is named. Further, de aliquo, alicujus causa, to be afflicted, to be troubled on account of something ; in aliqua re, to employ one's self with something, to be employed with. Liceri aliquid, to bid for (upon) something. Locare aliquid in aliquo loco, to place in some place, to place upon something. Comp, above, collocare. Ludere aliqua re, and aliquem rem, to play something ; e. g. Ball , dice, pi la (pilam), talis (talos). Mereri de aliquo, de aliqua re, to make one's self deserving from some one of something, to merit from. So also the participle mer¬ itus. But meritum in or erga aliquem, not de aliquo, kindness to some one. 468 CONSTRUCTION OF SEVERAL VERBS. [§ 545. Nasci ex aliquo (aliqua) to be born of some one. Comp. §212, and the concluding remark. Numerare in bonis, in malis, to reckon among blessings, among evils. So also, in loco beneficii, as a favor. Occupatum esse in aliqua re, to be employed, with (\n) some¬ thing. Ordiri to begin. Comp, incipere. Oriri as Ordiri. Perferre ad aliquem aliquid, to bring something to one, to deliver , to announce. Pertinere ad aliquem, to reach, to extend to some one, to relate to, to concern some one, to have influence upon some one. With an a blative as e o, quo, to tend, to serve, to have for its object. Placare aliquem alicui, to reconcile one with. one. Ponere aliquid in aliqua re, to put something upon (in) someth ng, to bestow something upon something ; aliquid loco alicujus, to consider something as (in the place of, for) something ; e. g. Loco beneficii. Farther, ponere aliquid in laude, and the like, to consider something as praise; aliquid in malis ponere, to reckon something among evils. Comp, collocare. Praestare aliquid or aliquem, to stand for something, to be good for one, to be surety for ; e. g. Fratrem meurn praesto, I am good for my brother, l am surety for him ; se aliquem, to show ones self as — ; e. g. Bonum, fortem civem. Procreari ex aliquo (aliqua), as gigni above. Provocare aliquem, to challenge, to summon some one ; ad ali¬ quem, to appeal to some one. Comp, appellare. P u r g a r e aliquem de aliqua re,to excuse one on account of something; alicui, to some one; e, g. Te mihi de Sempronio purgas, you excuse yourself to me on account of S. Recidere ad aliquem, to come back upon one, to recoil, to relapse ; in aliquem, to fall upon one. Recipere in aliquem locum, to receive, to harbor in a place ; e. g. In castra, in civitatem ; with domus, merely domum ; also aliquo lo¬ co without in ; e. g. Urbibus, tectis, sedibus. Referre aliquem in aliquos or i n numerum aliquorum, to rer/c- on, to number one among some ; aliquid (animum, oculos) ad aliquid, to direct, something to something, to throw to, to refer to ; ad aliquem de ali¬ qua re, or aliquid, to ask some one respecting something, to propose something to some one for his consideration ; ex and ab aliquo victoriam, to obtain a, victory over some one. Reponere as ponere; repon. aliquem in aliquos, or in nume¬ rum aliquorum, to reckon one among some, to rank among. Reportare ab or ex aliquo victoriam, to obtain a victory over some one. Respicere ad aliquid (aliquem), to look back to something (some one) ; aliquem (aliquid), to have a regard for one ( something), to con¬ sider. Sumere supplicium de aliquo, to inflict punishment upon one. Supersedere aliqua re, to lie releasedfrom, to be spared something. Triumphare de or ex aliquo, to triumph over one. So, victo- iam ferre ex aliquo. Tueri and tutari aliquem ab aliquo, to defend one against one. §§546,547.] DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS. 469 Valere in aliquem (aliquid), to have reference to something, to concern some, one ( something ), to relate to one (something) ; e. g. llaec res in omnes homines valet. Versar i in aliqua re, to be employed with something;. V indicare aliquid, to appropriate something to one's self to claim? with and without sibi, or more seldom ail se. ; ab aliqua re, to free from something ; in aliquem, to punish some one. Remark. The verbs nasci , gigni and the like, are usually followed by cr, or more seldom by «, often by the ablative merely. In the sense of to he descended from , especially as participles, they generally take merely the ablative; e. g. Tantalo prognatus, Pelope natus, summo loco natus, parentibus nati sunt humilibus. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS. 546. There are very many words in Latin, which we, by using the same words to translate them, consider synonymous, and hence, in writing, often confound them with each other. Such words belong to all the different parts of speech, viz. Substantives ; e. g. Mos, consuetudo, ritus, custom , usage ; scelus, maleficium, flagitium, facinus, base or wicked deed; Adjectives; e. g. Ingens, magnus, great; Pronouns, hic, iste, ille, is, he, this; Verbs, amare, diligere, to love; putare, cre¬ dere, censere, opinari, etc., to think; consequi, assequi, adi¬ pisci, nancisci, impetrare, etc., to obtain ; Adverbs, certe, cer¬ to, certainly; fere, paene, almost; Conjunctions, quia, quo¬ niam, quod, because ; itaque, igitur, ergo, therefore. And so there are many English words, which may be expressed by several Latin words, which yet differ more or less from each other. Such words are called synonymes. Good Latin composition depends upon the right use of these,—as in every language, the confounding of synonymous words is to be avoided. Only some few which occur most frequently, will be men¬ tioned here, and the distinction between them pointed out. 547. (1) More is expressed by magis and plus. 3fagis is used when the comparative meaning of the word very (valde, magnopere) is expressed, and the quality, how , how greatly , in its higher decree, is denoted ; therefore it signifies, in a higher , stronger degree. Hence, so often, eo magis, quo 40 470 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS. [§ 548. magis, etiam m agis, the more, still more. It is similar to potius (rather), except that potius excludes the one entirely, while magis prefers the one without depreciating the other. Examples. I attend in part to the present, but still more to the future. Those who fear, must be blamed the more. I rejoice far more at my act, than at thine. We hastened so much, that there could not be more haste. When I read thy last letter, 1 approved thy resolution still more. This excites my laughter more than my displeasure. — The positive adverb is here valde , magnopere , the superlative maxime. Plus signifies more in relation to the question, how much ? when more is the Nom. or Acc. or adverb of the comparative of much. Hence it denotes greatness, multitude, superiority, consequently in a greater number or quantity. Amplius is similar to it, which sometimes signifies still further, and sometimes, likep/tts, is used to denote number. Examples. 50 much and yet more is he indebted to me. They gave him more than they wished. These prevail more by wealth, power and weapons. At that time Bibulus did not oftener depart from the gate, than w T hen at Rome from his house. He is owino- more than a thousand dollars. _ co The positive adverb is here multum, the superlative plurimum. Sometimes we find both in single phrases. Thus it is said : m ag i s te amo, magis te diligo ; but also, plus te amo, plus te diligo; just as it is said : valde te amo, valde te diligo, and rnultum te amo, multum te dilio-o. 548. (2) If not, unless, si non and nisi. 51 non is used, when the emphasis lies upon not (non), so that either the whole sentence or a single word in contrast with another sentence or word, is to be negatived. Hence it is used: (1) after another preceding affirmative condition, which yet is sometimes wanting, and must then be supplied in thought; (2) where it is the same as perhaps, and conse¬ quently one assertion outweighs the other; (3) where such a limitation as but yet occurs, and if not contains the idea of yet, at least; here si minus also is used ; and (4) when two words are contrasted with each other. Such an antithetic sentence must sometimes be understood, when it is omitted. So, also, §519.] DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS. 471 after mirari; e. g. Do not wonder, if it is not fit, si non convenit. In the second clause, without a verb, if (but) not is expressed by si or sin minus , sin aliter , si contra, but not by si non. Examples. If any one breathes, he lives; if he does not breathe, he is dead. If this was not lawful, a mistake has been committed. This is a great orator, perhaps (if not) the greatest. Take all your forces with you, but if not, yet (at least) as many as possible. If we are not enticed by virtue itself, but by some advantage, then—. If we cannot equal a great orator, we can at least imitate him. Nisi is used, when the emphasis does not fall upon not (non), but upon si. Hence it is used in all negative conditional clauses considered merely as possible. In supplementary subordinate remarks, unless perhaps is always expressed by nisi or nisi forte. , Examples. These men would not have been chosen, if they had not then been the first. Marcellus would assist in this conversation, if he were not absent. All this has no power, unless bravery is provoked by anger. The memory is impaired, if it is not used. Unless I am wholly de¬ ceived, Pompey is abandoned by all. Remark. When, however, in such sentences, the speaker gives the emphasis to tire not , then si non can also stand for nisi. 549. (3) The rest is expressed by ceteri and reliqui. The first occurs very rarely in the singular ; indeed, the mascu¬ line ceterus never occurs in the nominative, although often in other cases, cetera, and ceterum only occasionally, the feminine frequently, especially in Livy. On the contrary, Cicero always uses reliquus , a , ton, instead of it. He connects reliquus with singular substantives, and then it signifies remaining, what re¬ mains , is left, and signifies the rest, only in the neuter gender; e. g. Reliqua conjuratorum manus; reliqua supellex, reliqua vita agitur sub terra; animus si est corpus, interi¬ bit cum reliquo corpore; rei i qu u m (venenum) ejecit e poculo. With respect to time, it means future, omne reli- quum tempus. The plurals reliqui and ceteri, resemble each other so nearly 472 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS. [§550. in signification, that one can often be put for the other, at least ceteri for reliqui. Yet reliqui is generally used, when it signifies those still re¬ maining ; ceteri signifies, the others, others of the kind. When a numeral stands in connection, or has preceded, reliqui is used, and denotes the part still wanting; and thus reliqui denotes the remaining parts of a whole specified in part ; e. g. Q- u a- tuor corpora — terrena et hurnida — reliquae duae par¬ tes. Prima illa res ad meurn officium pertinet, duas autem reliquas vobis pop. Romanus imposuit. Examples of r e 1 i q u i. He alone possessed all virtues in a higher degree, than all other commanders have possessed them. 1 will inform the senate respect¬ ing the arrangement of the other affairs. The minds of the rest can be instructed. Three estates were delivered up to Capito; all the rest of the goods, this Roscius took possession of. He gave away not a little, the rest he sold. Whoever has easily comprehended a little, will as easily comprehend the rest. I follow Plato and the rest of the Socratics. Grief and the other maladies of the soul have a remedy. They have only labored on the head, the rest of the body they have left incomplete. Examples of ceteri. As others are wont to be named from their fathers, so he must be named from his son. What have those boasters better, with which to meet these two great evils? or do Epicurus and the other (reliqui) philosophers seem inadequately furnished against other supposed evils? To the other great advantages, this also is added. Pompey the Great has waged more wars than others have read of. Why do we not intrust this war also to the same, to whom the other wars have been intrusted ? Take care for your life, ye judges, and for that of the other citizens. I do not buy my grain dearer than others. 550. (4) Especially is expressed by in primis, praecipue , potissimum, maxime, plurimum and praesertim . Only the last differs so perceptibly from the rest, that none of them can supply its place ; the others differ but little, and of these maxime is most used. («) In primis (imprimis), signifying properly among thefrst, strengthens, in the highest degree, an adjective or a verb, and so qualifies an object, that it is ranked among the first, especially with reference to single things. § 550.] DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS. 473 Examples. Polybius especially is sufficient authority. Philodamus was espe¬ cially rich (the richest) among his fellow-citizens. The writings of these men are especially distinguished (the most distinguished) in the Asiatic style. It is that, of which we especially treat. We love him especially, and hold him dear. M. Brutus was especially (very inti¬ mately) acquainted with the civil law. He is distinguished in all the liberal arts, especially in poetry. (|3) Praecipue also strengthens, for the most part, verbs and adjectives, distinguishes single persons or things above others, and attributes something to them preeminently or as peculiar. Examples. Precision must be peculiarly honored by us. The inhabitants of Vicetia especially esteem M. Brutus. You have nothing special to fear. Pompey arrogated nothing especially to himself. 1 have been especially employed in defending him. White is a color especially proper for the deity. I ask you especially for this one thing. Who will say, that nothing has been specially given to man by nature ? I do not now speak particularly of the consular men. Eloquence has always preeminently flourished among every free people, and espe¬ cially (maxime) in peaceful states. (y) Potissimum as superlative of potius, rather , con¬ tains the idea of above all , and is chiefly used, where a choice among many is spoken of. Examples. The Roman people chose you in preference to all others among the consular men. I was reflecting upon what I should especially write to you. The soothsayers are wont to speak especially of this holy place. One of this family appeared, especially that blind one. Against you especially has he directed his already enfeebled power. (5) Maxime and plurimum; the former, as the su¬ perlative of magis , contains the idea of magis quam , pluri¬ mum. , as superlative of plus, the idea of plus quam. Hence, wherever magis is appropriately used in the comparative, there maxime is used ; and wherever plus is appropriate, there plurimum is used. The former occurs more frequent¬ ly, and is strengthened by quam or vel. 40* 474 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS L§ 550. Examples. He adopts the custom of the philosophers, especially of those, who are wont to speak on every subject, for and against. In the greatest pain, hope especially consoles me. I have especially used thy advice. Let him learn history, especially that of our state. 1 write this to you on this account especially, that —. 1 had indeed heard this from others, but 1 learned it especially from my brother. (s) Praesertim is used only with emphatic accessory clauses, which are designed to make the rest of the assertion more prominent, and stands sometimes in connection with qnum, quod, si, sometimes with a participle or abridged sen¬ tence, provided that one of those conjunctions is understood. Praecipue and imprimis never stand before si, when it renders the condition emphatic. Examples. An orator, especially in our state, must have at his command every elegance of speeeh. You must use every effort, especially when these hear. This reputation of wisdom does not please me, espe¬ cially since it is unfounded. You are in fault, especially because you think it was done by me. (£) Omnis, totus, cunctus, universus. Omnis= nag, may be said in general of all the individuals, of all the species of a genus, and of all the parts of a thing, whether these objects be considered as united or dispersed ; e. g. O m- nis exercitus, omnes milites, omnis clamor, omnes homines. Tutus = oXog , only signifies a whole, in reference to all its parts; e. g. T o t a e aedes, totus exercitus. We do not say omnis orbis, but totus orbis. Cunctus — dnag in¬ cludes the assemblage of all the individuals, or of all the spe¬ cies, considered as united together; e. g. Cuncta gens, cuncta civitas. Cuncti simul ore fremebant Dardanidae • Had Virgil intended to say that all the Trojans that were in the world had such or such a sentiment, he should have said omnes, and not cuncti. Universus = ovpjtag rises above the idea of cunctus ; it not only signifies all the objects united, § 550.] DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS. 475 but also all without exception, all at once and together. Cuncti clamare coeperunt signifies that all those who com¬ posed, for example, an assembly of the people, cried out. Universi clamare coeperunt adds to the above idea; that all, without any exception, cried out at once, as it were but one cry. Phoedrus, in the tale of Princeps Tybicen, says, Ut vero cuneis res patuit omnibus, as soon as it was known in all parts of the amphitheatre , either to all at once , or to one after the other; Princeps ab universis capite est protrusus foras, all at once cried out that he should be driven out of the place . Omnis is opposed to nullus, or to pauci ; totus to pars; cunc¬ ti to sejuncti ; universi to singuli. In many instances these four words may be used the one instead of the other, when we wish to express the whole of a thing in reference to its different parts. It is true totus cannot have the extensive signification of omnis ; but omnis includes that of totus. In not considering the union or dispersion of the parts, we may say with propriety, obviam se effudit omnis civitas, in the sense of Horace : dicemus, io, triumphe, civitas omnis. To¬ ta civitas, cuncta civitas, universa civitas se obviam Caesari effudit. Poets sometimes use these words indiscriminate¬ ly .—Dumesnil's Latin Synonyms. (//) Atque, ac, et, q u e. Atque and ac do not differ in signification. Therefore, if they connect single words, the ideas which they express must be of the same kind. And, in the first place, these ideas are such, that the second enhances or augments the first. Interim omnes servi (not only) atque (but also) liberi. Nep. Them. 6. Therefore atque etiam, at¬ que adeo. Liv. XLIV, 22. In omnibus circulis atque etiam, si diis placet, in convivis sunt, qui exercitum in Macedoniam ducant. Cic. Rose. Amer. 35. Ea, si prodierit, atque adeo quum prodierit, scio enim proditurum esse audiet. In the second place, these ideas can be such, that the last is a more definite and exact explanation of the first; yet al¬ ways such an explanation, that the addition appears as an ex- 476 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS. [§ 550. pansion of what precedes. Vestros portus atque ( and more¬ over, and indeed, and also ) eos portus, quibus vitam et spiri¬ tum ducitis, in praedonum fuisse potestate scitis. Cic. Manii. 12. Semper se interposuit, atque ita, uti usuram ab iis nun¬ quam acceperit. Nep. Att. 2. But these particles connect whole sentences also, when the latter sentence augments, more fully explains and continues what precedes = and, and then, and therefore, and yet. Atque ut omnes intelligant, me Lucullo tantum laudis impertire, quantum ei debeatur, di¬ co, etc. Cic. Manii. 8. His rebus in causa judicioque pa¬ tefactis, quis est, qui illum absolvi potuisse arbitraretur? Atque haec parva sunt: cognoscite majora. Id. Cluent. 8. Ingeram mala multa: atque, aliquis dicat, nil promoveris. Ter. Andr. IV, I, 16. Et * connects things which are different from one another, and which do not belong together by nature or by any inter¬ nal connection, but are both of the like substances, which are connected only for some present purpose. Hence it is used in inscriptions : Cervus et Leo. Que connects things, which seem, in some way, to be united by a natural and in¬ ternal connection or by a connection arising from some rela¬ tion. But here the things connected are not of the same substance; what follows is only an accident, naturally as it were, depending on what precedes. Hence que generally has the force of, and accordingly, and therefore , and also. Da¬ rius classem quingentarum navium comparavit, eique Datim praefecit et Artaphernem. Nep. Milt. 4. Et, because Data¬ mes and Artaphernes are different and are connected only for the present; eique, because comparare classem and prae¬ ficere classi naturally belong together. Therefore so often * E t may also be said to connect words or sentences equally im¬ portant; e. g. Socrates e t Plato sapientissimi fuerunt; que annex¬ es something to'what precedes ; e. g. Senatus populus que Roma¬ nus decrevit. Here the Senate and people are not considered of equal authority or importance, since they do not constitute an organized body; only the Senate decrees, and the people approve. § 550.] DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS. 477 conjuges Uberique; and, therefore, generally (quique, not et qui, because the addition is considered as naturally connected with what precedes. Se suaque alienis crediderunt. Caes. B. G. VI, 31. Mulieres quique per aetatem ad pugnam inu¬ tiles erant. Ibid. II, 10.— Schmalfeld’ s Latin Synonyms . (9) Q u i s ? (masc. and fem.) quid? as a substantive, who ? what? Qui, quae, quod, as an adjective, which? — Quis, quid asks for the object itself, without reference to any qual¬ ity which belongs to it. When quis is joined with a substan¬ tive, the latter is to be considered as in apposition with the former. Then only the object itself (person or thing) is in¬ quired for, and the quality of the object is known to the speak¬ er ; e. g. Q. u i s philosophus praeclaram illam senten¬ tiam pronuntiavit ? Here the speaker wishes to know mere¬ ly the name of the philosopher. But when it is said: Qui philosophus — pronuntiavit? the speaker at the same time wishes to know what kind of a philosopher he is who has ex¬ pressed the noble sentiment, e. g. of what school. More¬ over, the adjective qui is used substantively, when the quality of the object is inquired for, but the object itself is supposed to be already known ; e. g. Themistocles domino navis, qui sit, aperuit, Them, informed the master of the ship, who he was ; he did not tell him his name merely, but also how great a man he was. — Kithner. See also, §§102, 333 (6). (t) A u t, vel, v e, s i v e. Aut is used when things or ideas are disjoined, one of which necessarily excludes the other. T his exclusion is either actual, so that the words or mem¬ bers contradict each other, and cannot be conceived at the same time; e. g. Quicquid enunciatur, aut verum est, aut falsum. Omne corpus aut aqua, aut aer, aut ig¬ nis, aut terra est, a u t id quod est concretum ex his, aut ex aliqua parte eorum; or it is represented as necessary, for the purpose of emphatic distinction; e. g. Cicero says: j Beauty of expression, which is consistent with the use of common words, depends upon this, that such words, aut op- 478 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS. [§ 550. time sonant, aut rem maxime explanant. He puts two cases here, as excluding one another, although it is conceivable, that both should be true of one and the same word. So again he says : The reasons for leaving office are various, narn aut inimicitias, aut laborem, aut sumptus suscipere no¬ lunt, aut, etc. Aut often introduces ideas of less or greater extent, that exclude the foregoing,—where we can translate or at least, or much more : e. g. Eripe rnihi hunc dolorem, aut minue saltern. Non multum aut nihil omnino Graecis ce¬ ditur. Vel represents the exclusion as arbitrary or assumed, not Wkeaut, as actual and essential. It is derived from vclle, and therefore contains the idea of choice, as one chooses, and de¬ notes a separation depending upon the will or view of the - speaker ; e. g. Sero a Romanis poetae v el cogniti, vel re¬ cepti sunt. It is conceivable that both have taken place; this would be positively asserted, if et—et were used; with aut only one of the two must have happened.—With vcl something else besides what is named, is admissible, while with aut ev¬ erything else not named is excluded. E. g. Hanc tu mihi v el vi, vel clam, vel precario fac tradas, either by violence, or craft, or entreaty, in any way you can, without excluding a fourth ; aut would mean, in no other way than one of the three named. Hence, expressions or ideas, which are related or synonymous, are disjoined by vel, fo indicate that either may be taken; e. g. Mens mundi vel prudentia vel provi¬ dentia appellari recte potest. If the first vel is omitted, the separation is not so emphatic. Vel then expresses a correc¬ tion or amendment of what precedes, in the sense of or better, or rather, and therefore is often joined with dicam, potius, eti¬ am; e. g. Homo minime malus, vel potius optimus. Lau¬ danda est, vel etiam amanda. Sed stuporem hominis, vel dicam pecudis. A virtute profectum, v e 1 in ipsa virtute positum, But if the second clause is used merely to explain §550.] DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS. 479 the first, so that it could stand in its place, aut is employed. E. g. Experti, quid efficere, aut quo progredi possent. Ve doubled is used only by the poets. Singly it expresses the same kind of separation as vel, though as an enclitic with less emphasis; but it disjoins only words, and is almost ex¬ clusively used in such sentences as begin with a conjunction, the relative pronoun or an interrogative, or serves to indicate a closer connection between two members of a sentence, which are in common contrasted with a third. With nume¬ rals it means or at most. E. g. Si florem, acerbamve pi ram, aliudwe decerpseris. Esse ea dico, quae cerni tangite possunt. Quid est aliud mali damni?;*? 1 Qui consules praetoresre aut legati gesserunt, where consuls and praetors are jointly con¬ trasted with lieutenants. Ter quaterre, three or at most four. She—sive is used, when the speaker wishes to indicate, that he is uncertain which of two statements is true = wheth¬ er this or that, I cannot or will not decide. It may often be resolved into vel si, and therefore differs from vel, in that it can form a subordinate sentence with the mere verb, but this may be so blended with the main sentence, as not to be recognized as a separate clause. Sive used alone, com¬ monly refers to a preceding si, and then means or if; in the sense of or perhaps, or better, to amend what precedes or connect synonymous expressions, sive is indeed used by later Latin writers, but Cicero almost exclusively employs vel. E. g. Consul, sive praesentiam ejus timens, sive ira commotus,orationem habuit. Leges, quas sive Minos sive Jupiter sanxit. — Remark. Caes. B. G. 12. says : Sive casu, sive consilio deorum, ea civitas poenas persolvit. Here he indicates that he does not know which of the two is true. If ant—aut were used, the meaning would be, that Caesar judged that the punishment must necessarily proceed, either from accident or from the divine decree. Vel—vel would leave to the reader, which DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS. 480 [§ 550. he chooses to believe, and would merely give the conditions, under which the punishment might be. possible. (x) Sed, at, autem, verum, vero. Scd is derived from the particle se, which denotes separation. It therefore properly serves to separate or set apart what is different. Hence it stands in such sentences as denote a restriction, cor¬ rection ox more exact definition of what precedes; e. g. Ty¬ rannus fuit appellatus, s e d justus. Here sed corrects the idea, that would naturally arise from the word tyrannus, and de¬ fines the man’s character more precisely. Magnus homo, sed varius in omni genere vitae fuit. Here it restricts the first assertion. This sense it preserves also after quidem (it is true, indeed), after negations, and after non modo, etc.; e. g. Plura quidem exempla proferre possemus, sed modus adhi¬ bendus est. Quidem concedes, while scd restricts. Otii fructus est non contentio animi, sed relaxatio. Here scd cor¬ rects by distinguishing and separating rel. from cant. Hence it happens, that sed is so often used, to indicate, that one does not wish to pursue a subject farther, either for the purpose of returning from a digression and resuming a previous topic, or of passing to a new one, or of breaking off altogether; e. g. Sed illuc revertor. Ego sane a duinto dissentio ; sed ea, quae restant, audiamus. At serves to oppose and contrast. It is therefore used, when to one fact or idea admitted as true or valid, another is opposed as equally true; e. g. Fecit idem Themistocles. At idem non fecit Pericles. Non placet Antonio consulatus meus, at placuit Servilio. Brevis a natura nobis vita data est, a t memoria bene redditae vitae sempiterna ; i. e. I ad¬ mit that life is brief, but set over against this, that the remembrance of a well spent life is eternal. This con¬ cession is sometimes formally expressed by a clause with si, etiamsi or quamvis, in which case at is o ften join¬ ed with certe, vero or tamen, and rendered yet. With the same idea of opposition, at is used to introduce objee- § 550.] DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS. 481 tions, excuses, warnings or ad/nonitinns, sudden and live¬ ly transitions; e. g. Multo magis orator praestat impera¬ toribus. A t prodest plus imperator, but it is replied or objec¬ ted, that, etc. Id quum omnibus mirum videretur, A t, in¬ quit, merito illud facio, where at justifies what has preceded,, A t videte hominis intolerabilem audaciam. So with pray¬ ers or imprecations, and commands, which are uttered in op¬ position to something going before. At tu Pater deum ho- minumque, hinc saltem arce hostes. Finally, it is frequent in answers, in which a question is thrown back as unnecessa¬ ry, or if it contains an objection, this is shown to be ground¬ less; e. g. Quid porro quaerendum est? Factumne sit ? A t constat. A quo ? A t patet, shall it he asked whether it was done ? But that is granted. By whom ? But that is. clear. Quaestorem Coelium praeposui provinciae. Puerum T inquies. (True). At quaestorem, a t nobilem adolescentem^ At then contrasts opposites, sed separates what is different. Autem is allied to the Greek av, aine, again, on the other hand, on the contrary, moreover. It is the weakest of all the adversative particles, and accordingly serves most com¬ monly to denote a transition from one topic to another, at the same time not, like sed, distinguishing them emphati¬ cally for the sake of separation, but rather, merely continu¬ ing the train of remark. It thus approaches more nearly to the copulatives, and may sometimes be translated by and, and moreover, and on the other hand. Hence it is used to compare subjects having different predicates; e. g. Versutos eos appello, quorum celeriter mens versatur, callidos ante m, quorum animus usu concalluit, while on the other hand I call those callidos ; or to take out from what precedes a sin¬ gle idea for farther definition, and thus continue the train of thought in another aspect; e. g. Pater, prout ipse amabat litteras, filium erudivit. Erat autem in puero, etc., now there was in the youth. Multi obtrectatores inulta finxe¬ runt. Nihil est a ut e in tam volucre, quam maledictum, i. e. 41 4&2 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOME WORDS. [§ 550. Many slanders were invented; now there is nothing so swift as slander. Hence it is frequent in explanations with est, sunt, likewise, when a word or idea is taken out from the previous connection, and questioned with an expression of surprise or displeasure; e. g. Foedera ac leges (erant autem eae duode¬ cim tabulae et quaedam regiae leges), etc. Meum est, scire et curare, quid in republica fiat: fiat autem? (happens, do I say ?) Iinmo vero etiam quid futurum sit. So in the minor premise of a syllogism ; e. g .If wisdom is to he sought, folly is to beshunned; new icisdom is to he sought; tht ref ore,etc., sapientia aute m petenda. Verum, properly, it is true, always preserves this meaning more or less obliterated, and serves to define how or how far with truth, what precedes is to be understood. It has, at bot¬ tom, the sense of sed, but with the additional idea of an assur- ance, and therefore denotes a separation from something, with an assurance that it ought to be separated or distinguished, of¬ ten = but the truth is. Thus it strengthens the meaning of sed, as vero does that of autem. Hence, generally, it restricts or corrects a previous statement, while at the same time it rep¬ resents this restriction or correctiom as a true and safe one ; e. g. Hermagorae peccatum reprehendendum videtur, veru m brevi, deserves to be censured, but certainly with mildness. Non quid nobis utile, verum quid oratori necessarium, quaerimus, not what is useful to us, but surely, what is need¬ ful to the orator. Non ego dicebam serio, ut illam illi dares, verum ut simulares, i. e. my true meaning was. So when joined with tamen; e. g. It is an easy matter to raise a laugh, bid certainly notwithstanding, I have often seen much effected in causes by pleasantry, verunla m e n multurn — vidi. Vero, originally in truth, is properly used in replying with emphasis and assurance; as, ego vero, maxime, mi¬ nime vero. This meaning of truly , it retains with many particles and with negatives; as, enirn vero, at or verum enim vero, jam ver o, neque ver o. When it forms a transi¬ tion, it concedes what has gone before, and adds something §551.] CHOICE OF CERTAIN FORMS. 483 more weighty and important, the truth of which is repre¬ sented as confirmed by actual fact. Hence it is used in a climax, where it is often joined with etiam. Like autem , it commonly continues the train of thought, but adds a degree of assurance, precisely as verum does to seel. Hence it may often be rendered ancl in truth, moreover in truth, while verum is but in truth ; e. g. It was a great honor through¬ out all Greece, to be proclaimed victor at Olympia ; and in truth , to appear upon the stage even, and exhibit before the peo¬ ple, urns no disgrace to any one, in scenaque ve ro prodire. Scimus musicen abesse a principis persona: saltare vero etiam in vitiis poni, and indeed dancing even was regarded as a vice. Quod bonum, id expectandum; quod autem exp., id certe approbandum; quod vero approbaris, id, etc., where vero rises above autem , and closes the climax. Ita- » que et dialectici et physici — utantur; geometrae vero, etc., indeed geometricians also. CHOICE OF CERTAIN FORMS. 551. In the time of Cicero and the best writers, the or¬ thography, the formation of declinable and conjugated words, and the forms of single words, according to their place in a sentence, differed much from what they were at a later period. Most of these, in order to imitate the best writers even in les¬ ser points, must be retained ; in others, the later usage is ra¬ ther to be followed. This last would not allow us to write, hos civis, has omnis urbis, homo magni i n g e n i, volt, vein us, caussa, for hos cives, has omnes urbes, homo m. ingenii, vult, vulnus, causa. On the contrary, we should follow Cicero in writing, in the genitive plural of the second declension, duumvirum, tri¬ umvirum, decemvirum, sestertium, denarium, talentum, nutnum, medimnum, modium, jugerum , fabrum, not with the ending orum, particularly in such designations of office, money and measure, especially when to these names of money and measure a numeral is joined, since otherwise they also 484 CHOICE OF CERTAIN FORMS. [§ 551. had the ending crum. The ablative singular of the com- parative, as a uniform ending, has only e, not i ; e. g. majore , meliore. When masculine, Cicero uses only equester , but salu¬ bris, not saluber; only imbecillus , not imbecillis; but imber¬ bis, not imberbus. In Greek words which he adopted, he chose almost exclu¬ sively the Latin ending, and therefore he censures himself, be¬ cause he once said Pirceea for Pircecum. Hence, he would have formed poesis, mathesis and the like in the genitive with the ending is, not eos, consequently jwesis, mathesis, as also subsequent writers generally did. In regard to the personal endings of the verb it is to be no¬ ticed : (a) The third person plural of the perfect indicative, in Ci¬ cero, usually ends in erunt, very seldom in ere, e. g. scripse¬ runt, restiterunt. So in Caesar, who without hesitation, al¬ lows three or more such to follow one another. It is different in other writers. (b) The second person singular passive has the double end¬ ing re and ris. But Cicero uses the first almost exclusively, except in the present indicative, where he but seldom uses the ending re, elsewhere he uses ris. Hence he says, usually, vi¬ deris, videar e, videbdrc, viderere, videbere. (c) In the perfects in ivi, Cicero for the most part retains the v, where two i’s would come together; he says quaesivi, audivi, etc., not quaesii, audii; yet often petii from peto. But when e follows i, he generally omits the v; e. g. arcessie¬ runt for arcessiverunt , audieram for audiveram. But he never uses quaesiissem, audiissem, petiissem, etc., but only the con¬ tracted forms, quaesissem, audissem, petissem, abissem and the like. On the contrary, in compound verbs of the perfect ivi (from the verb eo ), he always omits the v and uses the double i ; e. g. abii, perii, transii, except in praeivi .Yet where s is doubled, he uses only the contract form abissem, transissem, praeteris¬ sem, etc. § 55*2.] BREVITY AND COriOUSNESS OF EXPRESSION. 485 The form of some words is changed, according as they stand before a vowel or consonant. A and e are never permitted to stand before a vowel and an //, but only before a consonant; e. g. a te, a me, a quo, a fortuna, e macello, e quibus, e continente, not a illo, eillo, a homine, e homine. Before t , Cicero often uses abs, the stronger form, instead of a; hence so often abs te. He uses this abs but little before q, e. g. abs quo, more a quo ; but al¬ so ab, e. g. ab quaestore. Cic. Inv. II, 29, 87. Ab and ex must not only stand before every vowel and h, but they also stand before almost every consonant, and ex al¬ most always before s ; e. g. ab illo, ab homine, ab justitia, ab Jove, ab negotio, ab se, ex eo, ex hoc, ex se, ex te, ex quo, ex Latinis, ex miseria, ex suspicione, ex parte. Yet before/'and m, ab seems not to be used, nor ex before f, and so perhaps before other consonants. In Cicero and the other best writers, ac does not stand be¬ fore a vowel or an h, but only before consonants, though not before x; e. g. ac te, ac sumptus, ac celebrat, ac dissolutus, ac portus ; not ac ille, ac ego, ac hospes, ac Xerxes. But other writers, to the injury of the euphony, use ac before a vowel. Atque stands not only before a vowel and h, but also before every consonant, e. g. atque insula, atque amens, atque homi¬ nes, atque superat, atque tu, atque ceteri. So with aeque ac and aeque atque; simul ac and simul atque ; c. g. aeque ac tu, aeque atque ego ; simul ac renuntiatur, simul atque agnoscit, simul atque audivit, not aeque ac ego, aeque ac ille, simul ac audivit, simul ac eurn vidit. And so many oth¬ ers which belong here, might be quoted. BREVITY AND COPIOUSNESS OF EXPRESSION. 552. Many of the Latin usages in respect to this, may be found collected in the larger grammars. It would be tedious 41* * 48G BREVITY AND COPIOUSNESS OF EXPRESSION. [§ 552. to mention them all. The writings of Cicero, when read with care, will afford the best information on this point. Only some few will here be noticed. (1) When an intermediate sentence, especially a relative one, has a verb in common with its principal sentence, the Latins usually omit this in the intermediate sentence. The English also sometimes omits it; e. g. You have not been as¬ sisted by those, by whom you ought to have been, a quibus debuisti. I will use the form of conclusion which I am wont to use , qua soleo. You do not see that, which we see , quae nos. They do what they have been commanded to do, quod jussi sunt. We build upon hope, upon which you command us to build, qua jubes; and so very often. j Est or sunt is almost wholly omitted in forcible questions, in proverbial and sententious phrases. Quae res igitur gesta unquam in bello tanta ? qui triumphus con¬ ferendus ? Nihil enim laudabilius, nihil magno et praeclaro viro dig¬ nius placabilitate. Quid aliud novi ? Plena terroris et timoris omnia. Quo quis versutior et callidior, hoc invisior et suspectior. (3) When two ideas opposite to each other, which the English connects by and or or, follow' one another, the Latin generally omits et and aid, in order to make the ^ideas more striking. Velint, nolint. Irent, redirent. Diem, noctem. Multos dies, noc¬ tes. Ilostes, cives. Maxima, minima. Prima, postera. Sciam, nes¬ ciam. Aperte, tecte. Ventis, remis — properavi. (4) The Latins were particularly fond of brief expressions in letters of friendship and in conversation. Cogito Romam. Quid plura ? Coram, opinor, reliqua. Sed haec coram. Dionysio plurimam salutem. Beneventi cogitabam hodie. Cicerones nostros Deiotarus filius secum in regnum. Te ipsum cupio. Tum ille — (i n q u it omitted). Nam quum dissolutus filius (dixissset omitted). Heu me miserum! tum severus pater (re¬ spondit omitted). D u m modo -Sed et haec et multa alia coram (loqui) brevi tempore licebit. (5) For the purpose of distinguishing particularly a person •or thing, where two contrasted adjectives or verbs belonging to that person, are mentioned with indeed — but , the pronoun PERIODS. 487 §§ 553,554.] ego,tu or ille referring to that person, is placed before the word Examples. Cleon teas at those times indeed a troublesome citizen, but yet an elo¬ quent man, Cleon temporibus illis turbulentus ille quidem civis, sed tamen eloquens fuit. Young Demetrius followed them, indeed the most learned among all, but —, Demetrius successit eis adolescens, eruditissimus ille quidem omnium, sed—. Domitius spake indeed without any art, but yet with much freedom, Domitius nulla i 1 le qui¬ dem arte, sed multa tamen cum libertate dicebat. You do not indeed hate our Epicurus, but certainly you do not lore him , Epicurum nos¬ trum non t u quidem odisti, sed certe non probas. To the full or periphrastic expression belongs the construc¬ tion mentioned above § (541. d.), viz .facere, at, for the sim¬ ple verb following ; and so in the negative sense, non com¬ mittere, ut, e. g. IVe must not obey these, non est com¬ mittendum, ut iis pareamus. I will give you no cause to refuse, non committam, ut tibi causam aliquam dem recusandi. You will not, in future, be able to censure me on account of negligence, non committam posthac, u t me accusare — possis. PERIODS. 553. A period is a sentence which is enlarged by an inter¬ mediate sentence, or it is a principal sentence with an intro¬ ductory one. Tu pro tua prudentia, quid optimum factum sit, videbis. Quod si ipsi haec neque attingere, neque sensu nostro gustare possemus, ta¬ men ea mirari deberemus. 554. Especially are these latter sentences, which are com¬ posed of an introductory and concluding member, called pe¬ riods. When these sentences are again enlarged by others, and especially when these new ones are interwoven with the former ones, then they are called compound periods. So the following period in Cic. pro Sull. 32, 42: Ut ego, quid de me populus R. existimaret, quia severus in improbos fueram, laboravi, et, quae prima innocentis mihi defensio est oblata, suscepi ; sic vos severi¬ tatem judiciorum, quae per hos menses in homines audacissimos facta est, lenitate ac misericordia mitigate. So also the following beautiful period in Cic. Cat. I, 13 : Ut saepe homines aegri morbo gravi, quum aestu febris jactantur, si aquam ge¬ lidam biberint, primo relevari videntur, deinde multo gravius vehe- 488 periods. [§ 555. mentiusque afflictantur; sic hic morbus, qui est in republica, relega¬ tus istius poena, vehementius reliquis vivis ingravescet. In both these periods, we find an introductory and conclu¬ ding sentence, and in both, there are other explanatory inter¬ mediate clauses inserted. Thus the attention of the rnind is re¬ quired til! the close, because in such compound periods, the subject is separated from its predicate by intermediate clauses. On this account, the reader and hearer are made attentive to what is said of the preceding subject of the introductory and concluding sentence. This attention is the more requisite, if a long, complicated sentence precedes, which is only intro¬ ductory to the following principal sentence. 555. Therefore a period consists of a principal sentence in connection with another, which is either placed within the principal sentence, or, as an introductory sentence, is placed before it. Periods receive different names according to the difference of the particle in the sentence, which stands in connection with a principal sentence. The following are the principal periods: (1) Periodus con d it ion al i s, which contains a condi¬ tional sentence. S i ea ; quae acciderunt, ita fers, ut audio, gratulari magis virtuti de¬ beo, quam consolari dolorem tuum. (2) Periodus concessiva, in which the principal sen¬ tence concedes something, although there may be something that would hinder the occurrence of the principal sentence. This is formed by the particles etsi, etiamsi, quanquam, quam¬ vis, licet. Quanquam gratiarum actionem a te non desiderabam, quum te re ipsa atque animo scirem esse gratissimum ; tamen (fatendum est enim) fuit ea mihi perjucunda. (3) Periodus causalis, in which the cause of another occurrence is stated. It is formed by quia, quoniam, quod , quando, quum. Quum et mihi conscius essem, quanti te facerem, et tuam erga me PERIODS. 489 § 555.] benevolentiam expertas essem, non dubitavi a te petere, quod mihi petendum esset. (4) Periodus comparativa, in which the action of the principal sentence is compared with something else. It is formed by ut, or quemadmodum with sic or ita following. Quemadmodu m volucres videmus procreationis atque utilitatis suae causa fingere et construere nidos, easdem autem, quum aliquid effecerint, levandi laboris sui causa passim atque libere solutas opere volitare ; sic nostri animi forensibus negotiis defessi gestiunt ac vo¬ litare cupiunt vacui cura atque labore. (5) Periodus consecutiva cr temporalis, in which a certain time, when the action of the principal sentence oc¬ curs, is stated. It is formed by a particle of time, as post¬ quam, quum, ut, ubi, simulae, etc. Quum ad te tuus quaestor, M. Varro proficisceretur, com¬ mendatione egere eum non putabam. Quo ut veni, hostem ab An¬ tiochia recessisse cognovi. (6) Periodus proportionalis, in which similar pro¬ portions are expressed. This is formed by quo — eo (hoc); quanto — tanto with comparatives, or ut — ita with super¬ latives. Quo quis versutior et callidior, hoc invisior et suspectior, detrac¬ ta opinione probitatis. (7) Periodus circumscriptiva, in which a substan¬ tive or circumstance, in reference to which some one gives his opinion, is expressed periphrastically by a sentence with quod. Quod epistolam conscissam doles (respecting the tearing of the letter), noli laborare ; salva est, domo petes, quum libebit. Quod scire vis, qua omnes in te voluntate sint, difficile dictu est de singulis : this is expressed briefly, you wish to know ichat arc the feelings of all; this is difficult. (8) Periodus copulativa, in which both sentences are joined by connectives, affirmative or negative. It is formed by et — et; cum — turn ; turn — turn ; non solum (modo) — sed etiam ; neque — neque, etc. E t in Attilii negotio te amavi, e t inehercule semper sic in animo habui, te in meo aere esse propter Lamiae nostri conjunctionem. Cum multae res in phdosophia nequaquam satis adhuc explicatae sint, t u m perdifficilis et perobscura quaestio est de natura deorum. 490 TERIODS. [§ 550 . (9) Periodus m o d a 1 i s, in which the quality or greatness of a person or thing is expressed periphrastically. It is formed by qualis , quantus , ut , etc. Res quemadmodum sit acta, vestrae litterae rnihi declarant. Quod cujus modi sit, satis intelligere non possum. And so there are still others, according to the nature of the sentences, but their names are not of much importance. Such sentences are used not only as introductory to a prin¬ cipal sentence, but also as intermediate sentences both of principal and introductory ones. 55G. We use in Eliglish also the common periods which consist of antecedent and principal sentences. Yet instead of these, we not only use single detached sentences, but in these introductory and principal sentences, we seldom insert others, according to the studied manner of the Latins, and when we do, they are generally shorter than the Latin perio¬ dic sentences. Therefore, whoever wishes to form periods, at least skil¬ fully, must not only make of two single unconnected sentences two connected ones, by means of conjunctions, but he must also convert prepositions with substantives, moreover substan¬ tives and adjectives into appropriate sentences, and insert these in a suitable manner in the principal and introductory sen¬ tences. The formation of new sentences depends upon the meaning contained in the words and in the whole connection. The following examples will explain this, and may be of service in forming others. Your letter is indeed in the highest degree pleasing to me. ; hut yet it was stil.l more pleasing to me , that you intrusted it to Plancvs. This is a concessive period; Although your letter is in the highest degree pleasing to me ., yet it was much more —, Etsi mihi tuae litterae ju¬ cundissimae sunt, tamen jucundius fuit, quod—. Mescinius often heard from me respecting our pleasant and. strong connection with one another. This is a modal period : Mescinius often heard from me, how pleasant and strong our connection with one another was, M. saepe ex me audivit, quam suavis esset inter nos, et quanta conjunctio. Undertake this for the sake of my honor ; I ask you most earnestly. Instead of, / ask most earnestly that you would —, Id ut honoris niei causa suscipias, vehementer te etiam atque etiam rogo. / associate icith this man very intimately and cheerfully .—Instead of, § 55 ? ] PERIODS. 491 1 associate with this man , as I do with no other , both more famil¬ iarly and cheerfully , hoc homine sic utor, u t nec familiarius ullo, nec libentius. jW things which have reason , surpass those which are destitute of it; and, it cannot be said ., that any among all things surpasses nature: Therefore , we must confess that there is reason in it. The following is the period enlarged: Quum omnia, quae rationem habent, praestent iis, quae sint rationis expertia, nefasque sit dicere, ullam rem prae¬ stare naturae omnium rerum : rationem inesse in ea confitendum est. 557. Thus, instead of the particle indeed, although is used; instead of bij or on account of—because or although ; instead of in — when; instead of without — unless. And so in many other cases. Cut it is not to be supposed, that only the same kind of particles can be used in every instance; everything depends rather upon the sense of the passage. The ideas that can be enlarged, are enlarged, and the sentences properly in¬ serted. Therefore, in the periodic style, participles are seldom used, because they contract or abridge sentences ; and hence Cicero, who writes mostly in periods, uses them much less than other writers. The following are some examples, in which the idea contained in prepositions, in adverbs and adjec¬ tives is enlarged. In his tender youth , d u m est tener. My small authority, si quid auctoritatis in me est. Therefore he esteems you, ita fit ut te diligat. Under these circumstances, quae quum ita sint. The rest of life, quod reliquum est vitae. The opinion of others, quid alii sentiant. Without doubt, non dubito quin. On account of my connection with that order, pro necessi¬ tudine, quae mihi est cum illocrdine. As I ought, pro eo, ac debeo. According to my respect for you, pro eo, quanti te facio. On account of his great refinement, quia magna est ejus humanitas, or quanta (quae) est ejus humanitas, or quanta (qua) est humanitate. Before your departure from Asia, a rqt e q u a m ex Asia egressus es (esses, eris). 492 PERIODS. [§ 558 . After my departure, quum discessi (issem, ero). A reason for their love lies in these very things, in his ipsis inest causa, cur diligantur. He shows his power, is, q u a n t u m possit, ostendit. I do not know this man’s mode of instruction, hujus viri quae (qualis) sit ratio docendi, nescio. I invited, you to what was most urgent , sic te evocabam, ut nihil acrius, neque (nihil) incitatius fieri posset. I had nothing to write, nihil habebam, quod scriberem. All my wishes succeed , mihi omnia, quae opto, contingunt. I have never done anything more on my own account, than on account of my fellow-citizens , ego is sum, qui nihil unquam mea potius, quam meorum civium causa fecerim. Nothing terrible and dreadful can befall man , homini acci¬ dere nihil potest, quod sit horribile aut pertimescendum. I cannot write more for pain, intercludor dolore, quominus plura scribam. 558. So also single words are often expanded; e. g. quis (nemo) est, qui, for quis or nemo; nihil est, quod, for nihil. Nihil est, quod non, for omnia; quid est, quod, ox quid est causae, cur, for cur; quisquis est, qui or nemo (quis) est, qui non (quin), for omnes; nullus locus est, in quo non, for usque qua fine ; haud scio, an, for fortasse ; reliquum est, ut ; restat ut, for ceterum; extremum illud esi, ut, for denique at the conclusion of a subject; itafit, ut, for hanc ob rem; fore, ut, for the simple inf. future, and the like. An ingenious mind cannot fail, in forming periods, to dis¬ cover the necessary expansion of single words in complete sentences. It is an art which is not wholly confined to rules. It may be best learnt from Cicero, whose copious periods, abounding in sentences, must be abridged into only a few words and sentences, and then a comparison made between the two. But the most attention should be given to his me¬ thod of arranging and interweaving, with one another, the single sentences, which belong to one oreat whole. ENGLISH INDEX. [The numbers refer to sections.] A. Abovt, with a subst., 159. About what time ? 78. 8. Above, before, after named , mentioned , 537. Ablative, 24, 191—213. In refer¬ ence to the question, When? 75. Where ? 68. Whence ? 72. Whither? 71. During, within what time ? 76. How long ? 76. 3. How long before or after ? 77. When, before the present time ? 78. Since what time ? 78. 7. About what time ? 78. 8. Till what time ? 78. 9. Of means or instrument, 208. Of cause, 209. Ablative with a. Diff. between Abl. with a and Acc. with per, 210. Of mode or manner, 211. Abl. of accompanying circum¬ stance, 211. (3). Of material, 212. Abl. to denote the relation, Whereof? 212. Wherein ? 213. In respect to, 213. 2. Accord¬ ing to, in accordance with, 213. 3. On account of, 213. 4. -with comparative, 88 et seq. Usually placed before the com¬ parative, 511. -of quality, 192. Of price, 194. After words signifying worthy of, 196. Of plenty and want, 197. Alter words signifying to be free from, exempt, rid of, de¬ prived of, 198. After words sig¬ nifying to trust, rest or lean up¬ on, 199. After words of rejoic¬ ing, grieving, boasting, 200. -of the gerund, 358. Abso¬ lute, 454. Comparative singu¬ lar ends in e, 551. Absence, in the, absens, 463, 53IL According to, in accordance with r 213. 3. Accusative, 22, 179—189. Ofthe object, 22. 1. After verbs, 182 et seq. Independent of other words, 22. 3. 180. 1. With the inf., 61, 380 et seq. In expres¬ sions of wonder, irony and grief, 334 . 7. Position of the acc. with the inf., 418. Of the ge¬ rund, 357. How to avoid two accusatives denoting persons, when the inf. is used, 404. In intermediate clauses, 384. Adjectives,agree with substantives, 3 et seq. Degrees of compari¬ son, 31. Signification of com¬ parative, 32, 85. Indeclinable in English, 4. In neut. plur. instead of sing., 34. In neuter with inf, 36. Governing gen.,. 20.2. 150—152. As predicate of two or more subjects, 64. For who, which — is, 79. Denoting place, 80. 3. Denoting time and place, 84. Numeral, 98 et seq. Of measure and degree, ]47_ Two adjectives connected by et r 81. Used for adverbs, 83. De¬ noting an operation or state of the mind, 150, 151. Position of, when belonging to two substan¬ tives, 507. Position of, 490, 505,, 506. Expressed by Lat. gen., 139. By dative, 173. Adverbs, degrees of comparison, 96. Governing gen., 161. Posi¬ tion of, 505. English adverbs expressed by Lat. adjectives, 83. Expr. by a subst. and prep., 543. 42 494 ENGLISH INDEX. Ah no! 338. Always , with a distributive, 100, 101 . 1 . Among, after a compar, or snperl. expressed by the gen., 07. By inter or in, 145. 2, 3, 4. Antecedent and relative in same clause, 124. Any one , anything , quisquam, ali¬ quis, 122. And, omitted in Lat., 458. And this too, and that too, etc., 107. And at the same time, and also, at once, 107. And not, 525, 526. a. When now alone, 530. And yet not, 525. b And no one, and nothing,122, 527. And not rather, 525 b. And not yet, and never, 527. Answers, 335 et seq. Apposition, 66 Position of words in, 488. With possessive pro¬ nouns, what case to be used r 105. Article, 1, 2. As, as much, non minus, 86. As little, just as little, non magis, 86 . As, before a predicate, 129, 184. After the same, 524. By quan¬ tus, qualis, and the like. 524. By ac, atque, when ? 524. Af¬ ter a relative word, 524. With a verbum sentiendi or dicendi, [ often omitted, 413. As far as, 314. As it respects this, that, audi, scito and dicam omit¬ ted after (541. e ). As if, 49. 7. Assassination, on account of an, 156. At, expressed by the Abl., 213. 5. Attraction of Rel. and Anteced in¬ to the same clause, 124. B. Beginning, in the, 84. Before or after, of time, 77. 4. Of place, 74. Before, ante, with Abl., 77. 5. Believe me, mihi crede, 483. Both, uterque, utrique, 535. We, you both ; both of us, etc., 145. Boyhood, in, infans, puer, 531. But not, nec (neque) vero, non, 528. But, when not translated ? 530. When non alone ? 530. By, expressed by Abl., 209. When by per ? 208. Item.l, 2,3. When by quum ? 288. By whom? 210. C. Cardinal numbers, 98. Cases, origin of,18. Government of, 129 et seq. Clauses , intermediate, how ex¬ pressed ? 416. Expressing com¬ parison with the acc. and inf., 384. Comparative, diff. significations of, 85. Where two persons or things are spoken of, 86. With ditF. ablatives, 88. For superlative, 87. 2. (541. b ). Collective icords, often joined with a plur. verb, 214. Conjunctions, followed by the in¬ die. 46, 271—280 With subj., 49, 281—283. With indie, and subj., 284—298. Consulship, in the, 463, 531. Contrasted icords, position of, 513. Copula ,12. Often expressed in the predicate, 15. Could, 1 could, possum, 225, 270. D. Daily, 101. 2. Dative, 21, 162—178. After adjec¬ tives, 163—167. After verbs, 168—178. Of the gerund, 355. i Dependence of tenses, 254—267. : Design, how expressed ? 374. Discourse, narrative, 419—434. Distributive numbers, 101. When j for cardinal ? 101. 3. | During what time, 76. E. Each, expressed by distributive numbers, 101. j Each other, 532. Each of two, 145. Endings, ivi, iveram, ivisse, in the verb, 551. Especially , 550. ENGLISH INDEX. 495 Even , etiam, multo, with the com¬ parative, 89. Even now, in Orat. obi , 434. Everything, expressed by omnia, 34. Every , by quisque and an ordinal number, 100,482. By unusquis¬ que, 101. Exclamations , in acc., 181. 4. Exhortation, by first pers. pi.,213. F. Far from , to he, tantum abesse, ut, 410. Fear, words denoting, followed by ne, ut ne or ut non, 406. Fire, icitk, and sword, 400. First, primus, 82. For, by a verb in the inf. or subj., 159. Before a predicate, how expressed ? 129. For not, non enim, neque enim, 523. Forms of certain icords, choice be¬ tween, 551. From, by quo, ne, quominus, with the subj., 49. 2, 3. 282. From what time ? 78. 7. Future tense, use of, 233—235, (251. h.). For our pres., 234. Fut. perf, 246—251. For im¬ perative, 343. 2. Not used after words of fear, (251. h.), 406. G. Greatly , of value, magni, 153. Gender, diff. between Latin and English, 5. Genitive , 20,131—161. Of the ob¬ ject, 134. Of quality, 140. With a participle in dus, 372. 7. To denote place, 63. 2. To denote •peculiarity, mark, character ,etc., 142. Dili’, between Gen. and Dat. of the possessor, 143. Diff. between Gen. and Abl. of qual¬ ity, 141, Note. To denote a part, 144. Of measure and degree,147. To denote an operation or state of the mind, 150. After adjec¬ tives denoting participa ion, plenty, or want, 152. After ad¬ jectives of l ikeness, 152. 3. Of worth and price, 153. After verbs denoting the state of the intellect or feelings, 154. After verbs of accusing, acquitting or condemning, 156. After intercsse and referre, 157. After adverbs, 161. Position of, when governed by substantives or adjectives, 508. Gen. pi. of second deck, ending of, 551. Gerunds, 51, 349—358. Genitive of, how translated into English ? 52. Dative does not govern an acc., 356. Guidance, under the of, 463, 531. H. To have, by esse and the Gen.,143. By esse and the Dat., 172. He, with a verb, when translated ? 215. He himself, ipse, 126. Highly, by magni, 153. His, her, when translated ? 104. Historical inf., 348. Pres. 224. Himself, 126, 127. How long ? (of time), 76. 3. How long before or after ? 77. 5. How much ? by adjective in Abl., 89. How long (of measure) ? how thick ? how broad ? how deep? how far? how old ? 22. 3. 180. How highly, how much (of price) ? 153. However, 49. 8. 1 . I, with the verb, when and when not translated ? 215. If not, unless, si non, nisi, 548. /, denoting astonishment, 334. 9. If one, when one, in case one, 218. imperative, 50, 341—344. Diff. between the longer and shorter forms of, 341 and Note. Impersonal verbs, 171, 220. Imperfect tense, use of, 229—232, (251. d. e. g.). To express a wish, 228. To denote a conclusion or purpose, 258, 260. Indicative mode, 269—(270. b.). Latin indicative for our poten- 496 ENGLISH INDEX. tial, 270—(270. b.). With rela- | tive words, 209. For subj., 270 j —(270. b ). Infinitive, 51, 345—348. With a J predicate, 347. Historical, 348 Future of, when used for the present? 234,402. When fol¬ lowed by a past tense, 267. 2. English infinitive present to be translated by Lat. fut., 402. Fu¬ ture of, wanting in many verbs, how supplied ? 403. Expressed periphrastically, 403. As predi¬ cate, position of, 512. To ex¬ press wonder, irony, and grief, 334. In order th.nl, by ut, 49. 1. In respect to, 213. 2. In respect to, with verba sentien¬ di, etc., 414. Instead of, so far from, tantum abesse, ut, 410. Interjections, omitted in oratio ob¬ liqua, 433. Interrogative words, their connec¬ tion with the verb, 315. Posi¬ tion of, 501. It is my duty, est meum, 142 It icoutd be too tedious, 225, 270. It is custom, duty, mark, with gen., 142. J. - Just as if, 49. 7. K. Know, scito, habeto, often omitted, (541. e.). L. Land, by, 70. Last, 82. Less than, with a numeral, 94. Less, with lire positive followed by than, 85. Less — than, 85. Lest, 49. 3 Little, a, by the comparative, 85. By a little, 89. Little, (of price,) parvi, etc., 153. M. Mentioned, the above, 537. Middle, in the , 84. Might and main, with, 490. Modes, 46, 268 et seq. More, expressed by plura, 34. By rnagis and plus, 547. More, more highly, (of worth), by pluris, 153. More than, by super., 27. 4. Motive , how expressed ? 374. Much, by hoxo much, by much, with comparative, 89. Of worth, magni, so much, tanti, 153. Much less, 540. My, when translated ? 104. N. Named, the above, the so, 537. Names of family and gens, put in plural, when two or more are spoken of, 60. Namely, omitted in Lat., 534. Narrative discourse, 419—434. Negatives, two, (541. c.). Neither , in prohibitions, 342. Neuter verbs, in pass, used only as impersonals, 171, 220. Adjec¬ tives and pronouns with gen., 147. Never any one, anything , 527. No one, nothing, nowhere, how ex¬ pressed ? 375, 527. No, followed by not, 477. Nominative , 19, 129. Not, denoting prohibition, 342. When by ne, 50, (270. d.). 3. 342, 343. „ Not even, not so much as, ne qui¬ dem, 472. 526. c. Neque, 526. c. Not so, with positive followed by as, 85. Not to say, 540. (2). Not true? not so ? 334. 9. Not only not — but not even, 540. Number of substantives, diff. be¬ tween Lat. and English, 6. Numbers of the verb, 40, 214. Numbers, cardinal, 98. Ordinal, 98. Distributive, 101. I O. Object, when placed first? 499. Objective gen., 134. Of, with verba sentiendi and di¬ cendi, 414. After a comparative ENGLISH INDEX. 497 expressed by a gen., 97. By , an abl., 212. By ex, de or in, 145 2. Old age, in, 531. Omission of some words , 552. On account of, 159, 213. 4. By a participle, 544. One, how expressed? 218. One this, the other that, 533. Or, in questions, 323, 325. Oratorical questions , in oratio ob- J liqua, 429. I Oroi/.o obliqua and recta, 419. Ordinal numbers, 98. Other, the, translated b}' the pre¬ ceding substantive or by pro¬ nouns, 532. Others, ceteri, 549. Our, when translated? 104. P. Parentheses, place of, 523. Rem. Participles, 443. For icho, which — is, 79. in abl. absolute with¬ out a substantive, 455. Deno¬ ting time, manner, cause, mo¬ tive or purpose, condition,456.1. Translated by an English subst., 464. Fut. pass, part., 359. With sum, 54, 363. Part, for inf. 417. Perf. pass, part., as a strength¬ ening expression with ablatives, or as a preposition, 544. In an- dus and end us, when translated actively? 465. Participial sentences, depend.,450. Independ., 454. Participial construction, when the participle is omitted, 462. Partitive genitive, 144. Perfect tense, use of, 236—242, (251. c, g.). Used as an impera¬ tive, 242, 343. After sic, tarn, adeo, tantus, etc., 261. a. With j jam, vix, vixdum, etc. 239. For fut. perf., 426. Ending of in ivi, 551. Perhaps, how expressed, 536. Periods, 553. Persons of the verb, 215 — 217. j With two substs. of diff. per- , sons, 65. Ending of third pers. plur. perf. act., 551. Ending of j 42 * second pers. sing, pass., 551. Second person sing., first and third plur., to express general statements, or to denote persons in general, 218. Periphrastic conjugation, in ac¬ tive, 252. Passive, 363. Peace, in, and war, 490. Place, designations of, 67 et seq. Poisoning, on account of, 156. Pluperfect, use of,243-245, (251 .e.) Position of words, 55,468. Of acc. with inf, 418. Of the com¬ mon subject of the introduc¬ tory and concluding mem¬ ber of the sentence, 497, 498. Of the common object of two sentences, 499. Of a word governed by a verb, 505. Of contrasted words, 513. Predicate, what part of speech ? 14, 62. How connected with the subject? 15. With two sub¬ jects, 63—65. In dative with esse, 174. Predicate nominative, 19. Predicate substantive, when in same gender as the subject ? 62. Prepositions, different cases gov¬ erned by,25, 26, 27. Difference between some, 27, 28, 29. Posi¬ tion of, 491, 492. Use of, 542. When used instead of the ob¬ jective genitive, 134. When separated from its case, 492. Two belonging to one subst., position of, 491. English pre¬ positions and substantives ex¬ pressed by a participle, 463, 464. Presence, in the of, 531, 463. Present tense, use of, 223 et seq., (251. b.). Historical,221. When used for our imperfect? 225 et seq. When for fut., 226, (251. h.). To express a wish, 228. Pretty, by comparative, 85. Price, by gen. and abl., 153,194, 195. Pronouns, 37, 102—127. When used as adjectives? 37. a. When omitted in Latin ? 80, 104, 123. When expressed ? 215. Position of two in the same sentence,484. 498 ENGLISH INDEX. Position of subst.pronouns,484. Pronouns of same pers., posi¬ tion of, 484. lndef., position of, 505 ; difF. between possess¬ ive and personals, 135. Relative and demonstrative, when placed first? 500. Who, which, in ora¬ tio obliqua,430. Pronouns in ora¬ tio obliqua, 434. Possessive pronouns , the word in apposition with, put in gen., 105,133. Position of, 506. Proper names , explanations of, placed after, 488. Q. Questions , independent or direct, 316. Dependent or indirect, 319. In oratio obliqua, 429. Ofaston- ishment or indignation, 334. 8. Answers to, 335. Oratorical, 429. R. i Relative and antecedent , in the same clause, 124. Sentences, their position, 515, 519. Qui at¬ tracts the subst. into its own case, 124. Qui in oratio obliqua, 430. Rest , the , the remaining, ceterus, reliquus, 549. S. Say, to, that something is not, ne¬ gare, 529. Sentence, of what composed ? 15. Principal, 421. Subordinate, 425. Dependent, 110, (270. f.), 450. Arrangement of, 515. Hy¬ pothetical, 227. Imperative, 377. Since what time ? 78. 7. Situation,in, statu, 70. Singular, after aut—aut; et — et; cum—turn, 63. a. So, with positive, followed by as 85. So long before, (after), 77. So far from, to be, tantum abesse, ut, 410. So highly, so much, so, 153. So far as, 314. So called, 537. , Somewhat, by comparative, 85. Some one, something, quisquam, aliquis, 122. Statements, general, by sec. pers. sing., first pi., third pi., third sing, pass., 218. Still, strengthening the compara¬ tive, 89. Substantives, used only in pi., 11. With preposition, expressed by adverbs, 96. By adjectives, 80. By participles, 463. Denoting persons for substantives denot¬ ing things, 531. Governed by two or more prepositions, posi¬ tion of, 491. Subject, agreement with predicate, 12, 61. Supplied by an infini¬ tive, etc., 13. Of different per¬ sons, 65. Of introductory sen¬ tence, when placed first ? 497, 498. Two belonging to one verb, 63. Periphrastic, 13. Subjunctive mode, (270., c) — (270. h.). To imply doubt or propriety, (270. d.). In depen¬ dent interrogative sentences, (270. fi). To denote what is general, etc., (270. g.). To de¬ note the thought of another, (270. h.). With relative words, 300—302. In indirect questions, 320. For the imperative, 343. In oratio obliqua, 425. Superlative, 95. For the compa¬ rative, 95. 2. Supines, 53, 435—442. With ire, 438. After what verbs not used ? 438. Place of, how supplied? 439. T. Tenses, 44, 222 et seq. Depend¬ ence of, 254. Signification of the English imperfect, 45. Imperf. corresponds with the Latin perf. indef.,45.2. DifF. between Lat. and Eng. imperf., 45. 2. That, by ut, 49.1. By quin, 49. 4. By ne, 281. Omitted in Eng. 391. Omitted in Lat. with acc. and inf., 61. How translated ? 373. Denoting motive, pur¬ pose, design, 374. Denoting ENGLISH INDEX. 499 wish, care, labor and effort, 376. Denoting result or effect, 373. Conclusion, 379. Denoting the object of a verbum sentiendi or dicendi, 330. Denoting the cause of an action, 337. When by quod? 333. In periphrastic explanations, 333. Sentences with, formed by the genitive of a participle and substan¬ tive, 466. That 7wt, quominus, 49. 2. That, in order that , dicam, audi, scito often omitted after, (541.e). Than, by ac or atque, when ? 524. After a comparative, 90—94. The , with the comparative and su¬ perlative, 89, 95. 2. Then , denoting astonishment, 334. They, when and when not trans¬ lated ? 215. Things, sometimes not expressed in Latin, 35. Thousand, mille, 99. Till or to what time, 78. 9. Time, at the right, 75. Relations of, 75 et seq. To, by ut, 49. 1.286. Byqui,311. Too, with a positive, followed by to or for, 85. Transitive verbs, 41, 219. Treacherously, per insidias, 543. U. Under, expressed by abl., 213. 5. Unless, nisi, 548. V. Value, to, highly, little, 153. Verbs, transitive, 41, 219. Intran¬ sitive or neuter, 42, 220. Pas¬ sive, 42, 219, 220. Copulative, 16. Predicate, 16,19. Deponent, 42,221. Deponent, the use of participles of, 457. Impersonal, 220. Impersonal, how translated into English ? 189. Persons of, 39, 215. Number of, 40. 2. 214. Construction of, 214 et seq. Person of, when two subjects of diff. persons belong to it, 65. Those that have a verbal adjec¬ tive, 360. Compounded with prepositions, often with the da¬ tive, 176. Transitive, with what case ? 182. With the accusative of the object and the pred icate, 184. With the acc. of the per¬ son and thing, 185. Of joy, grief, etc., with that, what con¬ struction follows ? 387. Of fear, 406. When followed by the inf., 406. Of hinderance,399. Denot¬ ing a wish, etc., 395. Verba di¬ cendi, 377. 380. Sentiendi, 380. In passive, often translated as impersonal, 411. Verbal adjective, in andus and en- dus,359-372. With sum, 54,363. Very, expressed by comparative, 32, 85. Very highly, very much, 153. Vocative, 23, 190. Not used in ora¬ tio obliqua, 433. Voluntarily, spontaiieously,of one's own accord, 536. W. Way, upon the, 70. We both, both of us, 145. We, with the verb, when and when not expressed ? 215. What, when by quid? 102. When? before the present time, 78. 6. When? 75. When , ex¬ pressed by ablative, 213. Whence? of place, 72. Where? of place, 68. Where in all the world? 161. 2. Wherein, when with and without in ? 213. Whether not, by nonne, 332. 3. Whither ? (of plaee), 71. Which? when by uter? 87. 1. Who, which not, 49. 4. Who, which, by adjectives and par¬ ticiples, abridged and omitted, 79. In oratio obliqua, 430. Who, which, quis, uter, 106. Uter, utri, 535. Why? quid, 181. Expressed peri- phrastically, 49. 8. 558. Why not? 332. 2. Wish, expressed by second person pi., 218. With what tense, 228. 500 LATIN INDEX. With, when by the ablative and when by cum? 208, 211. With, expressed by usus or in¬ structus, 544. With each other , 536. With fire and sword , 490. Without , how expressed ? 467, 538. Words , position of, 468 et seq. Contrasted, position of in the sentence, 513. Worth of a thing, in what case,153. To he worth , esse, 194. Worthy, to consider icorthy , 196. Worthy , that or of, dignus qui, 309. Would be able, would have been able, how expressed ? 383. Y. Yearly , 101. 2. not, neque tamen, 528. Your, when translated, 104. LATIN INDEX. [The numbers refer to sections.] A. A and ab, when the one and when the other? 29, 551. a, when used with the verbal ad¬ jective ? 364. ab, when used to denote place ? 72. 1. abalienare, 204. abdere se, with what case ? 545. abdicare se, construe, of, 204, 445. abditus, construe, of, 545. abducere, construe, of, 204. aberrare, construe, of, 204. abesse, 204 ; with ut, 378; tantum abest, 410. abhinc, with what case? 78. 6. abhorrere, construe, of, 177. abire, construe, of, 204, 545. abjudicare, construe, of, 545. abs, when used ? 551. abscedere, 204. absens, in the absence, 531. absolvere, with the genitive, 156; with ablative, 204. absonus, 166. 8. absque, 26. abstinens, 151. abstinere, 204. abundans, abundare, 197. abunde, 161. 1. ) abuti, 203. ac, before a vowel, 551 ; as a sy- nonyme, 550. (>;); ac non,when used for neque ? 525. ac si, as if, with what tense ? 227. accedit, quod or ut, 394. acceptus, construe, of, 163. 3. accidit, bene (male), quod, 387; with ut. 378. accire, 184. accommodare, 177, 545. accommodatus, 164. accusare, 156 ; with quod, 387. actum est, 545. acerbus, construe, of, 163. 3. ad, when used to denote place, 71. 4 ; with the gerund, 357; but not with non and the gerund, 357, 372. adaequare, 178. adde, quod, 388. c. addere, 177, 184 ; with two accu¬ satives, 184. adeo, with ut, 378. adesse, construe, of, 176. adjicere, 177 ; adjice, quod, 388. c. adipisci, with ut or ne, 376. adire, 186, 545. adjungere, with two accusatives, 184 ; alicui, ad aliquem, 545. LATIN INDEX. 501 adjuvare, 186. admonere, 154, 545; with utor ne, 377 ; with acc. and inf., 396. adspirare, 545. adsuescere, and the like, 545. adulari, 177,545. adversarius, 165. advenire, construe, of, 545. adversari, with quominus, 399. aegre ferre, 387. aequalis, with the genitive and dative, 166. 8. aeque ac, aeque atque, 551. aequiparare, 186. aequum est, with ut and the acc. with the inf, 397. See also 382. aestimare, denoting worth, value, 153, 194. affatim, construe, of, 161. afferre, construe, of, 177, 545. afficere, construe, of, 205. affinis, construe, of, 167. affluere, construe, of, 197. 2. agere id, with ut or ne, 376. agnoscere, with two accusatives, 184. aio, in oratio obliqua, 432. alienare, construe, of, 545. alienus, construe, of, 164, 196. aliquando, difference between and quando, 122. aliquantum, construe, of, 147. aliquid, construe, of, 147 ; aliquid est, quod, with the subj., 303. aliquis, difference between and quis, quisquam and ullus, 122; position of, 505. amans, construe, of, 151. amarus, construe, of, 163. 3. amicus, construe, of, 165. amplius, difference between and magis, 547. an, 332. 3; annon, 324, 332. 3 ; an vero, 332. 3; an — an, whe¬ ther right ? 332. 3. angere, angi, construe, of, 201 ; with acc. and inf., 387. animadvertere, construe, of, 178 ; with acc. and inf., 380. animum inducere, with utor ne,376. ansam dare alicujus, 351. ante, with an ablative, 77. 5. antecedere, construe, of, 177. anteire, construe, of, 177. antequam, anteaquam,with the in¬ die. and subj., 298. antevenire, construe, of, 177. anxium esse, with ne and ne non (ut), 406. apparet, with acc. and inf., 382. appellare, with two accusatives, 184, 545. appellere, appelli, 545. appetens, construe, of, 151. aptus, construe, of, 164. arcessere, construe, of, 184. arduus, construe, of, 163. 4. arguere, 156. arridere, 170. assequi, with ut or ne, 576. assuefacere, assuefieri, assuescere, assuetus, 177,545. assumere, construe, of, 184. at, placed first in a sentence, 469; as a synonyme, 550. (x). atque, when used for ac ? 551; as a synonyme, 550. (»/). attendere, construe, of, 545. attinere, construe, of, 545. auctor, counsel, 463, 531; auctor sum, with genitive, 137. audire, followed by particip. for inf., 417 ; with acc. and inf., 380; construe, of, 545. auferre, construe, of, 545. augurato, as abl. absolute, 455. auspicari, construe, of, 545; aus¬ picato, abl. absolute, 455. aut, when omitted ? 552; as a synonyme, 550. («)• autem, after some words in a sen¬ tence, 470, 516; when used with qui, 520 ; as a synonyme, 550. (x). avidus, construe, of, 151. B. Belli, abroad , 69. bene emere, bene vendere, 195. benedicere, construe, of, 170. bonus, construe, of, 164. C. Cadere, construe, of, 545. canere, construe, of, 545. 502 LATIN INDEX capere, construe, of, 184. caput est, followed by ut, 390. carere, construe, of, 197. 2. carus, construe, of, 165, 194. catenae, with distributive num¬ bers, 101. 3. causa, on account of, for , 138; with the gerund, 350 ; position, 138, 350, 506. causam dare, afferre alicujus, 351. cavere, construe, of, 178 ; with ut, 376 ; with and without ne, 344. b. 407, 408. cedere, construe, of, 545. celare, construe, of, 185. cenatus, with active signification, 457. censeo, ut censeo, placed within a sentence, 485 ; with ut, 377. certe, certo scire, 546. certurn est, with acc. and inf., 382. certus, construe, of, 150. ceterum, cetera, 181. ceteri, reliqui, 549. circumdare, 177. circumspicere, 545. clam, 27. coenatus, active, 457. coepisse, with inf, 220. cogere, with ut, 377. cogitare, construe, of, 545. cognatus, 167. cognoscere, construe. of, 184,545; with acc. and inf, 380. coire, coitio, construe, of, 545. collocare, construe, of, 545. comitari, construe, of, 177. commiserescere, construe, of, 189. committere, non, with ut, usedpe- riphrastically, 552. 6. committere, with ut, 378. commonefacere, construe, of, 154. commonere, construe, of, 154. communicare, construe, of, 545. communis, construe, of, 167. comparare, construe, of, 177. commutare, 194. complere, construe, of, 197. 2. compos, construe, of, 152. 2. conari, with inf, 347. concedere, with ut or the acc. with inf, 397. conciliare, 545. concurrere, 545. condemnare, 156. conditio, with ut, 377. conducere, 153, 194. conferre, with and without se, 545. confertus, 197. 1. confidere, 177, 199. 2 confinis, 167. confirmare, with acc. and inf., 380. confluere, 545. congruere, 177. conjungere, 177. conjuratus, 457. conquiescere, 545. conscendere, 545. conscius, 150. consentaneus, 166. 8. consequens est, with ut or the acc. with inf, 397. consequi, 186 ; with ut or ne, 376. consilium, with ut, 376. consolari, with quod, 387. consors, 152.1. constare, to cost , 194, 545 ; with acc. and inf, 382. constituere, with ut, 377. consuetudo est, with ut, 378. consul, in the consulship of 463. consulere,178; with ut or ne, 376. consultus, 150. consumere, 545. contemnens, 151. 2. contendere,545; with ut or ne,376. contentus, 200. conterere, 545. contingit, with the dat. and inf., 174 ; with ut, 378. contrarius, 165. convenire, conventus, 545 ; con¬ venit, with ut and the acc. with the inf, 397, 382 convertere, 545. copiae, with the distributive num¬ bers, 101. 3. coram, 26. creare, 184. credere, with acc. and inf., 380. credo, ut credo, placed within the sentence, 485 ; mihi crede, 483. criminari, with quod, 387. cuicuimodi, with the indicative, i (270. b.). LATIN INDEX. 503 cum (with), its position, 28. 1. 492; compared with quum,288. cumulare, 197. 2. cunctus, as a synonyme, 550. (c.) cupere, 178; with ut, 376; with acc. and inf., 396. cupidus, 151. cura est, curae est, curam incum¬ bere with ut and ne, 376. curare, with ut and ne, 376. cursus, a march to, with ad, 71.4. D. Damnare, 156. dare, with dat., 7 73 ; with verbal adjective, 362 ; poenas, 545 ; with two accusatives, 184. debere, with inf., 347. decedere, 204. decere, 189. decernere, with ut, 377. declarare, 184. declinare, 204. dedecere, 189. dedocere, 185. deducere, 204 ; with quominus, 399. dee se, 176. defendere ab —, 545. deficere, 178, 186. deficere, 545. defraudare, 198. (4). defungi, 203. demonstrare, with acc. and inf., 380. depellere, 204. deplorare, 201. desiderare, 545; with ut, 376; non desiderare with quominus, 399. designare, 184. desilire, construe, of, 204, 545. desinere, with the inf., 220. desine, with the inf., 344. b. desiste, with the inf., 344. b. desistere, construe, of, 545. desperare, 177. deterrere, with quominus, 399. detrahere, 177, 204, 545. Deus optimus maximus, 490. deversari, 545. devertere, 545. dicere, with two accusatives, 184; with ut, 377; with acc. and inf., 380 ; often in the subj. (270. d.). 5 ; dico, I mean , namely, 534 ; dici, in the passive, how con¬ structed when that follows ?411. dicens, when imp' ed. *94. dictus, sic, ita, supra, 537. difficile est, 270. difficilis, 163. 4 ; with the supine, 442. diffidere, 199. 2. diffluere, .197. 2. dignare and dignari, 196. dignus, 196 ; followed b}’ qui, 309. diligens, 151. discedere, 204. discere, with acc. and inf., 380. dispar, 166. 8. disputare, 545. dissentire, 545. dissidere, 545. dissimilis, 166. 8. diversus, 166. 8. docere, with two accusatives, 185 ; with acc. and inf, 380. dolere, construe, of, 201 2 ; with acc and the inf., 387. domus, in answer to the question, where? 69 ; whither ? 71. 3 ; whence ? 73. domi militiseque, 490. donare, 177. donec, with what mode ? 297. dubitare, construe, of, 445 ; non dubitare, with quin, 400 ; with the inf., 400. dubium non esse, with quin, 400. ducere, with a dat., 173; duci, with the genitive, 142 ; ducere, with two accusatives, 184 ; with acc. and inf., 380; ducere in, 545. dulcis, 163 3. dum, with the present, when ? 224, 294 ; with what mode ? 293 —296; dumne, 296. dummodo, 296. durus, 163. 4. dux, under the guidance of, 531. E. E and ex, when the one, when the other ? 29. eatenus — quatenus, 524. 504 LATIN INDEX ecquis, 333. 6 ; ecquid, 331. edicere, with ut or ne, 377. edocere, 185. efficere, with two accusatives,! 84, 545 ; with ut or ne, 376, 378 ; with acc. and inf’., 380; effici¬ tur, with ut and the acc. and the inf., 397 ; efficere aliquid in ali¬ quo, 545. effugere, 186; with ex, 188. egere, 160, 197. 2. egone ? 334. 9. egredi, 204. eius, difference between and suus, 116—121. ejusmodi, with ut, 378. eligere, 184. emere, 153, 194. enim, after some word or words in a sentence, 470. eo, so far, to suck a degree, 161.2; with ut, 378. eorum, earum, difference between and suus, 116. equester, in masculine, 551. ergo, with the genitive, 138 ; po¬ sition in the sentence, 474. esse, with the genitive of quality, 140 ; with the ablative of quali¬ ty, 193 ; est, with a genitive, it is tkc duty , mark , etc., 142 ; es¬ se, with the genitive denoting the possessor, 143; of value or worth, 153, 194 ; with the da¬ tive signifying to have, 172 ; to serve, to consider, to conduce f?'i. with the dative of the predicate, 174; with the dative of a ge¬ rund, 356; omitted in participial sentences, 462 ; est, when omit¬ ted, 383, 552 ; est quod, with the subj., 303 ; est, it is possible , with ut, 378; esse in eo, with ut, 378. erudire, 545. el, when omitted ? 552.3; et non, neque, 526 ; et quidem, 471; as a synonyme, 550. (>,). etenim, placed first in a sentence, 469. etiam, in answers, 335; position of, 471; etiam tum, when for etiam nunc ? 434. etiamsi, with what mode? 278,280. etsi, with what mode ? 272. evadere ex aliqua re, 204. evenire, with ut or ne, 378. evincere, with ut or ne, 376. excedere, 204. excellere, 177. excidit, 545. excitare, with ut or ne, 377. excusare, with the conjunction that , 409; also with quoininu3, 399. exercere in aliquo, 545. exire, 204,545. existimare, 184 ; in the passive with the conjunction that, 414. exitiosus, 163. 1. exonerare, 198. 3. exordium sumere ab aliqua re| 545. expedire, 198. 2; expedit, with ut and the acc. and inf., 397, 382. expellere, 204. expers, 152. 1. explere, 197. 2. exprimere, 545. expromere, 545. exsolvere, 198. 3. expectare dum, 295. extremum est, ut, 378, 390; for denique, 558. extremus , at the end or lastpart, 84. exuere, 177. F. Fac, suppose, 380 ; with ut as a periphrastic imperative, 344 ; with acc. and inf., 380. fac ne, 344. b. facere, to value, 153; with two ac¬ cusatives, 184 ; to do with some one, with the ablative, 206. 4 ; to admit, suppose, with the acc. and the inf., 380; with ne and ut, 376; with part., 417. facere bene, prudenter, etc., with quod, 387. facere ut, periphrasis, (541. d.). facilis, 163. 4 ; with the supine, 440. factum est, with ut. 378. fallere, 186. familiaris, 165. farcire, 197. 2. LATIN INDEX. 505 fas, with acc. and inf., 382. fastidiosus, 151. fatalis, 163. 1. favere, 16!). ferre aequo animo, graviter, etc., with the acc. and inf., 387. ferri, to be said, how constructed with that ? 41 I. festinare, with the inf., 438. fidere, 199. 2. fieri, with genitive of quality, 141 ; with genitive of the possessor, 143; to be valued, 153 ; with da¬ tive of predicate, 174 ; with ut, 378. figere, 545. finem facere, with the genitive, 137, 351. fingere, with two accusatives,184 ; with part., 417. finitimus, 167. flagitare, 185; with utorne, 377. fore, ut, 267. 1,378, 403. formare, with two accusatives,184. formidare, 168, 178. forsitan, with the subj., 332. 2. fraudare, 198. 4. fretus, 199. 1. frui, 203. fugere, with the acc., 186; with ex, 188. fugiens, with genitive, 151. fultus, 199.1. fungi, 203. futurum esse, ut, 267. 1, 378, 403. G. Gaudere, 200. 1 ; with the acc. and inf., 387. gigni ex aliquo, 545. gloriaii, 202; with the acc. and inf., 387. gnarus, 150. gratia, on account of, 138 ; with the gerund, 350. gratias agere, with quod, 387. gratulari, with quod, 387 ; con¬ strue. of, 545. gratus, 163. 3. gravis, 163. 1. H. Habere, with two accusatives, 43 184; to value, 153; haberi, with the genitive, 142 ; to he valued , 153; habeo, non habeo, quid; nihil habeo, quod, 334. 11 ; ha¬ beto, 341. habilis, 164. haud scio an, 334.10. hercule, 338; in oratio obliqua, 433. hic, with gen., 125 ; not in oratio obliqua, 434 ; position of, 479. hinc sequitur, utor acc. with inf, 379, 397. hoc, with the genitive, 147 ; with a verbum sentiendi or dicendi , superfluous, 385. horrere, 168,178; with ne and ne non, 406. horror est, with ne and ne non,406. hortor, with ut or ne, 377. hostis, 165. huc, as far as this, so far, with the genitive, 161.2; huc illuc, 490. humus, in answer to the question, where ? 69. J. Jactare, se jactare, 202. iccirco (idcirco), position, 474. id, with the genitive, 147 ; id ae¬ tatis, 181 ; with a verbum sen¬ tiendi or dicendi, 385. id quod, and that, 539. idem, with the genitive, 147 ; with qui, 524. idoneus, 164. igitur, position of, 474, 516. ignarus, without knowledge, 80, 531; with the genitive, 150. ignoscere, with quod, 387. ille, position of in a sentence, 479; with gen., 125. ille quidem, 552. 5. illud, with the genitive, 147; with a verbum sentiendi or dicendi , 385. illudere, 177. imbecillus, not imbecillis, 551. imitari, 186. immemor, 150. immensum est, 225. immunis, 198. 1. 506 LATIN INDEX. irnrao (imo), 340. impar, 166 8. impatiens, with the genitive, 151. impedire, with quominus, 399; construe, of, 545. impellere, with ut or ne, 377. imperare, 178; with ut and the acc. and the inf., 376, 377. imperitus, 150. implere, 197. 2. imponere, 178. impotens, with the genitive, 152.2. imprimere in, 545. imprimis, 550. improvidus, 150. imprudens, contrary to one's will, 80, 531; with gen., 150. in, when it governs an acc. and when an abla. ? 27. 1; when omitted? 68 1,70; when used with an abla. ? 70; when with an acc. of place ? 71; when used to denote time ? 75 ; with other substantives, when trans¬ lated ? 213. in primis, especially , 550. inaequalis 166. 8. inanis, 152 1, 197. 1. incidere, 178; with ut, 378. incidere, 177, 545. incipere ab, 545. incumbere, 178. indicare, 194 ; with acc. and inf., 380. indigere, 160, 197. 2. indignari, with acc. and inf., 387. indignus, 196; with qui, 309. inducere (animum), with ut, or ne, 376. induere, 177. inesse, 177. infans, n childhood . , 531. infensus, 165. inferre, 177. infestus, 165. infinitum est, 270. inaratus, 163. 3. inhaerere, 177. inimicus, 165. iniquus, construe, of, 165. injucundus, 163. 3. injuratus, active, 457. inquam, position of in the sen¬ tence, 487 ; in the oratio recta, 432 ; I mean, namely, 534. insciens, inscius, without know¬ ledge, 80, 531. inscius, construe, of, 150, 463. inscribere in, construe, of, 545. insculpere in, construe, of, 545. instar, 138. instituere, with ut, 377. instructus, used for a periphrasis, 544. intelligere, with acc. and inf., 380. intercedit, construe, of, 545. intercludere, 545. interdicere, construe, of, 177; with ne, 377; with quominus, 399. interesse, with dative, 176; con¬ strue. of, 178; to concern , to be interested in, 157. interpellare, with quominus, 399. interrogare, with two accusatives, 185. intimus, 165. inutilis, 163. 1. invadere, 545. invehi, 545. invenire, with two accusatives, 184. invidere, 170. invitus, against one's will, 80,531. involvere, 545. ipse, instead of sui, 112; very , even, 126; with another pro¬ noun, in what case? 127; posi¬ tion of in the sentence, 126,484, 479. ipsius and ipsorum, for suus, 118. irasci, 170; with quod, 387. ire, with the supine, 438. is, ea, difference between and sui, 108—115 ; is — qui. 524. is, with ut, 378. is, ea, id, when omitted ? 539. iste, not in oratio obliqua, 434 ; position of, 479. ita, with a verbum sentiendi or di¬ cendi, 385; with ut, 378 ; does not always have a sentence with ut after it, 390; position of in a sentence, 478. ita est, 335. itane? itaneest? 334.9. LATIN INDEX 507 itaque, position of in a sentence, 474. jubere, 186 ; with the acc. and the inf, 187, 377. jucundus, 163. 3 ; jucundum est, with the acc. and the inf.,387. judicare, 184 ; with acc. and inf. 380 jungere, 177. jurare, followed by fut. inf., 402. jus, with ut, 377. jus fasque,490. justum est, ut or the acc. with the inf., 397, 382. juvare, 186 ; juvat me, 188. f L. / Laborare, 545; withut, ne,376. laetari, 200; with the acc. and the inf., 387. laetus, 200. lamentari, 201. laudare, with quod, 387. laxare, 198. 2. levare, 198. 3. levis, 163 4. lex, with ut, 377. liberare, 198. 2. libens, 463. liceri, .194, 545. licet, although, 282.4; with acc. and inf , 380; it is lawful , 405 ; in the future perfect, 250. locare, to let out, 194; to place, 545; with the verbal adjective in andus and cndus , 362. loco, in the place, 70. locupletare, 197. 2. longum est, 225, 270. ludere, 545. ludi, with the distributive, 101.3. lugere, 201. M. Maerere, 201. 2. magis and plus, 547. magnus, with the dative, 163. 2. male emere, vendere, 195. maledicere, 170. malle, with the inf., 347; with ut, 376; with acc. and inf., 396. mandare, withut,377. manere, construe, of, 178. manifestum est, with acc. and inf., 382. mari, by sea, 70. maxime, especially, 550. rnederi, 170. medius, in the middle, 84. mehercule, in answers, 338. mei, tui, sui, 133, 135. memento, with an :nf., 344 meminisse, 154 ; with acc.and inf.,. 380; when by inf. pres, and perf., 385. memor, 150. memoratus, rnodo, supra, wheth¬ er correct ? 537. mentem in, mihi venit, 154. mentionem facere alicujus rei, 137. mereri, 545. meritum in (erga) aliquem, 545. metuens, 151. metuere, 168, 178; with ne, ne non, 406. metus est, with ne, ne non, 406. militiae, abroad, 69. mille, millia, 99. minari, minitari, 177; with the inf future, 402. minime, in answers, 338. minari, with acc and inf., 387. minus, with the genitive, 147. minimum, with the genitive, 147. miserere, misereri, miserescere, 155. miserari, construe, of, 155. mittere, 177; with the verbal ad¬ jective in andus and endus , 362. moderari, 178. modo, as, like as, 138. modo, modo ut,296 ; rnodo ne,296. moerere 201. molae, with the distributive num¬ bers, 101. 3. moleste fere, molestum esse, with the acc. and the inf., 387. molestus, 163. 3. monere, 154; with ut or ne, 377 ; with acc. and inf., 396 rnoram afferre, with quominus, 399. morari, with quominus, 3 j'J. more, as, like as, 138. mos est, with ut, 378. 508 LATIN INDEX movere, with ut or ne, 377. mutare, It>4. multum, with the genitive, 147 ; inultum est, 225. multum abesse ut, 378. munus, with ut, 377. N. Nam, placed first in a sentence, 469 ; after the interrogative,463. narrari, whether with the inf. and nom. ? 412. nascitur, with ut, 378. nasci ex, 545. natus, with the acc., 180; with loco and others, 544. ne, mode, 49. 3, 281 ; its use, 342 ; diir. between and quin, 399; ne vivam, 374 ; interrogative, 318, 328 ; ne— an, 324; for nonne, 332; for nuin, 332; for quomi¬ nus, 399 ; ne alter words deno¬ ting fear, 4(;6. ne quidem, position of in the sen¬ tence, 472. necne, 324 ; nec vero, 528. necopinans, contrary to expecta¬ tion., 80, 531. necessarius, 163 . 2,167 necesse esse, followed by the con¬ junction that or the inf., 405; by acc. and inf., 382. nedum, 540. 3. negare, with acc and inf., 380 ; | for dicere — non, 529 ; before nec and nequidem, 529. negligens, 151. nemo est, qui, 303. nequaquam, in answers, 338. neque, et non, 525 ; neque vero, enim, tamen, 528. nescio quomodo, with what mode ? 333; nescio an, 334 10. nescio quis and nescio quid, 333. nescius, without knowledge, 531; with gen., 150. neu, neve, 342. neuter, 106. ni, nisi, 278; nisi, si non, 548; nisi forte, 278, 279. nihil, 147, 149 ; for nemo, 87. 2; with the comparative; 87, 2; nihil est, quod, 277, 303. nihil vero minus, in answers, 340. nimium, 147. nisi, see ni. niti, 199. 3 ; with ut, or ne, 376. nolle, with the inf, 347; with ut, 376; with the acc and the inf., 316; noli, with the inf., 344. b. nomen alicui est, 174 ; dare, in¬ dere, 174. nominare, 184. non, position of, 476, 477; in a question, 330; non est quod, 277, 303 ; non quo, 277, 2b2; non quin, 282,287. b, 400 ; non enim, when? 528; non modo, for non modo non, when ? 540; non enim, vero, tamen, 528 ; non nisi, position of, 477 ; non, for nonne, 329 ; nonne,321,329; in the second question on.y non, 322. nostri, with the genitive of the ge¬ rund, 372 noxius, 163. 1. nubere, 170. nudare, 198. 4. nudus, 198. 1. nullus, neuter, 106; nullus est, qui, 303 ; nullus est locus, quo non, for usquequaque, 558. num, and the like, 331 ; nuin — an, 323 ; num for ne, 332. numerare in, with the abla , 545. numero in aliquor, habere, 137. numquis, numquid, 333. 6. nuncupare, 184 nuntiare with acc. and infi, 380. nusquam, with the gen , 161. O. O si, with the subj., 282. 3. obire, with the acc., 186. oblivisci, 154 ; with acc. and inf., 380. obruere, 197. 2. observans, 151. obsistere, with quominus, 399. obstare, with quominus, 399. obtrectare, 177. occumbere, 177. occurrere, with ut, 378. LATIN INDEX. 509 occupatum esse in aliqua re, 545. officere, with quominus, 391). officium est, ut, 377. omittere, with quod, 387. omnis, with pronouns, position of, 486 ; as a synonyme, 550. (t). onustus, 197. 1. operam dare, ut, 376. opinio, with acc. and inf., 380. opinor, ut opinor, placed within the sentence, 485. oportere, 189 ; with the acc. and inf. or the subj., 405. opplere, 197. 2. opportunus, 165. optare, with ut, 376, 377. opus esse, 130; with acc. and inf., 382. orans, when implied, 424. orare, with ut or ne, 377. oratio obliqua and recta, 419 et seq. orbare, 198. 4 ; orbus, adjec., 198. 1 . ordiri ab, 545. ornatus, used for a periphrasis, 544. ostendere se, 184 ; with acc. and inf., 380. P. Paene, with the indie., (270. a.). par, 166. 8; with acc. and inf.,382. paratus, 166. parcere, 170. partem magnam, 181. particeps, 152. 1. parum, 161. pati, with ut and the acc. with the inf., 397. patiens, with the gen., 151. pavere, with ne, ne non, 406. pavor est, as pavere, 406. pendere, to value., 153. per, to denote the instrument or means, 208.2; with a substan¬ tive to express an English ad¬ verb, 211.1. per me licet, 542. percipere, with acc. and inf., 380. percontari (percunctari), 185. perferre, 545. perficere, with ut or ne, 376. 43 * perfrui, 203. perfungi, 203. perhibere, with acc. and inf., 380. periculosus, 163 1. periculum est, with ne, ne non, 406; periculum alicujus facere, 137. perinde ac si, 283. periodus, and the different kinds of, 553 et seq. peritus, 150. permittere, with ut or the acc. with the inf., 397. permutare, 194. perniciosus, 163. 1. perspicuum est, with acc. and inf., 382. persequi, 186. persuadere, 170 ; with ut or ne, 377 ; with acc. and inf., 396. pertinere ad, 545. pervenire, 186. pervincere, with ut or ne, 376. petere, 178. pigere, 155, 189. placare, 545. placere, when in fut. perf. ? 250; with ut, 377. plenus, 152. 1, 197. 1. plorare, 201. pluere, 177. plurimum, diff. between and maxi¬ me, 550. plus, diff. between and magis,547. poenas dare — , 545. poenitere, 155, 189. polliceri, with the inf. fut., 402; with acc and inf., 380. ponere in aliqua re, 545. poscere, 185 ; with ut or ne, 377. posse, with the inf., 347 ; with an inf. of an impersonal passive, 220 ; when in fut. perf. P 250 ; possum, / could , 225, 270. post, with abl., 77 ; with a parti¬ ciple, 464. postquam, with the perf. indie., 238, 273 ; why used but sel¬ dom ? 273. postremus, last, 82. postridie, quam, 77. 5, 273. postulare, 185 ; with ut or ne,377; with acc. and the inf., 396. 510 LATIN INDEX. potens, with gen., 152. 2. potiri, construe, of, 203. potissimum, especially, 550. potius, diff. between and magis, 547. potus, active, 457. praebere, 184. praecedere, 177. praecellere, 177. praecipere, with ut, 377. praecipue, especially , 550. praedicere, with ut, 377. praeditus, with an abi., 544. praefidens, 199. 2. praescribere, with ut, 377. praesens, in the presence of, 531. praesertim, especially , 550. praestare, 178, 184, 545. praeterire, 186 ; with quod, 388. praeterquam quod, with what mode ? 277. praevenire, 186. pransus, active, 457. precari, construe, of, 185. pridie, quam, 77. 5 ; mode, 298. primus, first, 82 ; in the beginning, 84. prior, 82, priusquam, with what mode ? 298. privare, 198. 4. probare, with acc. and inf., 380. proclivis, 166. procreare, 545. prodere, with acc. and inf., 380. profecto, in answers, 335. proficisci ad aliq. locum, 71.4. prohibere, with quominus, 399. proinde, mode, 281. promittere, with the inf. fut., 402; with acc. and inf., 380. promptus, 166. prope esse, with ut, 378. prope, with indic., (270. a.) propensus, 166. properare, with the inf., 438. propinquus, 167. propitius, 165. proprius, 167. propterea quod, with what mode ? 277. prospicere, 178 ; with ut or ne, 376. providere, 168,178; with ut, 376. providus, 150. provocare, 545. prout, 285. proximum est, with ut, 378. prudens, 150. pudere, 155, 189. puer, in boyhood , 531. pugnare, with quod, 387. pulchrum est, with acc. and inf., 3-2 purgare, 545. putare, to value, 153 ; to consider as, 184 ; with the acc. and the inf., often in the subj., (270. d.). 5, 380. Q. Quaerere, 178. qualiscunque, with the indicative, (270. b.). quam, when not to be omitted with the comparative, 93 ; quam qui for quam ut, 398. quamdiu, with indie., 297. quamquam, mode, 272. quamvis, mode, 283. quamvis licet, mode, 283, quando, with si, 122. quando, quandocunque and the like, 274. quantum, how much, with the gen., 148. quantus, how great, 148. 2. quantumvis, 283. quantuscunque, (270. b.). qua re, qua de re, etc., 55, 520. quasi, 283 ; with partic., 461. quatenus, 275; quat.—eatenus, 524. que, as a synonyme, 550. (if). que, placed after, 470. quemadmodum, in oratio obliqua, 431. queri, 201; with quod, 387. qui, quae, quod, its case in the sentence, 37 ; its gender in con¬ nection with two subst., 103; in the subordinate and principal sentence, 521; position of in a sentence, 495, 496 ; attracts the substantive into its own case, 124 ; refers to all persons, 216 ; for hic, haec, hoc, 495; used to LATIN INDEX. connect sentences, 519 ; is put in the same case as the nearest clause, 521; in the abl. before a comparative,523; qui expressing a reason, 313, 314 ; with the in¬ die. and subj., 299—314; for ut, 308; forquum, 313; for quod, that, 314. 9 ; after esse, deesse, 303 ; after reperire, invenire, nancisci, habere, 307; after dig¬ nus, indignus, aptus, idoneus, 309; after tam, tantus, talis, is, ejusmodi, 310; after mittere, praemittere, remittere, deligere, 311; in oratio obliqua, 430; qui instead of ut ego, etc., 398; as a synonyme, 550. (&,. quia, mode, 276; in oratio obli¬ qua, 431. quicunque, mode, (270. b.). quid, with the gen., 147; quid est, with the comparative, 87. 2. quid est causae, cur, for cur, 558. quid est quod, diff. between, when followed by the indie, and the subj., 303. quid est, quod, with the subj., 49.8, 277; for cur, 558. quidam, position of, 505. quidem, position of, 471; ille qui¬ dem, 471 ; joined to the pro¬ noun is, 107. quidni, mode, 332. 2. quidquam, diff. between and ali¬ quid, 122. quidquid, 147; quidquid est, quod, 303. quin, that not, etc., 49. 4, 287. b ; why not ? 287. a ; for qui non, 303 ; when used ? 400 ; diff. between and ne, 399 ; non quin 287. b ; quin and qui non with the perfect, 261. b; for quomi¬ nus, 399. quippe, in oratio obliqua, 431; quippe qui, 313. quis, which ? 106 ; any one, 122 ; quis est with the comparative, 87. 2; quis est, qui, mode, 303; for quis, nemo,-558; quis est, qui non (quin) for omnes, 558 ; with si, etc., 122 ; diff. between quis est, qui, when followed by 511 the indic, and the subj.,306 ; as a synonyme, 550. i quis or quisquam, used in a ques¬ tion implying a negative, or to which a neg. answ. is expected, 331, 332. 4. quispiam, position of, 505. quisquam, diff. between and ali¬ quis, 122. quisque, position of, 58, 480 ; with ordinal numbers, 100, 482. quisquis with indie., (270. b.) ; quisquis est, qui non (quin) for < mnes, 55«. quo, after that, 77. 5 ; with subj. 49. 2, 282. 2; how far, to what degree? with the gen., 161. 2; inhere? 161 ; with the acc., 181. 5 ; for ut eo, 308, 398; al¬ so for eo, 495; non eo, quo, 277. quoad, 297; interrogative, 315. quod, with the gen., 147; that, be¬ cause, 387, 388; diff. between construction with quod and ut, 394 ; mode, 277 ; as far as, 314. quodsi, 278. quominus, mode, 282; when used? 399; diff. between and quin, 399. quoniam, mode, 276. quoque, placed after the word to which it belongs, 56, 471. quotquot, with indie., (270. b.). quotusquisque est, qui, 214, 303. quum (cum), mode, 288—292 ; with the perf., 230, 239, 244; with quum primum, 292. Rem.; quum, by, in that, that, when , since, 288. R. Rationem habere alicujus, 137. recidere, 545. recipere, 178, 545. recordari, 154 ; with acc. and inf., 380; followed by pres, and perf., 385. rectum est, with acc. and inf.,382. recusare, with quominus, 399. reddere, 184. redimere, 194. redundare, 197. 2. refercire, 197. 2. 512 LATIN INDEX, referre, 157; construe, of,178,545; with acc. and inf., 380. refert, 157. refertus, 152. 1, 197. 1. relaxare, 198. 2. relevare, 198. 3. relinquitur, with ut and acc. with the inf., 378, 379, 397. reliqui, ceteri, 549. reliquum, with the gen., 147 ; re¬ liquum est, ut, for ceterum, 558} reliquum est, ut, 390. reminisci, 154. renuntiare, 184. reor, with acc. and inf., 380. reperire, 184. reponere in aliqua re, 545. reportare, 545. reposcere, 185. reprehendere, with quod, 387. repugnare, with quominus, :i99. res, per phrasis, ,.5} position of, 505. rescribere, 177. resistere, with quominus, 399. respicere, 545. respondere, 178. restat, ut, for ceterum, 558; res¬ tat, ut, 378, 390. reverens, 151. ritu, as, like , Like as, 138. rogare, 185} with ut or ne, 377. rudis, 150. rus, in answ. to the quest, where ? 69} whither ? 71.3} whence ? 73. S. Sagax, 150. salubris (saluber), 163. 1, 551. salutaris, 163. 1. sane, in answers, 335. satiare, 197. 2. satis, 161. 1. saturare, 197. 2. scatere, 197. 2. sciens, with knowledge , 80, 531; with the gen , 150. scientiam habere alicujus, 137. scire, with the inf., 347 ; with acc. and inf., 380 } haud scio an, 334. 10. scribere, 177 ; with ut, 377} with acc. and inf., 380. sectari, 186. securum esse, with ne, ne non,40b. sed, first in a sentence, 469} as a synonyme, 550. (a). senatus populusq. R., with sing, verb, 63. senex, in old age, 531. sentire, with acc. and inf., 380. sequi, 186} sequitur with ut and the acc. and inf., 397. sestertium, with a numeral adv., 214. si, mode, 278; si forte, 278} si quidem, 278} si non, nisi, diff. between, 548. sic, with a verbum sentiendi, or di¬ cendi, 385; with ut, 378} not always followed by ut, 390} position of, 478. sicarius — inter sicarios, 156. similis, construe, of, 166. 8. simul, simulae, 238, 273 } simulae, simulatque, 551. sin, first in the sentence, 469} mode, 278} sin minus, aliter, 548. sinere, with ut and the acc. with the inf., 397. singuli, distributive number,101.3. sitiens, 151. sive — sive, mode, 278, 280 ; as a synonyme, 550. (t). socius, 152. 1. solere, with an inf. of an impers. pass., 220. solus, 82. solvere, 178, 198. 3. sortito, as abla. absolute, 455. sperare, with inf. fut., 402} with acc. and inf., 380. spes est, with acc. and inf., 380. spes metusque, 490. spoliare, 198. 4. spondere, with acc. and inf., 380. sponte, with mea, tua, 536. stare, to cost, 153, 194 ; in other significations, 206. statu, in abla., 70. statuere, with the infin., 347 ; with ut, 377} with acc. and inf., 380. studere. 170 } wi'h the inf. and ut, 376} with the acc. and LATIN INDEX. 513 inf., 3% ; with the dative of the gerund, 356. studiosus, 151. suadere, with ut or ne, 3.7. suasor, counsel , 463, 531. suavis, 163. 3. sub, case, 27. 2. subire, 186. subter, case, 27. 3. subterfugere, 186; with ex, 188. succensere, 170; with quod, 387. sui, sibi, se, diff. between and ejus, ei, eum, 108—115. sumere supplicium de, 545. summus, on the highest part or surface , 84. super, case, 27. 4. superbus, 202. superest, with ut, 378. supersedere, 177, 545. supplere, 11>7. 2. supplicare, construct, of, 176. suppoenitere, 155, 189. suppudere, 155, 189. sursum, deorsum, 490. suscipere, with verbal adjective in andus and endus, 362. suus, diff. between and ejus, eo¬ rum, 116—121. T. Taedere, 155, 189. talis, with ut, 378. talis—qualis, 524. tam, with ut, 378. tarndiu—quamdiu, 524. tamen, with qui, 520 ; position of in a sentence, 475, 517. tametsi, mode, 272. tamquam, 283; with particip., 461. tandem, strengthening word, 334. 9; position of in the sentence, 473. tantopere with ut, 378. tantum, so much , with gen., 147 ; tantum abest ut, 410; with ut, 378. tantus, so great , 148. 2. tantus — quantus, 524. temperare, 178. tempus est, with the inf. and the gen. of the gerund, 352; with ut, 378. tenax, 150. tenere, with quominus, 399. tentare, with the inf, 347. tenus, position of, 28. 2, 492. terni, diff. between and trini, 101. 3. terra, by land , 70. timere, 178 ; with ne, ne non,406. timor est, with ne, ne non, 406. tot — quot, 524. toties — quoties, 524. totus, with words denoting place, 68, 69, 70 ; as a synonyme,550. tradere, with the verbal adjective in andus and endus, 362 ; with acc. and inf., 380. tribuere, with dative, 173. triumphare de, 545. tueri ab —, 545. tutari ab —, 545. U. Ubi, where, with the gen., 161; for ibi, 495 ; when with perf. indic. P 238, 273 ; with subj. to denote repeated actions, 273. ubicumque, with indie ,(270. b.). ullus, diff. between and aliquis, 122 ; position of, 505. ultimus, last , 82 ; at the end , 84. ultro citroque, 490. unde, for inde, 495; for ut inde, 308. universus, as synonyme, 550. (t). unus, alone, 82; when in plural, 101. 3; with ex, de, and when with the gen. ? 145. 3. unusquisque, with the distributive number, 101. 1. usque, usque ad, diff. between, 74. usque eo, with ut, 378. usus, used for a periphrasis, 544. ut, uti, as, when, mode, 273, 285 ; ut ut, (270.b.), 585; ut qui, 313; ut quisque with the superlative, 95; ut, in oratio obliqua, 431; ut ait, in oratio recta, 432; ut after words denoting fear, 406; ut with a verb and its subject, position of, 487; ut credo, arbi- 514 LATIN INDEX. tror, opinor, position of in the sentence, 485 ; ut, that, 49. 1, 286; ut, to, 49. 1,286; ut ne, 373—377 ; in questions of won¬ der, 334. 7; often omitted with the subj., 392 ; ut ita dicarn, po¬ sition of in the sentence, 489 ; ut, when, as soon as, with the perf. indie., 238. utcumque, mode, (270.b), 285. uter, 106; construe, of, 145. 1; uter, utri (plural), 535. uterque, with the gen , 145; with a singular verb, 145. ], 535; uterque, utrique, 535. uti, 203 utilis, 163.1 ; utile est, with ut and the acc. with the inf., 397, 382. utinam, with the subj., 49. 5, 282. 3; tense, 228. utpote qui, ut qui, 313. utrum, interrog., 326; utrumne, 327 ; utrurn — an, 323. utsi, mode, 283. V. Vacare, 198. 2. vacuus, 198. 1. valere, with the inf., 347 ; con¬ strue. of, 545. ve, position of, 470 ; as a syno- nyme, 550. (»). vel, as a synonyme, 550. (/). velirn, followed by the present or perfect, 228 ; followed by the subj., 376, 395 ; with the subj. for the imperative, 344. velle, with the inf., 347; with ut, 376 ; with the acc. and the inf., 396 ; diff. between acc. and inf. with, and ut and subj., 395 note ; when in fut. perf. ? 250. vellem, followed by the imperf. or pluperf, 228; with the subj., 376. velut, 283; with the particip., 461. venalis, 194. vendere, 194. veneficum — de veneficiis, 156. ven ire, to be for sale, 194. venit in mentem, 154. verba sentiendi and dicendi, 380; in pass., 411 ; timendi with ne, ne non, 4C6. vereri, with ne, ne non, 406 verisimile est, with ut and the acc. with the inf., 397, 382. vero, but, placed after, 470; strengthening, 332.3; really? 334. 9 ; in answers, 335, 336. versari in aliqua re, 545. versus, preposition, position of, 28. 2, 495. vero as a synonyme, 550. (■/). verum, bat, placed first in the sen¬ tence, 469; as a synonvme, 550. (*)• ' L verum est, with ut and the acc. with the inf., 397, 382. vesci, 203. vestri, with the gen. of the ge¬ rund, 372. vetare, 186; with the acc. and the inf., 377. via Appia, etc., 78, 490. vicinus, 167. victoriam ferre ex, 545. videre, to care for, with ut, ne, 376, 407; to see, acc. and the inf., 380; with the participle, 417; vide, videte, videndum est, ne, 1 fear, 406. videri, it seems that, 413. vindex esse alicujus, 137. vindicare, 545. viritim, with the distributive, 101. vitare, with quominus, 399. vituperare, with quod, 387. vivere, 206. vivus, in one's life, 80, 463, 531. vix, 239. vocare, with two accusatives, 184. volarn, fut. often for volo, 234. CORRIGENDA. Page 50, line 2, read Siciliam for Sciciliam ; p. 66,1. 25, dicere for discere ; p. 84, 1. 34, servitus for servitus ; p. 87,1. 25, most for more; p. 120, 1. 38, esse for esso ; p. 130,1. 32, privatim for privatim; p. 152, 1. 26, contingere for contigere; p.247,1.11, dicere for dicere ; p. 309, 1. 31, reipublicae for republicae ; p. 395, 1. 16, igitur for igitur; p. 399, in the last word two l’s have fallen out; p. 405,1.5, Licinia for Licinio; p. 431, 1. 29, ei — cui for ci — eui; p. 558, 1. 10, best for ebst. t a. * - m v . , •> * * * Am « ' * V > . fi I|g& * m ' :. y* ■ ' t . ♦ }*. » •. . ' BOSTON COLLEGE II ll 9031 01400298 131216 /(reb s' Y^A 'z.o'vi Kr BOSTON COLLEGE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY HEIGHTS C' ESTNUT HILL, MASS. Books may be kopt for two weeks and may be reneweo for the same period, unless reserved. Two cents a day is charged for each book kept overtime. If you cannot find what you want, ask the Librarian who will be glad to help you. 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