JOHN! HUGHES 
 
 MEMORIAL CDLLECTinN, 
 
 <^^ BDSTDN COLLEGE 
 
 
 
 
 'a 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 j •• H • 
 
Plate I.] 
 
 [Frontispiece. 
 
 IV. H. Baity, del. 
 Sagenaria Bailyana (restored), and other Fossils of Kiltorcan, County Kilkenny. 
 
GEOLOGTCAL MAP 
 
 of 
 
 I R E IL A H 3D ^^ck^^^k 
 
 by 
 '.H.KINATIAN, M.R.I.A. -i—At^A; f 
 
<J> fam^L ■ C^t^SyO^ 
 
 d — tf^-^L^ozje. — ^,-eZ^ 
 
 MANUAL 
 
 
 OF THE 
 
 GEOLOGY OF IRELAND 
 
 BY 
 
 G. HENRY KINAHAN, M.R.I.A., etc. 
 
 OF H.M. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
 
 WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND MAP 
 
 BOSTON COLLEGE xRY 
 
 CHESTNUT HILL, MASS. 
 LONDON 
 
 C. Kegan Paul & Co., i, Paternoster Square 
 
 1878 
 
• k4 
 
 5952 
 
 vf\ 
 
Ijeltrkatum. 
 
 DEAR SIR RICHARD GRIFFITH, 
 
 I CANNOT FULLY EXPRESS MY THANKS FOR YOUR KINDNESS IN 
 ALLOWING ME TO DEDICATE THIS BOOK TO YOU, THE "FATHER OF 
 
 Irish Geology," feeling, as I do, that it is deficient in 
 
 MANY RESPECTS, AND UNWORTHY THE HONOUR YOU HAVE CONFERRED 
 
 UPON IT. 
 
 I AM, 
 
 Dear Sir Richard, 
 
 Yours most Sincerely, 
 
 G. HENRY KINAHAN. 
 To Sir R. J. Griffith, Bart., 
 Fitzwii.liam Place, 
 Dublin. 
 
^Lz /fg-. 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 In his Explanation to his exhaustive list of the Irish Car- 
 boniferous Fossils, that able and veteran Irish Geologist, 
 Sir Richard J. Griffith, Bart., states that it had always 
 been his intention to publish a Geology of Ireland, but 
 that his official duties pressed so heavily on him, that the 
 time to accomplish the task was never at his disposal. 
 Under these circumstances I have, therefore, been induced 
 to attempt it. 
 
 I have not relied solely upon my own personal know- 
 ledge of the country, but have consulted all public and 
 private records and papers relating to the Geology of 
 Ireland to which I could get access. 
 
 First and most important in the list are the invaluable 
 maps and writings of Sir R. J. Griffith. I would here 
 allude to the personal obligations I am under to that 
 gentleman, as, since I first knew him, nearly a quarter of 
 a century ago, he has never refused an opportunity of 
 enlightening me on the entangled and obscure points of 
 Irish Geology, and of directing my attention to those 
 points still to be worked out. 
 
 Next in importance are Jukes's maps and writings. 
 Of these I have availed myself largely ; whilst in regard 
 to the Geology of the North of Ireland, Portlock's maps 
 and publications have been extensively used and quoted. 
 
 b 
 
vi Preface. 
 
 Other public documents are the publications of the Geo- 
 logical Survey of Ireland, which include the maps and 
 reports of my present colleagues, and those of my former 
 colleagues, Doctor Oldham, Prof. Warington Smyth, and 
 Messrs. Wyley, Wynne, Duffen, and the late Sir H. 
 De la Beche, Messrs. Du Noyer, Willson, Foot, Warren, 
 and W. B. Leonard. 
 
 The private books and other writings that have been 
 consulted are too numerous to give in detail, but I may 
 especially mention Weaver's excellent Memoirs, Sir R. 
 Kane's " Industrial Resources of Ireland," and Mr. Ralph 
 Tate's papers on the Rocks of Ulster. 
 
 I am personally indebted to Doctors King and Melville, 
 of the Queen's College, Galway, with respect to the 
 Geology of West Ireland ; to my English colleagues, 
 Messrs. H. B. Woodward and Rutley ; to Messrs. Traill and 
 Egan, who have also given valuable assistance in correcting 
 the manuscripts and proofs ; to my old friends and col- 
 leagues, Messrs. O'Kelly and Baily ; the former would have 
 been, a joint author with myself of this book, had not ill- 
 health unfortunately deprived me of his assistance ; while 
 Mr. Baily has corrected the lists of species and prepared the 
 plates of characteristic Irish fossils ; to my colleague, Mr. A. 
 McHenry, who reduced and prepared the maps and all the 
 sketches, except those by Messrs. Baily and Wyley ; to my old 
 friend and former colleague and instructor, Mr. A. Wyley, 
 late Geologist for the Cape Colony, for the copperplate of 
 Plate V. and for the vignette on the cover of the book ; 
 but especially to the Rev. M. H. Close, President of the 
 Royal Geological Society of Ireland, who has revised the 
 manuscripts and proofs. I must not, however, commit my 
 friend to all the conclusions put forward. We have worked 
 at and amicably fought over many points in Irish geology, 
 
Preface. vii 
 
 as to which we did not agree ; and although Mr. Close has 
 kindly done what I have stated, some of my opinions, 
 in regard to the Physical Geology, he still strenuously 
 opposes. There are many others also, whose names 
 are hereafter mentioned, who have been most prompt 
 in giving me information ; to these,- likewise, I now return 
 my sincere thanks. 
 
 In the geological map, each tract of the metamorphosed 
 sedimentary rocks is given the colour adopted for the 
 Formation to which it belongs. There are points pre- 
 sented in this Manual which will probably meet with 
 more or less opposition — namely, the including of the 
 Old Red Sandstone in the Carboniferous rocks, the class- 
 ing of Quartz-rock*" (as distinguished from quartzite or 
 quartz-schist) among the Eruptive rocks, and the chrono- 
 logical classification of the Granitic and other Eruptive 
 rocks. These, however, are questions to which I have 
 paid particular attention, and, after over twenty-five years' 
 study and minute examination of the Irish rocks, I am 
 forced to come to the conclusions now given. 
 
 I would also point out that there are a few tracts of 
 obscure or complicated geology still to be worked out. 
 One occurs in the NW. of Ulster, and includes the 
 metamorphic rocks of Donegal and adjoining counties ; 
 these rocks are, possibly, of the same age as those of 
 Galway, viz., Cambrian and Cambro-Silurian. Others 
 are the district about Fintona, in Fermanagh and Tyrone, 
 
 * In the Counties of Dublin, Wicklow, and Wexford I have found quartz- 
 rock in unaltered Cambrians, in the County of Wexford in unaltered Cambro- 
 Silurians, in the County of Mayo in unaltered Silurians, and in the Counties of 
 Galway and Clare in the Old Red Sandstone ; and these facts alone ought to 
 demonstrate that quartz-rock should not be included among the Metamorphic 
 rocks, and that it is a distinct rock from quartzite or quartz-schist, the latter 
 being a true Metamorphic rock. 
 
 b 2 
 
viii % Preface. 
 
 also areas in Sligo and Roscommon near Loughs Gara 
 and Key, and elsewhere, where the rocks, as suggested by 
 Griffith, are probably equivalents of part of the " Dingle 
 Beds." My attention was directed by Sir R. Griffith to 
 six groups in Ireland of apparently somewhat similar age, 
 namely : I. — Dingle Beds, Co. Kerry ; II. — GlengarifF 
 Grits, Co. Cork ; III. — Louisburgh, and IV. — Croagh- 
 moyle Groups, Co. Mayo ; V. — Ballaghaderreen and Lough 
 Key Group, Counties of Sligo and Roscommon ; and VI. — 
 The Fintona and Slievemore Group, Counties of Ferma- 
 nagh and Tyrone. Of these those near Louisburgh and 
 Croaghmoyle are, I know, Silurian, and are coloured 
 as such on the map. The Dingle Beds lie conformably 
 on the fossiliferous Silurians, but are similar to the Glen- 
 gariff Grits in which are found plants allied to Carbo- 
 niferous types ; it was these plants which caused Jukes to 
 place the groups temporarily in the Old Red Sandstone ; 
 not giving them a definite position, until the similar 
 rocks in Mayo, Sligo, Roscommon, Fermanagh, and 
 Tyrone had been examined. The Ballaghaderreen and 
 Lough Key rocks are very similar to those at Croagh- 
 moyle, and Berdoe-Wilkinson suspects that the Ballagha- 
 derreen rocks lie conformably on fossiliferous Silurians ; 
 and the Firoda and Slievemore rocks are very like those 
 of the Ballaghaderreen and Louisburgh groups. As 
 hereafter stated, I would suggest that the rocks in 
 these tracts ought not to be included among the " Old 
 Red Sandstone" (Lower Carboniferous), but should be 
 placed as the uppermost group in the Silurians. Never- 
 theless, as I have not sufficiently examined them, they are, 
 for the present, given a separate colour on the map, and 
 are classed together as Dingle Beds. 
 
 In the " Handy Book of Rock Names," I gave reasons 
 
Preface. ix 
 
 why I prefer Dana's termination of yte for rock names, 
 as distinguished from names of minerals. Although I am 
 still of the same opinion, yet, in deference to my publisher 
 and others to whom I am indebted, I have used the old 
 termination of ite in this book. 
 
 G. HENRY KINAHAN. 
 
 Ovoca, September 1st, 1877. 
 
 P.S. I, as well as my old colleagues on the Irish 
 Geological Survey, have to regret the premature death 
 of Doctor Thomas Oldham, at Rugby, July 17th, 1878. 
 Oldham was an eminent pioneer in Irish geology. If 
 his name is only once mentioned in this Manual, this 
 is solely due to his official work, except the maps, having 
 been published by Portlock and Jukes. 
 
 August 1st, 1878. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 M 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTION i 
 
 SECTION I.— SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Cambrian 1 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Cambro-Silurian 23 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Silurian 38 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Carboniferous ; Cork Type .5° 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 ,, Lower . 63 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 ., Upper 95 
 
xii Contents. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic 130 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Cretaceous 148 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Cainozoic 156 
 
 SECTION II.— METAMORPHIC AND ERUPTIVE 
 
 ROCKS. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 METAMORPHIC ACTION 1 72 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS 1 82 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 Eruptive Rocks 194 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Chronological Classification of the Metamorphic and 
 
 Eruptive Rocks * 213 
 
 SECTION III.— SUPERFICIAL ACCUMULATIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 Drift 223 
 
Contents. xiii 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Glaciation, Erratic Blocks, Raised Beaches, and Submerged 
 
 Land and Forests 241 
 
 -CHAPTER XVI. 
 Peat-Bogs and Pre-historic Remains 267 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 Soil ; Post-Pliocene Mammalia 287 
 
 SECTION IV.— PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 Escarpments, Cliffs, Hills, and Cooms . . . . . 299 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Valleys and Subterranean Rivers . : . . . .314 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 Bays, Lagoons, Lakes, and Islands ...... 328 
 
 SECTION V.— ECONOMICAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 Mines and Minerals 339 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Quarries, Mineral Manures, and Water Supply . . . 374 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Glossary of Geological and Celtic Terms . . . . 409 
 
EXPLANATIONS OF THE PLATES. 
 
 MAP OF IRELAND GEOLOGICALLY COLOURED. 
 
 Plate I. — Characteristic Fossils of Kiltorcan, County Kil- 
 kenny ........ Frontispiece. 
 
 Sagenaria Bailyana {Schimper) — restored, * the original over 20 feet 
 
 high. 
 Palseopteris (Adiantites) Hibernicus — restored,* the original over 5 
 
 feet high. 
 Anodonta Jukesii — considerably reduced, originals 7 inches by 3 
 
 inches. 
 Fish remains, Coccosteus, &c. — considerably reduced, 
 
 Plate II. — Cambro-Silurian and Silurian Fossils. Irish forms. 
 
 To face page ......... 23 
 
 Fig. 1. Palseasterina Kinahani {Baily) — natural size, Cambro-Silu- 
 rian, Loftus acre, Bannow, County Wexford. 
 
 ,, 2a-b. Orthis Bailyana {Davidson) — natural size, Cambro- 
 Silurian, Ballyborough, County Wexford. 
 
 ,, 3#-<5. Strophomena Jukesii {Davidson) — natural size, Cambro- 
 Silurian, Grangegeeth, County Meath. 
 
 ,, 4. Holopea concinna — natural size, Cambro-Silurian, The 
 Chair of Kildare 
 
 ,, 5. Trochus multitorquatus — natural size, Silurian, Boocaun, 
 County Galway. 
 
 ,, 6a-b. Helminthochiton Grifhthii — natural size, Silurian, 
 County Galway. 
 
 ,, 7. Acidaspis Jamesii — natural size, Cambro-Silurian, Dun- 
 cannon, County Waterford. 
 
 * These restorations were made specially for this work by Mr. Baily. 
 
xvi Explanations of the Plates, 
 
 Plate III. — Lower Carboniferous Fossils. Irish forms. To face 
 
 page 63 
 
 Fig. \a. Palsechinus elegans — natural size, limestones, Hook, 
 County Wexford. 
 
 ,, lb. ,, ,, Spine enlarged. 
 
 ,, 2. Aviculopecten Sowerbyi, showing bands of colour — 
 natural size, limestone, County Kildare. 
 
 ,, 3. Pleurorhynchus Koninckii {Baily) — reduced one-third, 
 Fenestella limestone, Rathkeale, County Limerick. 
 
 „ 4. Modiola Macadami — natural size, shales, Clogher, County 
 Tyrone. 
 
 ,, 5. Loxonema impendens — reduced one-third, Fenestella lime- 
 stone, Rathkeale, County Limerick. 
 
 ,, 6. Chiton Thomondiensis {Baily) — reduced one-third, Fenes- 
 tella limestone, Rathkeale, County Limerick. 
 
 Plate IV. — Upper Carboniferous (Coal Measures) Fossils. Irish 
 
 forms. To face page ........ 95 
 
 Fig. 1. Aviculopecten papyraceus — reduced one-third, Boulea, 
 
 County Tipperary. 
 , 2. Posidonomya Becheri — reduced one-third, Loughshinny, 
 
 County Dublin. 
 , 3. Posidonomya membranacea — reduced one-third, Balla, 
 
 County Mayo. 
 , 4. Myacites fabaformis [Baily) — natural size, Bilboa, Queen's 
 
 County. 
 , 5. Anthracosia Bilboensis {Baily) — natural size, Bilboa, 
 
 Queen's County. 
 , 6. Lunulacardium Footii {Baily) — natural size, Rosscliff, 
 
 County Clare. 
 , 7. Macrocheilus inflatus {Baily) — natural size, Foynes Island, 
 
 County Limerick. 
 , 8. Loxonema minutissima {Baily) — natural size, Foynes Island 
 
 County Limerick. 
 , 9. Orthoceras minimum {Baily) — natural size, Foynes Island 
 
 County Limerick. 
 , 10a. Belinurus Regina {Baily) — natural size, Bilboa, Queen's 
 
 C ounty. 
 , 10b. Belinurus arcuatus {Baily) — natural size, Bilboa, Queen's 
 
 County. 
 11. Keraterpeton Galvani {Huxley) — reduced one-third, Jarrow 
 
 Colliery, Queen's County. 
 
Explanations of the Plates. xvii 
 
 Plate V.— Sand-Duns (^olian) St. Helens, County Wex- 
 ford. A. Wyley. To face page ...... 240 
 
 Plate VI.— To face page 269 
 
 Fig. 1. Section of bog with Oak and Deal Corkers. 
 ,, 2. Stone-crannog {Kinahan) — Bola Lake, County Galway. . 
 , , 3. Wicker wall and floors {Foot) — Lough Rea crannog. 
 ,, 4. Section of a crannog (after Wilde). 
 
 PLATE VII. — To face page 278 
 
 Fig. 1. Restored Crannog. Showing section. 
 ,, 2. Cashel Hill, County Galway {G. H Kinahan). 
 ,, 3. Twelve Pins, County Galway {A. Ale Henry). 
 
 Plate VIII. — To face page ........ 300 
 
 Fig. 1. Knock-a-dober, County Kerry {Harriet A. Kinahan). 
 ,, 2. Burren Hills, County Clare {Miss Atkinson). 
 ,, 3. Cooms, Formnamore tableland, County Mayo {G. H 
 Kinahan). 
 
LIST OF WOODCUTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Vignette on cover — Fastnet Rock. A. Wyley. 
 
 1. Oldhamia antiqua. Dr. % R. Kinahan . . . . .12 
 
 2. ,, radiata. Dr. J. R. Kinahan ..... 14 
 
 3. Map {a) and section (b) of the entangled Cambrians and Cambro- 
 
 Silurians, Bannow, County Wexford . . . . . .18-19 
 
 4. Diagrammatic section of the Cork and Dingle rocks, showing the 
 
 unconformability in the latter ....... 54 
 
 5. Diagram illustrating the changes from the Shore-beds into the 
 
 Carboniferous Limestone ....... 65 
 
 6. Benbulben, Limestone hills, County Sligo. A. B. Wynne . . 91 
 
 7. Diagram illustrating the formation of the Granitic and other 
 
 Eruptive rocks .......... 176 
 
 8. Map of "Baked rocks " around vents of eruption, Owenduff, County 
 
 Wexford 184 
 
 9. Map of isolated patches of Hornstone and Felstone, Tigroney 
 
 (Ovoca), County Wicklow ....... 185 
 
 10. Slievemore (quartzite hill), Achill, County Mayo. A. Mc Henry . 211 
 
 11. Lugnaquillia and adjoining mountains, County Wicklow. G. V. 
 
 Dti Noyer 229 
 
 12. Diagrammatic section of the "Raised beaches," Valley of the 
 
 Barrow ........... 238 
 
 13. Cloghcurril, County Galway. G. H. Kinahan .... 248 
 
 14. Ballynakill Harbour, with Terraces, County Galway. G. H. 
 
 Kinahan ........... 255 
 
 15. Lugs and Terraces at Leenaun, Killary Harbour, County Galway. 
 
 G. H. Kinahan . . . . . . . . . 257 
 
 16. Terraces in Limestone, Burren, County Clare. A. B. Wynne . 260 
 
xx List of Woodcuts. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 17. Pre-historic road, Duncan's Flow-bog, County Antrim . . . 274 
 
 18. ,, ,, ,, ,, .... 275 
 
 I9* 55 55 55 55 .... 275 
 
 20. Gap of Dunloe, Co. Kerry, looking north. Harriet A. Kinahan . 305 
 
 21. Iveragh Mountains, County Kerry, from Ballinskelligs. Harriet A. 
 
 Kinahan ........... 307 
 
 22. Aughrim River Valley, County Wicklow. Harriet A. Kinahan . 318 
 
 23. Map showing the Fault-rock in Kilmacrea Pass, County Wicklow . 319 
 
 24. Skelligs, County Kerry. Harriet A. Kinahan .... 336 
 
 25. Diagram showing the section of a "Placer mine," County Wicklow. 343 
 
 26. Gold Washing, Gold Mine Valley, County Wicklow. A. Mc Henry 345 
 
MANUAL 
 
 OF THE 
 
 GEOLOGY OF IRELAND 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The general principles of geology are explained in the 
 numerous treatises on that science ; it is unnecessary to 
 repeat them here. In those or kindred books will be also 
 found the different theories put forward from time to time 
 as to the genesis of the earth, and the various changes 
 that have taken place therein, until it reached its present 
 condition. Such subjects, therefore, need not be entered 
 into here, and we may confine ourselves to giving in this 
 Introduction (i) a short account of the physical features of 
 Ireland, (2) the classification of the rocks which is adopted 
 in this Manual, and (3) an epitome of the geological history 
 of our Island. 
 
 The central parts of Ireland consist of a low undulating 
 plain, ramifications from which extend in different direc- 
 tions. More than one-third of the country is less than 
 250 feet above the present sea level, and if the sea were 
 
 B 
 
2 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 to rise 500 feet most of it would be submerged ; two 
 archipelagos only remaining, one in Ulster with West 
 Connaught, and the other in Munster with South Leinster, 
 while Central Ireland would be an all but uninterrupted 
 expanse of sea. 
 
 The central plain may be roughly described as a wide 
 valley running E. and W., separating the northern from 
 the southern hilly district. Most of the valleys between 
 the mountain masses are characterized by their depth and 
 narrowness, also by being arranged in systems running 
 nearly north and south, or transversely to that direction. 
 These systems combine to divide the country into areas, 
 each of which have sub-systems of nearly parallel valleys ; 
 but in each tract, whether large or small, all the principal 
 valleys and axes of the hills have similar general direc- 
 tions, which, in most cases, are different from those in the 
 adjoining country. In some one area there may be two 
 different systems, the second system being transverse to 
 the first, and forming deep narrow gorges, or mamns, 
 across the axes of the hills ; these gorges may be in some 
 places so deep that the drainage of one valley is suddenly 
 diverted out of it, through a line of hills, into another 
 valley ; this is well exemplified in the west portion of the 
 County Cork. These deep valleys have also a consider- 
 able effect on the appearance of the hills ; for, although 
 none of the Irish hills are of great altitude, Carrane-Tual, 
 or Mahony's Reek, County Kerry, the premier hill, being 
 only 3,414 feet in height, yet, when they rise steeply from 
 one of these narrow valleys, they have the full effect of 
 their height, and are most imposing. Hereafter, the dif- 
 ferent groups of hills will be more specially mentioned. 
 
 The continuations of some of the valleys, especially 
 towards the westward, are submerged in the sea. This 
 
Infroduction. 3 
 
 causes the coast-line to be indented by long, narrow bays, 
 as those in West Cork ; or by fiords like Killary Har- 
 bour, between the counties of Mayo and Galway, or the 
 triple-branched fiord that forms the estuaries of the Suir, 
 the Nore, and the Barrow. 
 
 On account of these deep valleys, the Irish hills rarely 
 form continuous masses of high ground ; the group that 
 partakes most of this character is that of the Dublin and 
 Wicklow mountains. The mountain groups of Kerry and 
 Cork are so traversed by valleys that the peaks are more 
 or less isolated ; the longitudinal and some of the trans- 
 verse valleys are generally very deep and narrow, while 
 none of the numerous maums or connecting gaps are 
 excessively high. 
 
 It might have been expected that more lakes than those 
 which actually occur would have been found in the low 
 lands. Many old lake basins, however, are probably filled 
 up by the peat so general in every hollow and low place. 
 Of those that exist some are very extensive, like Loughs 
 Neagh and Corrib ; others are most picturesque, like those 
 of Killarney and the lakes in the cooms among the Kerry 
 hills ; in some districts they are very numerous, as in 
 Connemara ; while on the coast of Wexford and else- 
 where there are some lagoons. 
 
 The Irish rivers are remarkable for the absence of deltas 
 at their invers, or mouths. All the large rivers deposit the 
 detritus brought down by them principally in the flats 
 through which they flow, and carry only a small portion 
 into their estuaries ; as will be mentioned hereafter, in the 
 descriptions of the rivers and their valleys. 
 
 All classifications of the rocks must be more or less 
 arbitrary, there being no hard lines in Nature, every rock 
 in some way graduating into others ; still some classifica- 
 
 B 2 
 
4 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 tion is indispensable in treating of them. Various classi- 
 fications have been proposed by different authorities, 
 and of these this threefold division seems to be best ; 
 namely, Sedimentary, ERUPTIVE, and Metamorphic 
 
 Rocks. 
 
 The Sedimentary rocks form two sub-classes: AQUEOUS, 
 or those deposited in water; and METEORIC, or those 
 accumulated on land. The Sedimentary rocks may also 
 be classified according to their method of formation ; as 
 they may be mechanically, chemically, or organically 
 formed. 
 
 The Eruptive rocks may be GRANITIC or CATOGENE ; 
 that is, rocks formed beneath the surface of the earth at 
 greater or less depths ; and ANOGENE, or rocks formed on 
 or close to the surface of the Earth.* These two classes 
 are divided into groups and sub-groups. 
 
 The Metamorphic rocks were originally Sedimentary 
 
 and Eruptive rocks, which were subsequently altered by 
 
 heat, pressure, and chemical action. Three classes of 
 
 metamorphism can be distinguished by their effects. The 
 
 first is regional, or extends over large areas. It seems to 
 
 be due to intensely heated water or steam, which, as it 
 
 were, stews the rocks ; from this it may be called Meta- 
 
 PEPSIS. The second is very local, and its effects are 
 
 usually found immediately adjoining intruded masses of 
 
 rocks, or in the vicinity of vents of vulcanicity. When 
 
 typical, it produces in the rocks the appearance of having 
 
 been baked, from which it may be called PAROPTESIS. 
 
 The third is also local, and is due to the introduction and 
 
 action of chemical substances from without ; it has been 
 
 called Methylosis. 
 
 * These two classes are also called, though not very correctly, Hypogene 
 and Hypergetie. 
 
Introduction. 5 
 
 The geological grouping here adopted is set forth in 
 the following table : — 
 
 Table of Geological Systems. 
 
 Periods. Sub-Periods 
 
 Recent. 
 f Tertiary, or f P^cene {Lyell). 
 Cainozoic {Phillip)] Ml °cene „ 
 
 Neozoic {Forbes) J 
 
 Secondary, or 
 Mesozoic {Phillips) 
 
 Eocene 
 
 Cretaceous {Fitton). 
 
 Jurassic. 
 
 Triassic {Brown). 
 
 \ Permian {Murchison). 
 
 Carboniferous {Conybeare). 
 
 -n . Silurian {Murchison). 
 
 _t rirri3.rv ot* 
 
 Paleozoic (pW) V Cambro-Silurian {Phillips). 
 
 Cambrian {Sedgwick). 
 
 \ Laurentian {Logan). 
 
 Forbes would make only two Periods ; and, probably, 
 such a division is more correct than the triple division 
 usually adopted. The proper position of the Permian is 
 disputed. Some authorities relegate it to the Mesozoic, 
 others to the Palaeozoic period. Some, indeed, of the 
 latter go so far as to say it is part of the Carboniferous 
 formation. Some of the geologists, to whose aid I am 
 indebted, consider that I ought to give more prominence 
 to the " Old Red Sandstone." However, as is described 
 hereafter, it appears to me that in Ireland no separate for- 
 mation intervenes between the Silurian and the Carbo- 
 niferous. Two distinct groups of rocks have been called 
 " Old Red Sandstone." But the older (Dingle and Glen- 
 gariff beds, Counties Kerry and Cork ; Louisburg beds, 
 County Mayo, and the older rocks of the hills between 
 Pomeroy and Lough Erne, Counties Tyrone and Fer- 
 
6 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 managh) really belongs to the upper part of the Silurian 
 formation ; while the newer rocks so called, not only 
 graduate into the Carboniferous rocks proper, but occur 
 with them on different geological horizons. 
 
 A brief summary of the geological history of our island 
 is as follows : — The oldest known rocks are of Cambrian 
 age. These, in the SE. (Wexford, Wicklow, and Dublin), 
 were uplifted, denuded, and in part metamorphosed prior 
 to the Cambro-Silurian rocks being deposited on them. 
 In West Ireland (Mayo and Gal way), however, there is a 
 continuous sequence from the Cambrian into the Cambro- 
 Silurian rocks. There are records in the SE. of two periods 
 of vulcanicity during the accumulation of the Cambrian 
 rocks, and prior to the deposition of the Cambro-Silurian 
 rocks ; the first period being when the interbedded erup- 
 tive rocks were formed, and the second when the rocks 
 were metamorphosed and in part changed into granite. 
 
 Next in order to the Cambrians come the Cambro-Silu- 
 rians. These, again, were uplifted, metamorphosed, and 
 denuded prior to the Silurian age ; there being everywhere 
 in Ireland a marked break between the rocks of these 
 different formations. Here also there is evidence of two 
 periods of vulcanicity ; one, that of the pouring out of the 
 interbedded eruptive rocks ; and the other, the time of the 
 metamorphism of the Cambro-Silurian rocks and the 
 intrusions of the masses of granite.* 
 
 The next rocks in an ascending order are the Silurians. 
 These, in the west of the County Cork, have no defined 
 upper boundary, but form part of a continuous sequence, 
 which extends up through the Lower Carboniferous (Old 
 
 * Some of the interbedded eruptive rocks of West Galway probably 
 belong to an additional period of vulcanicity, between the Cambrian and the 
 Cambro-Silurian ages. 
 
Introduction. 7 
 
 Red Sandstone) into the Upper Carboniferous rocks (Coal 
 Measures).* In Kerry, Galway, and Mayo, however, the 
 Silurians were upturned and denuded prior to the Lower 
 Carboniferous rocks being deposited on them. In the 
 Silurian rocks there seems to be evidence of only one 
 period of vulcanicity, during which the interbedded masses 
 of igneous rocks and tuffs were ejected and their associated 
 granites formed. 
 
 During the Carboniferous period very different condi- 
 tions seem to have obtained at one and the same time 
 in different places ; as otherwise the co-existence of the 
 arenaceous and argillaceous accumulations in the SW., 
 and the calcareous accumulations elsewhere, cannot be 
 accounted for. But subsequently, the conditions seem to 
 have been nearly uniform everywhere while the Coal 
 Measures were accumulating, or at least that portion of 
 them of which we have remains. In the Carboniferous 
 rocks we have records of two periods of vulcanicity. During 
 the first were formed sheets of igneous rock in the lower 
 beds (Old Red Sandstone) of the Lower Carboniferous. 
 During the second, the action appears to have been inter- 
 mittent, as eruptive rocks occur in different places between 
 the lower beds of the Lower Carboniferous and the basal 
 shales of the Coal Measures. 
 
 After the Carboniferous period there is generally, in 
 Ireland, a vast gap in the history of the rocks, and, except 
 in the province of Ulster, there are no pages of that history 
 to which we can refer. That the Carboniferous rocks were 
 contorted and extensively denuded prior to theTriassic time 
 
 * Griffith was the first who worked out the Cork rocks. Jukes, in the 
 Geological Survey maps, mapped Griffith's Silurian as " Glengariff or Dingle 
 beds," and left it an open question as to whether they should be called Silurian 
 or Old Red Sandstone. 
 
8 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 is certain ; as the Trias of Ulster lies on contorted and 
 greatly denuded Carboniferous rocks. There are in Ulster 
 rocks that are classed as Permian. Some of these rocks 
 are conformable to the Carboniferous rocks and contain 
 similar fossils ; others, however, have Permian fossils ; 
 but these seem to be at the base of the Triassic 
 group. 
 
 The Secondary and Tertiary rocks of Ulster thin out 
 westward and southward. That these rocks once far ex- 
 ceeded their present limits, seems to be suggested by the 
 large outlier of Trias found as far south as the latitude of 
 Dundalk Bay. The Triassic rocks did not undergo much 
 disturbance or plication prior to the deposition of the 
 Jurassic; indeed, towards the north-west and eastward, one 
 group seems to graduate into the other. There is the 
 record of one period of vulcanicity during the deposition 
 of the Triassic rocks, as interstratified beds of igneous 
 rock occur among them. 
 
 The Jurassic rocks were probably extensively denuded 
 prior to the Cretaceous period, as only small isolated 
 patches of them are now found. 
 
 The Cretaceous rocks were denuded prior to the deposi- 
 tion of the Cainozoic rocks upon them ; as in most places, 
 between them and the overlying rocks, there is a bed of 
 shingle or gravel, made up of chalk flints. 
 
 The Cainozoic period has left its traces in Ireland, in the 
 shape of products of vulcanicity ; great fissure eruptions 
 succeeded one another at short intervals, pouring out great 
 sheets of molten matter. At times, however, there seem 
 to have been intervals of greater or less extent, during 
 which, as pointed out by Jukes and Du Noyer, lacustrine 
 accumulations were formed in limited areas. Subsequently 
 great displacement and denudation took place, which is 
 
Introduction. 9 
 
 proved by the isolated outliers separated from the main 
 mass by deep and wide valleys. 
 
 The next undoubted stage in the geological history was 
 that when the country was covered by an Ice-sheet ; after 
 which there were local systems of glaciers in some of the 
 mountain groups, and the sea covered the low country. 
 Eventually the ice gradually disappeared, the sea retreated, 
 and the present island was formed. 
 
 The descriptions are divided into five sections. In the 
 first are described the Sedimentary rocks ; in the second, 
 the Eruptive and Metamorphic rocks ; in the third, the 
 Drifts and other superficial accumulations ; in the fourth, 
 the physical features and the relations of the rocks to the 
 form of the ground ; in the fifth, the Economical products 
 of the country and the Water Supply ; while in the Appen- 
 dix, is given a glossary of Geological and Celtic terms 
 used in the descriptions. 
 
SECTION I.— SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. 
 
 PALAEOZOIC. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 CAMBRIAN (Sedgwick). 
 
 Lower Silurian (Murchison). 
 
 ROCKS older than the Cambrian formation are not known 
 in Ireland ; but Jukes suggested that some of the highly 
 metamorphosed rocks of the north of Ireland might pos- 
 sibly be Pre-Cambrian. 
 
 No attempt has been made to divide the Irish Cam- 
 brians into groups. In eastern Ireland it does not appear 
 possible to do so ; while in western Ireland, as the rocks 
 are metamorphosed and all the fossil evidence destroyed, 
 any classification would be unsatisfactory. 
 
 Rocks evidently belonging to the Cambrian formation 
 occur in Dublin, Wicklow, and Wexford. They probably 
 belong to the Lower Cambrians of Sedgwick, as some of 
 the fossils of the Longmynd group are found in them ; 
 while in no case have they yielded Upper Cambrian 
 fossils. 
 
 Howth Group. 
 
 On the south side of the Howth promontory, the rocks 
 are all more or less metamorphosed.* They are prin- 
 
 * The Metamorphic rocks are fully described in Section II. chapters x., xi., 
 and xii. 
 
1 2 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 cipally argillites (clay-schist), and incipient quartzites 
 (quartz-schist) ; but on the north side of the promontory 
 they are unaltered, and the late J. R. Kinahan, M.D., found 
 at Puck's rocks, on the north coast, in greenish shales, Old- 
 
 Fig. i. — Oldhamia antiqua (Dr. Kinahan, Trans. R. I.A.\ 
 
 hainia antiqua ; this fossil, however, occurs so sparingly, 
 that it is only to be obtained by diligent search. 
 
 / In this area there are intrusions of quartz-rock — those 
 on the north being unaltered ; while those associated with 
 the schist, in the southern part of the promontory, have an 
 incipient foliation developed in them. J Wyley, on his maps, 
 has called attention to the great difference that may be 
 observed here between the quartzites produced by the meta- 
 morphism of the arenaceous rocks and the altered quartz- 
 rocks. The difference is important from an economical point 
 of view ; as the quartz-rocks, altered and unaltered, are emi- 
 nently water-bearing rocks, while the quartzites produced 
 by the metamorphism of the grits and sandstones are hard 
 non-water-bearing rocks. It is from the quartz-rocks that 
 the principal portion of the water will be procured, if, as 
 
Cambrian. 1 3 
 
 has been proposed, the neighbouring hamlet of Baldoyle 
 should obtain its water from the Hill of Howth. 
 
 Bray Head Group. 
 
 [These rocks are best exposed in the hill of Bray Head ; 
 but they also spread westward and southward over an area 
 which, according to Jukes, (extends along the coast to 
 Killoughter, a few miles north of the town of Wicklow, 
 and from thence south-westward to the valley of the 
 Avonmore, forming an irregular triangle J Wyley, however, 
 believed them to extend much farther SW., his boundary 
 reaching the valley of the Ow river, NW. of the village of 
 Aughrim. 
 
 f. In the north part of Bray Head, the rocks are principally 
 purplish, red, and green shales, slates, and grits •) some of 
 the latter being massive and very hard, especially those 
 through which the new tunnel for the Dublin and Wexford 
 Railway was excavated. (^Southward of this, however, the 
 strata are thin-bedded shales and grits alternating^ 
 
 I Fossils are found in many of the shale beds ; but the 
 species are few in number. N Dr. Kinahan. -records Oldhamia 
 antiqiia and radiatal(figs. 1 and 2) ; these he considered to be 
 Zoophytes allied to Sertularia ; but other highly competent 
 judges think they are probably polyzoan. He mentioned 
 also annelid tracks and burrows, Histioderma Hibernicum, 
 Arenicolites didymus and sparstis, and Hatcghtonia pcecila ; 
 he also figures tracks which he believed to be molluscan. 
 
 (jn the section exhibited in the Bray Head sea cliff, there 
 is apparently a great thickness of the rocks displayed ; the 
 beds, however, are in some places inverted, and the section 
 is made up of a number of sharp synclinal and anticlinal 
 curves ; jso that the real thickness of the rocks is much less 
 
H 
 
 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 than what it might appear to be at first sight from the sec- 
 tion ; Jukes and Du Noyer estimated their thickness to be 
 between 3,000 and 4,000 feet. 
 
 Associated with the Cambrian rocks of this group at 
 Bray Head, the Great and Little Sugar Loaves, Carrick- 
 gollogan Hill, and elsewhere, there are great reefs and pro- 
 trusions of quartz-rock. These have been shown, by the 
 late Mr. John Kelly, to be intrusive, or else to have 
 
 Fig. 2.— ©Idhamia radiata (Dr. Kinahan, Trans. R.I.A.). 
 
 been produced under circumstances different from those 
 under which the associated rocks were formed ; the nature 
 and probable origin of quartz-rock will be considered in 
 Chapter XII., Section II., among the other Eruptive rocks. 
 
 The actual junction of the Cambrian rocks with the 
 Cambro-Silurians is not anywhere seen. In the Dargle 
 valley, at the confluence of the Cookstown with the Dargle 
 rivers, black Cambro-Silurian shales, dipping N. at 40 , are 
 found close to the Cambrians • but the actual contact of 
 the two is not visible. 
 
 At Greystones, south of Bray Head, the rocks are very 
 
Cambrian. 1 5 
 
 similar to those near Bray, and contain similar fossils. 
 Farther SW., between Newtownmountkennedy and the 
 Roundwood reservoir, a hard massive quartzose grit, 
 similar to that at Bray Head, was passed through when 
 making the tunnel for the Vartry Waterworks. Some 
 miles south-east of Roundwood, in the conspicuous outlier 
 forming Carrick Mountain, there is a remarkable assem- 
 blage of massive cakes of quartz-rock. They are asso- 
 ciated with fossiliferous purple, green, and grey shales. In 
 these occur Oldhamia radiata, O. antiqua, and O. discreta, 
 the latter being an intermediate form.* The Cambrian 
 rocks in Carrick Mountain, and in the country to the 
 north and north-west, seem in general to have been 
 forced up into their present positions by faults ; in one 
 place, however, on the north slope of Moneystown Hill, the 
 Cambro-Silurian rocks can be seen lying unconformably 
 on the Cambrians. 
 
 As previously mentioned, Jukes ends off the Cambrian 
 rocks south of Togher or Roundwood ; while Wyley would 
 have made them reach to the valley of the Ow river. The 
 rocks east of Jukes's boundary are unaltered, while west 
 of it all are metamorphosed. The latter consist, for the 
 most part, of larger or smaller masses of altered quartz- 
 rock associated with schists, which are very different from 
 the black schists also associated with them. The first are 
 possibly altered Cambrian rocks, while the others are 
 altered Cambro-Silurians. Wyley, therefore, may be 
 partly correct ; for here, as at Carrick Mountain, masses 
 of the Cambrians may possibly have been forced in 
 amongst the Cambro-Silurians, while all were subse- 
 quently metamorphosed together. It is now, however, 
 extremely difficult to separate them. 
 
 * J. R. Kinahan, M.D., Trans. Roy. Irish Academy, vol. xxiii. p. 547. 
 
1 6 Geology of Irelaiid. 
 
 Wexford Group. 
 
 ^These rocks appear to lie more regularly than the others 
 in east Ireland. They are partially metamorphosed, 
 but not to such an extent as to obliterate their original 
 general charactersA An estimate has been made of their 
 thickness from the sections exposed in the valley of the 
 Slaney, in the Forth Mountain, and in the country to the 
 south near Carnsore. 
 
 f Railway section ) , 
 
 4 c, 11 about7,ooo 
 
 { Slaney valley ...) 
 
 (Forth Mountain \ Schists, with many a.s-\ 
 and county S W. I sociated masses of I „ 4,000 
 of Wexford J altered quartz-rock J 
 
 2 Rocks covered by a basin of Carboniferous 
 
 rocks „ 1,00c 
 
 1 Schist graduating through gneiss into granite „ 2,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 These rocks occupy an irregular tract. They are met 
 with on the coast, a few miles north of Cahore Point, and 
 extend southward nearly to Wexford Harbour and SW. to 
 Bannow Bay. On the SE. they are covered by a long basin 
 of Carboniferous rocks ; but to the SE. of that again 
 they reappear in the Carnsore district. In the country 
 about Greenore and Carnsore they are very much altered, 
 being changed at Carnsore and in the Saltee Islands into 
 granitic rocks ; but they graduate northward through gneiss 
 into schist (the latter belonging to the sub-metamorphic 
 rocks) and thence into unaltered rocks. Associated with 
 the metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, in the country 
 between Greenore and Carnsore, are interbedded and intru- 
 sive beds or masses of eruptive rocks and of tuffs that were 
 altered along with them. 
 
Cambrian. 1 7 
 
 (.Northward and westward of Wexford the Cambrians 
 are more or less altered j but at the north end of this tract, 
 near Cahore, as also along the NW. margin and to the 
 SW. at Bannow, the rocks are unaltered. In the altered 
 rocks of the Forth Mountain there are cakes of quartz- 
 rock, very similar to those previously mentioned as seen 
 in Carrick Mountain ;£except that here the metamorphic 
 action has developed foliation in them, changing them 
 into quartzitey 
 
 To the north of Cahore Point, near Pollshone Harbour, 
 there is a small outlying exposure of Cambrian rocks, and 
 in these are found burrows, like those of Arenicolites, and 
 tracks. This outlier, as seen in the sea cliff, is bounded on 
 one side by a fault ; while, on the other, black Cambro- 
 Silurian shales are deposited against the Cambrian rocks. 
 Farther south, at Rooney's Rocks, in a thin bed of red 
 shale, close to an intruded mass of quartz rock, Oldhamia 
 antiqua is to be found. A few portions of the same fossil 
 were found in a green, arenaceous shale at Cahore Point, 
 also tracks and burrows ; while in red shale, at the bathing- 
 place to the north of Cahore House, are markings of Old- 
 hapiia radiata. 
 
 pTo the SW., on the coast south-east of Bannow, fossils 
 are very numerous ; (pidkamia antiqua and discreta (?) 
 being abundant in some beds)\ while O. radiata also occurs. 
 With these were found burrows of Arenicolites, two or 
 three other kind of tracks, and markings that look very 
 like Graptolites. /Here the Cambrian and Cambro-Silurian 
 rocks are very much entangled together (Figs. 3^ and ^b\i 
 while in both there are intrusions of quartz-rock j£ some 
 of these being evidently contemporaneous with the deposi- 
 tion of the Cambrian rocks, while others are newer than 
 the Cambro-Silurians. It is remarkable that while the 
 
i8 
 
 Geology of Ireland, 
 
Catnbi'ian. 
 
 19 
 
 c 2 
 
20 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Cambrians to the east, under the Cambro-Silurian conglo- 
 merate, are metamorphic, the Cambrians entangled with 
 these are unaltered.^ 
 
 In the mountainous country eastward of Slievenaman, 
 County Tipperary, as also in the Galtymore range, 
 Counties Cork and Tipperary, there are green and purple 
 rocks whose age is uncertain. On the Geological Survey 
 maps they have been coloured as Cambro-Silurian, as no 
 fossils were found to determine their age ; but it is possible, 
 if not probable, that they belong to the Cambrian forma- 
 tion. They will be described hereafter among the Cambro- 
 Silurian rocks, but they are very similar to some of the 
 Wexford Cambrians. 
 
 West Galway Group. 
 
 (In West Galway and Mayo, between Clew and Galway 
 bays, there is a vast thickness of submetamorphic and 
 metamorphic rocks lying in a great anticlinal curve,/ The 
 lower groups of these were supposed by Griffith and King 
 (D. Sc, of the Queen's College, Galway) to belong to the 
 Cambrian formation, and subsequent research confirms 
 this opinion. (These rocks, which evidently constitute a 
 regular sequence, are at the least I i,ooo feet thick X and as 
 the upper 2,000 or 3,000 feet are known to be of Llandeilo, 
 or newer, age, it appears probable that the lower groups 
 are Upper Cambrian ; one formation running conformably 
 into the other in this part of Ireland. ^The rocks are cut 
 up, shifted, and displaced by innumerable fault^; never- 
 theless, a probably approximate estimate of their thickness 
 can be formed, as the rocks are so extensively exposed to 
 view in that district. The following are the estimated 
 
Cambrian. 
 
 21 
 
 thicknesses of the rocks to the north and south of the anti- 
 clinal curve. 
 
 North Side. South Side. 
 
 12 Croagh Patrick beds/ 
 with inliers of ser- 
 pentine, steatite, ) over 
 limestone, and horn- 
 blende-rock 
 ii These in part are un-^ 
 altered (Doolough 
 beds), and contain . 
 Llandeilo fossils ) 
 10 Great micalite series, \ 
 containing, above, in- 
 liers of hornblende- 
 rock, ophite, steatite, 
 &c. ) 
 9 Lettermore quartzitej 
 series ) 
 8 Kylemore series, con-' 
 taining many lime- 
 stones 
 7 Middle micalite series 
 6 Great quartzite series 
 5 Small micalite series 
 4 Ophiolite and dolo- 1 
 mite series ' 
 3 Quartzitic micalite \ 
 series ' 
 2 Streamstone limestone } 
 series j 
 I Lower micalite series 
 
 I ,ooo rd 
 
 1,000 
 
 2,500 
 
 30 
 1,600 
 
 1^3 
 300 g 
 
 1,000 Q 
 600 
 
 300 
 
 1 ,000 
 
 400 
 IOO 
 
 Lettermullen 
 beds, with in- 
 over 1,500 { liers of lime- 
 stone, horn- 
 v blende-rock, &c 
 
 f Hornblendite and 
 „ 1,000 ] , . 
 
 (. talcite series 
 
 „ 3,000 
 
 200 
 
 „ 1,800 
 
 ' Ballynahinch 
 limestone series 
 
 1,000 
 600 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 1,000 
 
 400 
 100 
 
 Groups 11 and 12 are evidently of Cambro-Silurian age, 
 while possibly group 10, or part of it, may belong to that 
 formation. The other groups must necessarily belong to 
 the Cambrian, if we follow the classification adopted by 
 Ramsay and other English geologists. 
 
22 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Supposed Cambrians. 
 
 To the east of Granard, County Longford, there are red 
 and green grits, shales, and slates, that were considered 
 by Foot to be of Cambrian age, and to be overlaid uncom- 
 formably by the Cambro-Silurian rocks. However, as 
 the unconformability could not be proved, and as no fossils 
 were found in them, Jukes included them provisionally in 
 the Cambro-Silurians. 
 
 In the north of the County of Down, to the south of 
 Belfast Lough, there are green and purple rocks that were 
 mapped by Du Noyer as Cambrians ; Jukes, however, con- 
 sidered them to belong to the Cambro-Silurians. 
 
 In concluding this chapter, it should be mentioned that 
 in places it is difficult to separate the Cambrian and 
 Cambro-Silurian rocks. Both are often metamorphosed, 
 while some of the thin-bedded green and grey grits and 
 shales of both formations are very similar. In the Cam- 
 brians, however, green and purple rocks predominate, while 
 black rocks rarely are found. In the Cambro-Silurians 
 there is usually a large proportion of black and dark 
 coloured shales and other rocks, especially in the lowest 
 group, which contain Llandeilo fossils, and the latter are 
 usually the rocks that lie directly on the Cambrians in 
 SE. Ireland, but in places, higher rocks are brought down 
 against them by faults or dislocations. 
 
[To face page 23. 
 
 IV, H. Baily, del. 
 
 Cambro-Silurian and Silurian Fossils. 
 
23 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 CAMBRO-SILURIAN (Phillips). 
 
 Upper Cambrian (Sedgwick). 
 Lower Silurian (Geological Survey). 
 
 In reference to the name of this formation, Jukes was of 
 opinion that " it was advisable to adopt for it the distinc- 
 tive term Cambro-Silurian, first suggested by Professor 
 Phillips, in order to show that it is very distinct from the so 
 called Upper Silurian, and that they are not mere sub-divi- 
 sions of one formation." In Ireland there are certain affini- 
 ties between the Cambrian and the Cambro-Silurian rocks, 
 and those of one system have often been mistaken for those 
 of the other ; while the Cambro-Silurian rocks, except per- 
 haps in the Clare hills north of the city of Limerick, are 
 quite distinct from, and unconformable with, the Silurians. 
 The Irish Cambro-Silurian rocks are often more or less 
 metamorphosed. They occur in most of the hill groups, 
 or in the adjoining country, occupying tracts from a few 
 perches in extent to miles in area. Of all these different 
 exposures, that of the counties of Wexford and Wicklow 
 gives the most continuous and most typical sections, and 
 from it the other Irish rocks can be classified ; the rocks 
 of these counties shall, therefore, take precedence of the 
 others. 
 
 South-East Ireland. 
 
 I 1 
 
 In the counties of Wexford and Wicklow the Cambro- 
 
24 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Silurian rocks can be divided into two groups * the best 
 sections of the strata^ being seen in the sea-clifTslat Bally- 
 money, between Courtown and Kilmichael Point, fin this 
 section the rocks occur in a compound synclinal curve, 
 much cut up and displaced by faults, so that no correct 
 estimate can be made of the thickness of the strata, 
 although their relations to one another are eviden"^ At 
 each end of the section similar rocks occur ; those to the 
 south being seen to lie on Cambrian rocks. The diffe- 
 rent rocks at Ballymoney occur in the following order : — 
 
 Ballymoney series 3. Greenish and grey, but sometimes pur- 
 plish and blue, grits and shales, asso- 
 ciated with interstratified igneous rocks 
 (felstones, eurites, and gabbros), tuffs, 
 limestones, and agglomerates ; and con- 
 taining subordinate black shales with 
 two thin anthracites, which lie on fire- 
 clay and are overlaid by black car- 
 bonaceous shale. 
 2. Purple and green shales and slates. 
 
 Dark Shale SERIES i . Greenish, greyish, blue, and black shales, 
 
 slates, and grits ; the dark- coloured 
 rocks usually predominate, while the 
 grits are generally thin bedded. 
 
 The purple and green shales to the north of Bally- 
 money seem to lie over the others, but to the south, at 
 Courtown and elsewhere in the counties of Wexford and 
 Wicklow, they occur between the rocks of the Dark Shale 
 series and the typical Ballymoney rocks. 
 
 Although in this section the grits in the Dark Shale 
 series are usually thin bedded, yet in other places 
 groups of thick green grits come in. In places these 
 rocks are fossiliferous ; the fossils usually being of 
 Llandeilo type, but in some places associated with Cara- 
 
Cambro- Silwian. 2 5 
 
 doc fossils. In the rocks of the Ballymoney series, the 
 assemblage of fossils is to be compared with that of the 
 Bala rocks, but Caradoc fossils are not uncommon ; while 
 whenever black shales occur, no matter on what horizon, 
 they nearly always contain fossils of Llandeilo type. 
 
 This tract of Cambro-Silurians occupies the greater 
 portion of east Waterford, and extends from the valley 
 of the Barrow, NNE., into the County Dublin, being 
 found on both sides of the Leinster granite range. To the 
 NW. of this range, in the counties of Dublin, Kildare, and 
 Carlow, the Cambro-Silurian rocks are altered along the 
 border of the granite ; to the SE. and S., also, of the 
 granite range, counties of Wicklow and Wexford, they 
 are altered, but in oblique zones, or in patches ; the 
 unaltered rocks being often fossiliferous. 
 
 In this area, the rocks of the Ballymo7iey series extend 
 obliquely across from the County Waterford to the east 
 coast of Wexford at Ballymoney. But they are not con- 
 tinuous, being considerably ruptured and displaced by 
 faults ; the largest displacements being due to the nearly 
 north and south dislocations that occur in the valley south 
 of Waterford, in the valley of the Barrow, in the valley 
 of the Slaney at Enniscorthy, and in the valley east 
 of Gorey. Farther north there is an outlying basin of 
 these rocks, extending SW. from the coast between 
 Arklow and Wicklow. These rocks are highly fossiliferous 
 in the Ballymoney cliff. 
 
 fNorth of Wexford, and a little north-west of Castle- 
 bridge, there is a small, narrow outlier of black Cambro- 
 Silurian schist, brought down into its present position 
 among the Cambrians by a fault, with a downthrow to the 
 northward. Jits south boundary seems to be at this fault ; 
 to the north the rocks seem to lie unconformably on the 
 
26 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Cambrians, as shown in a section a little NE. of the village 
 of Crossabeg. 
 
 f Near the SE. extremity of Wexford, a little NW. of 
 Greenore, there are two small patches of fossiliferous 
 Cambro-Silurians lying unconformably pn schist and 
 gneiss, which appear to be of Cambrian ag^. Three years 
 ago a very instructive section across one of these outliers 
 was exposed on the coast a little NW. of Greenore Point ; 
 but since Ballygeary pier was constructed, the sand has 
 collected over the place, and now scarcely any of the 
 Cambro-Silurian rocks can be seen. They consist of pur- 
 plish conglomerates, sandstones and shales under fossili- 
 ferous black shales. A little to the NW., on the north of 
 the village of Tagoat, the second patch is indicated by 
 detached quarries containing fossiliferous grits and shales ; 
 while a little N W. of the village the basal conglomerate 
 is seen lying nearly horizontal ; the rest of the rocks being 
 obscured by drift. On the south coast of Wexford, near 
 Bannow, is the remarkable section where the Cambrian 
 and Cambro-Silurian rocks are entangled together (Figs. 
 3<2 & $b). To the east, lying on metamorphosed Cambrians, 
 there is a massive slate conglomerate, having usually a 
 black steatitic shaly or slaty matrix, but in places it is 
 of a vivid red, or green, or mottled colour. Over the con- 
 glomerate are black and greyish shales and grits, in which 
 fossils of Llandeilo and Caradoc types occur ; a new star- 
 fish also has been found, which has been called by Baily, 
 P alceasterina Kinahani (Fig. I, Plate ii.). 
 
 Towards the west these dark rocks are brought down by 
 a fault against purple and green Cambrian slates, and, 
 further westward, patches of black and grey Cambro-Silu- 
 rian rock are let down by faults into Cambrian rocks. 
 These rocks can only be seen on the coast ; consequently 
 
Cambro- Silurian. 2 J 
 
 their boundaries cannot be followed inland. Still farther 
 westward, on the east coast of Bannow Bay, there are 
 greyish and blackish rocks brought down by a fault against 
 fossiliferous Cambrians. These rocks are supposed to be 
 of Cambro-Silurian age, as they agree in strike and dip 
 with the Cambro-Silurians farther north ; besides being 
 slightly metamorphosed like the Cambro-Silurians of 
 Bannow Island. This locality, as also the exposure near 
 Greenore, the section at Crossabeg, the section north of 
 Pollshone, and the section at Moneystown Hill (the last 
 two being mentioned in Chapter I.) are important, as they 
 are the only places recorded at which the actual contact of 
 the Cambrian and Cambro-Silurian rocks can be seen. 
 ((To the west of Bannow Bay, in the east cliff section of 
 the Baginbun promontory, there is a massive slate-conglo- 
 merate, which has been supposed to be the basal bed of 
 the Cambro-SiluriansK It is somewhat like the slate-con- 
 glomerate SE. of Bannow, and seems to lie unconformably 
 on the rocks to the south of it ; but this cannot be so, for 
 the latter are in part black shales, in one of which, 
 after diligent search, a Llandeilo graptolite was found. 
 Farther south, at Baginbun Head, there is a peculiar con- 
 glomeritic rock, the inliers in which are massive grit 
 blocks ; it is very unlike all the rocks observed in the 
 Cambro-Silurians of the country, but like some in the 
 Cambrians, such as the rocks in the cliffs west of the Slaney, 
 at Ferry-Carrig, near Wexford. 
 
 In the County Waterford, fossils are not uncommon in 
 the rocks of the Ballymoney series, they being very plenti- 
 ful, but imperfect, in calcareous beds along the coast line 
 near Tramore. Farther westward, at Ballydowane Bay, 
 there are peculiar fossiliferous seams of green ophiolite 
 (Serpentine) in calcareous shales. 
 
28 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 At Ballydowane Bay, as also farther eastward at Bun- 
 mahon Head, at Knockmahon, and to the east thereof at 
 the Stage lode, there are remarkable conglomerates asso- 
 ciated with red beds, and let down into the Cambro-Silu- 
 rian rocks. These rocks were at first considered by Willson 
 and Du Noyer to be " Old Red Sandstone " (Lower Car- 
 boniferous arenaceous rocks), but subsequently after a 
 consultation with Jukes, they were mapped as Cambro- 
 Silurian, on account of their similarity to the Cambro- 
 Silurian conglomerates and sandstones near Greenore. 
 Of late years, however, Mr. Hore, the managing agent at 
 Bunmahon, of the Mining Company of Ireland, has proved 
 that they are of newer age, and lie unconformably on the 
 Cambro-Silurians. This is best seen at the small outlier 
 at the Stage lode ; the lode extending under it but not up 
 into it ; while in the old open works at the coast line, a 
 red sandstone under a conglomerate is seen to lie nearly 
 horizontally on the Cambro-Silurian slates. At Knock- 
 mahon, as also at Bunmahon Head, the lodes in the Cam- 
 bro-Silurian rocks are cut off by the conglomerates. At 
 Ballydowane, the relations between the conglomerate and 
 the Cambro-Silurian rocks are obscure ; but as the con- 
 glomerates and red rocks are evidently the same as those 
 at the Stage lode and Knockmahon, they must be newer 
 than the Cambro-Silurian rocks, and either of Silurian or 
 Lower Carboniferous (Old Red Sandstone) age. Probably 
 the latter, as they are somewhat similar to the basal 
 arenaceous Carboniferous rocks near Waterford ; besides, 
 no Silurian rocks are known to exist in this portion of 
 Ireland. 
 
 To the north of the rocks of the Ballymoney series, 
 south-west and west of Portlaw, there are rocks that 
 seem to belong to the Dark Shale series, and, in various 
 
Cambro-Siltirian. 2 9 
 
 places, fossils, principally of Llandeilo type, are found in 
 them. 
 
 It has been mentioned that thin seams of anthracite 
 occur in the rocks of the Ballymoney series ; some seem to 
 occur in the older rocks also. These seams, although not 
 of any commercial value, are interesting, and those dis- 
 covered may be enumerated. The two seams in the Bally- 
 money section just referred to, are remarkable for lying on 
 regular, although thin, fire clay, which has a " rock seat," 
 while over them are " slate roofs," so that they are simi- 
 larly circumstanced to a regular Coal Measure coal. 
 Farther northward, NW. of Kilmichael Point, at the mear- 
 ing of the Counties Wicklow and Wexford, there is a 
 4-inch coal standing perpendicular. To the south, SW. of 
 Enniscorthy, a seam of anthracite was discovered by Col. 
 Alcock on the Wilton property ; another occurs in the 
 vicinity of the Blackwater on the Castle Talbot property. 
 A coal seam is said to exist in the barony of Forth, under 
 the black shales on the coast, NE. of Greenore, and a 
 second at Coalhill, close to Tagoat Church ; the last locality, 
 however, seems to be in the Cambrian rocks, but, possibly, 
 a Cambro-Silurian outlier may exist there obscured by 
 the drift. In Doonooney, west of Wexford, and a few 
 miles north of the village of Taghmon, there is a seam of 
 anthracite, said to be associated with plumbago ; while at 
 Slieveroe, the small hill in County Kilkenny, a few miles 
 NE. of Waterford, there is an anthracite seam two inches 
 wide. 
 
 Slievenaman. 
 
 / In the mountains northward of Carrick-on-Suir and 
 eastward of the summit of Slievenaman there is a con- 
 siderable tract of slaty rocks.N Those to the SE. (NE. of 
 
30 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Carrick) were pronounced by Jukes to be of Cambro- 
 Silurian age ; while the age of those to the NW., between 
 Slievenaman and Nine-mile-house, he left an open question, 
 provisionally classing them with the Cambro-Silurians. 
 The rocks in the SE. of the tract are similar to those of the 
 Ballymoney and Dark Shale series of Wexford. Recently, 
 Mr. Hughes, Junr., the under-agent of the Victoria slate 
 quarries, has discovered in these rocks, at the quarries, 
 graptolites, bivalves, and other fossils which have been 
 submitted to Baily and pronounced by him to be of Llan- 
 deilo type. These rocks contain many beds of slates. 
 (. In the N W. portion of the area the rocks are principally 
 of purple and green colours, and, in aspect, very similar 
 to some of the Cambrians of Wexford, while they are 
 unlike any of the Cambro-Silurian rocks of that countrv} 
 The relations between these rocks and the Cambro-- 
 Silurians to the SE. are obscure, on account of the envelope 
 of drift, and their age will have to remain an open question 
 for the present ; in the meantime they may be placed 
 provisionally with the Cambro-Silurians. 
 
 Galtymore and Slievenamuck. 
 
 (Nearly 
 
 due west of Slievenaman, west and south-west 
 of Galtymore, there is a tract of rocks of which also the 
 age is uncertain, some apparently being the representatives 
 of "the Dark Shale series, while others are of purple and 
 green colours like Cambrians^ 'As no fossils have been 
 found in any of them, they are provisionally classed with 
 the Cambro-Silurians. 
 
 In Slievenamuck, southward of the town of Tipperary, 
 and on the south-side of a great fault which brings down 
 Coal Measures against them, are some rocks, also of an 
 
Cambro- Silurian. 3 1 
 
 undecided age, forming a long tract ; these for reasons 
 similar to those just mentioned must be placed provision- 
 ally with the Cambro-Silurians. 
 
 Slieve Phelim and Kimalta, Cratloe Hills, Slieve 
 Bernagh and Arra, Slieve Aughta, Knock- 
 sheegowna, and slieve bloom. 
 
 These are the groups of mountains clustered about the 
 junction of the provinces of Connaught, Leinster and 
 Munster ; and in all of them there are greater or less 
 exposures of Cambro-Silurian rocks. 
 
 In Slieve Phelim and Kimalta, or Keeper mountain, 
 which form one group of hills, principally in the County of 
 Tipperary, the Cambro-Silurian rocks, from their aspect 
 and the assemblage of fossils found in them, would seem 
 to be the equivalents of the Ballymoney series ; but 
 according to Wynne's description, they do not contain 
 interstratified eruptive rocks. Numerous fossil localities 
 in these rocks could be mentioned, and exhaustive lists of 
 the fossils, many of which are new to science, are given 
 by Baily in the Geological Survey Memoirs, Explana- 
 tions of sheets, 134, 135, 145 and 146. 
 
 The Cratloe Hills lie to the north of the city of 
 Limerick, in the County of Clare. In them there is a 
 long narrow exposure of Cambro-Silurian rock, bounded, 
 on the north, by a very continuous fault which can be 
 traced eastward across the valley of the Shannon into 
 Limerick, Tipperary, and perhaps even the King's 
 County ; its course being past Birdhill, Silvermines, and 
 Toomavara, into the country near Moneygall. 
 
 The general group of the fossils in these rocks would 
 make them to be of Bala or Caradoc age (Ballymoney 
 
32 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 series), except in one locality, in the townland of Bally car, 
 where the following were collected : Heliolites inter stinctus, 
 Favosites alveolaris, Petraia elongata, P. Du Noyeri, 
 Cyathophyllum, Cornidites serpidaria, Encrinurus pnnc- 
 tatns, Phacops caudatus, Proetus latifrons, Sphcerexochus 
 minis, Athyris tumida, Atrypa marginalis, A. retictdaris, 
 Orthis elegatittda, RhynchoneUa Wilsoni, Strophomena 
 depressa, S. euglypha, S. funictdata, S. pecten, Euomphalns 
 funatns, E. lantns, and Murchisonia Lloydii. As to this 
 assemblage Baily is of the opinion that it indicates a 
 Silurian age for the rocks, the fossils being of Upper 
 Llandovery types. A little to the north of Ballycar there 
 are other rocks containing fossils of Bala and Caradoc 
 types, while, between the two localities, there seems to be 
 a perfect sequence in the rocks, no unconformability of 
 any kind occurring. Therefore in this area there is no 
 break between the rocks of the Silurian and Cambro- 
 Silurian formations ; unless, which is not impossible, the 
 fossils at Ballycar are only a Silurian colony in Cambro- 
 Silurian rocks. 
 
 To the NE. of the Cratloe Hills are Slieve Bernagh 
 (County Clare) and Slieve Arra (County Tipperary), 
 separated from one another by the south arm of Lough 
 Derg. In Slieve Arra and the eastern portion of Slieve 
 Bernagh, the Cambro-Silurian rocks seem to belong to the 
 Badymoney series. They contain various beds of good 
 slate, also a peculiar fine conglomerate, having a greenish 
 matrix full of quartz particles which are rarely larger than 
 small peas. Various beds are fossiliferous. 
 
 In the western portion of Slieve Bernagh the rocks 
 belong to the Dark Shale series ; and at Belvoir, in black 
 shales, there is a rich locality for graptolites and other 
 fossils, including TJieca cometoides. Baily's lists of the 
 
Cambro-Silurian. 33 
 
 fossils found in these mountains and in the Cratloe Hills 
 are given in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey, 
 Explanations, sheets 133 and 143. 
 
 Slieve Aughta lies to the north of Slieve Bernagh, at 
 the junctions of the Counties Clare and Galway. In the 
 south, or Clare portion of the group, the rocks belong to 
 •the Ballymoney series, and, near Lough Graney, have 
 eurites or gabbros associated with them. In the north, 
 or Galway part of the group, the rocks principally belong 
 to the Dark Shale series. 
 
 Knocksheegowna, or " the hill of the goblin calf," rises 
 as a sharp, conspicuous, although a small hill, from the low 
 country south-west of Birr or Parsonstown. From 
 Wynne's description of the rocks and the fossils contained 
 in them, they probably belong to the Ballymoney series. 
 
 Slieve Bloom lies eastward of Birr at the mearing of 
 the King's and Queen's Counties. In it, coming up 
 through the Lower Carboniferous conglomerates (Old Red 
 Sandstone), there are various small irregular tracts of 
 Cambro-Silurian rocks, which, according to O'Kelly's 
 description, seem, in part, to belong to the Ballymoney, 
 and in part to the Dark Shale series. No fossils appear to 
 have been found in them. 
 
 Small Exposures. 
 
 /Coming up through the Carboniferous rocks of the 
 central plain there are various isolated patches of Cambro- 
 Silurian rocks j) of these, the most interesting, and perhaps 
 the best known, are in the hills to the NW. of the Curragh, 
 called the Chair of Kildare/ These are very similar to 
 those at Ballymoney, and, although the exposures are 
 small, we find in them interstratified gabbros and lime-. 
 
 D 
 
34 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 stones ; the latter affording fine specimens of different 
 trilobites and other fossils. Forbes' list of these fossils 
 is given by Baily in the Explanation to accompany 
 sheet 119. 
 
 ( There are other exposures at the following placesA 
 namely :-4-at Ireland's Eye, north of Howtli) where black 
 shales and slates lie on rocks supposed to be Cam- 
 brian ; the age of the latter, however, is not satisfactorily 
 determinable ; there are, however, quartz-rocks associated 
 with them which may be of that age ; at Lambay Island ; 
 at Donabate, where there is a station on the Dublin and 
 
 ' Drogheda railway, and where some of the beds are very 
 fossiliferous, a list being given in the Explanation to sheet 
 102 ; at Sionhill, north of Killucan, County of Westmeath); 
 
 1 at Slievegalry) a few miles south-east of Longford ; close 
 to Longford ;/at Slieve Bawn,^County of Roscommon, and 
 at a few other localities. 
 
 South-east Ulster. 
 
 In south-east Ulster and extending slightly into 
 Leinster jffrhere there is a detached area about Balbriggan, 
 at the junction of Meath and DuTOrr)^ there is a large 
 triangular tract almost entirely occupied by Cambro- 
 Silurian rocks. Its base extends from Belfast Lough to 
 the River Boyne, while its apex is at Lough Forbes, one 
 of the lakes on the River Shannon. 
 
 In this area the places not occupied by these rocks are 
 — a tract of Triassic and other rocks, eastward of Belfast 
 — an area of granitic rocks and an outlier of Carboniferous 
 rocks, about Carlingford Lough — a large outlier of Carboni- 
 ferous and newer rocks, north and south of Carrickmacross 
 
Cambro- Silurian. 3 5 
 
 — a small outlier of Carboniferous rocks, a tongue of the 
 last — an outburst of granite near Cavan. 
 
 In this large area of Cambro-Silurian rocks, as also in 
 that at Balbriggan, there seems to be a system of anti- 
 clinal and synclinal folds, having generally, but not always, 
 a somewhat east and west bearing. These repeat the 
 strata and bring up, alternately, patches of rocks belonging 
 to the Bdllymoney and to the Dark Shale series ; the latter 
 being in excess of the first. Many interesting fossils have 
 been discovered in places in these rocks, especially in the 
 vicinity of the Boyne and in the County Down, lists of 
 which will be found in the published and forthcoming 
 Memoirs of the Irish Geological Survey. 
 
 As previously mentioned, Du Noyer mapped the rocks 
 near Craigowen, on the south of Belfast Lough, as Cam- 
 brian, they being similar in aspect to certain rocks at Bray 
 Head, while Foot considered some rocks NE. of Granard, 
 in Longford, to be of the same age ; as, however, their 
 age has not been proved in either places by fossil evidence 
 they may be provisionally joined with the associated 
 Cambro-Silurians. 
 
 North Ulster. 
 
 ., In Antrim, Londonderry, and Tyrone there are meta- 
 morphic rocks, which seem to be of Cambro-Silurian age } 
 while in Donegal there are others of a different class. 
 The latter may be of either earlier or later age ; if of 
 earlier, they may be either Cambrians, or, as suggested by 
 Jukes, Laurentians ; if of later age, they must be Silurians. 
 This, however, must be left an open question until the 
 country is properly examined, and at present all may be 
 mapped provisionally as Cambro-Silurians. 
 
 D 2 
 
J 
 
 6 Geology of Ii r eland. 
 
 At Pomeroy, in the County Tyrone, and at Lisbellaw, 
 County Fermanagh, there are important, although small, 
 tracts of fossiliferous rocks, to which special attention was 
 directed by Portlock, who, in his " Memoir on the Geology 
 of Tyrone and neighbouring Counties," gives lists of the 
 fossils found at both places. 
 
 CONNAUGHT. 
 
 North and West Connaught there are tracts of meta- 
 morphic rocks, some small, others very extensive. /Most 
 of such rocks in the Counties of Sligo and North 'Mayo 
 are probably of Cambro-Silurian age ; but McHenry is 
 of opinion that there are certain older rocks, Cambrians, 
 in portions of NW. Mayo ; but there it is difficult to trace 
 out the relations of one exposure to another, on account 
 of the envelope of bog and drift so prevalent in that 
 country. 
 
 Of the rocks in SW. Mayo and W. Galway a section 
 has already been given (p. 21), in which it was shown 
 that the lower rocks are of Cambrian age ; while they 
 extend upward, in a continuous sequence, into fossiliferous 
 Cambro-Silurian rocks (Doolough beds, No. 1 1 in section), 
 the latter apparently being older than certain other meta- 
 rnorphic rocks (Croagh Patrick and Letter Mullen beds, 
 No. 12 in section). The Doolough beds on the north of 
 Killary Harbour, and consequently their equivalents in 
 the country to the south, seem, from their aspect and their 
 fossils, to represent the rocks of the Dark Shale series ; 
 while the Croagh Patrick beds to the north, and the Letter 
 Mullen beds to the south, have characters that indicate 
 their being of the age of the Bally money series. 
 
 From this description of the Irish Cambro-Silurian 
 
Cambro-Silurian. 3 7 
 
 rocks it will appear that, although the Irish rocks are, as 
 to certain characters, different from those that occur in 
 England ; yet that there is a close connection between 
 both, and that in all the different exposures in Ireland 
 there are characteristics persistent enough to enable the 
 rocks to be given a general classification similar to that of 
 the typical section in the County Wexford. 
 
33 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 SILURIAN (Jukes). 
 
 Upper Silurian (Murchison and Geological Survey). 
 
 The Irish Silurian rocks are divisible into groups which 
 somewhat conform with those into which the English 
 Silurians have been divided; but in one of the Irish groups 
 there is a zone of beds that contains an assemblage of 
 fossils eminently characteristic of the Caradoc beds, a 
 group in the English Cambro-Silurians. 
 
 The Silurians have only been found in a few parts of 
 Ireland, and in those places there is a conspicuous uncon- 
 formability between them and the Cambro-Silurians ; 
 except, perhaps, in the case of the rocks at Ballycar, in 
 the hills of south-east Clare ; which rocks have already 
 been described at page 32. In Waterford, east and west 
 of Bunmahon, there are the conglomerates and sand- 
 stones already referred to, which undoubtedly belong to a 
 newer formation than the associated Cambro-Silurian 
 rocks, and may possibly be of Silurian age ; although, for 
 the reasons already given, it is more probable that they 
 belong to the " Old Red Sandstone," or Lower Carboni- 
 ferous arenaceous rocks. 
 
 Dingle Group. 
 These rocks have been divided by Jukes and Du Noyer 
 
Silurian, 39 
 
 into series named after the localities at which they are best 
 developed. 
 
 4. Croaghmarhin beds. Ludlow ? 
 
 3. Ferriter's Cove beds. Wenlock ? 
 2. Smerwick beds. 
 
 1. Anascaul beds. Llandovery? 
 
 The Anascaul beds are principally black glossy slate, 
 becoming, in some localities, variegated red and green 
 slate, and occasionally dark grey flags. From the fossils 
 found in them near Bull's Head and on the slope of 
 Caherconree, they are supposed to be the lowest rocks 
 shown in the promontory, and to be possibly of the age of 
 the Llandovery beds. Some of the fossils found in certain 
 limestones at one part of the slope of Caherconree would 
 seem to be those of rocks of Bala or Caradoc age, while 
 those found in some dove-coloured limestones, on another 
 part of the same slope, may possibly be Llandovery fossils. 
 No information as to the age of the rocks can be gained 
 from their stratigraphical relations, as they are only seen 
 at rare intervals, and always appear to be violently con- 
 torted and displaced, dipping at high angles in different 
 directions ; but, as will be shown hereafter, a zone in the 
 Llandovery rocks containing Caradoc or Bala fossils seems 
 to be a characteristic of the Irish Upper Llandoverys. 
 
 The fossils near Bull's Head, as determined by Salter 
 and Baily, are Favosites alveolaris, Halysites catenularis, 
 Petaia elongata, P. subduplicata, Syringopora bifurcata, 
 A thy r is tumid a, A try pa hemispherica, A. marginalis, A. 
 reticularis, Orthis eleganticla, 0. rustica, Spirifera plicatella, 
 S. irapezoidalis, Strophomena depressa, Discina pcrrugata, 
 Euomphalus alatus, E.funatus, Calymcne BlumenbacJiii and 
 Proetus latifrons. In the dove coloured limestones on the 
 
40 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 south-west slope of Caherconree, Baily gives the follow- 
 ing Favosites alveolar is, Stenopora fibrosa. Or this Aetonice, 
 Rhynchonella borealis, R. nucula, Spirifera plieatella, Stro- 
 phomena depressa, S. applanata, Acroculia haliotis, Cheir- 
 urus bimucronatuSy Encrinuriis sexcostatus, and Illcznus 
 Bowmanni. In the grey limestones were found Acidaspis 
 Jamesii and some other Cambro-Silurian forms. 
 
 The Smerwick series consists of purplish or brownish, 
 and green and yellow, sandstones and flagstones with some 
 bright red shales. No fossils are found in them, but they 
 seem to dip conformably under the Ferriter's Cove series. 
 They are apparently about 2,000 ft. thick. 
 
 The Ferriter's Cove series begin with thin bands of con- 
 glomerates of a greenish colour ; and above one of these 
 bands fossils appear. Over these are green sandy slates 
 or shales several hundred feet thick, interstratified in their 
 upper part with felspathic tuffs, above which are bands 
 of red sandstone and slate. The aggregate thickness of 
 this series is estimated at about 2,500 ft. According to 
 Salter the rocks are full of fossils of those species which 
 are abundant in the Wenlock rocks of the typical Silurian 
 districts. An exhaustive list of the fossils, determined by 
 Salter, will be found in the Memoir of the Geological 
 Survey to accompany sheets 160, &c. of the Geological 
 Map. 
 
 In the Croaghmarhin series the lowest rocks are pale, 
 greenish grey, sandy flags and some thick, hard, brown, 
 calcareous grits, passing into an impure arenaceous lime- 
 stone. Their total thickness is perhaps as much as 
 1,000 ft. These beds occasionally contain Pentamerns 
 Knightii and other fossils, determined by Salter and 
 Baily to be similar to those characteristic of the Ludlow 
 rocks. 
 
Silurian. 41 
 
 The Croaghmarhin series dips conformably under the 
 Dingle beds. As the Dingle or Glengariff beds are inti- 
 mately connected with the Carboniferous rocks of the 
 Cork Type they will be described together in the next 
 chapter. 
 
 Killary District. 
 
 The Silurian rocks of this area are found north and 
 south of Killary Harbour, the fiord that separates Galway 
 and Mayo, as also thence eastward to Loughs Mask and 
 Corrib. They are very interesting, as, in a distance of a 
 few miles, the characters of the groups become quite 
 different. They form five distinct groups, which may be 
 called the Culfin, the Lough Corrib, the Mweelrea and 
 Toormakeady, the Creggaunbaun, and the Louisburgh 
 groups. 
 
 Culfin Group. 
 
 The rocks thus classed are very conspicuously exposed 
 at Gowlaun and Salrock, on the Atlantic, south and 
 north of the Culfin valley, and extending eastward to 
 Loughs Mask and Corrib ; the complete section of the 
 rocks, however, is best developed, or rather preserved, 
 to the west, and gives the following thicknesses : 
 
 Salrock and Gowlaun Section. 
 
 4. Salrock series 2,000 feet. 
 
 3. Lough Muck series 1,600 „ 
 
 2. Eurites and tuffs 800 „ 
 
 1. Gowlaun series 2,700 „ 
 
 7,100 „ 
 
 The Salrock series consists, for the most part, of bright 
 red shales and slates, over which are some green and red 
 grits and shales, with, in places, a grey or reddish limestone. 
 
42 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 From the limestone no fossils have been obtained ; but 
 many of the red shales are full of a minute lingula, deter- 
 mined by Baily to be Lingula Symondsii, of which he 
 states, " they are pronounced by Thomas Davidson, 
 the eminent authority on Brachiopoda, to be a character- 
 istic Upper Llandovery fossil." Other fossils found in the 
 same rocks are Pterinia retroflexa and Trochus multitor- 
 quatus. These rocks, however, are undoubtedly the highest 
 Silurian rocks in this series ; and the lowest of the lin- 
 gula shales is, at the least, 5,000 ft. above the base of the 
 Silurian formation. 
 
 The Lough Muck series consists, for the most part, of 
 alternations of grits and shales or slates ; in some places 
 the argillaceous, and in others the arenaceous, rock pre- 
 dominating. In one locality, on the north-east shore of 
 Lough Mask were found Graptolithus tenuis, Holopea con- 
 cinna, Murchisonia obscura, and Illcenus — sp. undetermined 
 — a group of fossils which Baily states indicates a Cambro- 
 Silurian age ; but in higher and lower beds there are other 
 fossils that indicate a Llandovery age. Here, then as in 
 the Dingle Silurians, we find a Cambro-Silurian fossil zone 
 in rocks of Llandovery age. 
 
 The Eurite series at Lough Muck, is altogether made 
 up of extruded rocks, although eastward and westward 
 they become interstratified with sedimentary rocks, some- 
 times fossiliferous, the fossils being of Upper Llandovery 
 type. 
 
 The Gowiaun series, to the west, consists of conglome- 
 rates below, with a great thickness of slates over them, 
 which higher up alternate with massive green grits. 
 Farther eastward, however, the mass of slates disappears, 
 and is replaced by alternations of grits and shales or 
 slates ; the conglomerate also splits up and becomes inter- 
 
Silurian. 43 
 
 stratified with shales. Some of these shales are very cal- 
 careous, and are full of Rhynchonella Llandoveriana and 
 Atrypa hemisphcerica, while in places they contain other 
 fossils also, but all eminently characteristic of the Upper 
 Llandovery rocks. 
 
 The rocks of the Culfin group are bounded on the north 
 by a great fault with a downthrow to the southward, which 
 is broken and shifted by newer faults. This fault to the 
 westward begins in the Little Killary, and runs eastward 
 through the maum called the Pass of Salrock, and along 
 Killary Harbour to Dernasliggaun, where it is shifted 
 southwards over a mile by a NW. and SE. fault. East of 
 the NW. fault, it can be traced eastward to the Maum 
 Valley, in which it is shifted southward nearly to Maum, 
 and from the Maum Valley it extends eastward to the 
 Kilbride promontory, in Lough Mask. The oblique faults 
 mentioned are those- that have the greatest effect on the 
 boundary fault ; but there are numerous other transverse 
 faults that displace it in places, and break up the continuity 
 of the beds. The Salrock beds, as they are followed east- 
 ward, are found to be more or less cut out, entirely dis- 
 appearing a little west of Lough Mask. 
 
 To the eastward the Lough Muck and Gowlaun series 
 merge into one, the eurites that separate them dying out 
 west of the Maum Valley. Other changes also take place. 
 East and west of the Maum Valley, at the base of the 
 Culfin group, a series of red shales comes in ; but the most 
 remarkable change occurs in reference to the contained 
 fossils. It has been already mentioned, that the character- 
 istic fossils of both the Gowlaun and Lough Muck series 
 are of Llandovery type. These are found west of the 
 Maum Valley, and east of the Maum Valley to Kilbride 
 Bay ; but in the rocks of the Kilbride promontory, although 
 
44 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 apparently on the same geological horizon, quite a new 
 assemblage of fossils appears, which has been pronounced 
 by Salter, King, Harkness, Baily, and others, to be charac- 
 teristic of the Wenlock rocks. Thus we have in appa- 
 rently the same series of beds, on the west, Llandovery 
 fossils with an inlying zone of Cambro-Silurian fossils, 
 and, on the east, Wenlock fossils. 
 
 Lough Corrib Grour 
 
 There are detached portions of a tract of Silurian rocks 
 on the south side of Lough Mask, on the north shore of 
 Lough Corrib, in the Doorus promontory, farther south 
 than the last, at Currareavagh, in some of the islands of 
 Lough Corrib, and in the promontory of Ballymacgibbon. 
 These rocks are generally very fossilifercus, especially 
 near Ballymacgibbon ; and the fossils are usually similar 
 to those at Gowlaun, although a few are like those in the 
 Kilbride promontory. In the vicinity of Lough Corrib, 
 dykes and protrusions of gabbro and granitone occur 
 in these rocks. 
 
 MWEELREA AND TOORMAKEADY GROUP. 
 
 This group is separated from the Salrock series on the 
 south, by the above-described boundary fault. The rocks 
 can be traced from the Atlantic eastward to Lough Mask, 
 they being shifted southward by the different cross faults 
 already mentioned as affecting the rocks of the Culfin 
 group. 
 
 In the Mweelrea mountains these rocks lie in a great 
 synclinal curve, the estimated thickness being : — 
 
Silurian. 45 
 
 Mweelrea Section. 
 
 2. Mweelrea beds 2,000 feet. 
 
 Eurites interstratified with sedi- 
 " I mentary rocks 1,250 „ 
 
 3,250 „ 
 
 Beds of eurite nearly always occur at the base of this 
 group. In the Mweelrea mountains there are from three 
 to seven of these beds ; but they decrease in number as 
 they are followed eastward ; and to the north of the syn- 
 clinal in Glenmask, between the Formnamore and Partry 
 mountains, only one bed occurs which is the basal bed. 
 Farther eastward, on the north slopes of Slieve Partry, this 
 felstone is replaced by a peculiar quartz-rock, which fills 
 up the interstices in the under-lying Cambro-Silurians, 
 and, consequently, has no defined basal line. To the south 
 of the synclinal, from the Maum Valley to Lough Mask, 
 and on the east slopes of Slieve Partry, the eurites are 
 very conspicuous, being massive and associated with 
 thick tuffs, conglomerates, and agglomerates, and, in 
 places, with limestones and calcareous tuffs. The lime- 
 stones are very remarkable. In a few places they are 
 grey rocks, but more often they are mottled from the 
 fossiliferous variously - coloured limestone concretions, 
 which are enveloped in a limestone matrix. These lime- 
 stones invariably graduate into more or less calcareous 
 tuffs, and none of them were found farther west than Lough 
 Nafooey. The fossils collected in these limestones are 
 considered to be of Caradoc (Cambro-Silurian) type by 
 Baily, who writes : " a somewhat similar set of fossils was 
 collected from a tuff bed a little west of Mount Partry ; 
 the list from the limestones contains Leptcena serica, L. 
 quinqnicostata, Ortkis elegantida, O. insidaris, O. tenuicincta. 
 
46 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 O. testiidiiiaris, Cheimrus himucroimtus, Cybele verrucosa, 
 and Illcenus Bowmanni." These Caradoc type fossils are 
 immediately above the eurite beds, just as in the Culfin sec- 
 tion ; here, however, no Llandovery fossils were found in 
 the associated beds. The eurites of Slieve Partry are 
 seen to lie on upturned Cambro-Silurian rocks, 
 
 In Slieve Partry, above the eurites, the group is made up 
 almost entirely of conglomerates ; in the Formnamore 
 mountains there are massive pebbly grits below, but above 
 are grits and shales alternating ; while in the Mweelrea 
 hills, we have below, conglomerates, pebbly grits and 
 shales, and above, shales principally. In places, however, 
 the shales predominate in the lower beds ; and fossils are 
 found in them which Baily pronounces to be of Caradoc 
 type. These were obtained in three localities, viz., at Der- 
 reennawinshin, which is on the south slope of Mweelrea, 
 at Uggool, which is west of that mountain, and at Bella- 
 waum, which is on the NE. side of the same ; being, in all 
 three places, in beds a little above the eurites. Lists of 
 these fossils are given in the Survey Memoirs, Explanations 
 to sheets 83, 84, &c .* 
 
 Creggaunbaun Group. 
 
 In the low country, between Mweelrea, Louisburgh, and 
 Croagh Patrick, there is a tract of Silurian rocks. These, 
 for the most part, are metamorphosed ; but in one locality, 
 Creggaunbaun, they are not so. The rocks at Creggaun- 
 baun are very fossiliferous, and contain a group of fossils 
 nearly identical with those found in the promontory of 
 Kilbride, which, as before pointed out, are the eastern 
 
 * In this memoir the fossils are given as of Cambro-Silurian age, as at that 
 time the Cambro-Silurian zone in the Silurians was unknown to Mr. Baily. 
 
Silurian. 47 
 
 continuation of the Gowlaun rocks, although the fossils 
 are not similar. The fossiliferous rocks of Creggaunbaun 
 to the west, south, and south-east, are, in their upper parts, 
 a conglomerate associated with one or two beds of lime- 
 stone, and lie unconformably on fossiliferous Cambro- 
 Silurian (Doolough) beds. The conglomerate is similar 
 to that which, on the south-west of Croagh Patrick, dips 
 south-westward ; the Silurian area apparently lying in a 
 synclinal basin, which, to the eastward, is broken up by 
 the Corvockbrack intrusion of granite. 
 
 We have, therefore, north and south of the rocks of the 
 Mweelrea group, rocks different from those of Mweelrea but 
 similar to one another ; in the rocks to the south, at about 
 2,000 or 2,500 feet above their base, there are eurites 
 which appear to be on the same geological horizon as the 
 eurites at the base of the Mweelrea group ; it may, there- 
 fore, be suggested that the Mweelrea rocks were accumu- 
 lated on a ridge of Cambro-Silurian rocks, the summit of 
 which was not enveloped until a considerable thickness of 
 strata was deposited to the north and south of it. And, 
 moreover, that a little after the eurites had been poured 
 out while the rocks at Mweelrea, at Toormakeady, and at 
 Lough Muck were being deposited, the conditions were 
 such that colonies of Cambro-Silurian animals existed in 
 the Silurian Sea. 
 
 Louisburgh Group. 
 
 These rocks, and also certain similar rocks found in the 
 hills between Lough Erne and Pomeroy (Counties of Fer- 
 managh and Tyrone) Griffith supposed to be equivalents 
 of parts of the Kerry and Cork rocks called u Dingle " or 
 "Glengariff Grits" by Jukes, and described in the next 
 
48 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 chapter. This, to us, appears to be very probable. In 
 part they are like the red beds already mentioned as 
 occurring east and west of the Maum Valley, and in part 
 they are like the pebbly Mweelrea grits ; but, if their strati- 
 graphical relations to the Creggaunbaun beds are con- 
 sidered, they would appear to be the latest Silurian rocks 
 in the country. No fossils could be detected in them 
 except a few tracks and burrows like those of Annelids. 
 
 North of Louisburgh a massive brecciated conglomerate 
 adjoins the older schists, and associated with the conglo- 
 merate is a great thickness of red shales, above which are 
 flaggy sandstones and bluish shales. In the hills west of 
 Louisburgh, red and other shales are interstratified with 
 massive pebbly grits like those of Mweelrea. 
 
 In Clare Island, to the NW., rocks of this group also 
 occur. The Croaghmoyle GroiLp, to the NE. and N. of West- 
 port, in the country east of Clew Bay, consists of massive 
 conglomerates with some red sandstone and shales ; these 
 rocks are supposed to be of the same age as those near 
 Louisburgh. 
 
 Ballaghaderreen. 
 
 A small tract of Silurian rocks occurs in the north of 
 the County Mayo, a little west of Ballaghaderreen. Jukes 
 has described these rocks as the representatives of the 
 Lower Wenlock and Upper Llandovery strata, his opinion 
 is shared in by Baily from his subsequent examination of 
 the fossils. They consist of reddish, purple, and bluish 
 shales, grits, and flagstones, some of which are highly 
 fossiliferous, as is also a blue, earthy, concretionary lime- 
 stone ; of the fossils in the last, Baily states they are very 
 like those of the Kilbride promontory, Lough Mask. An 
 exhaustive list of the fossils of this area is given by Baily 
 
Silurians. 
 
 49 
 
 in the Memoirs of the Geological Survey, Explanations 
 to sheets 76 and 77. 
 
 The following table gives a general classification of the 
 upper Palaeozoic rocks of Ireland, with their supposed 
 English equivalents : — 
 
 Locality. 
 
 Dingle Promontory 
 
 West Connaught 
 
 Silurians. 
 
 Irish Groups. English equivalents. 
 
 I Dingle or Glengariff 
 
 Grits...... 
 
 Croaghmarhin beds.. Ludlow ? 
 Ferriter's Cove beds. Wenlock ? 
 
 Smerwick beds 
 
 Anascaul beds Upper Llandovery 
 
 \ Ludlow? 
 
 (Mweelrea beds .. 
 Salrock Slates j 
 Lough Muck beds . . . Upper Llandovery ? 
 Gowlaun and Kil- 
 bride beds Wenlock and Upper 
 Llandovery. 
 
 Wexford and Ire- 
 land Generally 
 
 West Connaught 
 
 Cambro-Silurians. 
 
 J Ballymoney Series... Bala and Caradoc. 
 
 Dark Shale Series... Llandeilo. 
 
 Croaghpatrick and 
 
 Letter Mullen beds Bala ? 
 
 Doolough beds Llandeilo. 
 
 Cambrians. 
 
 Connemara, or West 
 
 Galway Group ... Upper Cambrian. 
 Bray Head and 
 
 South-east Ireland Lower Cambrian ? 
 
5o 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 CORK ROCKS. 
 
 Carboniferous in part. 
 Silurian in part. 
 
 In this description these rocks will be divided as 
 
 follows : — 
 
 f 5. Coal Measures. 
 4. Carboniferous Slate, including the Coom- 
 Carboniferous hoola Grits. 
 
 3. Yellow Sandstone. 
 v 2. Old Red Sandstone. 
 Silurian i. Dingle or Glengariff Grits. 
 
 These rocks occupy a long tract lying principally in 
 Kerry and Cork, and extending thence eastward into 
 Waterford ; it is bounded on the north by the valley 
 running from Dingle Bay to Dungarvan ; there is also an 
 isolated tract to the north of Dingle Bay. 
 
 Griffith, after he had completed his survey of Ireland, 
 came to the conclusion that the upper rocks in these areas 
 were on the same geological horizon as the Limestones 
 and associated Carboniferous rocks of the central plain, 
 both belonging to the Carboniferous formation ; but the 
 lower strata in both Cork and the central plain he 
 divided into Old Red Sandstone and Silurian. His con- 
 clusions were based on the fact that rocks, similar to the 
 lowest in the County Cork, are found lying conformably 
 on beds containing Ludlow fossils in the Dingle promon- 
 
Coi'k Rocks. 
 
 5i 
 
 tory ; while the upper rocks in the County Cork, as they 
 are followed eastwards, graduate into Limestone. In the 
 promontory of Iveragh and Dunkerron and in that of 
 Bear, north and south of the bay called Kenmare River, 
 he made a base to his Old Red Sandstone of certain con- 
 glomerates and massive pebbly grits that can be found, more 
 or less, in those areas, and also in the country to the east- 
 ward. During the researches carried on under Jukes, these 
 divisions proved to be, in the main, correct ; but Jukes 
 thought it expedient to join the Dingle or Glengariff grits 
 to the overlying rocks rather than to the Silurians, as the 
 only fossils found in them were certain plants and tracks 
 allied to others found in the Carboniferous rocks. In this 
 chapter the rocks will be described under Griffith's names, 
 except the lowest group, for which Jukes' names will be 
 adopted. 
 
 Of the typical Carboniferous rocks of Ireland those of 
 the County of Limerick are nearest, and the following is 
 a general tabular series of the relations that exist between 
 the Silurians, the Cork rocks, and the Carboniferous rocks 
 of Limerick. 
 
 Upper 
 Carboniferous 
 
 Lower 
 Carboniferous 
 
 Silurian 
 
 Dingle and West Cork. 
 
 Coal Measures 
 Carboniferous Slate 
 
 Yellow Sandstone 
 t 01d Red Sandstone 
 ' Dingle or Glengariff 
 
 Grits 
 Ludlow (?) 
 Wenlock (?) 
 Upper Llandovery (?) 
 
 Limerick. 
 
 Coal Measures 
 Limestones 
 Lower limestone shale 
 Lower Carboniferous 
 Sandstone and shales 
 
 Not represented 
 
 E 2 
 
52 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 DINGLE OR GLENGARIFF GRITS (Jukes). 
 SILURIANS (Griffith). 
 
 ^n the Dingle promontory, apparently lying conformably 
 on rocks containing Ludlow fossils, there is a vast series 
 of rocks, estimated by Jukes and Du Noyer to be at 
 least 10,000 feet in thickness. These consist of green 
 and purple grits and slates which pass up into beds of 
 coarse thick sandstones and grits of greenish and reddish 
 tints, like those in the neighbourhood of Glengariff, 
 County Cork, and interstratified similarly with purple 
 slatesJ There are, however, in the Dingle rocks many 
 bright red slates, some liver-coloured beds, and thick beds 
 of conglomerate full of rounded and angular pieces of 
 sandstone and other rocks. Some of the rolled pebbles 
 in the conglomerate, called the " Inch Conglomerate," 
 contain fossils apparently of Llandovery age ; but no 
 fossils proper to the group have ever been found in the 
 Dingle promontory. The upper rocks of this series are 
 not here seen ; as the highest beds plunge into the sea, 
 or are wiconformably covered by the Lower Carbonifer- 
 ous sandstones and conglomerates (Old Red Sandstone 
 of the Geological Survey) of the central plain. 
 
 V~But in the Iveragh and Dunkerron promontory the base 
 of the Dingle grits is not seen ; and there is a conform- 
 able sequence upwards into the Carboniferous Slate and 
 Limestone {see Fig. 4A In Valentia and the country to the 
 south, the lowest beds are principally green and purplish 
 slates and grits with beds of fine breccia ; but inland the 
 massive grits, like those in Dingle, predominate. Some 
 of the beds of slate are of good quality, but they are only 
 worked on Valentia Island. In all these rocks at different 
 horizons are calcareous beds, usually associated with iron 
 
Cork Rocks. 53 
 
 and manganese ores ; they being more prevalent in some 
 places than in others ; they are also found in the Old Red 
 and Yellow Sandstones. 
 
 North of Valentia Harbour is a massive conglomerate 
 that can be traced ENE. to Kells, where, in the river 
 valley, a little SSE. of the hamlet at the Coach road, 
 there is either a fault or an unconformability ; the rocks 
 in the valley to the east striking at the conglomerate. 
 Eastward of this valley the conglomerate seems to be 
 represented by massive pebbly grits. This conglomerate 
 and the pebbly grits are the rocks taken by Griffith as the 
 boundary between his Silurians and Old Red Sandstone. 
 Farther southward, in the promontory of Bear, the rocks 
 are similar, except that the sequence continues up to the 
 Coal Measures ; rocks of the latter group lying on the 
 Carboniferous Slates in Whiddy Island, Bantry Bay. 
 
 (The fossils that have been found in the Glengariff grits, 
 south and south-east of Dingle Bay, are tracks, probably 
 Crustacean,/on compact purple slates, on the shore west 
 of the Lighthouse, Valentia Island, obscure markings like 
 either fucoids or tracks of marine animals on the shore of 
 Valentia river, obscure plant-like markings in purple 
 slates on the south side of Beginish, and on the shore 
 opposite Puffin Island. On the west side of Coomasa- 
 harn Lake, SE. of Kells, are plant stems, some of them 
 an inch and a half in diameter, and irregularly ribbed in a 
 longitudinal direction ; and farther eastward rude and im- 
 perfect plant stems, observed by Du Noyer, who states that 
 the most perfect are in the Owenreagh valley north of 
 Windy Gap. Ripple-marks are extremely common on 
 the surfaces of the beds, often running in different direc- 
 tions on adjoining surfaces. 
 
 The rocks in the tract now being described lie in com- 
 
54 
 
 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 plex anticlinal curves, the main axes having a general- 
 bearing of about N. 30 E. ; the synclinal curves being in 
 the valleys now occupied in part by the Kenmare river, 
 and the other bays to the southward. The accompanying 
 section gives the general features of these curves, leaving 
 out the minor flexures, while it shows the unconformable 
 
 \CoaL Treasures 
 \JjvmestoThe, 
 
 ^^===z Carboniferous ShaJLs \ %*t\ T)irigle ot> 
 
 ** -. • * 1' il OtdJRedLScaidstorte Oterujari/F Grife 
 
 Diagrammatic section of the Cork and Dingle rocks, showing the unconformability of the 
 
 latter. 
 
 overlie of the Lower Carboniferous sandstones, limestones 
 and shales upon the " Dingle or GlengarifT grits " as these 
 latter beds occur in the Dingle promontory. 
 
 The rocks in the Iveragh and Dunkerron promontory 
 are cut off to the north and north-east by the great fault 
 that extends from Dingle Bay through the Killarney valley, 
 and eastward along the valley of the Flesk and the Black- 
 water and the continuation of the valley eastward to 
 Dungarvan. This fault to the south of Castlemaine Har- 
 bour, as also farther eastward in the valley of the Flesk, 
 brings down the Coal Measures nearly against the Glen- 
 garifT grits. 
 
55 
 
 Old Red Sandstone (Griffith). 
 
 These rocks are usually of red and purplish colours, 
 consisting of grits, gritty-slates, and slates, the argillaceous 
 rocks generally predominating over the arenaceous. TThey 
 are supposed to bound the GlengarifT grits to the north, 
 at the south margin of Dingle Bay, but eastward are cut 
 off by the great fault in the Dingle and Dungarvan Valley. 
 Farther south they form a band between the Glengariff 
 and the Carboniferous Slate of the synclinals in Kenmare 
 River and Bantry Bay ; while still farther southward, in 
 Muntervary, Mizen Head and Cape Clear promontories, 
 the nearly parallel anticlinal axis (about N. 30 E.), brings 
 up long tracts of this Old Red Sandstone. 
 / The thickness of the Old Red Sandstone of the County 
 of Cork is about 5,000 feet to the west, but eastward it 
 seems to become thinners this, however, may be more 
 apparent than real, as a portion may be cut out by faults ; 
 but as all the other groups thin away eastward, it may do 
 so also. 
 
 Yellow Sandstone and Carboniferous Slate 
 
 (Griffith). 
 
 Upper Old Red and Carboniferous Slate 
 
 (Jukes). 
 
 The upper Cork rocks, next below the Coal Measures, 
 have been proved \by Griffith (to be the equivalents of the 
 Lower Carboniferous rocks of the rest of Ireland^except/ 
 perhaps, the previously mentioned arenaceous" rocks in 
 the Counties of Fermanagh and Tyrone. That eminent 
 geologist published, in the Journal of the Geological 
 
56 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Society of Dublin (now the Royal Geological Society of 
 Ireland) for i860, an exhaustive list of Irish Carboniferous 
 fossils, arranged according to the stratigraphical sub- 
 divisions of the Carboniferous system adopted in his 
 geological map of Ireland. This shows the numerous 
 fossils common to the ordinary Irish Carboniferous and 
 the upper Cork rocks, and to this list we must refer those 
 who are interested in this subject. 
 
 The subject of the age of the Cork rocks recalls the 
 labours of Jukes for the determination of that question. 
 That geologist is next to Griffith in the ranks of those 
 who have thrown light on Irish geology, having so per- 
 fected the general systems, that his successors have been 
 left, as regards that matter, only details to work out. 
 Jukes came to Ireland firmly believing in the Devonian 
 rocks as a distinct formation, and for years he battled 
 against Griffith's classification. However, he gave way 
 eventually, but not until he had, with his usual energy, 
 worked out similar groups of rocks on the continent of 
 Europe and in England. In those regions he found that 
 one portion of the rocks of the Carboniferous formation 
 may be principally calcareous accumulations ; while another 
 portion, on exactly the same horizon, may be composed 
 entirely of arenaceous or argillaceous materials. 
 
 Here it may be observed, that the facts made known by 
 the recent researches of the Challenger and other explor- 
 ing ships, show that over certain large portions of the 
 bed of the ocean calcareous accumulations and arenaceous 
 shore beds are being formed, while in deeper portions 
 argillaceous sediments are being thrown down ; also that 
 with the latter there are remarkable deposits of iron and 
 manganese ore. Something similar may have taken place 
 during the Carboniferous period ; there being a great 
 
Cork Rocks. 57 
 
 thickness of calcareous rocks with their associated shore 
 beds in the central plain ; while in Cork and thereabouts 
 there are great argillaceous and arenaceous deposits, the 
 argillaceous, in many cases, having in them peculiar seams 
 and concretions of iron and manganese ores. 
 
 /The upper Cork rocks have two distinct characters ; 
 tnose below (Yellow Sandstone) being of bright colours, 
 while those above (Carboniferous Slate) are dark ; but the 
 boundary lines of the groups are very arbitrary. In the 
 purple and green rocks of the underlying Old Red Sand- 
 stone fossils are of very rare occurrence, and those that 
 do occur are nearly always indistinct ; but in the over- 
 lying yellowish rocks plant remains are not uncommon in 
 the shale partings. As these plant remains are usually 
 above all the purple grits, the highest rock of this kind 
 has been taken as the base of the Yellow Sandstone ; while 
 the lowest blue or blackish shale, above which in any bed 
 marine fossils may occur, has been taken as the base of 
 the Carboniferous Slate — such boundaries necessarily vary, 
 consequently the thickness of the group. Some of the 
 officers of the Geological Survey have made the Yellow 
 Sandstone only 500 feet thick, or even less ; while others 
 have given it as much as 1,200 feet.^ It is, however, an im- 
 portant group, as it is the one in which all the copper lodes 
 of the country occur ; in some places quantities of the ore 
 are disseminated through many of the beds, which, after 
 being broken into, rapidly become spotted all over with 
 minute specks of the green carbonate ; while some shales 
 contain a sufficient quantity to be worked for the 
 mineral. 
 
 The upper Cork rocks give the following general 
 section : — 
 
<;8 
 
 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 4. Blackish or dark - coloured shales, N i 
 having, in places, subordinate beds 
 of impure limestone and calcareous 
 shale. 
 
 3. Principally blue and grey grits and 
 shales or slates, but locally contain- 
 ing green grits (Coomhola grits), 
 which sometimes occur in mass. 
 These series of grits occur on dif- 
 ferent horizons. 
 
 2. Principally yellow, grey, and greenish \ 
 thick-bedded grits, with subordinate 
 beds of shale or shale partings, the 
 latter often containing plant remains. 
 In this series beds of red and purple 
 slate are rare. 
 
 1. Yellow, liver - coloured, and bright 
 green slate, with some bright red 
 and variegated beds. 
 
 Carboniferous Slate, 
 about 5,000 feet thick. 
 
 Yellow Sandstone, 
 about 1,000 feet thick. 
 
 Remarkable changes may be observed in these rocks in 
 passing from one place to another. The bay called 
 Kenmare River has been denuded in the trough of a 
 synclinal curve, and to the north and south of the bay 
 are patches of the upper Cork rocks. At Sneem, to the 
 north, and at Kilmakilloge, to the south of the bay, the 
 Carboniferous Slate is at least from 800 to 1,000 feet thick ; 
 but from 6 to 8 miles towards the ENE., in the vicinity 
 of Kenmare, it has totally disappeared, and the bright red 
 rocks of that locality, which seem to represent the Yellow 
 Sandstone, are directly covered by from 50 to 100 feet of 
 Lower Limestone Shale (like that of the central plain), 
 over which comes the Limestone itself. The Limestone 
 at its base is very cherty and fossiliferous, but the rest of 
 it is slaty, apparently from true cleavage. Here the change 
 from Carboniferous Slate into the Limestone and Lower 
 Limestone Shale cannot be observed, as the tracts of 
 
Cork Rocks. 59 
 
 Carboniferous Slate at Sneem and Kilmakilloge are cut 
 off to the eastward by faults. 
 
 In the next bay southwards, Bantry Bay, we find, 
 similarly, margins of Carboniferous Slate to the south and 
 north ; they are not cut off at the head of the bay, but 
 are continuous north-eastward for a considerable distance. 
 At the NE. of Whiddy Island, which is situated at the 
 head of the bay, there are black shales identical with the 
 lower shales of the Coal Measures, and containing the 
 characteristic fossils Posidonomya Becheri, P. membranacea, 
 P. costata, &c. Here, therefore, we have the full thickness 
 of the Carboniferous Slate, which has been estimated by 
 Jukes at 5,000 feet. 
 
 The synclinal trough of Bantry Bay, as it goes north- 
 eastward, splits into two ; the northern arm extending to 
 Macroom, and from thence eastward to a little north of 
 Cork ; while the southern arm runs south of Cork to the 
 sea at the mouth of Youghal Harbour. The upper Cork 
 rocks are not continuous along these troughs, and when 
 they reappear, in one trough, west of Macroom, and in 
 the other, near Kilmurry, the Carboniferous Slate has 
 been replaced by the Limestone and its associated shales. 
 The Lower Limestone Shale is about 200 feet thick, while 
 the underlying Yellow Sandstone is losing its normal 
 character, and consists of pale whitish grey flagstones 
 and silicious sandstones associated with dusky grey, olive, 
 greenish and blue shales, and some peculiar beds of pale 
 whitish grey and pink mottled fossiliferous shales that 
 contain well-preserved casts of crinoidal fragments and 
 Fenestella. 
 
 Extending eastward from Dunmanus and Roaringwater 
 Bays, as also along the south-east, there are strips of 
 Carboniferous Slate which all unite and form one tract 
 
60 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 south of Bandon, but again split up a little west of Cork 
 Harbour. 
 
 This is a most important area ; to the south, in the pro- 
 montory of the Old Head of Kinsale, the basal shales of 
 the Coal Measures come in on the Carboniferous Slate, as 
 also at Ballyheedy, between Kinsale and Ballinhassig, and 
 also to the east of Ballinhassig ; but in the latter locality 
 there are a few feet in thickness of Limestone between the 
 Coal Measures and the Carboniferous Slate ; while, in the 
 neighbourhood of Cork Harbour, the Carboniferous Slate 
 splits up and gradually gives place to the Limestone. 
 
 To the west of Spike Island there is a considerable 
 thickness of Carboniferous Slate between the Limestone 
 and Yellow Sandstone ; it gradually thins away eastward 
 to Ballycottin Bay, where the Carboniferous Slate takes 
 many of the characters of the Lower Limestone Shale. 
 Furthermore, as first pointed out by Jukes, on the south 
 side of the promontory of Ringaskiddy, west of Cork Har- 
 bour, beds of dark grey shale and grits come in over 800 
 or 900 feet of thick, grey, crystalline limestone ; " these 
 look very much like beds of Carboniferous Slate beginning 
 to be intercalated between beds of the Limestone, or like 
 beds of the Carboniferous Slate coming in over the Lime- 
 stone, and as if the Limestone was beginning to die away 
 as an inlier in the Slate." 
 
 East of the longitude of Cork, although the Old Red 
 Sandstone keeps very much its original character, yet the 
 upper groups have changed. The Carboniferous Slate 
 not only thins away, but it also takes characters of the 
 Lower Limestone Shale and of the Limestone ; while the 
 Yellow Sandstone loses its typical character and assumes 
 those of the Lower Carboniferous Sandstones and conglo- 
 merates of north and east Munster. 
 
Cork Rocks. 6 1 
 
 Griffith's great list of Irish Carboniferous fossils has 
 been already mentioned ; and here attention should be 
 drawn to Baily's excellent lists of the fossils found in these 
 rocks in Cork, Kerry, and Waterford, published in the 
 Survey Memoirs, Explanations to sheets 176, 187, 192, and 
 197, of the map of the Geological Survey in Ireland. 
 
 Special attention may be directed to a few of the 
 most important of these fossils. At Reenydonagan Point, 
 near Bantry, a Brachiopod, supposed by Davidson to be 
 Cystina heteroclita, is found associated with characteristic 
 Carboniferous Limestone fossils. That eminent palaeon- 
 tologist considers this most interesting " from this shell, 
 which is found in many well-known foreign Devonian 
 localities, never having hitherto been recognized in any 
 true Carboniferous bed or locality." At this place Phil- 
 lipsia pustulata occurs, and this Carboniferous Limestone 
 trilobite was also found farther west at, and north-eastward 
 of, Blackball Head, and at the NE. point of Whiddy Island, 
 Bantry Bay ; all of these localities being in typical Car- 
 boniferous Slate, while at the last place it occurs close 
 below the Coal Measures. y} ^jfi^Sh /^^^^^^ k^" 
 
 (in the Yellow Sandstone, rAnodonta Jukesii, w&s found / 
 at the Lower Glanmire road, a mile and a half east of 
 Cork, and at Gokane Point, west of Toe Head, where are 
 also associated with it the plants Adiantites Hibernicus 
 and stems of Sagenaria ; the plants, only, are found 
 between Toe Head and Castlehaven. In these localities 
 the Yellow Sandstone is under Carboniferous Slate ; but 
 in the Yellow Sandstone, under the Lower Limestone 
 Shale at Tallow Bridge, junction of Cork and Waterford, 
 a like assemblage of fossils occurs. 
 
 It might seem that the famous fossil localities at Kiltor- 
 can, south-west of Thomastown, County Kilkenny, and in 
 
62 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 the promontory of Hook Head, County Wexford, should 
 be here mentioned ; these, however, are apparently in the 
 " Old Red Sandstone," or Lower Carboniferous Sandstones 
 and shales like those of the central plain, and the question 
 of their age will be discussed in the next chapter. 
 
Plate III.] 
 
 IV. H. Baily, del. 
 
 Lower Carboniferous Fossils. 
 
63 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 CARBONIFEROUS FORMATION. 
 
 Lower Carboniferous. 
 
 In the previous chapter are described the Carboniferous 
 rocks peculiar to SW. Ireland ; they being most typical 
 in the county of Cork. In this and the succeeding chapter 
 is given a brief history of the Carboniferous rocks of the 
 rest of the country, divided into Upper and Lower. (The 
 Lower Carboniferous includes all the rocks from the base of 
 the arenaceous rocks, generally called " Old Red Sand- 
 stone," to the uppermost bed of the Upper Limestone, 
 while the Upper Carboniferous is represented by the Coal 
 Measures. 
 
 The Old Red Sandstone is included in the Carboniferous 
 formation, because in no place in Ireland has it a defined 
 upper boundary, one group graduating into the other ; 
 and usually the lowest grey and blue beds of grits or 
 shales of the Carboniferous formation are taken as its 
 uppermost limits. Furthermore, only in Munster and in 
 the hills between Lough Erne and Pomeroy, Counties of 
 Fermanagh and Tyrone, is the Old Red Sandstone at the 
 absolute base of the Carboniferous formation ; as in all 
 other places the rocks so called and described are on dif- 
 ferent geological horizons, ranging up to the base of the 
 Coal Measures. This will be explained presently. 
 
64 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Any classification of the Lower Carboniferous rocks, as 
 at different times pointed out by Portlock and Jukes, is 
 only locally applicable. This local grouping, however, is 
 so far useful, that thereby is indicated the lithological cha- 
 racter, whether calcareous, argillaceous, or arenaceous, of 
 the rocks likely to be found in any particular place ; but it 
 has also its disadvantages, as it causes confusion in many 
 places. 
 
 uhe oldest Carboniferous rocks {Old Red Sandstone) are 
 bright-coloured conglomerates, sandstones, grits, shales and 
 clay-rocks, which graduate upward through dark-coloured 
 grits and shales, into the various limestone^. CBut as the 
 floor of the Carboniferous sea was very uneven, and the 
 sea was, in places, studded with islands, or had promon- 
 tories jutting out into it, Shore-beds, which, from the 
 conditions under which they were formed, are, both in 
 aspect and as to the contained fossils, very similar to the 
 oldest rocks, occur, notwithstanding, on very different 
 geological horizons.^ Or, as Portlock writes, " they partake 
 of a double position ; partaking at once of the character 
 of a geological and mineralogical designation — geological 
 when below, at the base of the Carboniferous formation ; 
 mineralogical, when occurring above on different horizons 
 in the rocks of the formation." 
 
 /These shore accumulations cause much confusion, as 
 they usually graduate horizontally into beds like the 
 Lower Limestone Shale\ while their real positions may be 
 much above that group. * 
 
 This is represented in the accompanying diagram. (The 
 Shore-beds a' and b' are margined by Fenestella Limestone 
 c', which is characteristic of the Lower Limestone, while 
 the true position of said Shore-beds is in the Burren, 
 or Upper, Limestone, represented to the right hand of 
 
Lower Carboniferous. 65 
 
 the diagram, when the groups a, b, c, d, form a regular 
 sequence upwards from the " Old Red Sandstone " (a)J 
 
 In Kerry and Limerick, in the province of Munster, the 
 rocks of the Carboniferous formation seem to be best 
 
 Fig. a. 
 
 1^7^^ 
 
 1, 1 , i 
 
 : Bwrrerv Lvmestorve 
 
 = Lower J^mestane tShale 
 
 FenesteUcv 
 
 Old Red Sandstone 
 
 Diagram illustrating the changes from the Shore-beds into the Carboniferous Limestone. 
 
 developed ; if we except those previously mentioned in 
 Tyrone and Fermanagh. A general classification of these 
 Munster rocks may be given, to which the rocks in the 
 rest of Ireland can be referred. 
 
 Table of the Classification of the Lower Carbojiiferoits Rocks of 
 Limerick and Kerry. 
 
 4b. Upper Limestone , Bedded limestones, having in places inliers 
 
 of the Burren J of sandstone or shale. 
 
 type. 1 Cherty zone. 
 
 4a. Upper Limestone , Earthy limestone, sandstones and shales, 
 
 of the Calp J having in places "coal rods," or coaly seams. 
 
 type. I Cherty zone. 
 
 F 
 
66 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 i Fe?iestella limestone (Wynne). 
 3. Lower Limestone. -I Lower cherty zone. 
 
 I Lower shaly limestone. 
 2. Lower Limestone 
 shale. 
 
 Old Red Sand- 
 stone, or Lower 
 Carboniferous 
 grits and shales. 
 
 ( Red, purple, green, yellow shales and clay 
 rocks, with some grits and sandstones. 
 Principally red and yellow grits, sandstones, 
 and conglomerates, with subordinate 
 shales and clay rocks. 
 
 The groups 4a and \b are purely lithological divisions. 
 In general, the rocks of both types occur separately, but, 
 when together, either of them may be uppermost, but 
 usually those of the Burren type, or they may be mixed 
 up together. In those places where both are represented, 
 there is usually a cherty zone separating the two groups. 
 In some places a higher cherty zone separates the Lower 
 Carboniferous from the Upper or Coal Measures. How- 
 ever, under the Coal Measures in Munster and part of 
 Leinster, this zone is totally absent. 
 
 In the previous chapter it was pointed out that the Car- 
 boniferous rocks of Cork, when followed eastward and 
 northward, lose their own peculiar characteristics and 
 assume some of those of the Carboniferous rocks of the 
 rest of Ireland. It was also shown that, while in Cork 
 the Glengariff Grits and the Old Red Sandstone are con- 
 formable, in the Dingle promontory there is a break 
 between them. A diagram showing the changes is there 
 given (fig. 4, p. 54). It will be seen by this diagram (which is 
 not made to scale, but gives a general idea of the Section 
 between the Dingle promontory and Bantry Bay) that in 
 the Dingle promontory, County Kerry, the Carboniferous 
 rocks of the ordinary type lie unconformably on the Dingle 
 or Glengariff grits; but to the south, in the Iveragh pro- 
 
Lower Carboniferous. 67 
 
 montory, there is a continuous sequence up from the 
 Glengariff grits into the Carboniferous rocks of the Cork 
 type ; while farther southward, at Ban try Bay, it extends 
 up into the Coal Measures. 
 
 In the Dingle promontory, the Lower Carboniferous 
 rocks, which lie unconformably on the Dingle beds, were 
 estimated by Foot to be of the following thickness : — 
 
 4. Coal measures. 
 
 3. Limestone 1,800 feet. 
 
 2. Lower Limestone shale .... 400 „ 
 
 1. Old Red Sandstone, or Lower grits and shales 4,000 „ 
 
 6,200 „ 
 
 In this county the Old Red Sandstone of this type and 
 the Lower Limestone Shale is thicker than elsewhere in 
 Ireland, except in Fermanagh and Tyrone, while the Old 
 Red Sandstone is of about a similar thickness to that of 
 the Cork type in the west of that county. Between the 
 rocks in the upper and lower parts of the Limestone (No. 3) 
 there is a marked difference, yet they cannot be definitely 
 separated, as one graduates into the other. Chert is more 
 common above than below ; moreover, shaly beds are more 
 frequent towards the middle of the series, but they do not 
 appear to be always on the same horizon. 
 
 At the Lakes of Killarney, immediately above the 
 Lower Limestone Shale, which here lies on " Old Red 
 Sandstone " of the Cork type, the limestones are very 
 cherty, similar to those at Kenmare, mentioned in the last 
 chapter. In this vicinity, branches from the great Dingle 
 and Dungarvan Valley fault cut out portions of the strata, 
 and prevent any correct estimate being made of the thick- 
 ness of the rocks. 
 
 In the valley running from Dingle to Dungarvan bays, 
 
 F 2 
 
68 Geology of Ireland, 
 
 the great fault of the valley nearly cuts out the Limestones 
 on the west of Banteer (between Killarney and Mallow) 
 bringing down the Upper Carboniferous rocks (Coal 
 Measures) against the Glengariff grits. Farther eastward 
 in this valley, to the bounds of the County of Cork, the 
 Lower Limestone Shales and a considerable portion of the 
 Limestone is cut out by the fault ; but in the Waterford 
 part of the valley, to Dungarvan, there are rocks like Car- 
 boniferous Slate and Yellow Sandstone (Cork type) under 
 the Limestone. 
 
 In the Blackwater portion of the valley, between Mill- 
 street and Mallow, the strata to the north and south of the 
 fault have inverted dips, the Coal Measures apparently 
 dipping under the Glengariff grits ; at Banteer, however, 
 it is evident in the limestone quarries that the Limestones 
 turn sharply in depth and dip to the northward. In a 
 small outlier situated in the alluvial flats of the Black- 
 water, between Banteer and Mallow, an irregular lenticular 
 bed of earthy culm is enclosed in the Limestone. 
 
 In Waterford, the south portion of Kilkenny, Limerick, 
 Tipperary, Queen's County, King's County, Clare, and the 
 south part of Galway, the Lower Carboniferous Grits and 
 Shales (or Old Red Sandstone) are well displayed, although 
 in some places very thin ; but to the north of the parallel 
 of Galway, the similarly constituted rocks that margin the 
 different tracts and exposures of the Lower Palaeozoic 
 rocks, except those already mentioned in Fermanagh and 
 Tyrone, are on much higher geological horizons. Thus, 
 the so called " Old Red Sandstone " of Oughterard, County 
 Galway, is high up in the Burren Limestone. To the north 
 of Oughterard, there are conglomerates and sandstones 
 dipping southward and graduating upwards through shales 
 into the Burren Limestone ; while west of Oughterard, the 
 
Lower Carboniferous. 69 
 
 marginal rock is a conglomerate graduating eastward, or 
 along the strike of the beds, into Burren limestone. 
 Here, in the townlands of Billymore and Lemonfield, 
 the graduation is exhibited by some of the limestone 
 beds being conglomeritic (with particles of quartz 
 from the size of a bean to that of small shot), whilst inter- 
 stratified with pure Burren limestone ; these conglomerates 
 being frequent in Billymore but dying out eastward, and 
 having quite disappeared near the east margin of Lemon- 
 field, at Lough Corrib. 
 
 Similarly, in the Counties of Galway and Mayo, between 
 Loughs Corrib and Mask, as also farther northward, con- 
 glomerates, sandstones, and shales margin the Lower 
 Palaeozoic rocks, but farther away they graduate horizon- 
 tally into limestones of the Burren type. This takes place 
 also in the central plain of Ireland, near all the isolated 
 exposures of Silurian or older rocks protruding through 
 the rocks of the Carboniferous formation. 
 
 In west Mayo, there are, in different places, rocks very 
 similar as regards their appearance, and also the fossils 
 they contain, to both the " Old Red Sandstone " and the 
 Lower Limestone Shale; yet they all graduate horizontally 
 into limestones of the Burren type. 
 
 {The true "Old Red Sandstone," or basal arenaceous 
 rocks, were evidently deposited under similar circumstances 
 with the " Shore-beds " found on the different geological 
 horizons ; being more or less littoral accumulations/) The 
 fauna of the basal beds, being of littoral character, accom- 
 modated themselves to the but slightly changing con- 
 ditions under which the " Shore-beds," must always have 
 accumulated, and thus their fossils range upwards through 
 the successive groups of strata to the Upper Carbon- 
 iferous. ) 
 
yo Geology of Ireland. 
 
 The " Shore-beds," in general, only partially margined 
 the old lands in the Carboniferous sea. From Galway 
 towards the NW., nearly to Oughterard, the limestone 
 rests on the granite and other old rocks ; but at Oughterard 
 there are " Shore-beds " which were evidently deposited 
 in an ancient bay. Farther north, east and west of Cong, 
 there are also " Shore-beds " clearly formed in similar situa- 
 tions. At Ballyhean, a few miles north of Lough Mask, 
 there was an ancient island, south and south-east of which 
 " Shore-beds " were formed, while limestone of the Burren 
 type was deposited against it to the NW. and N. A nearly 
 similar description would apply to the accumulations 
 round the different islands that existed in the Car- 
 boniferous sea of Central Ireland, such as at the Chair of 
 Kildare, where patches of " Shore-beds " are found to the 
 NE. and SE. 
 
 On the north-west slopes of the Dublin and Carlow 
 Mountains, there are a few isolated patches of sandstone ; 
 but usually the limestone lies directly on the older rocks ; 
 while, on the Dublin coast, near Lough Shinny, a shore 
 conglomerate, or breccia, is found immediately under the 
 Coal Measures. 
 
 Limerick. 
 
 To return to Munster. It has been shown that in 
 Kerry there are no marked divisions in the Limestone. 
 But in north-east Cork and Waterford, over the Lower 
 Limestone Shale, there are blue, argillaceous, shaly lime- 
 stones, capped by the Lower Cherty Zone ; which is a series 
 of cherty beds interstratified with calcareous shales. In 
 these parts of Cork and Waterford, the Upper Limestone is 
 not represented, or it is cut out by faults ; but in the 
 
Lower Carboniferous. 
 
 7i 
 
 County Limerick and the adjoining portion of Tipperary, 
 there are well-marked divisions. 
 
 General Section, County Limerick. 
 
 Upper Limestone, t Bedded limestone 
 of Burren type. \ Cherty zone 
 
 240 feet 
 
 20 „ 
 
 Upper Limestone, 1 Limestones and shales 
 of Calp type. \ Cherty zone 
 
 1,000 „ 
 
 40 „ 
 
 ( Fenestella limestone . 
 
 1,900 „ 
 
 Lower Limestone \ Lower cherty zone 
 
 20 „ 
 
 * Lower shaly limestones 
 
 280 „ 
 
 Lower Limestone Shale .... 
 
 • . 100 „ 
 
 
 
 
 5,600 „ 
 
 Interstratified with these rocks, there are, in the Counties 
 of Cork, Limerick, and Clare, zones of eruptive rocks, the 
 best developed being at the junction of the Fenestella and 
 Upper Limestone. The base of the Old Red Sandstone of 
 this area is only seen in the County Clare, to the north, 
 and in the County Tipperary, to the east ; in both places, 
 the series consists, below, of conglomerates and sandstones, 
 with subordinate shales, and, above, of shales and clay-rocks 
 with some sandstones and grits. In some places, the basal 
 bed is a peculiar quartz-rock or a silicious limestone. 
 
 fThe Lower Limestone Shale is rarely seen, being 
 obscured by deep drift ; but that it is a constant member 
 of the series seems proved by its being found in all the 
 ravines and valleys that cut through the drift. Below, 
 this group graduates into the Old Red Sandstone. Plants, 
 which may be referred to the genus Sagenaria, have been 
 found in the Old Red Sandstone. In the Lower Lime- 
 stone Shale, fossils are very numerous, but there is not much 
 variety J They are as follows : Fenestella flabellata, very 
 
J 2 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 abundant ; Orthis Michelini, Spirifera striata, Streptorhyn- 
 cJius crenistria, StropJwmena analoga, Acroculia vetusta, 
 Nautilus dorsalis, very rare ; Actinocrinus costatus, A. Poly- 
 dactylies, and Platycrinus Icevis. 
 
 Between the Lower Limestone Shale and the Lower 
 
 Shaly Limestone there is only an arbitrary boundary, one 
 
 graduating into the other. The limestones, when freshly 
 
 raised from a great depth, are of a bright, light green 
 
 colour, which, in a few days, changes to a dark, dull blue. 
 
 These limestones occur in every locality where the true 
 
 Old Red Sandstone is found. The fossils are abundant in 
 
 some beds, the most characteristic being the coral Michelinia 
 
 favosa, after which the Lower Shaly limestone is sometimes 
 
 called ; others are Cyathophyllum ceratites, Lithodendron 
 
 junceum, Ceriopora gracilis, Fenestella flabellata, Glauco- 
 
 nome grandis, Orthis Michelini, O. resupinata, Producta 
 
 margaritacea, P. semireticidata, Rhynchonella pleurodon, 
 
 Spirifera cuspidata, S. glabra, S. lineata, S. striata, 
 
 Streptorhynchus crenistria, Crinoidal joints and stems, very 
 
 abundant, and the trilobite Phillipsia pustulata, very 
 
 rare. 
 
 The Lower cherty zone makes a marked base to the 
 Fenestella limestone. In this limestone, the Polyzoa, after 
 which it was called by Wynne, are very numerous, whole 
 masses of the rock being sometimes made up of them. 
 Brachiopoda are well represented, Terebratula hastata, 
 Spirifera striata, Rhynchonella pleurodon, R. pug?ius, 
 Orthis resupinata, and Producta semireticidata being most 
 numerous. Of Conchiferous mollusca, the Aviculopectens 
 are the most numerous, Cardiomorpha oblonga is very 
 characteristic, also species of Edmondia and Pleuro- 
 rhynchus, a large and new species of the latter being called 
 Koninckii by Baily. The Gasteropoda and Cephalopoda 
 
Lower Carboniferous, 73 
 
 are very characteristic of this group, most of them, 
 apparently, coming in and dying out with it Of the former, 
 Euomphalus pentangulatus and Natica elliptica are the 
 most abundant, but others are plentiful, such as Euom- 
 phalus Dionysii, Turritella suturalis, Trockella prisca, and 
 Loxonema Lefebvrei; a new chiton, C. Thomondiensis, 
 has been found in this group of rocks. The most 
 abundant of the Cephalopoda are Nautilus biangulatus and 
 dorsalis, some of the latter being very large ; Goniatites 
 sphcericus ,var .crenistria, are also common ; Nautilus discites; 
 several species of Orthoceras ; Gyroceras also occurs, a 
 Cephalopod new to Britain. In only one instance have 
 fish remains been found, the fossil being a large scale 
 referred to Holoptychius Portlockii. Baily's list of the 
 other numerous fossils is given in the Explanation, sheet 
 
 i 5 8. 
 
 The characteristic Fenestella limestone is massive, desti- 
 tute of bedding, and of a blue or grey colour ; occasion- 
 ally, however, it contains red and purple beds, these being 
 generally at the base or top, but sometimes in intermediate 
 positions. In some places the rock changes to a compact 
 unfossiliferous, cherty-lboking limestone, having innumer- 
 able small veins of calcite in it, and an appearance as if it 
 had undergone metamorphism ; this is very characteristic 
 of the Fenestella limestone of Cork and Limerick. Jukes 
 states of this altered rock, that it is similar in colour and 
 aspect to specimens which he broke off the modern coral 
 reefs in the Australian seas — large tracts are more or less 
 magnesian or dolomitic. 
 
 The Fenestella limestone, when typical, is always capped 
 by a cherty zone, the basal beds of the Upper Limestone. 
 In places, the limestone under these cherty beds is entirely 
 made up of well preserved fossils ; as if the vulcanicity 
 
74 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 which erupted the igneous rocks that occur on the horizon 
 of these cherty beds, had suddenly destroyed most of the 
 life in the sea. One of these great burial places was 
 opened up at Doohylebeg, near Rathkeale, in the 
 making of the Limerick and Foynes railway. The rock 
 cuttings brought innumerable fossils to light ; some of the 
 shells were beautifully coloured ; but, unfortunately, on 
 exposure to the air, the colours rapidly faded and dis- 
 appeared ; in some mineral pitch was found. 
 
 The cherty zone at the base of the Calp in the Counties 
 of Limerick and Clare is well developed. It is, in a few 
 places, over 200 feet thick, but the average thickness may 
 be put down at 40 or 50 feet. Above this cherty zone are 
 thin-bedded, dark blue, or black, argillaceous, fetid lime- 
 stones with shale and clay partings. Some beds are fine 
 and compactly crystalline, and would make marble. 
 Some massive beds are affected by a structure that seems 
 to be cleavage, although Dr. W. King, of Queen's College, 
 Galway, considers it to be a variety of jointing. {Trans. 
 Roy. Irish Academy, vol. xxv., p. 905.) Sometimes the 
 Calp is so thin-bedded as to yield flags. The Upper Lime- 
 stone is often magnesian, and sometimes quite a dolomite ; 
 some of the dolomites are oolitic. Griffith discovered a 
 coalrod, or parting of coaly matter, in the Calp near 
 Rathkeale. 
 
 Fossils are very rare in the Calp, as compared with the 
 Fenestella limestone ; Bellerophons, however, are very 
 numerous in some beds, also Phillipsia Derbiensis and flus- 
 tulata, Chonetes fiapilionacea, Producia mesoloba, with 
 Crinoidal stems and joints. 
 
 In the west of the district, Upper Limestone of the Burren 
 type comes in, but only with a thickness of a few hundred 
 feet. It is separated from the rocks of the Calp type by a 
 
Lower Carboniferous. 75 
 
 cherty zone. In the neighbourhood of Ballybrood, how- 
 ever, in the south-east part of the county, there seems to 
 be, in places, a thickness of between 400 or 500 feet 
 margining the Coal Measure outlier ; but eastward the 
 limestone is cut out by eruptive rocks, which come in 
 on the same horizon ; the latter are described in 
 Chapter XII. 
 
 The well marked divisions in the Lower Carboniferous 
 rocks of the County Limerick disappear or change as the 
 rocks are followed northward or eastward. The Lower 
 Shaly limestone is found in Clare, Limerick, Tipperary, 
 north-east Cork, Waterford, Kilkenny, and perhaps in 
 Carlow, and Kildare, but not elsewhere. The Fenestella 
 limestone is generally found in the southern half of 
 Ireland ; elsewhere it does not occur as a distinct group ; 
 although there are, in places, local off-shore accumulations 
 (see fig. 5) connected with the shore-beds, which are some- 
 times similar in appearance to that group. 
 
 The Calp, as it is followed northward, gives place to the 
 Upper Limestone of the Burren type ; but, towards the 
 north-east, it becomes thicker, and in Ulster may be 
 divided into distinct groups. The Burren limestone is a 
 very important group in the barony of Burren, County 
 Clare, from which locality it was named by Foot ; it is so, 
 likewise, farther northward, being the sole representative 
 of the Lower Carboniferous rocks in a great portion of 
 Connaught and Ulster. These different changes will be 
 better understood after the different typical sections have 
 been described. 
 
 Leinster. 
 
 In Tipperary, adjoining the province of Leinster, in the 
 King's County, Queen's County, part of Kildare, Carlow, 
 
7 6 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 and Kilkennyf there seems to be a three-fold division in 
 the limestones.^ Below, there are bedded limestones, more 
 or less like the Lower Shaly limestones, which, as followed 
 upwards, lose their bedded character, and take on that of 
 the Fenestella type between these groups. There may be 
 a distinct boundary between these groups ; but on account 
 of the great head of drift or bog in these different 
 counties, this cannot be proved^/ The lower division in 
 Kildare, Carlow, and part of Kilkenny, lying on the 
 Leinster granite, is nearly always a bedded dolomite. 
 
 In north-west Kilkenny and the adjoining county, the 
 central division is principally a dolomite, but in other 
 places the limestones are bluish or black (often making a 
 good marble) and associated with shales, the thickness of 
 the latter being sometimes considerable. The upper rocks 
 are somewhat like the Burren limestones, and chert is a 
 characteristic of them ; but they are not so regularly 
 bedded. A very characteristic fossil is Prodncta gigantea, 
 others are Cyathophyllam regium, Lithostrotion striatum, 
 and Lithodendron fasciculatam and irregulare. In these 
 counties, there is, in places, above this limestone and under 
 the Coal Measures, a considerable series of cherty beds. 
 
 In part of Kildare, in Dublin, Meath, and Louth, lime- 
 stones of the Calp type are the principal representatives 
 of the Lower Carboniferous rocks ; there are, however, in 
 them subordinate beds which contain fossils characteristic 
 of the Burren limestone, and other subordinate beds with 
 fossils characteristic of the Lower Limestone. On account 
 of the fossils in these subordinate beds being much more 
 numerous than the fossils in the beds of the Calp type, 
 the whole assemblage from the mass of the limestone, 
 has rather the character of a Lower Limestone or of a 
 Burren limestone, than of a Calp group. 
 
Lower Carboniferous. yj 
 
 The mixing together of the fauna of the different types 
 of limestone may be thus accounted for. While elsewhere, 
 in the area covered by the Lower Carboniferous rocks, 
 first Lower Limestone and afterwards Calp and Burren 
 limestone, were being deposited, in the Dublin district, on 
 the contrary, the rocks being laid down were principally 
 of the Calp type. But, at intervals, the circumstances of 
 the sea in the Dublin area favoured the life typical of the 
 other divisions, and during such times different animals 
 emigrated from other areas, to live for longer or shorter 
 periods in this part of the sea. However, as often as the 
 conditions became unfavourable, these forms of life dis- 
 appeared, to be subsequently succeeded by similar forms 
 when the circumstances became again favourable. Exhaus- 
 tive lists of the fossils collected in Dublin and the neigh- 
 bouring counties are given by Baily and Jukes in the 
 Explanation, sheets 102 and 112 of the Geological Map. 
 
 In the north of the County Dublin, at Portraine, on 
 Lambay Island, and near Skerries, are conglomerates and 
 sandstones associated with the Calp ; while between Lough 
 Shinny and Skerries are peculiar limestones, having the 
 aspect of the Lower Limestone. Jukes, however, con- 
 sidered that these beds belong to the Calp, and were on- 
 shore accumulations in the neighbourhood of the land to 
 the northward. The reasons for and against these rocks 
 being true Lower Limestone are discussed in the Survey 
 Memoir just now mentioned, page 61. 
 (The arenaceous rocks at the base of the Lower Car- 
 boniferous in this area require some notice) In the valley 
 of the Barrow, County Kilkenny, /outh of Goresbridge, 
 
 the true " Old Red Sandstone " seems to die oi)t ; as, 
 - m T 
 
 northward of that, the limestone lies directly on the older 
 
 rocks. jSouth-east of Thomastown, at Kiltorcan, is the 
 
7 8 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 famous Lower Carboniferous Sandstone quarry, in which 
 the Adiantites Hibernicns, Sphenopteris Hookeri, Anodonta 
 Jukesii, Coccosteus, Bothriolepis, and PterichtJiys are found. 
 It seems probable that the sandstones there belong to 
 the basal beds of the Lower Carboniferous, but the 
 Adiantites Hibernicus and Sphenopteris, are also found in 
 the country to the SSE., in the promontory of Hook, 
 where they are in shore-beds adjoining rocks of the Calp 
 type. The rocks of this detached basin in the south of 
 Wexford may be now described. 
 
 Extending NE. from the mouth of Waterford Harbour 
 to Wexford Harbour, there is a tract of Carboniferous 
 rocks, which are evidently the eastward extension of those 
 at Dungarvan. These rocks seem to have accumulated in 
 a narrow bay, which shallowed out eastward, while extend- 
 ing northward from it along the line of the present valley 
 of the Barrow, there was a north branch which is now 
 occupied by the conglomerates and sandstones which are 
 to be seen north and south of the junction of the Barrow 
 and the Suir. At the west end of this SW. and NE. strip 
 of Carboniferous rocks, in the promontory of Hook Head, 
 there are conglomerates and sandstones margining shales 
 like Calp, over which are bedded limestones like the Lower 
 Shaly Limestone of the Limerick section. Farther north- 
 east the rocks have a similar aspect ; but at their north 
 margins they graduate into conglomerates, sandstones, and 
 red shales ; while at the south margin only a few subordi- 
 nate beds of sandstone and shale are interstratified among 
 them. 
 
 If the Hook Head rocks are not the true Old Red 
 Sandstone, it is evident that the plants just mentioned were 
 not confined to the beginning of the Carboniferous period, 
 but that they flourished on the land near the seas or lagoons 
 
Lower Carboniferotis. 79 
 
 during the course of the age, and may be found in any 
 littoral or estuarine accumulation. In the previous chapter, 
 when describing the Carboniferous rocks of the Cork type, 
 it was mentioned that assemblages of fossils very similar 
 to those at Kiltorcan, are found in the Yellow Sandstone 
 near Tallow Bridge, County Waterford, and near Toe 
 Head, County Cork. 
 
 Clare and Galway. 
 
 f 
 
 \Jn south-east Clare the section is very similar to that of 
 
 Limerick, except that the Old Red Sandstone, the Lower 
 Limestone, and the Calp, are much thinner, and the Upper 
 Limestone of the Burren type, as followed northward, 
 rapidly thickens. J) 
 
 The following is the general section of the rocks : — 
 
 f Bedded limestone, with chert layers 1,500 feet. 
 Burren Limestone { cherty zone . < . 40 „ 
 
 „ , f Black limestone, shale, &c. . 1 
 
 Calp . . . i 400 „ 
 
 I Cherty zone .... J 
 
 {Fenestella limestone . . . 300 „ 
 
 Lower cherty zone . . . . ioo „ 
 
 Lower shaly limestone . . . 400 „ 
 
 Lower Limestone Shale 150 „ 
 
 Old Red Sandstone or Basal beds 1,000 „ 
 
 3,890 „ 
 
 The Old Red Sandstone, the Lower Limestone Shale, 
 and the Lower Limestone, do not occur north of the 
 parallel of Galway, in the middle parts of Ireland ; the 
 rocks of similar composition that are found in that 
 region being on higher geological horizons/, but in 
 South Ulster, towards the NE., they again appeajl The 
 Calp is replaced, to the northward, by the Burren lime- 
 stone ; but to the north-east it thickens, and, in the neigh- 
 
So Geology of Ireland, 
 
 bourhood of Loughrea, it is well developed, having in it 
 very arenaceous beds ; it is in part thin bedded and yields 
 good flags. A little west of Portumna, there are a few thin 
 sandstones and a coal-rod, or very thin seam of car- 
 bonaceous or coaly matter. Further eastward, in the 
 vicinity of Portumna, immediately over the middle cherty 
 zone and under the Calp, there is about 200 feet in thick- 
 ness of Burren limestone ; this mass, however, is evidently, 
 lenticular. The Calp of Galway and that of North Lein- 
 ster are probably connected ; but they cannot be traced 
 into one another on account of the great head of drift and 
 bog on the intervening country. 
 
 In the Old Red Sandstone of this tract, fragments of 
 plants are found in various places ; the best locality being 
 Derroran, County Galway (Explanation, sheets 124 & 
 1 25), while at Caherhurley,two miles SE. of Newmarket-on- 
 Fergus, County Clare, plants occur associated with bivalve 
 shells. In the latter locality, the Lower Limestone Shale 
 is very fossiliferous, the fossils consisting of bivalve shells, 
 a few univalves, corals, trilobites, and plant fragments. 
 
 The Upper Limestone abounds in corals. In the Burren, 
 beds formed almost entirely of one kind of coral can be 
 traced for miles. The most typical of the corals are 
 Lithostrotion affine, L. junceiwi, L.striattcm or basaltiforme, 
 and Alveolites depressa. The latter often become silicious, 
 and these silicious lumps, weathering out from the surface 
 of a bed, sometimes leave holes like the footmarks of 
 men, horses, dogs, &c, which have given rise to various 
 legends. Phanerotinus cristatus is very abundant in some 
 beds near Lough Cooter, County Galway. 
 
 In NE. Galway, at Mount Mary (a little SW. of the 
 town of Roscommon) as also at Slieve Dart, the hill north 
 of Dunmore, there are tracts of sandstone which seem to 
 
Lower Carboniferous, 81 
 
 be high up in the Burren limestone, although the rocks are 
 similar to the Old Red Sandstone. In Mount Mary con- 
 glomerates are exposed in two or three places only, while 
 close to the hill is a quarry of black earthy limestone, full 
 of chert and shale, like the Calp of the County Dublin. 
 In Slieve Dart no arenaceous rocks are found in situ ; to 
 the SW. of the hill are rocks very like Calp, and, in one 
 place, rocks like the Fenestella limestone ; but nearly every- 
 where else in the neighbourhoods of both hills the rocks 
 partake more or less of the Burren type. 
 
 Mayo, Sligo, and Roscommon. 
 
 West, north-west, and north of Lough Mask, as also 
 north, north-east, and east of Clew Bay, there are con- 
 glomerates, sandstones, and bright-coloured shales, similar 
 in aspect to the Old Red Sandstone, but evidently high up 
 in the Burren Limestone, as seen at the north side of 
 Lough Mask where one class of rock is interstratined with 
 the other. East and north of Clew Bay, shales, like 
 Lower Limestone Shale, margin the arenaceous rocks, the 
 latter being of considerable thickness. Still, it is evident 
 that all these rocks are high up in the Carboniferous forma- 
 tion ; for as we there recede from the ancient lands, they 
 graduate into Upper Limestones ; furthermore, at Beltra 
 and Levaly lakes, between Clew Bay and Lough Conn, 
 limestones very similar to those of Burren seem to lie 
 directly on the arenaceous rocks. Farther northward in 
 Tirawley, there is a large area occupied for the most part 
 by arenaceous and argillaceous rocks, which contain so- 
 called typical Lower Limestone Shale fossils. These 
 rocks, however, graduate eastward horizontally, into Upper 
 
 G 
 
82 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Limestone, and, consequently, must also be only shore- 
 beds. 
 
 In south Roscommon, west and north-east of Castle- 
 reagh, there are shaly and arenaceous rocks, which, 
 although they contain Lower Limestone Shale fossils, 
 must be shore-beds in the Burren limestone. Further 
 north, ENE. and WSW. of Lough Gara, there are arena- 
 ceous and argillaceous rocks lying on metamorphic and 
 other Silurian rocks. The exact relations between these and 
 the associated limestones are uncertain, as the geology is 
 obscured by drift and bog. Some of the arenaceous rocks 
 have been called, by Bedoe-Wilkinson, Old Red Sandstone, 
 and of these he says : " they appear to be conformable 
 with the Silurian beds, but are overlapped unconformably 
 to the north and south by the Lower Carboniferous Sand- 
 stones." These Lower Carboniferous Sandstones of Bedoe- 
 Wilkinson seem to be of Burren age ; for, although the 
 mass of the fossils found in the associated limestone are 
 of Lower Limestone and Shale types, yet along with them 
 are found such fossils as Product a gigantea and Lithoden- 
 dron affine, eminently Upper Limestone types. Sir R. 
 Griffith has mentioned to me in conversation, that in this 
 vicinity, in the Curlew Mountains near Boyle, as also in 
 the hills about Fintona, County Tyrone, he met with 
 rocks very like those of the GlengarifT Grit type, but that 
 he never had time to work them out. These rocks and 
 those about Fintona are probably of Silurian age, as men- 
 tioned at page 85. 
 
 In the Curlew Mountains, SW. and NE. of Lough 
 Key, there are arenaceous rocks enveloping small ex- 
 posures of Cambro-Silurian rocks. To the north of 
 these are limestones of the Burren type, underlying the 
 Coal Measures of Lough Allen. There may, indeed, be 
 
Lowe}' Carboniferous. 83 
 
 a great fault hereabouts, bringing up the older rocks ; this, 
 however, seems improbable, as at Drumshambo, to the 
 south of Lough Allen, there is a section showing a regular 
 gradation from rocks like the Lower Limestone Shale up 
 to the Coal Measures. 
 
 In the section at Drumshambo, the lowest rocks are like 
 Lower Limestone Shales, over which are rocks like Lower 
 Limestone and Calp. To the east of Drumshambo, how- 
 ever, there are sandstones, which, to the south, seem to be 
 margined by shales, and to the north, by limestone ; while 
 to the westward all these local peculiarities seem to dis- 
 appear gradually, and limestones of the Burren type to 
 come in. If there is not a nearly E. and W. fault, with 
 an upthrow to the south, it is perfectly impossible that the 
 arenaceous rocks about Lough Key, in the Curlew Moun- 
 tains, can be true Old Red Sandstone ; and if they are 
 actually not so, they, and the associated shales WSW. and 
 ENE. of Lough Gara, must be shore-beds of Burren lime- 
 stone age. Such a fault seems improbable, on account of 
 the character of the section at Drumshambo. 
 
 To the north and north-east of Slieve-Bawn, County 
 Leitrim, and extending into the County of Monaghan, 
 there is a large irregular tract of rocks like Lower Lime- 
 stone Shale, lying apparently on the Cambro-Silurians, 
 except in the vicinity of Cavan town, where sandstone 
 intervenes between them. To these rocks we will here- 
 after return when describing the Lower Carboniferous 
 rocks of Fermanagh, Tyrone, and Armagh. 
 
 In north Sligo the Carboniferous rocks are well exposed, 
 and in Benbulben (Fig. 6) and the neighbouring hills they 
 are as follows, according to Wynne : 
 
 4. Sandstones, the lowest beds of the Coal Measures. 
 3. Pale grey limestone, with magnesian limestone bands. 
 
 G 2 
 
84 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 2. Thin bedded black shaly limestone, with magnesian limestone 
 
 bands. 
 1. Olive, grey, and whitish sandstones, with black shale partings. 
 
 In the lower group there are remains of large plants, 
 some of which are carbonized, with impressions of coiled 
 shells. u The most characteristic fossil of the black lime- 
 stone is Zaphrentis cylindrical The pale grey limestones 
 are less distinctly stratified than those below them, but 
 " there does not seem to be any strongly marked division 
 between the two.'* At Streedagh Point the fossil forms of 
 Z. cylindrica are very numerous, " and project from the 
 largely exposed, slightly sloping beds, like stumps in a 
 cabbage garden, some of them being from 1:5 to 2 feet 
 long, and 2 or 3 inches in diameter." There are also beds 
 and great clusters of Lithostrotion in places. Wynne 
 gives lists of fossils collected near Glencar Church and 
 Kilsella in micaceous sandstones and rocks like Lower 
 Limestone Shale, and from the limestone in other localities 
 {Dublin Geol. Soc. Journal, vol. x.), the species having 
 been determined by Baily. 
 
 Although the fossils would seem to indicate that the 
 rocks belong to the Lower Limestone, yet they seem to 
 be on a similar horizon to the limestones of Burren. They 
 are situated immediately under the Coal Measures, and 
 the entire thickness of them cannot be more than about 
 1,500 feet, as seen in the Benbulbin section. Wynne points 
 out that the rocks show " signs of the splitting-up into 
 alternations of silicious and calcareous deposits, such as 
 occur in the Carboniferous rocks of Ulster." 
 
 Fermanagh, Cavan, and Monaghan. 
 
 We have mentioned at page 83 that rocks like Lower 
 Limestone Shale, lying above the Cambro-Silurians in 
 
Lower Carbonifei'ous. 85 
 
 Cavan, extend NE. into the County Monaghan. These 
 rocks are found for a short distance NE. of Monaghan 
 town, after which the limestones appear to lie directly 
 on the Cambro-Silurian. A north-west section, from 
 Monaghan towards Omagh, County Tyrone, gives the 
 rocks in the following order : — 
 
 1. Cambro- Silurians, covered unconformably by 
 
 2. Rocks like Lower Limestone Shale, dipping northward beneath 
 
 3. Grey and dark-blue limestone, with subordinate beds of shale, 
 
 dipping northward beneath 
 
 4. The NE. and SW. ridge of Slieve Beagh, formed of light coloured 
 
 sandstones and grits, with subordinate beds of shale, clay and 
 
 thin, impure coal, lying in a synclinal curve, from beneath 
 
 which rise northward 
 3' Grey and dark-blue limestones, with subordinate beds of shale, 
 
 from beneath which rise northward 
 i' Rocks like Lower Limestone Shale, from beneath which rises 
 
 northward 
 I 1 A great thickness of sandstone, which occupies a large tract, 
 
 extending nearly from Lough Erne, county Fermanagh, to 
 
 Pomeroy, county Tyrone, the highest summit being Slievemore, 
 
 1,033 feet. 
 
 These rocks of Slievemore, according to Portlock, are 
 true Old Red Sandstone, but Griffith suspects them to be 
 partly Silurian, and representatives of part of the " Glen- 
 gariff grits." * Portlock estimates them to be at least 
 from 5,000 to 8,000 feet thick. According to Griffith, 
 there are over them other sandstones (called by him 
 Yellow Sandstone), which form a base to the Carbon- 
 iferous rocks. North of these rocks, near Tubbrid and 
 
 * These are the rocks already mentioned as supposed by Griffith to be 
 partly of Silurian age, and the representatives of the Dingle and Glengariff 
 grits, counties of Kerry and Cork. The relations between the rocks of Slieve- 
 more and the Carboniferous limestones to the south have not as yet been 
 worked out. 
 
86 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Omagh, are tracts of other sandstones, probably belong- 
 ing to the Calp ; these will be mentioned hereafter. 
 
 From the arenaceous rock of Slievemore, westward, 
 there is the following section : — 
 
 6. Coal Measures, having at Benbulben a group of 
 
 sandstone at their base. 
 
 5. Splintery limestones about 500 feet. 
 
 4. Calp sandstones, with shales, clays, and impure 
 
 coals „ 1,000 ,, 
 
 3. Lower Limestone „ 600 „ 
 
 2. Lower Limestone Shale ; principally grits and 
 
 sandstones ....... „ 200 ,, 
 
 1. Sandstones, &c, of Slievemore. 
 
 2,300 „ 
 
 According to this calculation, the rocks (2, 3, 4, and 5) 
 between the Coal Measures and the Slievemore rocks, are 
 about equal in thickness to the rocks in Kerry that inter- 
 vene between the Coal Measures and the Old Red Sand- 
 stone (see p. 6y). In Kerry, however, those rocks were 
 principally calcareous accumulations, while here, in a great 
 measure, they are arenaceous and argillaceous. As already 
 mentioned, coal-rods occur in the Calp in Limerick and 
 Galway, while here there are regular seams, but so earthy 
 and otherwise impure as to be valueless. Formerly the 
 Calp sandstones of this county were supposed to be part 
 of the Coal Measures ; but Griffith proved that they were 
 a group in the centre of the Lower Carboniferous. 
 
 Donegal, Londonderry, Antrim, Tyrone, and 
 
 Armagh. 
 
 In Tyrone the section of the Lower Carboniferous 
 rocks is very similar to that in Fermanagh and Monaghan ; 
 but directly over the arenaceous rocks of Slievemore the 
 
Lower Caj'boniferous. Sj 
 
 Lower Limestone seems to come in, or is brought down 
 against them by faults. This is succeeded by the Calp ; 
 consisting of sandstones, shales, clays, and impure coals ; 
 over which is limestone, in part very like that of Burren, 
 having also the typical fossils, but containing peculiar 
 conglomeritic beds ; pebbles or concretions of limestone 
 being enveloped in a shaly calcareous matrix. In places, 
 the beds are often ferruginous also, and in some localities, 
 especially to the north, near Cookstown, there are inliers 
 of sandstone. 
 
 Towards the SE., in the valley of the Blackwater, near 
 Benburb, and also in the adjoining portion of the County 
 Armagh, there are rocks having some of the characteristics 
 of the Lower Limestone Shale and Old Red Sandstone, 
 but others like those of the Upper Limestone ; some of 
 these are said by Professor Hull to be Permians. Port- 
 lock, however, considered all to belong to the Carboniferous 
 formation, and Baily has pronounced the fossils in them 
 to be typical Carboniferous ; furthermore, Egan has shown 
 that the limestones, shales, and sandstones are inter- 
 stratified. This area has a special interest, as from thence 
 was obtained a magnificent collection of fossil fish by the 
 late Admiral Jones, many of which are figured as type 
 specimens by Agassiz in " Recherches sur les Poissons 
 Fossiles." A list of these fish is given by Portlock in his 
 " Geological Report on Londonderry, Tyrone, &c," page 
 461. 
 
 To these rocks it will be necessary to return again when 
 describing the Permian rocks, but it should now be men- 
 tioned that some of the Armagh fossil fishes are also 
 found in the Calp of Londonderry, in the Calp (coalfield) 
 at Ballycastle, County Antrim, and in the Burdie House 
 Limestone, Scotland ; the last being apparently on the 
 
88 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 same geological horizon as the Irish Calp. A list of the 
 fishes common to these different places will be given with 
 the description of the Bally castle rocks. The sandstones 
 near Armagh, associated with the limestones containing 
 these fossils, are very like those which, near Draperstown, 
 County Londonderry, are associated with rocks containing 
 similar fossils, as also to some of the sandstones (Shore- 
 beds) at Ballycastle. 
 
 North of Cookstown, extending west-south-west from 
 Moneymore,in Londonderry, to Lough Erne, in Fermanagh, 
 there is a ridge or backbone of granitic and metamorphic 
 rocks, north of which the Lower Carboniferous rocks are 
 principally of the Calp type ; they, however, often contain 
 fossils or possess characters very like those of the Old 
 Red Sandstone rocks and Lower Limestone Shale. West- 
 wards, on the north, north-east, and east of Donegal Bay, 
 there is a considerable area occupied by these rocks. 
 These rocks principally have characters like the Lower 
 Limestone Shale or the Calp, except in a tract towards 
 the south, where the limestone has some characters 
 like Lower Limestone, others like the Burren limestone. 
 
 North-east of Lough Erne, about Tubbrid and Omagh, 
 is another tract, the rocks of which have characters com- 
 mon both to the Lower Limestone Shale and the Calp, 
 except in a small area bordering Lough Erne, the lime- 
 stone of which has generally more the characters of 
 Lower than of Upper Limestone. 
 
 Farther northward, and SE. of Strabane,. is a long 
 irregular area in which the rocks are very like those to 
 the SW., about Tubbrid. 
 
 From a little north of Moneymore there is a long 
 irregular area of Lower Carboniferous rocks margining the 
 Mesozoic and Cainozoic rocks of Ulster, which widens out 
 
Lower Carboniferous. 89 
 
 and forms a considerable expanse at Lough Foyle. In 
 the south of this tract, on the west of Draperstown, and 
 margining the metamorphic rocks, there are rocks very 
 like Old Red Sandstone, consisting (as seen in the Moyola 
 river, west of Moneyneany) of a massive conglomerate that 
 has a structure like bedding. This structure, however, 
 must be false bedding ; as otherwise the rock should be 
 taken as .over 2,000 feet thick, while in reality it can only 
 be one or two hundred. About Draperstown are sand- 
 stones very similar to those of the Calp, but containing a 
 vast thickness of shales identical in appearance, but not 
 in fossils, with those of the Coal Measures, but having 
 above them, on the slopes of Cullion, beds of earthy 
 shaly limestone. 
 
 To the north-east of Cullion, in the neighbourhood of 
 Desertmartin, are limestones quite separate and distinct 
 from those of Cullion. They are like those of Burren, 
 and contain some of the typical fossils. These limestones 
 are supposed by Portlock to overlie the rocks between 
 them and Draperstown. This is possible, as the Desert- 
 martin limestones seem to be let down into their present 
 position by faults. If the latter supposition be correct, 
 they probably are the thickening eastward of the Cullion 
 limestones, which when in mass have taken more decided 
 character. 
 
 The connection between the red rocks west of Drapers- 
 town and the strata between that and Desertmartin 
 is obscure, the former being cut off by a fault that 
 runs about NNW. But when the sections exposed in 
 the different tributaries of the Moyola river are ex- 
 amined, it is found that the black and yellow rocks 
 in various places suddenly change into red rocks, and 
 that such red patches always margin small tracts of 
 
90 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 metamorphic rocks ; from which it would appear probable 
 that the red and other coloured rocks are different portions 
 of the one group ; those accumulated near the shore lines 
 being of red colour. Somewhat similar red rocks also 
 occur to the west of Maghera, and to the north and west 
 of Moneymore, the age of which is uncertain ; but probably 
 they are of similar age to the other red rocks. In the 
 yellow and black rocks coal-rods occur, but no workable 
 coals have been found. 
 
 Farther northward, about Dungiven, and in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Lough Foyle, the Carboniferous rocks are 
 somewhat similar to those near Draperstown ; the red 
 rocks, however, are not as prevalent. In some of these 
 rocks are the remarkable fish remains before referred to. 
 
 To the east, in the valley now occupied by Lough 
 Neagh, are great, nearly north and south, faults ; one or 
 more of which seem to shift the ridge of Lower Palaeozoic 
 rocks at Moneymore, considerably northward ; these old 
 rocks appearing again in the country between Cushendall 
 and Ballycastle. To the SE. of this ridge or exposure 
 of metamorphic rocks, and extending south-west from 
 Cushendun Bay, is a small tract of tuffose arenaceous rocks 
 like some of those near Pomeroy, County Tyrone ; while 
 to the north-west of it is the Ballycastle Coalfield. 
 
 The rocks of the Ballycastle Coalfield are, in some 
 respects, not very different from the typical Coal Measures 
 of Ireland ; they contain various workable beds of bitu- 
 minous coal. But these rocks have been proved by 
 Griffith and others to be of the same age as the " Lower 
 Coal Measures " of Scotland, which, from the sections 
 exposed near Edinburgh, are evidently on about the same 
 geological horizon as the Irish Calp. 
 
 A short resumt of the Calp rocks will show the relations 
 
Lower Cai'boniferous. 
 
 9i 
 
 between the rocks here and in the other localities. In the 
 County of Limerick there are, in the Calp, shaly beds and 
 at least one coal-rod or parting of coaly matter. In the 
 County of Galway, besides shales there are arenaceous 
 rocks, and, in one locality, a typical sandstone with a 
 coal-rod. In the County of Dublin are sandstones, flags, 
 and shales, with carbonaceous clays and coaly seams. In 
 Fermanagh and Tyrone much of the Calp consists of 
 sandstones and shales, in which are clays and im- 
 
 Fi£. 6. 
 
 Benbulben Limestone Hills, County Sligo. 
 
 pure coals. In these counties the shales have not the 
 characters of the Coal Measures, but when we proceed 
 northward, past the ridge of Lower Palaeozoic rocks, into 
 Londonderry, the shales are identical in aspect with those 
 of the Coal Measures, but have not the characteristic 
 fossils. Associated with these shales are interstratified 
 limestones, grits very like those of the Coal Measures, and 
 various thin coal-rods of good coal, but no seam over a 
 few inches in thickness is known to exist. Farther to the 
 
92 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 north-east, however, in the Ballycastle Coalfield, are rocks 
 similar to those of Londonderry, but having in them good 
 valuable seams of coal. 
 
 In the Ballycastle Coalfield there seems to be a different 
 number of coals in the different parts of the area; however, 
 they have not been as yet systematically worked out. 
 Interstratified with the coal-bearing rocks are others ; 
 some of which are like Old Red Sandstone, others like 
 Lower Limestone Shale, and others having the characters 
 of the Upper Limestone. In reference to these Bally- 
 castle rocks, Baily writes, " the prevailing plants are 
 Sigillaria and Stigmaria (its roots), Lepidodendron 
 rimosunty L. dichotomum, and L. Veltheimianum. An 
 absence of ferns was remarkable. Many marine shells 
 were collected from the associated shales and limestones 
 of true Carboniferous Limestone characters ; Lingula 
 squamiformis being very abundant in the shales. Fish 
 referred to Ctenacaiitkus, and palatal teeth of Helodus 
 planus were also met with in the coast section." 
 
 The fossil fish found in these rocks have been already 
 referred to ; in the following list are given some of those 
 that are stated by Portlock to be found in Armagh, 
 Fermanagh, Tyrone, Londonderry, Ballycastle and Burdie 
 House, Scotland. 
 
 Amblypterus (?). — Ballycastle; Maghera, Londonderry; Fermanagh, in 
 
 calp. 
 Gy r acanthus for mosus. — Maghera, Londonderry. 
 Holopty chius. — Maghera, Ballinascreen, and Dungiven, Londonderry ; 
 
 Tyrone ; Fermanagh ; Hollywood ; Down ; Burdie House, 
 
 Scotland. 
 Psammodus porosus. — Armagh ; Derryloran, Tyrone ; Desertmartin, 
 
 Londonderry, in limestone somewhat like that of Armagh. 
 P. rugosus. — Armagh ; Carnteel, Tyrone. 
 P. cornutus. — Armagh ; Fermanagh, in calp (?) shales. 
 Cochliodus magnus. — Armagh ; Desertcreat, Tyrone. 
 
Lower Carboniferous. 93 
 
 County Down. 
 
 In the County of Down, at Holywood, near the SW. end 
 of Belfast Lough, and near the north end of Strangford 
 Lough, at Castle Espie, there are small exposures of Car- 
 boniferous rocks. Those in the first locality consist of 
 shales, sandstones, and conglomerates, having, among 
 other fossils, the fish Holopty chins, mentioned in the above 
 list ; while at Castle Espie are limestones like those of 
 Armagh, with red shales and sandstones, but in this 
 locality fish have not been found ; these rocks probably 
 belong to the Upper Limestone, for although the assemblage 
 of fossils would indicate an older group, yet some of the 
 fossils are eminently of Upper Limestone types ; Producta 
 gigantea is of large size, while Actinoceras giganteum is 
 exceedingly large, and locally called " pillars." 
 
 Carlingford and Dundalk. 
 
 In the north portion of the County of Louth, in the 
 vicinity of Carlingford and Dundalk, are limestones and 
 other rocks, having many characters and fossils of the 
 Calp and Burren limestones ; but, in places, with these 
 rocks others are associated that are like Lower Limestone 
 Shales. The latter probably are shore accumulations, 
 while the whole group seems to belong to the Upper 
 Limestone. In them Griffith found a few seams of coaly 
 matter. Near Carlingford, these rocks are traversed by a 
 network of dykes of eruptive rocks. 
 
 Carrickmacross. 
 
 In the County of Monaghan, about Carrickmacross, and 
 extending southward into the Counties of Cavan, Louth 
 
94 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 and Meath, is a large irregular triangular area of Carboni- 
 ferous rocks ; near Nobber, the Coal Measures rest on the 
 Lower Carboniferous rocks. These rocks, from lithological 
 characters, may be divided into three groups, corresponding 
 to Lower, Calp, and Burren limestones ; but, evidently, 
 when those of the Burren type thicken, those of the Calp type 
 die out. That the rocks of the different lithological divisions 
 are of uneven thickness, and fully developed only here 
 and there, is proved ; as, near Nobber, the Coal Measures lie 
 on limestones, while to the N W. they appear to rest directly 
 on the Cambro-Silurian rocks. West of Ardagh, the lime- 
 stones contain a group of fossils which in Munster would 
 be regarded as presenting a Lower Limestone fades; 
 and yet a little NW. of the same place are shales, which, 
 as appears by their contained fossils, clearly belong to 
 the Lower Coal Measures. Here, therefore, there seems 
 to be the same confusion as in the rocks to the south, in 
 the County Dublin ; colonies of fossils characteristic of 
 lower parts of the Carboniferous Limestone in Munster, 
 occurring here high up in that formation. In places at 
 the margin of the underlying Cambro-Silurian rocks, are 
 local patches of bright-coloured sandstones and shales. 
 Very small outlying patches of Carboniferous rocks occur 
 to the SW., a little westward of Kells, and towards the 
 NW., at Stradone, on the east of Cavan. 
 
Plate IV.] 
 
 [To face page 95. 
 
 W. H. Baily, del. 
 
 Upper Carboniferous (Coal Measures) Fossils. 
 
95 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Upper Carboniferous. 
 
 Coal Measures. 
 
 In Chapters IV. and V. it was shown that the rocks of the 
 Lower Carboniferous group are variable in character. In 
 the SW. of Ireland, particularly in the SW. of the County 
 Cork, there are no limestones in the group ; in north 
 Munster, and part of Leinster, there is the greatest thick- 
 ness of limestone strata ; while, in Ulster, there are 
 arenaceous and argillaceous rocks, but of different types 
 from those in south-west-Cork, which in a great measure 
 replace the limestones. (The rocks called Coal Measures in 
 Ireland, lie directly on all these different types of rocks. 
 and apparently on one and the same geological horizon^ 
 These Coal Measure rocks, however, in some places over- 
 lap the Lower Carboniferous rocks, so as to lie immediately 
 and, of course, unconformably on the Lower Palaeozoic and 
 other older rocksj It was also shown that the coal-bearing 
 rocks of Ballycastle, County Antrim, belong to the Calp 
 type of the Upper Limestone, and are probably of the 
 same age as the " Lower Coal Measures " of Scotland. 
 
 Several attempts have been made to correlate the Irish 
 Coal Measures with those of England ; all, however, have 
 failed. Neither lithologically nor stratigraphically can 
 any correlation be made. According to Baily — " If the 
 fossil fauna alone is considered, and the flora ignored, a 
 
96 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 forced correlation may be made with the Lower Coal 
 Measures of England ; but if the flora alone is taken into 
 account, and the fauna ignored, the Measures can be made 
 to seem of the same age as the Upper Coal Measures 
 of England." From the uppermost beds of the Upper 
 Limestone, to the highest bed of the Coal Measures 
 found in Ireland, terrestrial, freshwater, estuarine, and 
 marine fossils are mixed up together ; it would, there- 
 fore, appear that the Irish Coal Measures have a type of 
 their own, or that they cannot be correlated with the 
 English rocks, except, perhaps, some of them with the 
 "Culm Measures" of Devonshire. 
 
 (.Although the rocks of the Irish Coal Measures vary 
 irregularly amongst themselves in certain respects, yet 
 there are certain persistent differences amongst them, 
 extending over the whole of Ireland, which make them 
 capable of being subdivided into groups convenient for 
 their description. ' These may be called, The Upper, 
 Middle, and Lower Coal Measures, and their average 
 thicknesses are as follows : — \ 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 
 
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98 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 The rocks of the Coal Measures in Munster and 
 Leinster seem to have undergone an incipient metamor- 
 phism, as the coals are anthracites, while the other rocks 
 are in general grits, shales, and indurated clays ; the 
 metamorphic action, however, was not intense enough to 
 obliterate the fossils. In north-east Connaught, there 
 seems to have been a very slight action, as the coals are 
 more or less bituminous ; while in Ulster there seems to 
 have been little or no change, most, if not all, of the coals 
 being bituminous, and the shales of Munster being repre- 
 sented by laminated clays. In Ireland both the bitu- 
 minous and non-bituminous varieties are called Coal ; when 
 compact and laminated, Cannel coal; when soft and 
 laminated, Culm. Kelve and Pindy are more or less 
 argillaceous or arenaceous culms, that graduate into car- 
 bonaceous shales ; Buddagh is carbonaceous clay, and Coal- 
 rods or Crow coals,are thin local seams, or mere partings of 
 coal, or coaly matter. There are also other local terms, 
 
 tit of limited use. 
 In the Lower Measures, in the Counties of Cork, 
 Kerry, Clare, Limerick, Meath and Louth, there are fish 
 remains at the base of the series. These, when submitted 
 by Jukes to Egerton and Huxley, were pronounced to 
 belong to the genus Ccelaca?ithus, a fish of a true Coal 
 Measure type.f 
 
 This division is usually composed, for the most part, of 
 argillaceous rocks, except at the base, where a small thick- 
 ness of flaggy grits comes in ; but in north-east Connaught 
 these arenaceous rocks are represented by a regular series 
 of grits, hundreds of feet in thickness ; the fossils of the 
 arenaceous rocks seem always to be terrestrial, while 
 
 * Very similar fish occur in the Upper Measures in the Dungannon coal-field, 
 County Tyrone, near Coal Island. 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 99 
 
 those of the shales are marine. In Connaught and Ulster, 
 there are also subordinate thin beds of limestone. 
 
 fx the base of the Middle Measures there is, in 
 general, a Flagstone series ; in some places, however, it is 
 not well represented, while in other places it is higher up 
 in the series. Peculiar tracks are always found on these 
 flags, which have been figured and described by Baily 
 in the Geological Survey Memoirs, Explanations sheets 
 128 and 140. J 
 
 In these Measures in Munster and Leinster, kelve, 
 coal-rods, and fire-clays occur, but no workable coals ; 
 while in north-east Connaught and in Ulster, workable 
 coals do occur. The fossils of these rocks are very much 
 mixed up ; they are usually marine in the argillaceous 
 rocks, and terrestrial in the arenaceous. There are, how- 
 ever, exceptions to this rule, as in some of the grits and 
 flagstones estuarine or marine fossils occur. 
 
 In some of the shale beds, but especially in certain 
 beds near the top of the Middle Measures, there are 
 seams or layers of nodules of Clay-iron-stone, which were 
 formerly extensively worked in the Provinces of Leinster 
 and Munster. 
 
 /The Upper Measures are irregular alternations of 
 grits and shales, associated with beds of coal, fire-clay, 
 and clunch ; also seams and nodules of Clay-iron-stone. J 
 
 [The base of these Measures is a more or less arbitrary 
 line, as the rocks in them and those in the Middle Measures 
 are somewhat similar. / It was, however, found by Jukes 
 and his colleagues that in all the Irish Coal Measures 
 (except, perhaps, in those of Tyrone, province of Ulster, 
 where no section of Middle Measures can be seen) there 
 is a thin Coal from about 1,200 to 1,500 feet above the 
 Limestone and a little over the shales, formerly extensively 
 
 H 2 
 
ioo Geology of Ireland. 
 
 worked for Clay-iron-stone ; this was adopted as the 
 base of the Upper Measures.* This seam, although most 
 important geologically, from its being so universal, appears 
 to be commercially of little value, for in no place has it 
 been found to be a workable coal. 
 
 It is remarkable that such a thin coal should extend 
 over so great an area. In the Leinster Coal-field it has 
 been proved in numerous places in the vicinities of the 
 ancient iron-ore workings ; in the East Munster Coal-field 
 a coal is found on about the same horizon, and also in 
 that of West Munster. In the outlying patches of Coal 
 Measures in Munster, Leinster, Connaught, and Ulster, 
 wherever they are from 1,200 to 1,500 feet thick, this coal 
 has always been found ; and even in the Tyrone Coal-field 
 it probably exists, as in one place there is a thin coal that 
 may represent it. 
 
 In several places argillaceous limestone beds have been 
 found containing fossils of a Lower Carboniferous type ; 
 hand specimens of the rocks being nearly undistinguish- 
 able from Lower Limestone Shale. They were first re- 
 corded by Willson, in 1855, from the Kilkenny portion of 
 the Leinster Coal-field, f where they are above two or 
 three of the Coals ; subsequently we ourselves found 
 either two or three beds, of a similar character, high up in 
 the Coal Measures of Limerick, above some of the prin- 
 cipal coals, but the exact height above the Upper Lime- 
 stone could not be determined ; and more recently Foot 
 recorded a very continuous bed in the County Clare, 
 estimated by him to be over 2,000 feet above the base of the 
 
 * In some of the places unexamined when this horizon was decided upon, a 
 thin coal, occupying a very similar position, has since been recorded. 
 
 + Mr. Hardman has recently found a similar rock near Castlecomer, County 
 Kilkenny, which is probably that first noticed by Willson, or part of the same 
 bed. 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 101 
 
 Coal Measures. In the other fields no limestone of this 
 character has been recorded. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that such authorities as 
 Egerton and Huxley consider the fish remains in the very 
 lowest beds of the Irish Lower Coal Measures to be of true 
 Coal Measure type ; and Baily, who stands prominent in 
 his knowledge of the fossils of the Irish Coal Measures, 
 has furnished us with the following epitome of his Report 
 on those fossils, read before the Royal Irish Academy, 
 January 25, 1877 : — 
 
 " These results show that in the south of Ireland, as in 
 the somewhat analogous Coal-field of Coalbrookdale, 
 Shropshire, alternations of marine, estuarine, and probably 
 fresh-water deposits occurred, containing the remains of 
 plants and animals of a very similar character to those 
 alluded to in Mr. Prestwich's description of that Coal-field 
 in the ' Transactions of the Geological Society of London,' 
 vol. v., second series. In the Leinster Coal-field the 
 peculiar Limuloid Crustacean Belinitnis, and the Fish 
 Rhizodus and Gyracanthus are genera characteristic of 
 this district, as well as of that of Coalbrookdale ; fossil 
 plants of several species are also common to the Coal- 
 fields of Tipperary and Castlecomer, and those of Shrop- 
 shire and Newcastle. The marine shells Aviculopecten 
 papyracetis, Goniatites sphoericus var. crenistria, with Posi- 
 donomya Becheri and its probable variety P. membranacea 
 are abundant in the shales connected with certain Coals 
 in the Tipperary and Castlecomer districts ; whilst other 
 Coal seams are characterized by certain Plant remains ; 
 this is especially the case at the collieries near Killenaule, 
 in the County of Tipperary, several of them being re- 
 markable for the abundance of Plant impressions, amongst 
 which Ferns predominate, such as Sphenoptetis Hoening- 
 
102 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 hausii, Pecopteris muricata, Alethopteris lonchitidis, together 
 with Sphenophyllum Schlotheimii, Calamites Suckowii, and 
 C. cannceformis, and Lepidodendron Stembergii. 
 
 " In the County of Limerick, in the Lower Coal Measure 
 shales, marine fossils predominated, associated with com- 
 paratively few plant remains, and those of an indefinite 
 character, such as Noeggerathia. Of the shells, Posidonomya 
 were in profusion, Aviculopecten being also very abundant 
 with Myalina, Goniatites, and Orthoceras. 
 
 " In the Munster district, at collieries near Kanturk, 
 Sigillarice were found to be remarkably abundant with 
 Stigmaria in the underclay, Calamites of several species, 
 Lepidodendron, also Sphenophyllum Schlotheimii, fossil 
 ferns Sphenopteris Hoeninghausii, Neuropteris Loshii, Pecop- 
 teris abbreviata, and Alethopteris lonchitidis. 
 
 " In the County of Clare, in the Lower Shales, as in the 
 Counties of Meath and Dublin, marine forms of identical 
 species, including Posidonomya membranacea, Avicidopecten 
 papyraceus, Lunulacardmm, Goniatites, and Fish, probably 
 Ccelacanthus, are abundant ; and at Lahinch, in the same 
 County, bivalve shells were obtained, like those found at 
 Bilboa, in the Queen's County — Anthracosia, Myacites, 
 My alma, Sic, Aviculopecten papyraceus, Goniatites crenistria, 
 and Oi'thoceras, accompanied by the remarkable crustacean 
 Belinurus Regina. 
 
 " In the Connaught Coal District, situated in the Counties 
 of Roscommon, Sligo, Leitrim, and partly in the County 
 of Cavan, fossil Plants of the genera Lepidodendron, Stig- 
 maria, and Calamites occur in the sandstone associated 
 with the • Bottom Coal ' near the Arigna Iron Works ; 
 and in dark grey shales, more distant from those works, 
 marine fossils were obtained of similar species to those 
 found at RossclifT in the County of Clare, and on the 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 10 
 
 o 
 
 Banks of the Boyne, in the County of Meath, viz., Avicu- 
 lopecten papyraceus, and A. variabilis, Posidonomya mem- 
 branacea, Goniatites crenistria, Crinoid joints, and a few 
 Plant fragments. 
 
 " In the Tyrone Coal-field, including those of Coalisland 
 and Annaghone, the fossil assemblage contains compara- 
 tively few plant remains. Like that of Antrim, these are 
 associated with marine beds containing Carboniferous 
 Limestone species of shells. The conspicuous Plants are 
 Lepidodendron rimosum and L. selaginoides, Stigmaria, 
 Catamites caunceformis, Sphenopteris irregularis, and 
 5. tridactylites with bivalve shells, Anthracosia and Sau- 
 guinoliteSy and the characteristic Carboniferous Limestone 
 Brachiopod Lingula squamiformis so abundant at Bally- 
 castle Colliery; also Cephalopod shells, Goniatites crenistria 
 and Orthoceras. With these are associated fish scales, 
 referred to Palceoniscus, and palatal teeth of Helodus 
 planus T 
 
 The principal Irish Coal-fields are the WEST MUNSTER 
 COAL-FIELD, including portions of Clare, Limerick, Kerry, 
 and Cork; the East Munster Coal-field, part of 
 Tipperary; the LEINSTER COAL-FIELD, in the Queen's 
 County, Kilkenny, and Carlow ; the CONNAUGHT COAL- 
 FIELD, situated in Sligo and Roscommon, with the adjoin- 
 ing portions of Fermanagh and Cavan in Ulster ; and the 
 Tyrone Coal-field, which includes those of Dungannon, 
 Coalisland, and Annaghone. Besides these fields there 
 are numerous small outliers, some interesting from the 
 situations they occupy, others for the rocks or fossils found 
 in them. Those found in West Cork shall be first de- 
 scribed. 
 
104 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 West Cork. 
 
 In West Cork, Coal Measures occur at Whiddy Island, 
 in Bantry Bay ; near Ballyheedy, SW. of Ballinhassig ; 
 farther north-eastward, NW. of Carrigaline ; and to the 
 southward in the promontory of the Old Head of Kinsale. 
 In all these places, except near Carrigaline, the Coal 
 Measures lie directly on the Carboniferous Slate ; in the 
 vicinity of Carrigaline the Limestone begins to come in, and 
 from ten to fifteen feet of earthy Limestone is found in 
 one place under the Coal Measures. At the Old Head of 
 Kinsale there are a few small patches occurring in sharp 
 synclinal folds of the Carboniferous Slate. 
 
 | In all these localities there seems to be a very small 
 thickness of the Lower Shales ; Jukes considered those 
 near Ballyheedy to be not more than ioo or 200 feet 
 thick. 1 In the shales are such fossils as Posidonomya 
 Becheri and membranacea, while near Ballyheedy are also 
 found fish remains, of the genus Ccelacanthus, which Sir 
 P. de M. Grey-Egerton " has never seer in any beds below 
 the Coal Measures." Associated with these are other 
 fossils of Coal Measure types. 
 
 West Munster Coal-field. 
 
 In Clare, Limerick, and Kerry there appears to be - a 
 considerable thickness of Measures, much greater than in 
 East Munster or Leinster, but very destitute of workable 
 Coals. Foot was of opinion that the Measures in Clare 
 were between 3,000 and 4,000 feet thick. But in Limerick 
 and Kerry there are no sections from which good estimates 
 can be made. 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 105 
 
 General Section, Clare, Limerick (?), and Kerry (?). 
 
 Upper Measures. 
 
 ' Upper beds with some coals over 1,800 feet 
 II. Coal .... 2 „ 
 
 Intermediate beds . . 250 
 
 I I. Coal .... 0-5 
 
 55 
 
 2,052-5 
 
 Middle Measures 1,000 
 
 Lower Measures . 500 
 
 3,552-5 
 
 //In the north part of Gferre, the " Coal Slate," as is 
 locally named the black carbonaceous shale forming the 
 " roof" of a coal, also the " seat clay " and the " seat rock " 
 of Nos. I. and II. Coals can be found and traced, but the 
 Coals are absent or represented by great stems of Stig- 
 maria.J Higher Coals occur in different places in the 
 county, but all that are known, except a few near the 
 Shannon, at the south of the county, are so thin that 
 they are valuelesA According to Foot, there is, at about 
 2,700 feet above the base of the Coal Measures, a bed of 
 argillaceous limestone, generally over a foot thick, which 
 contains crinoid joints, small Orthoceras, Goniatites crenis- 
 tria in abundance, a few Brachiopoda, the Coral Zaphrentis 
 and Polyzoa. This Limestone has thin beds of coal at 
 some distances above and below it. J 
 
 At Coosnabrien, near Killard Point, are very large 
 specimens of Stigmaria, some over seven feet long ; and 
 at Coor Spa, near Ennis, is a remarkable assemblage of 
 fossils, in the Lower Measures, consisting of terrestrial 
 plant stems, some very large and longitudinally ribbed 
 (" Geological Survey Memoirs," Explanation sheets 131 
 and 132), associated with numerous marine fossils. At 
 Rosscliff (" Geological Survey Memoirs," Explanation 
 sheet 142) the Lower Measures are very rich in fossils, 
 
106 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 including, among many others, Lunalacardium Footii, a 
 fossil characteristic of these Irish Measures, and remains 
 of the fish Ccelacanthiis* 
 
 South of the Shannon, in Limerick and Kerry, there 
 are some workable coals, but, except in the case of Nos. 
 I. and II. Coals, the height at which they are found above 
 the base of the Coal Measures is unknown. To the east 
 of Abbeyfeale, between two coals not far apart, are fossils 
 similar to those found by Foot in the limestone band, 
 County Clare. Here, however, the rock is not as pure a 
 limestone, but more like the Lower Limestone Shales. 
 Some miles east of Athea there is a very similar assem- 
 blage of fossils in a blackish shale immediately over a 
 coal. These coals are evidently higher than No. II. Coal 
 in the general section (page 105), but how much it is im- 
 possible to say. Near Glin there is a coal that seems to 
 be higher than No. II., which has above it shales very 
 rich in fossil plants. Alethopteris heterophylla, Corynepteris 
 stellata (thus provisionally named by Baily, but now 
 considered by him to be the fructification of Alethopteris), 
 Calamites cannceformis, Calamocladus grandzs, Lepido- 
 dendron Sternbergii, Lepidostrobus ornatus y L. lepidophyllus, 
 Sigillaria tessellata, S. L indleyana, S. ocidata, and Stigmaria 
 ficoides. 
 
 The plants in the above list are instructive, for, as 
 pointed out by Baily, they are identical with species from 
 the Coalbrookdale and Newcastle collieries of England. 
 
 In South Limerick the coals are very perplexing, as in 
 certain places the strata are inverted, the " roof " being 
 beneath, and the " coal-seat " and " clay " above the coals ; 
 
 * These are bones of the head, like those found in the Lower Measures at 
 Baflybunnion, County Kerry, and in the valley of the Boyne (Louth and 
 Meath), to the WSW. of Drogheda. 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 
 
 107 
 
 the strata being so much crumpled that the positions of 
 the coals in the sections are quite uncertain — this com- 
 plication also occurs further south in the County of Cork ; 
 but here, in the Blackwater valley, the coals are more 
 numerous than elsewhere in the West Munster coal-field. 
 
 In the Blackwater collieries six coals are worked. In 
 the west portion of the valley it is impossible to calculate 
 the height of the coals above the Limestone, as the pre- 
 viously mentioned great fault of the valley between Dingle 
 and Dungarvan brings down the Coal Measures hereabouts, 
 against the Glengariff grits (Silurians) ; while the Coal 
 Measures are inverted and crumpled up. Farther eastward, 
 however, in the cutting for the Railway, between Mallow 
 and Dublin, the rocks occur in a regular succession, and 
 contain coals that seem to represent those at the collieries ; 
 and this series has been taken as an index to the district ; 
 the following section, up to the first coal, having been cal- 
 culated from it, above which the measurements at the 
 colleries are given. 
 
 General Section in the Blackwater Valley, County Cork. 
 I 6. Upper beds .... not known. 
 VI. South, or Harris's Bulk vein 1*5 to 5 feet. 
 
 5- ' 
 
 Upper 
 
 Measures. 
 
 Intermediate beds . 
 
 V. Bulk vein 
 
 4. Intermediate beds 
 IV. Rock vein 
 
 3. Intermediate beds . 
 III. Coal or Sweet vein 
 
 2. Intermediate beds . 
 II. Fourpenny vein 
 
 1. Intermediate beds . 
 
 I. Morgan's, or Castle vein 
 
 120 
 
 1-5 to 7 
 
 125 
 
 o # 5 to 2 
 
 100 
 
 1 to 2 
 
 200 
 
 1 to i*5 
 
 100 
 
 075 
 
 Middle Measures. 
 Lower Measures. 
 
 663-25 
 900 
 
 700 
 2,263-25 
 
io8 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 The " bulk " veins Nos. V. and VI. are made up of two 
 or more coals which, in places, join together or " bulk." 
 When the subordinate beds separate, they are called 
 " arms." In the Bulk vein No. V. the north arm always 
 lies on a "seat" and has a "slate" roof, while the other 
 arms have " slate " under and over them. When the south 
 arms branch from the main, or north arm, there may be 
 any thickness of a wedge of Measures between them, and 
 sometimes these arms even dip at the main arm.* In this 
 valley there is a repetition of the same series of beds, the 
 two masses of stratification striking parallel and dipping 
 toward the southward, as explained in the Survey Memoirs, 
 Explanation sheets 163, 174 and 175. 
 
 In the rocks associated with No. II. Coal and higher 
 Coals clay-iron-stone occurs in the county, both north 
 and south of the Shannon, and at one time it was con- 
 siderably worked. At the Knocknaboola Colliery, near 
 Loghill, in the shales associated with the clay-iron-stone, 
 a new fossil, Loxonema minutissima, occurs. 
 
 In the Middle Measures the Flagstone series is well 
 developed in the Counties of Clare, Limerick, and Kerry ; 
 the flags have been worked at different places, especially at 
 Money Point, to the north of the Shannon estuary, where 
 they are rich in curious tracks. 
 
 In the Lower Measures near Ballybunion, County Kerry, 
 are the previously mentioned remains of the fish Ccelacan- 
 thus ; and at Foynes Island, County Limerick, there is a 
 vast quantity of pyrites, principally associated with calcar- 
 eous nodules, in which the fossils are uncompressed and 
 very perfect, the most numerous being Goniatites ; but there 
 
 * Foot records in Clare coals branching similarly, and in one place he 
 found that the branches lay in the oblique or false bedding of the overlying 
 bed. 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 109 
 
 were same new fossils detected by Baily, namely, Orthoceras 
 minimum, Myalina Foynesiana, Loxonema Galvani, and 
 Macrocheilus inflatus. One mile to the southward are 
 fish-bones and scales (Ccelaca7itkus) y while still farther 
 south, at Mount David, near Shanagolden, are plant 
 remains associated with marine or estuarine fossils. The 
 same mixing-up of terrestrial and marine forms, but in 
 the Middle Measures, occurs in the rocks close under the 
 Coals at Loghill. Baily's list of the fossils of the West 
 Munster Coal-field are given in the " Geological Survey 
 Memoirs," Explanation sheets 131 and 132. 
 
 Small Outliers in Munster. 
 
 To the east of the Munster Coal-field, at Ballybrood, in 
 the plain of Limerick, is a small tract of Coal Measures ; 
 while a second occurs to the south-south-east at Garbally. 
 In both these tracts the Measures are over 1,500 feet in 
 thickness ; and No. I. Coal occurs, but only a few inches 
 in thickness. The Garbally tract is bounded to the south 
 by the great Slieve-na-muck fault, which brings it down 
 against either the Cambro-Silurians or Cambrians. In 
 this tract the Flagstone series is well developed, and the 
 flags have been worked in various small quarries. 
 
 Still farther south-south-east, in the Mitchelstown valley, 
 south of Galtymore, is a considerable area of Lower 
 Measures, which are here about 400 feet in thickness ; 
 while other isolated small outliers occur north-west of 
 Clonmel, south-west and north-east of Fethard, and north 
 of Cashel. 
 
 East Munster Coal-field. 
 f-In this field every stratum, from the highest in the 
 
I 10 
 
 Geology of Ireland, 
 
 Limestone to the highest of the Coal Measures, can be 
 seen and measured. J The following is the section : — 
 
 I 
 
 Upper 
 Measures. 
 
 General Section, East Minister Coal-field. 
 
 f 8. Upper beds . 
 VIII. Parknaclea Coal . 
 7. Intermediate beds 
 VII. Clashaco?ia Coal . 
 6. Intermediate beds 
 VI. Hanly's vein 
 5. Intermediate beds 
 V. Crow Coal . 
 4. Intermediate beds 
 IV. Main Coal . 
 
 3. Intermediate beds 
 
 III. Pat. Maker's vein 
 
 2. Intermediate beds 
 
 II. Upper Glengoole Coal 
 
 1. Intermediate beds 
 
 \ I. Stinking vein 
 
 60 
 
 4 
 
 no 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 90 
 
 2 
 
 140 
 
 2 
 200 
 
 075 
 500 
 
 i'75 
 
 150 
 
 075 
 
 feet. 
 
 Middle Measures 
 Lower Measures 
 
 1 ,29475 » 
 900 „ 
 
 600 ,, 
 
 , 279475 ) 
 
 v. No. I. and II. Coals surround the productive portion of 
 the field, and also occur in a few outlying basins. No. III. 
 is an insignificant local coal, and would not appear in the 
 list but that it was cut in the long level connecting the 
 Glengoole and the Earl's Hill collieries. The Coals above 
 No. IV. only occur in a small basin at Earl's Hill, the rem- 
 nant of some of the higher strata that once existed. No. 
 VIII. is entirely worked out ; No. VII. has a most peculiar 
 roof, rising in arches, the coal thinning to a few inches, 
 arid then thickening in places to four or five feet ; No. IV. 
 is the best anthracite in the district, but it has a soft and 
 bad roof which makes it expensive to work. This coal 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 
 
 i ii 
 
 occurs in a few small out-lying basins, besides that at Earl's 
 Hill ; and in some of the shales over it are balls of clay- 
 ironstone, y 
 
 In the Measures associated with the lower Coals in the 
 north portion of the West Munster field, marine or 
 estuarine (?) fossils predominate, while in this field plant 
 remains are very numerous, not only with the lower but 
 also the upper Coals. Those most generally distributed 
 are four or five kinds of Catamites ; Sphenophyllum or 
 Asterophyllites are also not uncommon ; these plants being 
 remarkable for a peculiar arrangement of the leaves in star- 
 like whorls round the stems ; but generally the most numer- 
 ous plant impressions are those of ferns. The Lower Glen- 
 goole Colliery is a remarkably rich locality for some 
 ferns, particularly Sphenopteris Hoeninghausii, S. muricata, 
 and Alethopteris lonchitidis ; the last-named, being widely 
 distributed throughout all the Irish Coal Measures. At 
 Knockalonga another species, formerly called Alethopteris, 
 now Pecopteris pteroides, occurs ; and at the same place 
 Spheriopteris tridaetylites and Sphenophyllum Schlotheimii. 
 The only English locality yet known for this last-named 
 fossil is in Staffordshire ; but it is characteristic of the 
 Coal Measures in Prussia and Saxony. 
 
 At the Commons, Crowhill, Boulea and Foilacamon, or 
 Knockinglass Collieries, in the "roof" of the No. II. Coal 
 there are small bivalves belonging to the genera 
 Anthracosia, Myacites, and Myalina. Similar shells, as 
 will be hereafter mentioned, occur in the "roof" of No. III. 
 Coal, Bilboa, Queen's County.* The various other fossils 
 
 * Mr. Pat. Finlan, of Clogh Colliery, Queen's County, has stated that 
 while he was working the coals at the Coalbrook Colliery, he found Crustacea 
 in the shales ; he did not, however, preserve a specimen, and none of them 
 have since been found. 
 
ii2 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 recorded from these Coal Measures will be found in 
 Baily's list, " Geological Survey Memoirs," Explanation 
 sheet 146. 
 
 f T , 
 
 Leinster Coal-field. 
 
 In this field, as in the West Munster field, the sections 
 exposed or proved are unsatisfactory. To the west of 
 the main field, in Galmoy, on the west of the valley of 
 the Nore, there is a large outlying tract of Lower 
 Measures. The main field, on the south-west, joins the 
 East Munster Coal-field ; the measures being thickest in 
 the table-land between the valleys of the Nore and the 
 Barrow./ 
 
 Griffith, who was the first to systematically examine this 
 field, came to the conclusion that the coals in the centre, 
 near Castlecomer, were higher than those to the east and 
 west ; but afterwards, Messrs. B. B. Edge and Arthur 
 Jacob maintained that the main coals near Castlecomer 
 were the same as those to the east and west, and that the 
 measures in the centre of the field had been brought up 
 by faults ; and subsequently, during the survey made 
 under Jukes, conclusions very similar to the last were 
 arrived at. Griffith's calculation of the thickness of the 
 measures in the different Coal-fields of Ireland have, by 
 subsequent research, been found to be so accurate that any 
 opinion of his must necessarily have great weight. It will 
 therefore be advisable to analyse all that is known about 
 the Leinster coal-field. 
 
 The Castlecomer tableland is traversed by numerous 
 faults. It would appear that great, nearly N. and S., 
 faults divide it into three parts — east, middle, and west. 
 The western division is very little known, as it is covered 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 113 
 
 more or less by deep drift, and few coals have been worked 
 in it ; but there appear to be actually less coals in it than 
 in the other divisions. It is separated from the middle 
 division by a fault, with an upthrow to the eastward, which 
 runs northward from Dunmore past Castlecomer. 
 
 /f he thickest and most productive coals are found in the 
 centre of the field in the middle division ; but it is evident 
 that to the east there are more coals than to the south, 
 north, and west. The eastern is separated from the 
 middle division by a fault, with an upthrow to the west, 
 which runs south-eastward from Luggacurren. In this 
 portion the Measures are known, and give the following 
 general section.) 
 
 General Section of the Eastern Division of the Castlecomer Coal-field. 
 
 (East of the Luggacurren fault.) 
 
 Upper beds . over 100 feet. 
 
 V. Ward's Seam, Coal and Fire- 
 clay ..... 
 Intermediate beds . . 
 IV. Rushes, or Towlerio7i Old Coal 
 Upper / Intermediate beds . 
 
 Measures. I III. Bilboa, or Towlerto?i New 
 
 Coal(?) . . . . 75 to 
 Intermediate beds . 
 II. Kingscote Coal 
 
 Intermediate beds . 
 I. Gale Hill Coal 
 
 D 
 
 5? 
 
 I30 
 
 j; 
 
 1 '5 
 
 55 
 
 50 
 
 jj 
 
 2 
 
 5) 
 
 180 
 
 ■)■) 
 
 1 
 
 » 
 
 300 
 
 » 
 
 0-5 
 
 JJ 
 
 770 
 
 Middle Measures 800 
 
 Lower Measures 500 
 
 2,070 
 
 In this section, from the highest bed of the Limestone 
 to No. III. Coal, every bed can be seen and measured ; and 
 
 I 
 
H4 
 
 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 No. III. Coal has been worked in the Bilboa and Coorlaghan 
 collieries. When the survey was made in 1859, the 
 '' Towlerton New Coal" was not known to exist in 
 Towlerton ; and the " Old Towlerton Coal " was supposed 
 to be the same as the Bilboa coal (No. III.) ; the difference 
 in the measures over each being accounted for by 
 the effects of a sudden change. Now, however, as the 
 measures over the Towlerton New Coal are found to be 
 somewhat similar to those over the coal in the old 
 Coorlaghan Colliery, it would appear that there is an 
 additional Coal in the eastern division of the field* 
 
 To the west of the Luggacurren' fault, in that portion of 
 the central division that lies between Coolbaun and 
 Newtown Collieries, the following Coals and Measures have 
 been proved : — 
 
 Sectio?i at the Coolbaun and Newtown Collieries. 
 (West of the Luggacurren fault.) 
 
 
 ' Uppermost beds . 
 
 . 
 
 12 
 
 feet. 
 
 
 Peacock Coal 
 
 . . . 
 
 175 
 
 J5 
 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 
 . 
 
 45 
 
 J) 
 
 
 Stony Coal . 
 
 . 
 
 3 
 
 » 
 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 
 . 
 
 21 
 
 55 
 
 Upper 
 
 Measures. ' 
 
 Double seam, including middle fire- 
 clay ...... 
 
 Intermediate beds . 
 
 5 
 
 no 
 
 35 
 
 
 Old Colliery Coal . 
 
 . 
 
 3 
 
 » 
 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 
 . 
 
 170 
 
 5J 
 
 
 yarrow Coal 
 
 - . . 
 
 •25 to 6 
 
 i* 
 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 
 . . 
 
 296 
 
 3> 
 
 
 k Coal 
 
 . 
 
 . "25 to 0-5 
 
 J> 
 
 Middle Mea 
 
 SURES (?). Lowest beds 
 
 proved 
 
 80 
 
 5» 
 
 In other places in the Middle division of the field there 
 
 * Mr. B. B. Edge is not of this opinion, as he suspects that the coals in 
 Towlerton are only "branches" from one coal, and that eventually they will 
 be found to join into one. 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 115 
 
 are various local coals or coal-rods on different horizons. 
 The lowest Coal in this section was supposed by Jukes 
 to be the " Gale Hill Coal," and the Measures under it 
 are said to be similar to those at Gale Hill. Sir Richard 
 Griffith, Mr. McCarthy Meadows, and others believe that 
 the Jarrow and Old Colliery Coals are different from, and 
 in higher Measures than, any of those in the eastern divi- 
 sion, i.e., east of the Luggacurren fault. Meadows' principal 
 reason for supposing that the Old Colliery and the Rushes 
 Coals are different is the great thickness of Measures over 
 the Rushes Coal (No. IV.) in the Modubeagh Colliery, in 
 which there is no coal in a thickness of 270 feet, while at 
 Coolbaun there are three Coals in less than 210 feet of 
 Measures over the Old Colliery Coal. The Rushes 
 Colliery is next that of Modubeagh, yet in it, at 130 
 feet over the Coal, there was a workable Coal called 
 " Ward's Seam." If, therefore, there can be such a change 
 in the Measures between the Rushes and Modubeagh 
 Collieries, greater changes might probably occur at Cool- 
 baun. 
 
 In the Middle division, in the country to the south and 
 south-east of Castlecomer, although numerous trials have 
 been made, no coals that would represent the four or five 
 coals known to exist east of the Luggacurren fault have 
 been found. To the northward, in the Middle division, on 
 the north of the Clogh Colliery, there are coals — one in 
 the Broompark Colliery, and, farther northwards, two in 
 Riesk, and one still farther northward, in the Queen's 
 County, a mile NW. of the village of Swan — and these 
 may possibly be representative of the coals to the east of 
 the Luggacurren fault. Against such a supposition there 
 are the following considerations : — 
 
 The strata to the northward of the Clogh Colliery lie 
 
1 1 6 Geology of h'eland. 
 
 at very low angles, and Mr. Finlan, from a series of bore- 
 holes put down by him, came to the conclusion that the 
 same Coals were repeated over and over again by a series 
 of nearly east and west faults. Furthermore, there does 
 not appear to be thickness sufficient to bring in the eastern 
 Coals if they lie under the central division. At Doonane 
 and Newtown Collieries it has been proved by bore-holes 
 that none of these Coals can exist at a distance less than 
 400 feet below the J arrow Coal, while the trial at Mayo 
 would suggest that there were no workable Coals for a 
 depth of over 600 feet below the Jarrow. The Coal in 
 the Broompark Colliery is generally allowed to be the 
 north outcrop of the Jarrow Coal, and if the Riesk Coals 
 are lower Coals according to the dip of the strata, they 
 must be less than 200 feet below it. Besides, the Measures 
 under the lower Coal at the Riesk are identical with those 
 under the Hollypark Coal, which all allow to be the east 
 outcrop of the Jarrow. 
 
 Mr. Meadows has attempted to correlate the Coals of 
 the Leinster field with those of the East Munster or 
 Tipperary field. Such conjectures, however, seem to be 
 of no practical use, because between Leinster and Tip- 
 perary there are vast differences in the number of the 
 Coals ; somewhat similar to those before mentioned in the 
 West Munster field, where, to the south, in the County of 
 Cork, the Coals are much more numerous than to the 
 north (Clare, Kerry, and Limerick). If the Leinster and 
 Tipperary sections are compared, it will be seen that in the 
 former, to the east of the Luggacurren fault, there are five 
 seams of Coal (besides two thin crow coals) in 700 feet ; 
 while in Tipperary there are only three Coals in a thick- 
 ness of 850 feet. Of these, one is a workable coal, another, 
 although constant, a thin coal, and the third a local coal-rod, 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 1 1 7 
 
 only known to exist in one or two places ; which would 
 have been altogether ignored if it had not been cut 
 in the Glengoole level. 
 
 Again, a fruitless attempt has been made to prove by 
 the fossil evidence that the Measures to the east of the 
 Luggacurren fault, as also those associated with the lower 
 Coals of Tipperary, are of a marine character; while those 
 to the west, associated with the Jarrow and Old Colliery 
 Coals, and those associated with the upper Coals, Tippe- 
 rary, are not so. 
 
 In Tipperary, as previously mentioned, the Measures 
 associated with the lower Coals are, by fossil evidence, 
 eminently terrestrial or freshwater, while of the fossils in 
 the strata associated with the upper Coals very little has 
 been ascertained. In the Leinster field, in the strata 
 associated with the Coals to the east of the Luggacurren 
 fault, the fossils are also either terrestrial or freshwater ; 
 although in higher beds in some places, as in the Glen 
 Colliery, they are marine. To the west of the Luggacurren 
 fault, in the strata associated with the Jarrow Coal, there 
 are terrestrial and freshwater fossils, but in the strata 
 between that and the Old Colliery Coal there are marine 
 fossils ; likewise above the Stony Coal, the highest coal 
 but one in the district, there are marine fossils. If we go 
 to West Munster, it is found that in the north part of the 
 Coal-field marine types are the most prevalent ; while in 
 the county of Cork, at the same height over the Upper 
 Limestone, the fossils may be freshwater as well as marine. 
 
 In the western division of the Leinster field, two different 
 Coals, at least, have been worked ; but what Coals these 
 are it is difficult to say. Meadows is of opinion that they 
 are below the Coals of the central portion of the field, yet 
 the measures and contained fossils over the Skehana Coal 
 
1 1 8 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 are very similar to those over the Jarrow. It is in this 
 division that the previously mentioned calcareous bed, 
 discovered by Willson in 1855, occurs. 
 
 Lists of some of the Coal Measure fossils found in this 
 field are given by Baily in the " Geological Survey 
 Memoirs," Explanation sheets 128, 137, and 147. Suffi- 
 cient opportunity has not, however, been afforded for 
 eliciting the full palseontological evidence. Over the Coal 
 at Bilboa, Queen's County, and over the Jarrow Coal, 
 County Kilkenny, there are some very remarkable fossils. 
 At Bilboa, associated with the bivalve shells Anthracosia, 
 Myacites, and Myalina, similar to those found in certain 
 places over the No. II. Coal in the Tipperary field, there 
 are two new species of Crustacea, named by Baily Beli- 
 mirus Regina and arcnatus. These new fossils were 
 found only in a thin bed of black carbonaceous shale, 
 about two or three inches thick, at the base of the " roof" 
 of the Coal, associated with open and single valves of the 
 bivalve shells ; while the rest of the " roof" shale is 
 studded with uncompressed, unopened shells, which from 
 their form are locally called " beans." 
 
 In the year 1858 Mr. Pat Finlan, of Clogh, informed us 
 that fossils "like large lizards and snakes with feet" 
 occurred in the kelves and shales over the coal in the first 
 Jarrow pit. Those workings were then filled up with 
 rubbish, and Finlan could not produce any of the speci- 
 mens he had picked up, except a few ring-like impressions, 
 which by themselves were unintelligible. Subsequently, 
 however, after a new pit was sunk, Mr. Samuel Bradley 
 found what appeared to be similar Reptilia, which were 
 brought under public notice by Mr. W. B. Brownrigg in a 
 paper read before the Royal Geological Society of Ireland 
 (vol. i. n. s., p. 145), and they were afterwards described 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 1 1 9 
 
 in a joint paper by Drs. Huxley and Perceval Wright 
 ("Transactions of Royal Irish Academy," vol. xxiv., 
 Science, 1867, p. 351). In 1865 Mr. B. B. Edge found in 
 the old shales at Doonane Colliery the impression of a 
 fish, but the rock crumbled to pieces before he could get it 
 examined or named. 
 
 Outlying Tracts, Kildare, Dublin, Meath, and 
 
 Louth. 
 
 In these counties, to the west and north of Maynooth, 
 south-west and south-east of Navan, south of Balbriggan, 
 south-west of Drogheda, and near Ardee, there are larger 
 or smaller tracts, usually of the Lower Measures, although, 
 in places part of the Middle Measures are represented, 
 and near Ardee the No. I. Coal occurs. These patches lie 
 generally on Upper Limestone of the Calp type, but in 
 some places they overlap the Lower Carboniferous rocks, 
 and lie directly on the adjoining Cambro-Silurian rocks. 
 
 The Lower Measures are very fossiliferous, the principal 
 and most numerous fossils being Aviculopecten papyraceits, 
 A. variabilis, Posidonomya Becheri, P. membranacea, Go?iia- 
 tites crenistria, Catamites cannceformis, and occasionally 
 fish scales and defence spines with plant stems. Here, 
 again, it will be seen that, as usual in the Irish Coal 
 Measures, terrestrial plants are mixed up in the same strata 
 with marine fossils. 
 
 CONNAUGHT. 
 
 Near Balla, in the county of Mayo, are considerable 
 tracts of Coal Measures, forming Slieve Carna and the 
 neighbouring hill. In Slieve Carna there is a thickness of 
 
120 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 over 1,200 feet, a thin Coal or Coal-rod having been found 
 in the highest beds. Here, therefore, are the repre- 
 sentatives of the Lower and Middle Measures, which are 
 of a similar type to those in the West Munster field. 
 
 Small patches of the Lower Measures are found in south 
 Sligo, east and west of Lough Arrow ; and in north Sligo, 
 south-west of Lough Melvin. In the last a change comes 
 in, as those of the Lower Measures represented are nearly 
 all sandstones (see page 83). 
 
 In Fermanagh, south-west of Lough Erne, there is a 
 considerable area of Coal Measures. This, although 
 situated in Ulster, may be considered part of the Con- 
 naught field, as at Macnean it forms a continuation of 
 that tract. In this area, according to Berdoe Wilkinson, 
 the Lower Measures consist of — 
 
 2. Shales about 300 feet. 
 
 1. Sandstones '. - . . „ 200 „ 
 
 The arenaceous rocks, similar to those in the outlier 
 to the west in north Sligo, seem to lie on the Upper 
 Limestone. In the Shales (No. 2) Clay-iron-ore occurs 
 very abundantly. 
 
 CONNAUGHT COAL-FIELD. 
 
 The area which is generally known under the above 
 name occupies portions of Sligo, Roscommon, and 
 Leitrim, in the province of Connaught, and parts of Fer- 
 managh and Cavan, in the province of Ulster. -The 
 general section gives the following thickness of the strata ; 
 the rocks all belonging to the Middle and Lower Mea- 
 sures. 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 
 
 121 
 
 General Section of the Connaught Coal-field. 
 
 Middle 
 Measures. 
 
 ( 
 
 III. 
 
 II. 
 
 I. 
 
 Lower Measures 
 
 Upper rocks 
 
 over 
 
 400 feet 
 
 Kelve 
 
 about i foot 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 
 • n 
 
 50 feet 
 
 Coal 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 
 11 
 
 3 11 
 50 „ 
 
 Kelve 
 
 Lower beds . 
 
 11 
 
 3 11 
 96 „ 
 
 • 
 
 
 603 „ 
 600 „ 
 
 1,203 
 
 In describing the Leinster and Munster Coal Measures, 
 attention was directed to the kelve, coal-rods and fire-clays 
 observed in the Middle Measures ; and although these are 
 there valueless, here,(in Connaught, those indications are 
 represented by at least one valuable Coali (This Coal 
 Griffith statejLfllo be bituminous, which is confirmed by 
 later observers?/ 
 
 £The remarkable variations in the Lower Measures are 
 worthy of observation^ In the Lackagh Mountains to 
 the north-west, at the base, lying on the Upper Limestone, 
 there is from twenty to fifty feet of sandstone, while, in the 
 overlying shales are thin beds of argillaceous limestone. 
 To the south-west, in the country west of Lough Allen, 
 the basal measures are alternations of shales and grits, 
 the first predominating ; and in Slieve-an-ierin, east of 
 Lough Allen, below, for about 100 feet, the Lower 
 Measures seem to consist of alternations of shales, sand- 
 stones, and subordinate thin limestones ; while above are 
 sandstones about fifty feet thick, the rest being shales. 
 We have already given the section in the County Fer- 
 managh portion of the field. 
 
122 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 /n the Lower Measures Clay-iron-stone abounds] Grif- 
 fith and Jukes mention that the number of beds in some 
 places is astonishing ; some are thick, over ten feet, others 
 not more than one inch ; Griffith says that the thin veins 
 generally contain the richest ores. 
 
 In the Middle Measures, in the shales over No. III. 
 Kelve, there are innumerable thin beds of clay-iron-stone. 
 These beds are on about the same horizon at which the 
 iron ore was principally worked in the Leinster Coal-field ; 
 and in the latter, under the lower iron-ore beds, and on 
 about the same horizon as the Connaught Kelve, a thin 
 fire-clay has been proved, accompanied in places by a 
 coaly parting or coal-rod. 
 
 To the south-east of the main field, and west of Upper 
 Lough Erne, there is a considerable area of Coal Measures, 
 in which the Lower Measures and a portion of the Middle 
 seem to be represented. 
 * • F / ,Q,,i *v 
 
 --4: Ulster. 
 ^ 
 
 In the County Tyrone, between Dungannon and Lough 
 Neagh, is situated the Dungannon and Coalisland Coal- 
 field ; and a little farther north, at Annaghone, east of 
 Tullaghoge, there is a peculiar small tract of Coal Measures. 
 
 Dungannon Coal-field. 
 
 (Including Coalisland.) 
 
 The Coal Measures in this field are, in part, covered by 
 Triassic and newer rocks, and, in part, obscured by deep 
 drift. No correct sections of them can be given ; and all 
 the estimates of thickness that have been made are chiefly 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 123 
 
 founded on those originally given by Griffith. From the 
 known sections it would appear that the strata were in 
 some places very irregularly accumulated ; the measures in 
 one portion of the field being very different as to thickness 
 and the character of the strata from those in other parts. 
 This may be due to the nature of the surface of the 
 ground on which the rocks were deposited. 
 
 The following is a general section derived from Griffith's 
 and Portlock's reports : — * 
 
 General Section of the Dungannon and Coalisland Coal-field. 
 
 Upper Measures. In these are eight or nine work- 
 able beds of Coal . . about 900 feet. 
 'Upper beds . . about 1,000 feet \ 
 Drumglass coals and 
 fire-clays . . „ 15 „ 
 '.Lower beds . . „ 60 „ , 
 Lower Measures about 600 
 
 Middle 
 Measures. 
 
 i,o75 » 
 
 2,575 
 
 The Lower Measures were proved by a series of bore- 
 holes between Dungannon and Drumglass. The thick- 
 ness of the Middle Measures is very uncertain, as nothing 
 has been positively proved as to the thickness of the 
 Measures between the Drumglass coals and the lowest 
 coal in the Coalisland portion of the field. 
 
 At Annagher Colliery the following strata and coals 
 were proved by Griffith : — 
 
 * Since this description was written, Mr. E. T. Hardman's report on this 
 field has been published ("Mem. Geol. Survey," Ex., sheet 35). It contains 
 many new and interesting details, but it does not appear to add any positive 
 evidence to that previously known in reference to the general structure of the 
 field. 
 
124 
 
 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Annagher Colliery Section. 
 
 Upper beds 
 VI. Crow Coal 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 V. Annagher Coal 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 IV. Bone Coal 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 III. Shining Coal . 
 Intermediate beds 
 II. Main Coal 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 I. Baltiboy Coal . 
 
 25 feet. 
 2 
 
 33 
 
 rs 
 36 
 
 3 
 38 
 
 2-5 
 
 82 
 
 5 
 66 
 
 302 
 
 Griffith reports that a bore-hole was put down over 270 
 feet below the Baltiboy Coal, in the Annagher Colliery, 
 without rinding any coal. In this Colliery the Coal 
 Measures are covered by Triassic rocks. 
 
 All the coals of the Annagher Colliery are bituminous, 
 easily ignited, and burn rapidly, except the Baltiboy Coal, 
 which is very sulphurous and impure ; it ranges from 3 
 feet to 75 foot in thickness. The Annagher Coal is 
 nearly, perhaps entirely, worked out. In other portions 
 of the field there appear to be other coals found under the 
 Baltiboy Coal. 
 
 In Hardman's Memoir, twenty-four coals are enume- 
 rated. Seventeen of them are in his " Coalisland Series " 
 ( Upper Measures) ; as to two of them, the Creenagh Coals 
 (Nos. 6 and 7), he is uncertain ; and five (Nos. I to 5) he 
 places in his " Drumglass Series " {Middle Measures). 
 Hardman's general section, and the accompanying details, 
 do not seem always to agree ; while the positions of some 
 of the Coals that he has placed in regular order are still 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 
 
 12 
 
 problematical. The following is his Section of the Coal- 
 island Series : — 
 
 24. Crow Coal . 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 23. Annagher Coal . 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 22. Bone Coal . 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 2 1 . Shining seam 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 20. Brachaville Coal 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 19. Gortnaskea Coal (22 inches 
 of Cannel) 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 18. Baltiboy Coal 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 17. Monkey Coal 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 16. Two-foot Coal . 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 15. Rock Coal . 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 14. Ten-inch Coal . 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 13. Derry Five-foot Coal 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 12. Seat Coal . 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 1 1 . Cracker Coal 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 10. Yard Coal . 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 9. Two-foot Coal . 
 
 Intermediate beds 
 8. Sixteen-inch Coal 
 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 27 
 
 72 
 48 
 
 2 
 to 78 
 
 9 
 
 to 54 
 
 3 
 to 39 
 
 2-83 
 to 78 
 
 5 
 to 96 
 
 75 to 105 
 3 to 3-5 
 108 
 1 
 
 12 tO 21 
 
 2 
 
 9 to 12 
 
 i"33 
 
 18 
 083 
 
 21 tO 24 
 
 3 to 5 
 
 9 
 033 to 066 
 
 42 to 120 
 
 3 
 
 48 
 
 3 
 
 75 
 
 2 
 
 150 
 
 1 '33 
 
 feet. 
 j» 
 j) 
 
 )> 
 >j 
 jj 
 }) 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 » 
 
 This list includes crow coals which ought not to have 
 been put in a General Section. Coals Nos. 12 and 14, are 
 thin and local ; others also. The numerous faults prevent 
 
126 Geology of Ireland, 
 
 continuous sections being seen ; in some places the mea- 
 sures, like those over the Derry Coal (No. 13), have been 
 proved, but in several others there seems to be a con- 
 siderable amount of guess-work, and probably the number 
 of Coals will be found hereafter to be less than what is 
 given in the Memoir. 
 
 In portions of the field, as at the Creenagh Colliery, 
 where there is a thick Coal, it is at present impossible to 
 say whereabouts in the general section the Coals ought to 
 be put. There are also the Coals at the Farlough and 
 Edendork Collieries. These are put by Hardman in his 
 " Drumglass Series." Their position, however, is uncertain ; 
 they may possibly be representatives of some of the coals 
 already given in his "Coalisland Series ;" but at the present 
 time no reliable evidence as to the positions of the coals in 
 reference to those in the General Sections is to be obtained. 
 In these Upper Measures are many thick beds of valuable 
 fire-clay, also some seams of clay-iron-stone. Baily's list 
 of the fossils is given in the Memoir, Explanation, sheet 35. 
 
 In the Middle Measures, near their base, there are two 
 seams of coal. The upper, or Drumglass Coal, which has 
 been extensively worked, is a seam of varied thickness, 
 consisting of about four feet of good coal, with bituminous 
 shale and clay, the entire seam in places being over thir- 
 teen feet thick. The lower Coal was formerly worked a 
 little ; but it is not of much value. It lies more than 
 thirty feet below the upper Coal, and is either only a local 
 coal or separated from the upper by a variable thickness 
 of strata ; as, in places, trials through strata over seventy 
 feet thick are said to have been made without reaching it * 
 
 * Hardman states it occurs from 30 to 90 feet below the upper Coal. These 
 two coals seem to be on about the same geological horizon as Nos. I. and II. 
 Coals in the Connaught fields. 
 

 Upper Carbonifei'ous. 127 
 
 Under the lower Coal there is from fifty to ninety feet of 
 grits which seem to represent the " Flagstone Series." In 
 these Measures, unlike those of Connaught, clay-iron-stone 
 does not seem to be plentiful. 
 
 The Lower Measures, as previously mentioned, are only 
 known from evidence procured by bore-holes. They are 
 principally shales with subordinate calcareous and sand- 
 stone beds. 
 
 Annaghone Colliery. 
 
 This is a most peculiar narrow tract, in which there 
 are at least three workable Coals. To the northward 
 the Coal Measures are bounded by a fault with a down- 
 throw to the southward, which brings them down against 
 the Upper Limestones ; at the south they are bounded 
 by another fault, also with a downthrow to the south, 
 which brings down the Triassic rocks against them ; while 
 a short distance westward of the outcrop of the highest 
 Coal are Upper Limestones, proving that here also there 
 must be a fault boundary, while eastward they are covered 
 by the Triassic rocks. 
 
 It is said that in this little patch were found four work- 
 able beds of coal, which are very much twisted, and in 
 places inverted. One of these coals was nine feet thick, 
 while the existence of the lowest is problematical. The 
 nine-foot bed has been nearly worked out in the townland 
 of Annaghone, but there is no reason why it should not 
 exist under the Triassic rocks to the south and east. To 
 the north of the northern E. and W. boundary fault there 
 are shales, very like the Lower Measures, lying on the 
 Upper Limestone, which to the eastward are covered by 
 the Triassic rocks. It seems probable that the Coal 
 
128 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Measures of the Annaghone Colliery may extend con- 
 siderably toward the northward and north-eastward under 
 the Triassic rocks, into Londonderry, in the neighbourhood 
 of Coagh. The Main Coal in Annaghone is supposed by 
 the colliers to be the same as the Annagher Coal ; this, 
 however, is scarcely possible, as it is very improbable that 
 a wedge of Coal Measures nearly 2,000 feet thick is let 
 down in this place, which would be necessary — unless the 
 Coal Measures overlap the upper Limestone. 
 
 The Coal-fields of Tyrone may become the most im- 
 portant in Ireland, as pointed out by Geinitz,* but they 
 have still to be developed, the coals, as yet, having only 
 been worked near the surface, and never at considerable 
 depths, where a vast supply may exist. 
 
 The Coal Measures probably extend eastwards to the 
 valley of Lough Neagh, where they must be cut off by 
 the north and south faults previously mentioned. But they 
 may have been considerably denuded in that direction, as it 
 is known that the overlying Triassic rocks thicken toward 
 the east. East of the Lough Neagh Valley, as pointed 
 out when describing the Lower Carboniferous rocks, the 
 Coal Measures must be shifted considerably northward ; 
 however, it does not appear at all improbable but that 
 they might occur under the Cainozoic and Mesozoic rocks 
 in the country to the north-east of Antrim town. Farther 
 north-eastward, between Larne and Glenarm, the thickness 
 of the newer formations over them ought to be consider- 
 able, unless the Triassic rocks thin rapidly as they extend 
 northward from Carrickfergus. 
 
 Some of the principal points of interest in this chapter 
 
 * " Die Steinkolen Deutschlands und anderer Lander Europas," &c. Von 
 Dr. H. B. Geinitz, Dr. H. Fleck, und Dr. E. Hartig. 2 vols. 4to. Munich, 
 1865. 
 
Upper Carboniferous. 129 
 
 are the following : — The Lower Measures everywhere are 
 of nearly equal thickness, but in Sligo and thereabouts 
 the arenaceous beds, which in Munster were only a few 
 feet thick, are considerable ; at the base of the group, 
 in Cork, Limerick, Kerry, Clare, Meath, and Louth, there 
 are found fish remains of true Coal Measure types. 
 
 In the description of the Lower Carboniferous rocks it 
 was pointed out that what are but traces of coal in the 
 south-west become good coals in the north-east. Nearly 
 similar phenomena occur in the Middle and Upper Coal 
 Measures. In West Munster fire-clays occur in the Middle 
 Measures ; in Leinster, kelve, coal-rods, and fire-clay ; 
 while in the Connaught and the Tyrone Coal-fields there 
 are good workable coals. The calculated thickness of the 
 Middle Measures in Tyrone is probably excessive, as 
 otherwise there must be an enormous fault to the west of 
 the Annaghone Colliery of over 2,000 feet, which could 
 scarcely be possible.* 
 
 In the Upper Measures of the north portion of Clare 
 many of the coals are absent ; farther south, in Kerry, 
 Limerick, and Clare, they come in, but are very thin ; 
 while still farther south, in Cork, they are numerous and 
 thick. To the east-north-eastward, in the Tipperary Coal- 
 field, only two Coals occur in the lower part of the Upper 
 Measures, but farther east-north-east, in the Leinster Coal- 
 field, there are five or more ; while to the northward, in the 
 Ulster field, they are very numerous in a small thickness of 
 Measures. We also find that the Measures in the SW. are 
 collectively thicker than to the NE. 
 
 * According to Hardman's thickness of the Middle Measures in the Coal- 
 island field, the throw of this fault would be much more considerable. 
 
 K 
 
I ^o 
 
 MESOZOIC 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PERMIAN ROCKS. 
 
 These rocks, as previously stated, have an uncertain 
 position as to classification, some geologists placing them 
 among the Palaeozoic, others among the Mesozoic rocks. 
 The English geologists now seem inclined to connect them 
 with the latter, while Horace Woodward, in his " Geology 
 of England," as also others, would include both the Per- 
 mian and Triassic in one formation, under Conybeare's 
 old name, Poikilitic. 
 
 It is well known that the Permian and Triassic rocks 
 are intimately connected in their lithological characters 
 and probable method of formation. It is now believed 
 that in England the Permian beds are invariably uncon- 
 formable with the rocks of the Coal Measures ; but it is 
 by no means proved that the Permian and Triassic beds 
 are anywhere unconformable, since certain red accumula- 
 tions, formerly included in the Permians on account of 
 their colour, with which some Triassic beds are uncon- 
 formable, have now been put in their proper place among 
 the Carboniferous rocks ; thus, by the way, some of the 
 so-called Permian plants have really come from stained 
 Coal Measures. 
 
 The Permian beds were apparently deposited in deep 
 
Permian Rocks. 131 
 
 hollows, extending over more or less restricted areas ; 
 while the succeeding Triassic beds often considerably 
 overlap the margins of the earlier deposits. 
 
 In " Characteristic British Fossils," vol. i., page 76, 
 Baily states that the Permian fossils "are of a decided 
 Palaeozoic type, and bear a considerable resemblance to 
 those of the Carboniferous group." This authority, how- 
 ever, in his subsequent description of the fossils, points 
 out that the forms seem to be degenerating, and agrees 
 with Murchison that they w 7 ere rapidly dying out It has 
 been suggested by Ramsay that the Permian rocks were 
 accumulated in inland seas. If this suggestion be correct, 
 which appears highly probable, some of the Carboniferous 
 fauna and flora may have survived and continued to. exist, 
 but in a degenerate state, in such seas and on the land in 
 their vicinity, and thus their remains may have been pre- 
 served in the Permian strata. But as the conditions be- 
 came unfavourable for their existence, they died out, the 
 deposits at the same time changing in condition and aspect, 
 until eventually they graduated from the rocks called 
 Permian into the typical Triassic. There would, therefore, 
 be, in such areas, Permian rocks below, containing dege- 
 nerate Carboniferous forms, which rocks would graduate 
 upwards into the typical Mesozoic rocks of Triassic age. 
 
 In Ireland all the undoubted Permian rocks seem to be 
 intimately connected with the associated Triassic rocks, 
 but they must be called Permians from the fossils found 
 in them. There are, indeed, some rocks that have been 
 classed as Permians, which, as they contain typical Car- 
 boniferous fossils, can scarcely belong to that group. To 
 this subject, however, we shall hereafter return. As the 
 Irish Permians are so intimately connected with the 
 Triassic, they are in this Manual classed as Mesozoic. 
 
 K 2 
 
132 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Cultra Beds. 
 
 These occur on the south shore of Belfast Lough, east 
 of Cultra Pier. In 1835 Dr. Bryce discovered a small 
 exposure of dolomitic rocks containing fossils of Permian 
 type, and subsequently these have been more minutely 
 examined by King, Baily, and Warren ; the last mentioned 
 describing them as yellow and brownish magnesian lime- 
 stones, below which are red marls. To the eastward they 
 are bounded by a whinstone dyke, in a line of fault, while 
 south-westward they extend along the shore for a short 
 distance, when they turn westward and strike out into the 
 sea. To the eastward of the whinstone dyke are Carboni- 
 ferous rocks ; these and the Permian rocks are only seen 
 at low water. 
 
 Baily states that the fossils are similar to those of the 
 Durham and Yorkshire Permians. Kane, in the " Industrial 
 Resources of Ireland," mentions that the dolomite was 
 formerly exported to Glasgow to be used in the manu- 
 facture of sulphate of magnesia. 
 
 Lagan Valley. 
 
 About two miles south-east of Moira, in the valley of 
 the Lagan, Du Noyer discovered a small tract of breccia 
 with grey and purple shales that contained subordinate 
 beds of argillaceous magnesian limestone. This tract he 
 considered to be of Permian age ; but no fossils have been 
 as yet discovered in the rocks. 
 
 TULLYCONNELL BEDS. 
 
 At Tullyconnell, near Ardtrea, County Tyrone, there 
 are some small exposures of buff-coloured magnesian 
 
Petmian Rocks. 133 
 
 limestones containing fossils, pronounced by King and 
 Baily to be similar to those\in the Durham Permians. A 
 good many of these fossils \are in the Survey collection, 
 presented by Dr. King, and a list of them is given by 
 Baily in the Explanation to accompany sheet 35. 
 
 A mile westward, in the river, there are cream-coloured 
 crystalline dolomites, which are supposed by Hardman 
 to be Permians, and to be the continuation of the 
 Tullyconnell beds, but shifted to their present position by 
 an E. and W. fault. Griffith records that at Templereagh, 
 on the south of the Annaghone Colliery, Permian 
 dolomites 16 feet thick were found in sinking a pit ; the 
 rocks, however, are not known to appear anywhere here- 
 abouts at the surface of the ground. 
 
 The Permian rocks at Tullyconnell, as also those in the 
 valley of the Lagan, seem to be intimately connected with 
 the associated Triassic rocks. 
 
 South-east of Armagh, at the old marble quarries, over 
 the Carboniferous Limestone, are about 20 feet of sandstone, 
 breccia and conglomerates, considered by Professor Hull 
 to be of Permian age. No fossils have been found in 
 them, and in aspect they are very like the shore beds of 
 the Calp in the Draperstown district, County Londonderry. 
 As previously shown, the Carboniferous rocks near 
 Armagh are probably of Upper Limestone age ; and 
 that the red and other coloured sandstones are interstrati- 
 fied with limestones has been proved by Egan. If the 
 rocks at the marble quarries are Permians, it appears 
 remarkable that in the associated limestones there should 
 be fish similar to those that occur in the shales associated 
 with the similar red arenaceous rocks, (Calp, or Upper 
 Limestone) of the Draperstown district. 
 
 To the north-east of Armagh, near Benburb, in the 
 
1 34 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 valley of the Blackwater, there are other red and purplish 
 rocks, that have also been supposed to be of Permian age. 
 This, however, seems scarcely possible, as they contain 
 fossils pronounced by Baily to be of undoubted Carboni- 
 ferous age. 
 
 TRIASSIC ROCKS. 
 
 The Triassic rocks are principally found in the province 
 of Ulster, margining the Cainozoic rocks. It would 
 appear, however, that at one time they extended much 
 farther, as suggested by the small outlying tract near 
 Kingscourt, in the Counties of Cavan and Meath. 
 
 Kingscourt Beds. 
 
 These Triassic rocks occupy a narrow, nearly north and 
 south, strip of ground ; which, according to W. B. Leonard, 
 is bounded on the west by a fault that brings them down 
 against the Cambro-Silurians. Leonard divides them 
 into — 
 
 Red Kenper Marl. — Red and grey shaly clays. 
 
 Lower Keuper Sandstone. — Thin-bedded, brownish, fine, and coarser 
 
 sandstones. 
 Bunter Sandstone. — Red sandstones. 
 
 The sandstones called Lower Keuper are only a few 
 feet thick and very indistinctly seen ; they are said to 
 contain subordinate beds of grey and red shale. The 
 supposed Bunter Sandstones are seen in the Enniskeen 
 river, north of Cabra Castle. At Derrynasrobe, NE. of 
 Kingscourt, there is in the Keuper Marl a bed of gypsum, 
 in one place 60 feet thick. 
 
Triassic Rocks, 135 
 
 Scrabo Hill. 
 
 The rocks in the neighbourhood of Scrabo Hill, County- 
 Down, between Belfast and Strangford Loughs, have 
 been proved by Du Noyer to belong to the Triassic, and 
 not to the Carboniferous, formation, as previously supposed. 
 Portlock was of the opinion that the associated dolerites 
 are interstratified with these rocks ; similar dolerites are 
 interstratified with the Trias near Ardtrea, County- 
 Tyrone, as will be afterwards mentioned. These Triassic 
 rocks are supposed to represent portions of the Bunter 
 and Keuper divisions. No fossils have been found in 
 them, excepting markings of sun-cracks and supposed rain- 
 drops. 
 
 Lagan Valley. 
 
 Between Belfast and Lurgan, in the valley of the 
 Lagan, is a long narrow strip of Trias. The rocks in this 
 area are thus divided by Warren and W. B. Leonard : 
 
 Keuper Marls. — Red and greyish clays and shales, with thin bands of 
 
 grey sandstone containing crystals of salt. 
 Lower Keuper Sandstones. — Brownish and yellow carbonaceous flags 
 
 or thin sandstones, not more than ten or twelve feet thick, 
 
 supposed by Professor Hull to be the equivalents of the 
 
 " WaterstonesP 
 Upper Mottled Bunter Sandstone. — Red and yellow mottled and 
 
 variegated soft sandstones, with subordinate red argillaceous 
 
 sandstones. These are over massive sandstones, which lie 
 
 on yellow shales and flaggy sandstones. 
 
 The Keuper Marl contains in some places layers of 
 gypsum ; it is supposed to be several hundred feet in 
 thickness. Near Lisburn the Bunter sandstones have been 
 sunk into for a depth of over 500 feet, without reaching 
 their base. 
 
136 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Above the typical Triassic rocks are others, supposed to 
 represent a portion of the Rh^etic, or Penarth Beds. 
 These rocks, as occurring elsewhere, are supposed to be 
 the passage beds into the Jurassic rocks ; and in accordance 
 with this they seem in Ireland also, to graduate not only 
 into the Triassic rocks below, but also into the Jurassic 
 rocks above them. Of these rocks a good section is 
 exposed in Collin Glen, five miles SW. of Belfast. 
 
 To the sections in Collin Glen, attention was directed by 
 Portlock and others ; but Mr. Ralph Tate was the first to 
 point out that the rocks belonged to the Rhsetic group, in 
 a paper read before the London Geological Society 
 {Quarterly Journal, Geological Society, London, vol. xx. 
 p. 103). According to Tate's measurements, the rocks in 
 this section are nearly 19 feet thick ; but according to the 
 Geological Survey measurements, there is about 14 feet 
 in thickness seen — an epitome of Tate's section gives : 
 
 2. Dark-coloured shales and argillaceous limestones, 
 with a few thin sandstones at the base. In the 
 shales are found Aximis cloacinus, Avicula con- 
 torta, Cardium Rhceticum, Placunopsis alftina, 
 Pecteii Valoniensis, and Modiola ... 11 feet. 
 
 1. Black shales and clays, arenaceous shales, and thin 
 sandstones. In two of the thin arenaceous 
 shales are fish remains, Natica Oppelii, Trochus 
 Waltoni, and Avicula cojitorta .... about 8 ,, 
 
 19 
 
 In the country to the SW. the Rhsetic beds are found 
 as far as Lisburn. For about 6 miles between Moira and 
 Kilcorig they are absent, the White Limestone (Cretaceous 
 rocks) lying direct on the Keuper Marl. To the north- 
 east of Collin Glen, at Cave Hill, 3 miles north of Belfast, 
 Tate gives the details of a section 16 feet thick; of 
 
Triassic Rocks, 137 
 
 another at Woodburn, 10 miles NE. of Belfast, 13-5 feet 
 thick ; and of that at Whitehead, 14 miles NE. of Belfast, 
 19*5 feet thick. On the east coast of Antrim, the Rhaetic 
 beds can be seen at various places ; such as near Larne, 
 where, according to Tate's estimate, they are over 100 feet 
 thick ; also south of Glenarm and at Garron Point. Tate 
 has found fish remains in several of the localities. 
 
 South-East and East Antrim. 
 
 Margining the Cretaceous rocks there is a nearly 
 continuous fringe of Triassic rocks, extending from 
 Belfast, along the north of Belfast Lough and the east coast 
 of Antrim, to Ballycastle. In some places this tract is very 
 narrow, but in others, especially in the different valleys, it 
 is wide. There are also a few outlying exposures near 
 Larne Lough and south-east of Ballycastle. 
 
 Of these Triassic rocks, those near Carrickfergus, on the 
 north of Belfast Lough, are the most remarkable, as they 
 contain beds of Rock-salt. These Salt Measures were 
 discovered at Duncrue, between 1850 and 1852, while 
 sinking in search of coal ; the following are the thick- 
 nesses of the rocks passed through, as recorded by Mr. 
 John Kelly in September 1852 ; but it was not until after 
 his visit that the strata 1, 2 and 3 were proved. 
 
 9. Red marl, containing thin beds of gypsum . 
 
 8. Rock salt 
 
 7. Salt and blue clay ...... 
 
 6. Pure salt 
 
 5. Salt mixed with blue and red clay 
 
 4. Pure salt ........ 
 
 3- Do 
 
 2. Blue clay ..... ... 
 
 1. Grits and sandstones, one bed being very ferruginous 
 
 6S5-o 
 
 500 fee 
 
 15 „ 
 
 6-8 „ 
 
 88 
 
 30 „ 
 
 20 „ 
 
 2 
 
 6-6 „ 
 
 166 „ 
 
138 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 In this section the total thickness of the Salt Measures 
 is about 162 feet; but in the new pit, which was sunk 
 about 500 yards north of the old one, they are only about 
 100 feet thick, and have over them 800 feet in thickness 
 of the Red Marls. At the new pit, as at the old, there 
 was a steady dip northward of 12° to 13 . 
 
 From these sections it is evident that there is a con- 
 siderable thickness of the Triassic rocks in the neighbour- 
 hood of Carrickfergus ; the Keuper Marls being from 800 
 to 1,000 feet thick, the Salt Measures over 100 feet, 
 while the lower rocks (Bunter ?) have been estimated by Mr. 
 Doyle as between 800 and 1,000 feet, or a full thickness 
 of about 2,000 feet. The rocks immediately below the 
 Salt Measures seem to represent the rocks which in 
 the previous sections are called Lower Keuper Sand- 
 stones. 
 
 In the south-west of Duncrue trials have been made 
 without finding the Salt Measures, and from the lie of the 
 rocks it seems probable that in the valley of the Wood- 
 burn there is a NNW. and SSE. fault, which shifts the 
 rocks to the west of it, southward. The Salt Measures, 
 also, are probably in a lenticular mass or cake, of 
 limited extent. The best rock-salt (bed 6) contains over 
 95 per cent, of pure salt. 
 
 Although rock-salt has been worked only at Duncrue, 
 yet it is probable that it exists in other places. In the 
 townland of Ballyedmond, near to the village of Glynn, 
 there is a salt spring ; about three miles south of Larne 
 a bore hole was put down in 1839, f° r a depth of 174 feet, 
 and at 150 feet Salt Measures were found ; the work, how- 
 ever, was abandoned before a pure thick bed of salt was 
 proved. Farther southward also, at Ballybig, salt is said 
 to have been proved, while making trials in search of 
 
Trias sic Rocks. 139 
 
 coal ; and at the village of Eden there is another salt 
 spring. 
 
 Gypsum has been found in the Keuper Marls at 
 Cushendall and other places. The Rhaetic beds, as 
 previously mentioned, are seen, in places, on the Keuper 
 Marls. 
 
 South Tyrone and Armagh. 
 
 In the valley of the Blackwater, stretching northward 
 past Dungannon, and eastward to the Portadown area of 
 dolerite, is an irregular tract of Triassic rocks. These 
 to the west and south lie on Carboniferous rocks ; towards 
 the north-east they are overlaid by newer rocks. In the 
 Blackwater Valley, near Benburb, they are associated 
 with the previously mentioned rocks that have been sup- 
 posed to be Permians, although containing Carboniferous 
 fossils. 
 
 In the southern portion of this area the rocks are 
 sparingly exposed, but those seen or found in the sinking 
 of the wells are bright red sandstones, supposed to be the 
 equivalents of the Bunter Mottled Sandstone. Apparently 
 over these rocks, in a few places in the valley of the River 
 Colleen, there are hard red shales and reddish grey sand- 
 stones that are supposed to belong to the Keuper Sand- 
 stone. 
 
 In the northern portion of the area the rocks principally 
 seen are red sandstones, locally called Red Free, but in 
 places they are associated with considerable thicknesses 
 of red and mottled clays and shales ; all the rocks being 
 probably equivalent to the Bunter. 
 
 In a red earthy sandstone at Rhone Hill, SE. of Dun- 
 gannon, County Tyrone, Portlock found the fossil fish 
 Palceoniscas catopterus, in great abundance, but only in a 
 
140 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 small lenticular layer which " was exhausted by obtaining 
 the specimens." Portlock found, in an adjacent clayey 
 layer, what was supposed to be a small shell, and was 
 called Posidonia minnta ; but it has been since proved to 
 be a Phyllopod crustacean and named Estheria Port- 
 lockii. 
 
 South Londonderry and North Tyrone. 
 
 This tract margins the Tertiary dolerites, west of 
 Lough Neagh, and extends from a little south of 
 Stewartstown, County Tyrone, to Maghera, County 
 Londonderry. The rocks are exposed only as far north 
 as Desertmartin ; but, as suggested by Portlock, they 
 probably bound the Desertmartin limestones on the east, 
 as the drift along the margin of the dolerite is, forth e 
 most part, made up of their detritus. 
 
 Associated with the Triassic rocks at Tullyconlish, 
 near Ardtrea, are the previously mentioned dolomites 
 containing Permian fossils, and in the same vicinity is a 
 bed of dolerite in the Triassic rocks. 
 
 Farther southward the rocks seem to be very much dis- 
 placed by faults, which have lifted them up or let them 
 down. At the Annaghone Colliery, SE. of Tullaghoge, 
 the Triassic rocks on the south of the Coal Measures have 
 been sunk into for over 100 feet without getting through 
 them ; and the features of the country suggest numerous 
 other dislocations, which cannot be positively ascertained 
 on account of the drift covering. 
 
 To the southward, near Stewartstown, the Triassic 
 rocks seem to be very thin, as there is not room for more 
 than 20 or 30 feet in thickness between the Chalk and the 
 Carboniferous rocks ; although a little to the north, at 
 
Trias sic Rocks. 141 
 
 j 
 
 Annaghone, as just mentioned, they are over 100 feet 
 thick. Farther north, at the itiearing of the two counties, 
 the rocks seem to thicken ; and near Coagh, on the 
 Tyrone side of the Ballinderry river, a pit and bore-hole 
 was put down, for 280 feet, without reaching the bottom 
 of the Trias. In this trial red and variegated greenish 
 and yellowish clays and shales containing layers of 
 gypsum were found below and above red sandstones. 
 
 In the large quarry to the ESE. of Moneymore, at the 
 mearing of Doluskey, the base of the Chalk is exposed, 
 and below it, lying on the " Red Free," is a thin calcareous 
 or dolomitic grit and a whitish sandstone, which seem to 
 belong to the Rhcetic beds. Here the thickness of the 
 Triassic rocks cannot be estimated, on account of the drift 
 banked against the escarpment. Farther north, north- 
 west, and west of Magherafelt, as also still farther north- 
 ward, on the south of Gulladuff and Maghera, it must be 
 very thin. 
 
 The Triassic rocks on Slieve-Gallion-Carn, NW. of 
 Moneymore, are at an altitude of 1,200 feet ; while those 
 just mentioned, to the east of the Moneymore Valley, 
 seem to be nowhere above the 250 feet contour line. 
 Between these places there must be a fault with a down- 
 throw to the eastward, as all the rocks in the valley of 
 Moneymore are nearly horizontal. 
 
 In Slieve-Gallion-Carn the Triassic rocks can be very 
 little more than 20 or 30 feet thick, and farther northward, 
 at Mullaghmore, to the north of Moneyneany, they seem 
 to be less than 10 feet thick. 
 
 North Londonderry. 
 
 A narrow, nearly N. and S. strip of Triassic rocks 
 extends from a few miles SE. of Dungiven to the sea, at 
 
1 4 2 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 a little east of the entrance into Lough Foyle. The rocks 
 are generally red sandstones ; although in some places 
 they are associated with clays and shales. 
 
 To the north-east of Limavady, from a little north of 
 where the road from Limavady to Coleraine crosses the 
 escarpment to the sea on the north, there are Rhaetic 
 beds which margin the Chalk, and which Portlock corre- 
 lates with the Collin Glen beds near Belfast. Of these 
 rocks Portlock gives the following section at Ben Eve- 
 nagh : — 
 
 Ft. in. 
 
 7. Black shales, with £vicula contorta and Cardium striatum. 
 
 6. Calcareous gritty shales and grits with bivalves . . -05 
 
 5. Black shales . . . - 07 
 
 4. Calcareous grit, with bivalves and fish remains . . .00-5 
 
 3. Black shales 09 
 
 2. Calcareous grit 005 
 
 1 . Compact blackish shale and clay, the bottom of which is not seen. 
 
 On the one side of the grit No. 4 are the impressions 
 of the bivalves, while on the other are the teeth and scales 
 of Saiirichthys apicalis, Gyrolepis Albertii, G.tennistriatus, 
 A crodus m in im us. 
 
 " The total thickness of this deposit, as seen here, is not 
 more than 7 or 8 feet." It is said, however, that to the 
 west of the section shales are found on excavating beneath 
 the surface. Hereabouts there are great landslips, which 
 break up the strata and leave their true position uncertain ; 
 but from the fossils found in the detritus that margins the 
 Rhsetic beds and separates them from the Chalk, it seems 
 probable that over them are rocks of Jurassic age. 
 
 It has been already mentioned that the Permian rocks 
 of the country seem to be rather a group of beds at the 
 base of the Triassic than a separate formation. It is 
 quite palpable that the Triassic rocks are of very unequal 
 
Jurassic Rocks. 143 
 
 thicknesses, on account of the circumstances under which 
 they were deposited ; a great thickness having accumu- 
 lated in a deep hollow in the neighbourhood of Belfast 
 Lough, and another near Lisburn. In these places we find 
 the rocks with Permian fossils under the typical Trias ; 
 but elsewhere the Triassic rocks seem to thin out ; the 
 lower (Bunter) being absent, and the formation being 
 represented by rocks of the upper groups (Keuper). But in 
 some places, in the north of Tyrone and Londonderry, the 
 rocks partake of characters typical of both the Keuper and 
 Bunter, as at Coagh, where there is over 100 feet of Keuper 
 marls that could scarcely ever have extended on to the 
 adjoining Bunter. We also find that in such places, where 
 denudation has not removed the upper rocks, they graduate 
 through the Rhsetic beds into the Jurassic. It would, 
 therefore, appear that although the Irish Triassic rocks are 
 of a much less thickness than those in England and else- 
 where, yet the whole formation is represented, the strata 
 constituting a regular sequence from the Permians below 
 to the Jurassic above. 
 
 JURASSIC ROCKS. 
 
 The Jurassic rocks, from their lying above the Triassic, 
 suffered more from the denudation that affected both, and 
 are now found in a few places only, below the outcrop of 
 the plateau of Miocene dolerite in Antrim and London- 
 derry ; the denudation having been greater towards the 
 south-west than elsewhere ; as appears from the fact that 
 the Jurassic rocks are not to be seen in Tyrone, nor in 
 Londonderry as far north as Limavady. 
 
144 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Antrim. 
 
 In. the south-east of County Antrim, according to Mr. 
 Ralph Tate, the Jurassic rocks can be found below the White 
 Limestone (Cretaceous) escarpment, from a little south of 
 Collin Glen (SW. of Belfast) to White Head on the N. side 
 of the entrance of Belfast Lough ; also in the Carrickfergus 
 Commons, and at Lough Mourne. They occur also on the 
 east coast of Island Magee, along the shore of Larne 
 Lough, at Larne, Glenarm, Garron Point, and on the 
 north coast of Antrim at Ballintoy, White Park Bay, and 
 Portrush. 
 
 Tate considers that the section at Waterloo, near Larne, 
 " is the key to the reading of the Lias rocks of Ireland ; " 
 and the rocks in this section he thus groups : 
 
 5. Zone of the Belemnites acutus. 
 
 4. Zone of the Ammonites Bucklandi — compact blue argilla- 
 ceous limestones, full of Gryph<za incurva. 
 
 3. Zone of the Ammonites angulatus — alternations of grey 
 
 and blackish limestones with blue marls . . -35 feet. 
 
 2. Zone of the A mmonites planorbis — black indurated shales 40 „ 
 
 1 . Whitish marl and black shales. 
 
 In the vicinity of Larne there is no well-denned 
 boundary between the Jurassic and Rhsetic ; group 
 No. 1 being considered by Tate as neutral ground ; 
 but the rocks in group 2 evidently belong to the Lias. 
 The rocks of the latter group have been found at Collin 
 Glen, White Head, Larne, Glenarm, Garron Point, and 
 Portrush. 
 
 Group No. 3 Tate considers to be the representative of 
 the Infra-Lias of the Continent. It attains its greatest 
 development in thickness and organic remains in East 
 Antrim, at Larne Lough, Waterloo, Glenarm, and a few 
 
Jurassic Rocks. 145 
 
 other places. At Collin Glen it is represented by a cal- 
 careous marl a foot thick ; while to the NW. in London- 
 derry at Craig, Gortmore, and in the Tircrevan Burn, by 
 a calcareous grit. 
 
 Group 4 is found at Waterloo, Larne ; at Glynn, two 
 miles south of Larne, and beneath the Hibernian Green- 
 sand at Doon Hill and Tircrevan Burn, County London- 
 derry. Tate states " the Gryphcza incurva is the ever 
 accompanying fossil to those characteristic of this zone." 
 
 Group No. 5, besides being supposed to exist at the 
 Waterloo coastguard station, near Larne, is also found at 
 Carrickfergus, and Castle Chichester, on Belfast Lough, and 
 on the north coast near Ballintoy. In the latter place, the 
 base of the " White Limestone," or indurated Chalk, which 
 is here conglomeritic, rests on black micaceous clays with 
 some calcareous nodules and numerous specimens of 
 Belemitites acutus. But the majority of fossils, principally 
 Ammonites, found here are cast up during the winter 
 storms, having been extracted from submerged beds of 
 this zone. According to Tate, " the fossils of these clays 
 are indicative of an horizon on a level with, or newer than, 
 that of the Ammonites Tumeric 
 
 A list of the fossils at Ballintoy is given by Portlock in 
 his Geological Report on Tyrone, &c, and a list of the 
 Lias fossils, by Tate, has been published by the Belfast 
 Naturalists' Field Club, 1870, and also in the papers by 
 Tate in the Quart. Journ. of the Geol. Soc. Lond. % 
 vols. xx. and xxiii., while Baily's lists appear in the 
 "Memoirs of the Geological Survey," Ex. sheets 21, &c. 
 
 Portrush is classical ground, as the altered Lias rocks 
 were once supposed to be igneous rocks of the same 
 age as the Miocene dolerites ; they were cited by the 
 Wernerians as a proof of the sedimentary origin of 
 
 L 
 
146 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 dolerite. Dr. Buckland, however, pointed out that the 
 fossils were of Lias type ; while subsequently Portlock 
 showed that similar fossils occurred in the Lias to the west 
 in Londonderry, and to the east and south-east in different 
 places in Antrim. Portlock was of the opinion that the 
 Lias at Portrush and that of Ballintoy were on the same 
 horizon. Tate, however, from more minute research, has 
 come to the conclusion that while the Ballintoy rocks 
 belong to the zone of the Belemnites acntus, those of Port- 
 rush are older and belong to the zone of the Ammonites 
 planorbis. 
 
 Various theories have been put forward to account for 
 the alteration of the Portrush Lias into hornstone ; some 
 considering that it was due to the overlying sheets of 
 Miocene dolerite. This, however, seems to be impossible, 
 because, as will be mentioned in describing the Miocene 
 rocks, those sheets were unable to produce change in the 
 (alterable) beds of Lignite, only a few inches beneath them. 
 
 A" far simpler explanation is suggested by what is found 
 among the older rocks in various places in Ireland, 
 especially among the Cambro-Silurians of Wicklow, Wex- 
 ford, and Waterford. This class of metamorphism is fully 
 described in the chapter on Metamorphism (Section II. 
 Chap. X.), but here a short re'sume may be given. Local 
 metamorphism, or Paroptesis, occurs in the vicinity of the 
 foci of Plutonic eruptions, or in places where gases and such 
 products due to Vulcanicity, came up through the rocks, 
 often giving to rocks over greater or less areas a baked 
 appearance ; and in such places there are usually protru- 
 sions or masses of elvan or other granitic rocks that mark 
 the site of the ancient funnel or fissure of eruption. These 
 conditions are complied with in the vicinity of Portrush ; 
 as a focus of eruption is marked by the granitic rocks 
 
Jurassic Rocks. 147 
 
 (basic elvan) in the Skerries and in the Portrush promon- 
 tory, while adjoining them are the metamorphosed Lias 
 rocks. 
 
 The metamorphism of these Jurassic rocks may have 
 taken place at any time after the beginning of the Cre- 
 taceous age. It is probable, however, that it was during 
 the Miocene age when the great sheets, of dolerite were 
 poured out ; as farther eastward under these sheets there 
 are rocks which apparently were once tuffs, but are now 
 in aspect like the Miocene dolerite. These altered tuffs (?) 
 are more specially described among the Miocene rocks. 
 
 Londonderry. 
 
 From Down Hill on the shore of the Atlantic to Ben 
 Evenagh to the north-east of Limavady, there seems to be a 
 narrow band of Jurassic rock, but the sections are obscured 
 by the detritus on the slope of the escarpment, as previously 
 mentioned when describing the Triassic rocks. There are, 
 however, a few detached sections at Down Hill in the 
 boundary stream between Aghanloo and Magilligan, and in 
 Tircrevan Burn, while in other places the debris of the rocks 
 is found. In the Tircrevan Burn section is a thin seam of 
 coal apparently in the zone of the Ammonites Bncklandi. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 CRETACEOUS. 
 
 PREVIOUS to the formation of the Irish Mesozoic rocks, 
 the Palaeozoic rocks were ruptured, upturned, and exten- 
 sively denuded ; while subsequently patches of Permian 
 rocks were deposited in hollows. On the Permian, and also 
 for considerable distances thence on to, and over, the ad- 
 joining Palaeozoic rocks, the Triassic rocks were laid down, 
 and on the latter the Jurassic ; the deposition of the last 
 being succeeded by disturbance and much denudation. 
 This denudation, although it removed a large thickness of 
 strata, was very differently circumstanced from that just 
 before the Mesozoic age, the rocks during the second 
 disturbance being very little displaced, and still lying 
 nearly as horizontal as when they were deposited.* 
 
 By the denudation of the Jurassic and older rocks a 
 surface was formed on which the Irish Cretaceous rocks 
 were deposited, they, according to Tate, being of a some- 
 what similar age to the Upper Cretaceous rocks of England. 
 In places the Cretaceous rocks overlap the older Meso- 
 zoic rocks and extend out over the adjoining Palaeozoic 
 rocks, as in north-east Antrim, and in the County of 
 Tyrone, SW. of Lough Neagh. But the extent of the 
 
 * There does not appear to be more unconformability between the Creta- 
 ceous rocks and the Jurassic than there is between some of the inlying lime- 
 stones of Cambro-Silurian age and the rocks below them. 
 
Cretaceous. 149 
 
 area they once covered is now unknown, as the Cretaceous 
 rocks have also suffered from considerable denudation, and 
 are of greater thickness to the eastward than to the west- 
 ward. The thinning out to the westward, however, may in 
 part be due to overlapping, the lower members of the 
 group not having been deposited over as large areas as the 
 higher ones ; in the east portion of the County of Antrim 
 there are strata called by Tate Hibernian Greensand under 
 the White Limestone (Indurated Chalk), while in Tyrone 
 the White Limestone lies directly on the older rocks. 
 
 That there was denudation after the Cretaceous period 
 is evident, as there is nearly invariably at the base of the 
 Miocene rocks a stratum of flint gravel, or shingle ; in some 
 places this accumulation forming the only beds between the 
 Triassic, or older rocks, and the Miocene dolerites. Some 
 writers on the rocks of the north of Ireland have classed 
 these flint gravels, or shingles, with the Cretaceous rocks, 
 but Jukes has proved that they are of Miocene age, from 
 the fossils found in the interstratified shale beds. 
 
 As with the Jurassic rocks so also with the Cretaceous ; 
 their classification is principally due to the researches of 
 Tate, who has divided them into, — 
 
 2. Upper chalk ("White Limestone"). 
 1. Hibernian Greensand. 
 
 The Upper Chalk he thus subdivided : 
 
 3. White Limestone ', or the zone cf Ammonites Gollevellensis. 
 2. Spongarian zone. 
 1. Ananchites zone. 
 
 The White Limestone Tate considers to represent the 
 Upper Chalk of Norwich and the Craie de Mendon of the 
 Continent, while some of the fossils point to a higher 
 horizon, that of the Macstricht chalk. 
 
150 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 His subdivisions of the Hibernian Greensand are : 
 
 4. Zone of Exogyra columba. 
 
 3. Zone of Inoceramns Cripsii. 
 
 2. Zone of Ostrea carinata. 
 
 1. Zone of Exogyra conica. 
 
 Tate is of the opinion that No. I represents the basement 
 beds of the Etage Cenomanien of the French geologists, and 
 is approximately equivalent to the Greensand of Blackdown, 
 England ; No. 2 represents a portion of the Upper Green- 
 sand of England and the Lower Cenomanien of Normandy, 
 while 3 and 4 (Chloritic Sands and Sandstones) have on 
 the whole a fauna possessing an Upper Greensand facies, 
 many species pointing, however, to higher zones. He also 
 believes that the Gault and the Lower Chalk are absent in 
 Ireland. From this it would appear that the oldest Irish 
 Cretaceous rocks are in aspect like the Greensand of other 
 countries, while the assemblage of fossils has an Upper 
 Greensand character ; and that on these rocks in a regular 
 sequence were deposited others that have characters similar 
 to those of the Upper Chalk of England. It does not, 
 however, follow that the Hibernian Greensand was accu- 
 mulating at the same time as the English Upper Green- 
 sand. It would seem more probable that the Irish Cre- 
 taceous rocks have a type of their own, and that the 
 Hibernian Greensand is on a higher geological horizon, 
 its Greensand character being solely due to the condi- 
 tions of the sea in which the strata accumulated. 
 
 In NE. Londonderry, east of Lough Foyle, the Cre- 
 taceous rocks are not seen in situ, their outcrop being con- 
 cealed by the detritus on the slope of the dolerite pla- 
 teau ; but to the north of the road from Limavady to 
 Coleraine the White Limestone and Greensand appear ; 
 the latter, according to Portlock, being very thin. Farther 
 
Cretaceous. 1 5 1 
 
 southward, east of Limavady, on the west slope of Keady 
 Mountain, there is White Limestone about 33 feet in thick- 
 ness, resting on 36 feet of hardened Greensand, or 
 "Mulatto Stone," as it is called in Ulster. The lower 
 portion of the chalk in one part of Keady Mountain is 
 called " soft rock," as it crumbles into powder when ex- 
 posed to the air, and can be used for manure without 
 burning. 
 
 At Donald's Hill, to the SE. of Limavady, there are 
 dolomitic beds averaging in thickness 2*5 feet in the White 
 Limestone. In them are deep cavities containing crystals 
 of quartz, chalcedony and bitterspar (?). The chalk is very 
 flinty, and from 1 2 to 20 feet thick ; what it rests on is not 
 apparent. Farther south the Cretaceous beds thin away 
 and possibly disappear ; at Benbradagh, NE. of Dungiven, 
 there is from 12 to 25 ft. of a visible thickness of the White 
 Limestone ; but to the south thereof it dwindles down 
 to a few feet in thickness and disappears ; its place being 
 taken by a calcareous conglomerate, the basal bed of the 
 Miocene rocks. The latter rock may easily be mistaken 
 for one of those of Cretaceous age, being very similar in 
 aspect, as it is made up of the debris of the White Lime- 
 stone. On examination, however, it is evident that it is a 
 rearranged rock ; all the contained flints having been 
 fractured and rolled prior to being deposited in a calcareous 
 matrix, which was subsequently hardened into limestone by 
 pressure and chemical action. 
 
 To the south-east of Dungiven and north of Moneyneany 
 is an outlier of Miocene dolerite ; to the south-west and 
 south of which are the debris of the White Limestone. 
 Some of this debris may be of the true " White Limestone," 
 while other portions appear to be of the Miocene basal 
 bed. In some places a flint gravel or shingle can be seen, 
 
152 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 but in the townlands of Damlaght and Dunmurry, about 
 two miles north of Moneyneany, there appears to be two or 
 three feet in thickness of a rock, in some places like the 
 Upper Chalk, in others like a rearranged rock, but it is so 
 obscurely seen that no definite opinion can be given on it. 
 
 To the north and east of the tract of Carboniferous 
 rock in the neighbourhood of Draperstown, no Cretaceous 
 rocks are exposed, neither do they seem to exist ; but 
 to the south, in the outlier on Slieve-Gallion-Carn, and to 
 the south-east at Magherafelt, they again appear. On 
 Slieve-Gallion-Carn, the Cretaceous rocks appear resting 
 on Triassic rocks and capped by Miocene dolerite. They 
 seem to be upwards of 20 feet thick, the upper portions 
 being White Limestone, while the lower part is a very 
 glauconitic and fossiliferous limestone, that is considered by 
 Portlock to belong to the Greensand. 
 
 From Magherafelt the out- crop of the Cretaceous rocks 
 extends southward by Moneymore and Coagh into the 
 County of Tyrone ; in every place they rest apparently 
 directly on the Triassic rocks, and are principally White 
 Limestone, although in places the lower beds are glauconitic 
 and slightly sandy. At Tamlaght, near Coagh, at the 
 base, is a remarkable pebbly or conglomeritic bed, that 
 contains many fossils, such as Ammonites Lewesiensis, 
 Nautilus elegans y N. radiatus, Bactilites Ftmjasii, Hamites, 
 Inoceramtts Cripsii, Cardium decussation, &c. Its total 
 thickness is about 30 feet, and it rests on the Keuper 
 marl. 
 
 South of Coagh is a tract of country in which the rocks 
 are not seen. Jukes was of the opinion that it is occupied 
 by Cretaceous rocks, while Portlock believed that in a 
 considerable portion of it there were rocks that belonged to 
 the Triassic and the Tertiary. At its north margin, a little 
 
Cretaceous. 153 
 
 south of Coagh, White Limestone is exposed, also farther 
 southward, NE. of Stewartstown, and about a mile west 
 of Stewartstown margining a small outlier of dolerite. 
 Still farther south in the townsland of Lisnastrane, in the 
 Coal-field near Coalisland, a small tract of a white lime- 
 stone has been proved ; the rock, however, has many of 
 the characters of the rearranged Miocene limestone, and 
 possibly may not be of Cretaceous age. 
 
 To the SW. and S. of Lough Neagh, the Cretaceous 
 rocks are concealed by the Lough Neagh Series ; but to the 
 SE. of Lough Neagh, in the neighbourhood of Lurgan and 
 from thence north-eastward to White Head, on the north 
 of Belfast Lough, and from that NNW. to Ballycastle on 
 the north coast, the Cretaceous rocks form a more or less 
 continuous fringe to the dolerite plateau ; sometimes 
 being seen only in detached quarries ; they often form 
 but a thin band. In various places they and the 
 associated rocks are displaced by faults, while in other 
 places they are cut by dykes and protrusions of dolerite 
 and other igneous rocks. 
 
 To the southward, according to Du Noyer and Warren, 
 the Hibernian Greensand is from 70 to 80 feet thick ; 
 below are dark green marls, passing up into flaggy pale 
 bluish or greyish sandy limestones, over which are beds of 
 greensand, the highest being the " Mulatto Stone," a 
 massive hard calcareous pebbly grit or fine conglomerate, 
 containing pea-sized rounded pieces of quartz and chloritic 
 grains. According to Du Noyer, some of the sandy lime- 
 stones found at Collin Glen have been used for lithographic 
 stones. 
 
 To the NE. of Belfast, the Hibernian Greensand thins 
 away, being from 15 to 25 feet thick, while north-west of 
 Black Head it varies in thickness from 10 to 20 feet : 
 
154 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 usually it is of different shades of light and dark green, 
 but near Larne, at Waterloo, where it is well exposed, it 
 is of a reddish colour. The Hibernian Greensand is very 
 fossiliferous ; Baily's lists of the fossils is given in the 
 Explanations to accompany sheets 21, 28, 29, and 36. 
 
 The Indurated Chalk or White Limestone is of various 
 thicknesses, ranging from less than 50 feet to over 100 feet, 
 a considerable portion having been removed by denudation. 
 It is hard and compact, but breaks with an uneven surface. 
 It usually contains numerous nodules of flint, of various 
 shapes and sizes, which are generally arranged in parallel 
 layers. In places, especially near Moira, are found the large 
 more or less symmetrical flints described by Buckland 
 as fossil sponges, and called by him Paramoudras. In 
 these, traversing the longest axis, is a cylindrical core of 
 white limestone : the name is said to have been coined by 
 Dr. Buckland's guide, as the Doctor expressed a wish to 
 obtain an Irish name for them. At Larne and Glenarm 
 the White Limestone is manufactured into whiting. The 
 stone is first broken into pieces about two or three inches 
 in diameter, after which it is put with water into vats and 
 ground by revolving blocks of granite ; the finer material 
 is then run off into troughs, where it is allowed to settle, 
 and the sediment is then pumped into drying rooms, and 
 when dry is sent into the markets ; principally to Glasgow. 
 
 A little to the east of the town of Antrim, where 
 they are brought up by a fault, also in the neighbour- 
 hood of Larne, and farther to the south, are out- 
 lying exposures of Cretaceous rocks appearing in the 
 Miocene rocks ; while south, south-east, and east of 
 Ballycastle are different fringes of Cretaceous rocks round 
 outliers of dolerite, they lying on the Metamorphic 
 (Cambro-Silurians) and the Carboniferous rocks. Farther 
 
Cretaceous. 155 
 
 north, in the south-west of the island of Rathlin, is White 
 Limestone, appearing from under the dolerite sheets ; it 
 also appears in detached places on the north coast of An- 
 trim, between Ballycastle and Portrush, especially between 
 Whitepark Bay and Ballycastle (where, in places, the 
 underlying rocks are exposed) and between the Giant's 
 Causeway and Portrush. A very elaborate description of 
 the White Limestone along the north coast of Antrim is 
 given in Portlock's " Report on the Geology of Tyrone and 
 Londonderry." Baily gives lists of the White Limestone 
 fossils in the " Geological Survey Explanations," just now 
 referred to. 
 
156 
 
 CAINOZOIC PERIOD. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 The Irish Tertiary rocks of Miocene age occur only in 
 the Province of Ulster. There are also in Ulster and in 
 other places, as near Cahir, County Tipperary, accumula- 
 tions of Plastic clays and sands associated with Lignite 
 beds, which by some are supposed to be of Pliocene age. 
 These beds are best developed in the neighbourhood of 
 Lough Neagh (Counties Antrim, Londonderry, and Tyrone), 
 from which they are called the " Lough Neagh Series." 
 The age of these beds has not been proved as yet ; they 
 may be classed provisionally as Pliocene ; but it appears 
 just as probable that they belong to the Praeglacial drift, 
 or are of Pleistocene age, and, possibly, that they ought 
 to be described among the Superficial Accumulations in 
 Section III., Chapter XIV. 
 
 General Section of the Cainozoic Rocks. 
 
 r Lough Neagh Series.— Plastic clays 
 and sands, with subordinate beds of 
 lignite and layers of fossil wood 
 
 maximum thickness about 300 feet. 
 
Miocene. 
 
 157 
 
 Miocene. 
 
 (Eruptive Series. — Principally bedded 
 flows of dolerite, associated with tuffs 
 and tuffose rocks. Locally there are 
 flows of trachyte. In places, inter- 
 stratified with the dolerites, there are 
 Iron-ore measures 
 
 maximum thick?iess about 1,200* feet 
 
 Basal Series. — Generally a flint con- 
 glomerate, but in places this accumula- 
 tion is associated with, or replaced by, 
 clay, tuffose rock, iron ore, or laterite 
 (Bole) from a few inches to over 
 
 20 
 
 1,520 
 
 MIOCENE. 
 
 BASAL SERIES. 
 
 Usually the lowest bed of a formation that lies uncon- 
 formably on those below it, is, for the most part, a con- 
 glomerate, and this is the case with the Irish Miocene 
 rocks, the lowest member of which is generally a flint 
 conglomerate. 
 
 This conglomerate may be a flint shingle, or gravel, but 
 more generally the flints are embedded in an ochreous, a 
 calcareous, or an argillaceous matrix. When the matrix 
 is calcareous, the rock is very like the White Limestone 
 (Indurated Chalk), except that the contained flints were 
 more or less broken, rolled, and abraded, prior to being 
 included in the limy matter. 
 
 When a Lignite occurs, it nearly always lies on a thin 
 bed of clay. The Lignites of Miocene age seem to have 
 accumulated somewhat similarly to the major portion of 
 the Irish peat, as they were formed in the places in which 
 they are now found ; nowhere do they seem to have a 
 
 * As estimated by W. le S. Duffin. 
 
158 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 sedimentary character, except, perhaps, in that of the 
 upper portion of the bed at Ballintoy, County Antrim. 
 
 In the island of Rathlin, a conglomerate seems to occur 
 in various places under the dolerite, and lying on the 
 denuded surface of the White Limestone. On the oppo- 
 site coast of Antrim, close to the harbour at Ballycastle, 
 there is a calcareous conglomerate containing fragments 
 of white limestone, flint, and dolerite ; while in other 
 places in the same vicinity, the matrix of the conglomerate 
 is an ochreous bole containing flints. On the latter rock 
 an indurated or altered tuff sometimes occurs. This last 
 rock has somewhat the aspect of a dolerite, but it disinte- 
 grates freely and contains numerous flints. To the west- 
 ward, at Ballintoy, there is an ochreous tuff or bole. 
 
 To the west of the Giant's Causeway, near Dunluce 
 Castle, the basal conglomerate is of considerable thickness ; 
 and in the same neighbourhood, under the massive flows of 
 dolerite, there is a series of thin beds ranging from a few 
 inches to a few feet in thickness. These rocks are in 
 aspect like dolerite, but can scarcely be flows of that 
 kind of rock, as each bed is so thin, so even in thickness, 
 and so extensive ; probably they are beds of tuff or tuffose 
 rocks, which were hardened by a metamorphic action 
 similar to that which changed the Lias at Portrush into 
 hornstone. That such a change can take place is pointed 
 out elsewhere (Chaps. X., XI.) ; here, therefore, we need 
 only direct attention to the previously mentioned indurated 
 tuff at Ballycastle, on the same geological horizon. 
 
 To the west of Portrush, at Down Hill, County London- 
 derry, the basal rock is an ochreous flint conglomerate, 
 which fills up the hollows in the surface of the White Lime- 
 stone. To the SW., on the west of the dolerite plateau, 
 at Keady Mountain, east of Limavady, there is a con- 
 
Miocene. 159 
 
 glomerate under a peculiar indurated tuff, " very black like 
 coal, and weathering into small cubical pieces." Farther 
 south, at Donald's Hill, a thin bed of clay lies above the 
 conglomerate. This clay is, in one place, fifteen inches 
 thick ; it is yellow above and red below, while the con- 
 glomerate is pinkish. 
 
 Following the boundary of the dolerite southward, on 
 the south-east of Dungiven in the Eden hills, a calcareous 
 and chalk-like conglomerate occurs resting on Triassic 
 rocks. This thins away to a few inches in thickness. 
 Farther south, in places, under the large outlier of dolerite 
 to the north of Moneyneany, lignite was found. Due 
 north of Moneyneany, immediately west of Craig-na-shoke, 
 in the Ballynascreen hills, is a bed of Iron-ore nearly 
 three feet thick, over about three feet in thickness of a 
 chalk-like conglomerate. Under the latter there seem 
 to be a few feet in thickness of Triassic rocks. A mile 
 farther east, on the slope of Bohilbreaga, the iron-ore 
 is replaced by a bed of lignite about eighteen inches 
 thick. This lignite rests on a bed of clay, is highly 
 bituminous, and contains small pieces of Amber. It is 
 separated from the overlying dolerite by a few inches in 
 thickness of steatitic stuff. At the " Coal Level " the 
 basal calcareous conglomerate cannot be seen, but it occurs 
 at a short distance to the east. Lignite is recorded by 
 Portlock as occurring to the south-east at the Slieve-Gallion- 
 Carn dolerite outlier, on from three to four feet in thick- 
 ness of calcareous argillaceous conglomerate. 
 
 In Tyrone, the basal series is not well exposed, but in 
 one of the coal-pits at Coalisland, a few feet in thickness 
 of a white calcareous rock occurs, which is in aspect more 
 like these basal beds than the White Limestone. 
 
 To the south-east of the dolerite plateau, the conglo- 
 
160 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 merate is generally found where a section of the base of 
 the Miocene rocks is exposed. West of Lurgan these 
 rocks give as follows : — 
 
 Tuffose dolerite rock ... 3 feet. 
 
 Fire-clay from -5 to 075 „ 
 
 Flint conglomerate, with yellowish 
 
 marl matrix 1 to 3 „ 
 
 675 
 
 But farther north-east there is only a thickness of three 
 or four inches of purplish marl between the dolerite and 
 the white limestone. In the Knocknadona and Kilcorig 
 quarries, there is a thin bed of very impure lignite on a 
 dark fire-clay, from two to twelve inches thick ; they over- 
 lie an ochreous flint conglomerate from six inches to three 
 feet in thickness. It was the impure lignite (plant bed) 
 in Limestone Lodge quarry, townland of Knocknadona, 
 three miles NW. of Lisburn, that Jukes metioned in his 
 paper published in the Geological Magazine, vol. v., in 
 which he pointed out that the thick beds of dolerite are 
 incapable of altering the underlying rocks, as the plant 
 remains in this bed were totally unaltered, although only 
 separated from the dolerite by a few inches of clay. 
 
 Farther north-east the conglomerate usually has a 
 steatitic, clayey, or ochreous matrix, but in places it is 
 described as a flint shingle, or gravel. It ranges from one 
 foot to four or five in thickness. In the neighbourhood of 
 Carrickfergus, over the conglomerate Du Noyer found beds 
 of clay and impure iron-ore. In Muck Island, off the east 
 shore of Island Magee, is iron-ore, which, possibly, may 
 be in the basal series of the Miocene rocks, as close to it 
 in Island Magee are Cretaceous rocks. 
 
 North-westward, from Island Magee to Cushendall, 
 
Miocene. 1 6 1 
 
 Traill has observed various exposures of the basal beds of 
 the Miocene ; they being usually exposed wherever the 
 dolerite forms an escarpment. The best sections are seen 
 in the several quarries to the south of Larne, on the road 
 to Glynn, and in those near Magheramorne ; to the 
 north of Larne, between Waterloo Cliff and the Black 
 Cave Tunnel, and further inland along the Sallagh Braes, 
 and at intervals along the coast to the townland of the 
 little Deer Park, two miles south of Glenarm ; in the 
 quarries adjacent to the harbour at Glenarm ; also below 
 the small waterfall inside the Glenarm demesne ; and at 
 the Carnlough quarries. 
 
 " The accumulation is principally a conglomerate with a 
 ferruginous clayey base, containing angular and rounded 
 pieces of flint, chalk, and dolerite, associated with a ferru- 
 ginous clay and red ochreous bands or beds of laterite, 
 which are more highly impregnated by hydrated oxide of 
 iron. Portions of the clay are plastic, and others in 
 weathering break up into small cuboids." Of these beds 
 at Carnlough, Traill states that " there does not seem to 
 be any consolidation of the debris of the White Limestone 
 into a conglomerate." 
 
 These beds average from two to four feet in thickness, 
 but when filling up fissures or hollows they sometimes 
 attain a thickness of twenty feet. Some of the inter- 
 bedded flints have bands of colour developed in them, and 
 are fractured apparently by heat. 
 
 Eruptive Series. 
 
 This is principally made up of extensive sheets of 
 dolerite, with their associated tuffs or tuffose surfaces ; 
 but in limited areas there are tracts of trachyte. Duffin 
 
 M 
 
1 62 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 is of opinion that " the trachytes occur at the centres of 
 eruption, and were probably poured out at the end of 
 the outburst ; " while Du Noyer has stated that the 
 trachytes near Tardree were newer than the dolerites, and 
 that in coming up they lifted with them masses of the 
 dolerite ; such as some of those on Carncarney. Professor 
 Hull has surmised that the trachytes are probably of 
 Eocene age ; but this seems improbable. The basal 
 beds of the Miocene rocks are known to be of Miocene 
 age from the plant remains in them ; and if the trachytes 
 were older than these, fragments of the latter would 
 most probably occur in the conglomerates — but this is 
 never the case — moreover, the conglomerate should inter- 
 vene between the trachyte and the dolerite. 
 
 In the vicinity of Templepatrick, some of the trachytic 
 rocks evidently occur as intrusions, while in the Tardree 
 area, although some of them are bedded and apparently 
 below a portion of the dolerite, others are newer and 
 evidently intrusive. As proved by Scrope, basic igneous 
 rocks flow more readily and occupy larger areas than sili- 
 cious ones, and it would appear as if in Ulster there had 
 been small outbursts of trachytic rocks at different centres, 
 not at the dawn of the Vulcanicity, but during its progress, 
 as took place in Central France and elsewhere. 
 
 The very early eruptions of trachyte would only occupy 
 very limited areas, and, subsequently, would be covered 
 up by the more recent flows of dolerite. At a still later 
 period there must have been outbursts of trachytic rocks at 
 Tardree, near Broughshane, and perhaps also at Temple- 
 patrick ; some of the isolated masses of the bedded dole- 
 rites seem to be portions severed from the rest during the 
 more recent outbursts of trachytic rocks. At Ballyknock, 
 four miles WSW. of Hillsborough, there are also eruptive 
 
Miocene. 163 
 
 masses of trachyte, to which attention was directed by 
 Du Noyer. 
 
 The dolerite beds are massive and compact, but above 
 and below there are amygdaloidal portions ; while between 
 the flows are thin tuffs, or, perhaps more strictly, tuffose 
 rocks, that is, re-arranged disintegrated portions of the 
 surfaces of the flows ; there are also in certain localities 
 subordinate series of IRON-ORE-MEASURES. 
 
 The partings and beds between the dolerite flows are 
 called Bole, and they seem to agree in a great measure 
 with the argillaceous varieties of the Indian rocks called 
 Laterite ; the latter being either the waste or disintegrated 
 portions of the beds of Tertiary traps re-arranged and 
 deposited by water or other atmospheric agencies, or such 
 accumulations mixed with Tuff. Many of these rocks 
 have undergone methylotic action, and are more or less 
 steatitic ; they also contain a greater or less percentage of 
 iron, and in places graduate into the typical Iron-ore- 
 Measures. 
 
 Associated with the argillaceous laterite, or bole, is a 
 compact variety known as LlTHOMARGE : this is usually 
 steatitic, and always contains iron ore and silica. Of it 
 Traill states : " it is often locally called ' the pavement,' 
 among the miners, contains a small percentage of iron, 
 and in places is an undoubted tuff." 
 
 These beds are of various colours. According to Egan, 
 they are " generally light reddish or brown, and sometimes 
 variegated, frequently liver-coloured, and at times a 
 lavender blue, more or less spotted with lighter tints ; they 
 disintegrate freely, but do not form a paste in water." The 
 bright coloured lithomarges are identical in aspect with 
 some of the varieties of steatitic laterites collected by 
 Wynne in Kutch, India. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 The columnar structure in the dolerite at the Giant's 
 Causeway, on the north coast of Antrim, has been described 
 by numerous writers, and is very generally known. On the 
 island of Rathlin, north of Doon Point, at a place called 
 the " Little Causeway," there is also a great development 
 of columns lying at various angles to the horizontal. 
 
 Iron-Ore Measures. 
 
 These measures are an important feature in the Irish 
 Miocene rocks. Although classed as one series, they seem 
 to occur on slightly different geological horizons. They 
 consist of beds of Pisolitic-iron-ore, Alaminous-iron-ore, or 
 red bole, lithomarge and bole, with, in places, lignite. At 
 some of the Iron workings the aggregate thickness of 
 these measures is over 60 feet, but in other places they do 
 not exceed a few feet. 
 
 The pisolitic ores, according to Bauermann, contain from 
 30 to 70 per cent, of iron, and the aluminous from 25 to 
 35 per cent. They are mostly free from sulphur and 
 phosphorus, and are of great value in smelting other ores 
 for malleable iron and steel, especially the " Bessemer steel." 
 Some of the richer lithomarge can be worked with profit, 
 as it is extensively used as a flux for the rich Cumberland 
 hematite ores. Traill states : " The pisolitic structure 
 seems to have been generated very frequently in the 
 uppermost portion of the bole beds without necessarily 
 forming good ' pebble-ore.' The true pisolitic portion, or 
 first quality ore, is of variable thickness : in some places 
 its presence is only indicated by the structural appearance, 
 but in the localities where it is more largely worked it 
 averages from 14 to 18 or 20 inches, occasionally expand- 
 
Miocene. 165 
 
 ing in thickness to 3 feet, or exceptionally to 4 feet. The 
 second quality ore is also, to a certain extent, pisolitic, 
 but the concretions are not so hard nor so well formed, 
 and it does not contain as high a percentage of iron. It 
 is often worked for a thickness of 2 feet or more with 
 profit. The varying circumstances of transit, shipment, 
 and trade considerably modify the extent to which this 
 portion is worked." 
 
 The Iron-ore Measures appear to have been lacustrine 
 accumulations, and to have been formed similarly to 
 like deposits now accumulating in Central America, where 
 on the uneven surfaces formed by successive but unequal 
 flows of dolerite there are shallow expanses or lakes of 
 water. In such lakes the first accumulations are neces- 
 sarily the detritus or disintegrated portions of the sur- 
 rounding rocks carried into them by rain and runlets or 
 wind, which may or may not have been augmented by 
 showers of volcanic tuff. A necessary accompaniment of 
 the decomposition of the detritus of the dolerite was the 
 formation of iron ores, which more or less impregnated 
 the strata ; thus the lithomarge would be formed. The 
 aluminous-ore appears to have been due to a longer water 
 carriage, alumina and iron held in solution being carried 
 and deposited during hot weather. Somewhat similar 
 action takes place at the present day in many places in 
 Ireland, as, during the summer heat, waters which at other 
 times are perfectly clear, get thick and muddy as they 
 become shallow, depositing argillaceous peroxide of iron. 
 The pisolitic accumulations were probably due to the 
 presence of organic matter that attracted the iron. These 
 shallow lakes in some instances became marshes or even 
 peat-bogs, the latter being now represented by the 
 lignite. 
 
1 66 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 In the section at Island Magee two beds of iron-ore are 
 separated by a bed of clay, as if the deposition of the iron 
 had ceased for a space of time, while subsequently it was 
 again deposited ; but this cessation seems hard to explain. 
 On Rathlin island, apparently low down in the dolerites, 
 are several thin beds of ochre and steatite (Bole). 
 
 Over the Iron-ore measures there are different thick- 
 nesses of dolerite, but in no case have these super-imposed 
 rocks altered the former. When they are altered they are 
 traversed by dykes of igneous rocks. 
 
 The chief places in which the Pisolitic ores have been 
 worked are along the outcrop of the ore beds from Knock- 
 boy and Ballylig, near Broughshane, to Glenravel, Cargan 
 and Newtown Crommelin ; along the side and at the 
 head of Glenariff (the shipments of it having been from 
 Red Bay) ; near Carnlough and Glenarm ; at Shane Hill, 
 to the west of Larne ; and on Island Magee ; at Bally- 
 palady, where it may be said that this industry was first 
 originated ; on the north coast at Portmoon, beside the 
 Giant's Causeway, and a little inland from the White Rocks 
 near Portrush, and also to a limited extent in a few other 
 localities ; all the workings being in the country to the 
 north or north-east of Lough Neagh. 
 
 In the south portion of the dolerite area, on the west 
 of the valley of the Lagan, the thickness of the eruptive 
 rocks is, according to Warren's estimate, about 800 feet. 
 In this thickness, beds of bole are found, but no regular 
 Iron-ore Measures seem to be represented. To the west 
 of Lough Neagh the Eruptive Series is supposed to be 
 from 400 to 500 feet thick, but no conspicuous Iron-ore 
 Measures are known to occur therein. 
 
 On the east side of the County of Antrim, in the 
 vicinity of Larne, the Iron-ore Measures are, according to 
 
Miocene. 167 
 
 Duffin's estimate, about 800 feet above the base of the 
 Miocene rocks, while in Island Magee the thickness of the 
 lower beds of dolerite appears to be less. Between Larne 
 and the town of Antrim there seems to be a thickness of 
 about 600 feet below and about 400 feet above them. 
 According to Mr. Gray, the general section of Iron-ore 
 Measures is : — 
 
 4. Pisolitic iron ore. 
 3. Bole. 
 
 2. Ochre. 
 
 1. Lithomarge. 
 
 This section, however, varies in the different workings, 
 as will be seen from the details published in the " Memoirs 
 of the Geological Survey." 
 
 Lignite occurs in the dolerite near Crumlin, east of 
 Lough Neagh ; Carnmoney, south-west of Carrickfergus ; 
 Ballypalady, east of Antrim ; Shane's Castle demesne, 
 north of Lough Neagh ; about halfway between Ballymena 
 and Ballymoney ; at Glenarm ; at Ballintoy ; in the face of 
 the cliff near the Giant's Causeway ; and at Dunagael, 
 Rathlin island. In most of these places the lignite is 
 more or less associated with the Iron-ore Measures, but in 
 some of them it occurs between beds of dolerite ; at 
 Ballintoy it seems to be best developed. At this locality, 
 according to Traill, " it is 30 or 40 feet above the litho- 
 marge and bole, and has an average thickness of about 
 2 feet, in some places swelling to 4 feet, and, exceptionally, 
 to 5 feet, the upper stratum being solid, black, and glistening. 
 It rests on a thick bed of dark clay, part of which is a fire 
 clay, but rather gritty." To the west of Ballintoy, at 
 Lemeneigh, the lignite contains blocks of wood which split 
 readily, while still farther west it is still very much in the 
 condition of recent wood, being very little mineralized. 
 In the clay under the lignite are found plant remains, one 
 
1 68 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 being considered by Baily to be M' Clintockia Lyellii, a 
 plant previously found only in Greenland. 
 
 Of the plant and lignite beds at Ballypalady Duffin 
 gives the following section : — 
 
 6. Glacial drift 12 feet. 
 
 5. Conglomerate beds, occasionally having thin beds of 
 
 arenaceous clay and plant remains . . . 10 to 12 „ 
 
 4. Plant bed. Reddish -yellow ferruginous arenaceous 
 
 shale 5 ?? 
 
 3. Dark shale, with plant fragments and pieces of 
 lignite ; the latter increasing in quantity down- 
 wards 3 „ 
 
 2. Lignite 1 „ 
 
 1. Amygdaloidal dolerite 1 „ 
 
 34 „ 
 
 The following is a list of plants observed by Baily : — 
 M' Clintockia trinervis (Ballypalady), M. Lyellii (Lignite 
 bed, Ballintoy), Sequoia Couttsice, Cupressus or Glyptos- 
 trobns Europceus, leaves doubtfully referred to Ulmus, Quer- 
 cusy Fagiis, Salix and Andromeda (Ironstone nodules, shores 
 of Lough Neagh). Others found in different places are 
 Pinus Plutonis, Sequoia Du Noyerii, Cupres sites McHenrii, 
 leaves of Platanus and Rhamnus of three species. 
 
 PLIOCENE. 
 
 Lough Neagh Series. 
 
 The Plastic clays associated with lignite either of 
 Pliocene or Pleistocene age, but provisionally placed as 
 the former, have been found near Cahir, County Tipperary, 
 and in other places in Munster, while in the province of 
 
Pliocene. 1 69 
 
 Ulster, near Lough Neagh, they are largely developed. 
 Other deposits of plastic clay, which may be of the same 
 age, have been found on Aran island off the coast of 
 Donegal, near Menlo, County Galway, and elsewhere. 
 These latter accumulations, as they do not contain lignite 
 beds, will be described in the chapter on the Drift. 
 
 At Loughloheny and Ballymacadam, south-east of 
 Cahir, is a small tract of pipe-clay with beds of lignite, 
 in a hollow in the Carboniferous Limestone. The exact 
 depth of the beds has not been proved. In some places 
 the lignite is never found until a depth of fifteen feet 
 has been reached. The clay above the lignite contains 
 small black specks, which makes it crack in burning, while 
 that below the lignite is perfectly pure, and has been 
 exported to England to be manufactured into the finer 
 kinds of pottery. Wynne is of opinion that these beds 
 are the remains of a once extensive accumulation, as three 
 miles north of Cahir, also farther northward, similar pipe- 
 clay has been found. In the drift of the valley of the 
 Suir, in the vicinity of Cahir, a few pieces of silicified 
 wood similar to the "Lough Neagh hones" have been 
 found. 
 
 In the vicinity of Lough Neagh these beds consist of 
 plastic clays, sands, and subordinate beds of lignite and 
 clay-iron-stone. 
 
 Griffith and Portlock considered these accumulations to 
 belong to the newer Tertiaries, although the latter be- 
 lieved that- some of the upper beds are possibly of the 
 age of the drift of the surrounding country ; Jukes, on his 
 map, classes them as Pleistocene, and Baily agrees with 
 this ; while Hardman, in recent publications, has called 
 them Pliocene ; but none of these writers have brought 
 forward any new or conclusive evidence as to their age. 
 
. 50 
 
 feet. 
 
 • 5 
 
 ?j 
 
 • 3 
 
 5J 
 
 . IO 
 
 V 
 
 . 22 
 
 9° 
 
 
 1 70 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 The following section was proved in a pump shaft a mile 
 due west of the mouth of the Ballinderry river : — 
 
 5. Boulder clay 
 
 4. Light brown and white clay 
 
 3. Bluish hard clay . 
 
 2. Brown " till," with landstones 
 
 1. Dolerite .... 
 
 Nos. 3 and 4 are very like some of the Lough Neagh 
 beds near Salter's Castle, but in this section these clays 
 are apparently in the drift. 
 
 The Lough Neagh Series is undoubtedly newer than 
 the dolerite, having been deposited subsequently to the 
 denudation of the Blackwater Valley, out of which were 
 excavated all the Miocene and Cretaceous rocks and a 
 considerable thickness of the Trias. The newer rocks rest 
 in some places on the dolerite, in others on the white 
 limestone, or on the Triassic rocks. They are necessarily 
 of very unequal thickness, and the greatest depth to which 
 they have been proved is about 270 feet, and probably in 
 no place do they much exceed this depth, although the 
 dip of the layers would give a thickness of between 1,500 
 and 2,000 feet. This laminated structure, however, is 
 evidently false stratification, like that found in all deposits 
 similarly accumulated. 
 
 To the east of Lough Neagh, at Sandy Bay, a bore-hole 
 was put down, of which Griffith gives the records. It 
 proved about 76*5 feet in depth, of which 60 feet are 
 said to be lignite. Near this, in the Crumlin river, the 
 beds are only a few feet thick, and lie on an eroded surface 
 of dolerite. The Crumlin river beds are evidently high 
 up in their formation, and come directly on the dolerite by 
 overlap. In these, bivalves have been found by Hardman, 
 
Pliocene. 1 7 1 
 
 who considers the fossils to be Unio, but Doctor Henry 
 Woodward, of the British Museum, considers that they are 
 more like Mytilns or Modioia, which would go to prove 
 the Pleistocene age of the beds. The great quantity of 
 lignite recorded by Griffith in the bore-hole would suggest 
 that possibly a mistake was made in the returns. Still, 
 however, it should be remembered that Sandy Bay must 
 have been a bay during the accumulation of these strata, 
 into which there may have been currents that carried in 
 timber and left it there, which would account for the great 
 thickness of lignite. 
 
 To the SW. of the lake, at Annaghmore, near Coal- 
 island, a deep trial-bore was put down, proving 270 feet 
 of clay and sand, without bottoming them. Further north 
 other trials were made, which reached " rotten dolerite " 
 or a conglomerate containing pieces of dolerite. Of these 
 trials no records seem to be forthcoming, but they are said 
 to have been between 50 and 100 yards deep near Arboe or 
 Salter's Castle. While sinking one of these trial pits about 
 the year i860, shells and plants were found by Mr. Garvin. 
 
 Centuries ago the silicified wood found in Ulster 
 attracted attention, and led to the belief that " the waters 
 of Lough Neagh had the property of petrifying wood." 
 In 1684 Smith pointed out that the power must be in the 
 soil rather than in the water, but Barton, in 1757, was the 
 first to show that the silicified wood was connected with 
 the lignite. This observer made a sinking near Glenavy 
 waterfall, Sandy Bay, and found — 
 
 Red clay 3 feet. 
 
 Blue clay 4 „ 
 
 Lignite . . . . . . 4 „ 
 
 Clay 
 
 over 11 „ 
 
172 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 The lignite was in a black compact mass, that in 
 general could be cut by the spade. Some portions, how- 
 ever, could not be so cut, and " it required the aid of some 
 other tool to separate them from the mass." Such por- 
 tions, when examined, were found to have been more or 
 less completely changed to stone. 
 
 Scouler afterwards examined into this subject, and 
 came to the opinion that the silicified wood was not 
 " co-extensive with the deposits of lignite." This ob- 
 server found the " deposits of lignite at different places 
 around Lough Neagh from Dungannon to Glenavy, a cir- 
 cuit of about twenty miles," while the silicified wood 
 occurs over the country, from Cranfield on the north in 
 Antrim to Seagoe on the south in County Armagh ; he 
 also mentions that it is not found in the potters' clay and 
 lignite at Verner's Bridge, south-east of Dungannon. For 
 these reasons he suspected that the silicified wood came 
 from some of the beds associated with the dolerite. 
 
 It is possible that some of the " Lough Neagh Hones," 
 as the silicified wood is popularly called, may come from 
 an unknown bed in the dolerite, but at the same time it is 
 evident that most of them come from the lignite in the 
 Lough Neagh beds. None of the lignite associated with 
 the dolerite is found to be silicified, although part of it is 
 impregnated with iron ; while a piece of lignite like that 
 described by Barton, if bleached, would be identical with 
 the Lough Neagh hones. In most of the many pieces we 
 have picked up the central portion had all the appearance 
 of the lignite of the Lough Neagh beds. Egan, who has 
 lately paid particular attention to this subject, finds that the 
 dark brown and black portions which compose the interior 
 of the Lough Neagh hones, when heated in the fire or 
 before the blowpipe, give out a smoke possessing clearly 
 
Pliocene. 173 
 
 the peculiar smell of burning lignite. From this circum- 
 stance, and from the resemblance in appearance between 
 specimens of the two substances picked up along the 
 north-west shore of Lough Neagh, as well as from the 
 fact that the fragments of silicified wood are sometimes 
 not at all waterworn, he thinks it is difficult to avoid the 
 conclusion that this is connected with, and derived 
 by a process of silicification from, the lignite. This 
 observer also finds, as far as his experience goes, that the 
 hones found near the lake are bleached only " skin deep," 
 while at distances from it they are deeply bleached ; also 
 that under the latter circumstances they only occur in 
 stratified gravels. We have previously mentioned that in 
 the drift associated with the Cahir lignites, County Tip- 
 perary, pieces of similarly silicified wood are found. 
 
 The opponents of Barton's idea seem to ignore that 
 portions of the lignite he raised were so hard "that it 
 required other tools than a spade to separate them from 
 the mass ; " also the well-known fact, that all rocks before 
 they lose their " quarry water" are softer than afterwards, 
 some being so soft that they can be cut with a knife, or 
 even be easily moulded, although afterwards, when dry, they 
 may become excessively hard. In reference to the Lough 
 Neagh hones occurring so far north, it has been stated that 
 the ice would only carry them southward. Those who have 
 made this statement quite forget that probably the Lough 
 Neagh beds, prior to being denuded far exceeded their 
 present limits, and, if their present surface once formed a 
 horizontal or nearly horizontal plain, they would extend 
 northward nearly, if not quite, as far as the places in which 
 the Hones occur ; also that, as the Hones occur in aqueous 
 drift, they were probably carried northward after the great 
 ice asre. 
 
SECTION II.— METAMORPHIC AND 
 ERUPTIVE ROCKS. 
 
 Ingenite Rocks (Forbes). 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 METAMORPHIC ACTION. 
 
 The Metamorphic and Eruptive rocks have been classed 
 under the name of Ingenite rocks by Forbes. They will 
 be described in this section together, as they are intimately 
 connected, all being indirectly due to Metamorphic Action. 
 As that action is not generally studied, a short description 
 of it is given in this chapter, and a classification which will 
 prevent repetition when describing the rocks of the differ- 
 ent localities. The classification of Metamorphic Action is 
 like that adopted by Professor le Conte of the University 
 of California, in his recently published Geology. 
 
 One kind of Metamorphism is Regional, or extends over 
 large areas. The rocks affected by it seem to have been 
 under the influence of intensely heated water or steam, 
 which, as it were, stewed them, from which the action may 
 be called METAPEPSIS. Another kind is merely Local, its 
 effects being only found immediately adjoining intruded 
 masses of rocks, or in the vicinity of vents where gases, 
 
176 
 
 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 steam, or other products of vulcanicity found egress. 
 When typical, this kind of Metamorphism produces in the 
 rocks an appearance as if they were baked, from which it 
 may be called PAROPTESIS. It is not, however, always 
 typical, as many of the altered rocks must have contained 
 
 7. 
 
 A A 
 
 A A A A A 
 A A A A A A A A /\ 
 
 Schist Serves 
 
 ++4 
 
 Olinoclasvc 
 Granite 
 
 \' . * \' A Gneiss 
 
 © ©Q 
 
 I A A A \Hixjjhly Silicious 
 • ^Granite 
 
 Basic Elvcuv [23 " " Bh/aro 
 
 T\fetcarvorphic 
 
 K. 
 
 — Granite 
 
 O*o a 
 
 o o 
 
 boo 
 
 -y~ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 PfTiinstones or 
 Traps 
 
 
 Felstone and/ 
 Quxxrtg rock, 
 
 ^r 
 
 j 
 
 Metcuncrphic Rocks Eruptive Rocks 
 
 Diagram illustrating the formation of the Granitic and other Eruptive rocks. 
 
 moisture, which when heated into steam would give results 
 more or less similar to Metapepsis, except that the action 
 would be confined to limited areas. In both these classes 
 of Metamorphism, chemical action has been, more or less, 
 and sometimes, indeed, to a great degree, set up among the 
 constituents of the rocks affected. There is a third class of 
 
Met amorphic Action. 177 
 
 Metamorphism which is also local. It is due to the introduc- 
 tion and action of chemical substances from without ; it 
 has been called METHYLOSIS. The last is more often found 
 among Metapeptic rocks than elsewhere. Metapeptic 
 action is the metamorphism that is most interesting to the 
 geologist, as it is by the extreme action of it that Eruptive 
 rocks have been formed. These changes may be divided 
 into stages, as represented in the accompanying diagram. 
 
 The originally unaltered rocks when subjected to a slight 
 metapeptic action constitute the rocks of the first stage. 
 
 First Stage. SUBMETAMORPHIC ROCKS of the Indian 
 Geological Survey Officers. These rocks are indurated, 
 and the surface planes of the prominent structures are 
 glazed or mineralized, while in most of them an incipient 
 foliation has been produced. In others no peculiar struc- 
 ture appears, but only certain minerals have been deve- 
 loped. The principal rocks of this stage are the different 
 varieties of Argillite, or Argillaceous-schist, Phyllilite or 
 Phyllite-schist, and incipient Quartzite or Quartz-schist 
 (Indurated grits). In some places, owing to the constituents 
 of some rocks being more susceptible of change than those 
 of the rocks with which they are associated, subordinate 
 beds of well developed schists, gneiss, or even granite, may 
 occur in close connection with rocks which have undergone 
 very much less change, although they have been attacked 
 by the same agent. 
 
 Second Stage. Schist SERIES. These rocks have their 
 mineral constituents arranged in plates, or leaves, along 
 which the rocks easily split, while in the direction trans- 
 verse to that of the leaves or foliation they are tough and 
 break with an uneven or hackly fracture. A typical schist 
 consists of two well developed minerals, one of which is 
 generally mica — various other minerals, however, may occur, 
 
 N 
 
178 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 sometimes merely as accessories, but locally as essentials, 
 thus forming different varieties and sub-varieties. When 
 mica is absent, quartz is nearly always present. 
 
 The principal varieties of schist are Micalitc or Mica- 
 schist, Qitartzite or Quartz-schist, Felsilite or Felsite-schist, 
 Hornblendite or Hornblende-schist, Chlorilite or Chlorite- 
 schist, and Talcite or Talc-schist. The Metallic Schists, 
 Pyrilite, Pyrrholite, and Mico-iron-schist, although not very 
 common, may be also mentioned, as they are in some places 
 worked as " sulphur ores." 
 
 Third Stage. GNEISS SERIES. Among these rocks 
 gneiss predominates, but there are always subordinate 
 beds, and groups of beds, of schist. Gneiss in its simplest 
 form is a crystalline granular aggregate of quartz, felspar, 
 and mica, in leaves or plates more or less parallel to one 
 another. This is, however, rather uncommon, as gneiss 
 usually contains various other minerals as well, sometimes 
 as accidental accessories, but often as essentials forming 
 numerous varieties and sub-varieties. 
 
 In ordinary gneiss the foliation follows the most con- 
 spicuous structure in the original rocks, but in Granitic 
 gneiss the original structures are nearly always obliterated, 
 and a more or less perpendicular foliation is substituted. 
 Granitic gneiss is the nearest approach to the granites of 
 metamorphic origin, and it is a question if it ought not to 
 be included among them. 
 
 Fourth Stage. Metamorphic Granite. Granites of 
 metamorphic origin usually have a more or less con- 
 spicuous foliation. They are necessarily very variable in 
 -composition, according to the mineral constituents of the 
 different rocks from which they were formed. In Ireland 
 most of them contain a large percentage of such minerals 
 as oligoclase, a felspar that seems to be adularia, amphi- 
 
Metamorpkzc Action. ■ jyg 
 
 bole, titanite, and ripidolite ; but in some places they are 
 very silicious. 
 
 Fifth Stage. Intrusive Granite. In the rocks of 
 this stage there is a total change, the original rocks losing 
 their identity and having become a molten mass. This 
 mass, before cooling, generally separated into two zones, 
 one more silicious than the other. Some portions of these 
 zones cooled below the surface of the earth, forming the 
 different Intrusive Granites and Elvans ; while others were 
 forced up to or near the surface of the earth to form the 
 Plutonic* and Volcanic rocks. 
 
 The Intrusive Granites, with their associated Plutonic and 
 Volcanic rocks, may be tabulated as follows : — 
 
 HIGHLY SILICIOUS INTRUSIVE GRANITIC ROCKS. 
 
 (a) With Quartz in excess. — Greisen (Cotta) ; Quartz-ROCK ;f 
 
 a granular rock, almost entirely composed of quartz, but 
 sometimes containing orthoclase or mica, or a little of 
 both ; petrologically a granite. 
 
 (b) With Orthoclase in excess. — Felsitic Granite (King) ; 
 
 Felsite-rock (Cotta) ; a granular rock, almost entirely 
 composed of felsite (an intimate mixture of orthoclase and 
 quartz), but sometimes having a little free quartz, and 
 rarely some mica ; petrologically a granite. 
 
 (c) Orthoclase Granite ; when typical, a crystalline aggre- 
 
 gate of orthoclase, quartz, and micas ; usually also con- 
 taining pyrite. 
 
 * The term Plutonic is used to denote the rocks formed during the times 
 now long past, and consequently (if all the more recent strata were repre- 
 sented) at great depths below the rocks now forming. A few of these rocks 
 may have accumulated similarly to the volcanic rocks of the present day, but 
 in general their formation seems to have been vastly different, they having 
 been ejected in great sheets, apparently from fissures, of which "fissure erup- 
 tions " there are now no representatives. 
 
 f Greise?i, or Quartz-rock, here included among the Granitic rocks, and the 
 Quartz rocks presently mentioned among the Plutonic rocks, are eminently 
 Eruptive rocks, and must not be classed with Quartzite or Quartz-schist, which 
 are metamorphosed grits, and other silicious rocks. 
 
 N 2 
 
180 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 (d) Orthoclase Elvan ; when typical, containing orthoclase, 
 
 quartz, micas, and pyrite. Some of the minerals are not 
 entirely crystallized out, but form a matrix, and some of 
 the quartz always appears in distinct crystals, blebs, or 
 globules. These rocks are the passage rocks between the 
 typical granites and the felsitic Plutonic and Volcanic 
 rocks. 
 
 PLUTONIC AND VOLCANIC SILICIOUS ROCKS. 
 
 (e) With Quartz in excess. — Quartz-Rock ;* a granular rock, 
 
 nearly entirely composed of quartz, but some varieties 
 contain orthoclase or mica. By an excess of orthoclase, 
 quartz-rock will graduate into petro-silex or a rock like fine 
 felsitic elvan.f 
 
 (/) Very Silicious. — Petro-silex, Felsite-rock, and some 
 Trachytes ; usually a compact mass of felsite : some- 
 times, however, it is granular. It often contains free 
 quartz in crystals, globules, or blebs. Some varieties are 
 micaceous, others pyritous. 
 
 (g) With Orthoclase in excess. — Felstone, and some 
 Trachytes ; a granular or compact mixture of ortho- 
 clase and other felspars, the monoclinic felspar always 
 being in excess. When one or more felspars appear as 
 distinct crystals in the mass, the rock is called a PORPHY- 
 rite, or Porphyry. 
 
 (h) With Triclinic Felspar in excess. — Eurite (Daubisson) ; 
 Basic-Felstone, and Trachy-Dolerite. These fel- 
 stones belong to the Hybrid-rock of Durocher, and are the 
 passage rocks between the Felstones or Trachytes and the 
 Traps or Whinstones. If orthoclase is added to these, they 
 graduate into the Felstones (g), while with the addition of 
 amphibole or pyroxene they will change into the Traps (k). 
 
 INTRUSIVE GRANITIC ROCKS, IN PART BASIC. 
 
 (i) Oligoclasic Granite ; a crystalline aggregate of ortho- 
 clase, triclinic felspars, quartz, mica, and pyrite. Amphi- 
 bole, titanite, and such like minerals are usually present. 
 
 (J) Basic Elvan. These rocks are most variable in composi- 
 
 * See last note. 
 
 f Some of the Wicklow rocks mapped as "Granular quartz-rock" by 
 Wyley were called "Elvan " by Jukes. 
 
Metamorphic Action. 181 
 
 tion, they being the passage rocks between the Oligoclasic 
 Granites and the different Eurites (h) and Traps (k). 
 They include such rocks as Granztone, some of the Diorites 
 (amphibole + triclinic felspar), Syenite (amphibole + ortho- 
 clase), and various other basic granitic rocks. 
 
 PLUTONIC AND VOLCANIC BASIC ROCKS. 
 
 (k) Trap or Whinstone. — These embrace the different 
 varieties and sub-varieties that may be included under the 
 general names of gabbro, melaphyre, dolerite, diorite, and 
 basalt. 
 
 The classes and divisions of the Metamorphic and Erup- 
 tive rocks are necessarily arbitrary, but not more so than 
 the others adopted by geologists to classify the Sedimen- 
 tary rocks ; and observers, after a little field experience, 
 know in what division or class to place the different 
 varieties. There is, however, a certain complication in the 
 Eruptive rocks ; as between the highly silicious and the 
 basic are others — the Hybrid rocks of Durocher, which in 
 places are so prominent and important that they seem to 
 form a class in themselves. There are many Granites and 
 Elvans which it is impossible to put in either the highly 
 silicious or the basic class. One part of a protrusion may 
 have the characters of one, while another part may have 
 the characters of the other, or the whole protrusion may 
 have no definite character ; and similarly among the 
 Plutonic and Volcanic rocks, as there are some Eurites and 
 Trachy-dolerites, which in places have all the characters of 
 one of the kinds of Whinstone, although the mass of the 
 rock necessitates it being put among the Felstones. 
 
 In the descriptions of the rocks of different localities it 
 will be seen that in one district rocks of one class usually 
 predominate, although in some places all the classes are 
 represented. 
 
182 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 METAMORPHIC ROCKS. 
 
 South-east Ireland. 
 
 In South-east Ireland the metamorphosed rocks are of 
 Cambrian and Cambro-Silurian ages. In the promon- 
 tory of Howth the Cambrian rocks are, for the most part, 
 siib-metamorphic. They have already been described at 
 page 1 1, in the chapter on Cambrian rocks. 
 
 From Killiney in the County Dublin to the south coast 
 of Wexford the Cambrian and Cambro-Silurian rocks are 
 in part altered. This metamorphism was evidently effected 
 at four distinct times, at least ; at the first and third 
 regional metamorphism, or metapepsis, took place, and at 
 the second and fourth local metamorphism, or paroptesis. 
 
 In south Wexford the Cambrian rocks are altered, the 
 extent of change decreasing from the south, north and west- 
 ward. In the Saltee Islands, and on the mainland in the 
 neighbourhood of Carnsore, the action was so intense that 
 the rocks are changed into granite. These granites graduate 
 through gneiss and schist into the sub-metamorphic rocks 
 of the Forth mountains ; while farther westward and north- 
 ward the Cambrians are unaltered. Still farther north, in 
 the Counties of Wicklow and Dublin, the Cambrians are 
 unaltered, except, perhaps, some rocks north of Aughrim. 
 The age of these last rocks, however, is uncertain, and their 
 
Metamorphic Rocks. 183 
 
 alteration was subsequent to the metamorphism of the 
 Cambrians in Wexford. 
 
 There are interesting points in connection with these 
 metamorphosed Cambrians. At Carnsore and thereabouts 
 the metamorphic granite is oligoclasic, while on the 
 Saltees it is eminently orthoclasic and silicious. At Cross- 
 farnoge, or Forlorn Point, north of the Saltee Islands, are 
 orthoclasic granite or granitic-gneiss beds in sub-meta- 
 morphic rocks (incipient hornblendites and talcites). 
 These granitic rocks of Forlorn Point seem to have been 
 originally felsitic tuffs or tufTose rocks that rapidly altered, 
 while the associated rocks were less susceptible of change. 
 NW. of Greenore Point the quartzites are metamorphosed 
 grits, while in the Forth mountains the quartzites are 
 metamorphosed quartz rock. The latter are instructive, as 
 foliation is well developed in them, while the grits in the 
 associated Cambrian rocks are very little altered. 
 
 That the rocks which have been mentioned were meta- 
 morphosed prior to the Cambro-Silurian period is evident, 
 because to the south-east of Wexford, east of Ballygeary 
 Pier, and at Tagoat, are unaltered fossiliferous Cambro- 
 Silurians resting on Cambrian schists. This occurs also to 
 the south-west, on the shore south-east of Bannow, where a 
 Cambro-Silurian slate conglomerate rests on Cambrian 
 quartzite. This is the peculiarly confused locality, of which 
 a section and map (pages 18 and 19) have already been 
 given, showing the Cambrian and Cambro-Silurian rocks 
 entangled together. 
 
 The second period of metamorphism was in Cambro- 
 Silurian time. In the description of the Cambro-Silurian 
 rocks of SE. Ireland it was mentioned that in the upper, 
 ones, or those of the Ballymoncy scries, are sheets of bedded 
 Eruptive rocks. In the lower, or the Dark Shale series, the 
 
1 84 
 
 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 granitic roots of these sheets occur. Some of these roots 
 are silicious elvans ; others are granitone, or some other 
 variety of basic elvan ; and invariably surrounding, and in 
 the vicinity of, the protrusions of the basic elvans, the 
 Cambro-Silurian rocks have been altered by paroptetic 
 action. As the rocks in which these protrusions are situated 
 are principally argillaceous shales, the altered rocks in 
 general are hornstones, but some green tuffose rocks have 
 been changed into rocks like whinstone, and some silicious 
 rocks into a rock like quartzite, of a black or bluish 
 colour. These tracts of paroptetic rocks are almost invari- 
 ably margined by joint or fault lines, and traversed by 
 others ; as if the action was not so much due to heat given 
 
 Fi£. 6 
 
 Orctrvitcme 
 Oahbro 
 
 + +, Felstcne 
 
 AA * BakedShale 
 
 v. : \ Tu/r 
 
 Shalef&Grits 
 Alluvuun- 
 
 Map of "Baked Rocks" round vent of eruption, Owenduff, County Wexford. 
 
 off from the mass of eruptive rock as to the steam, gases, 
 and such like products of vulcanicity given off during the 
 time the eruptions were taking place, which percolated 
 through the adjoining rocks and altered them, prior to the 
 time that the present granitic rocks consolidated. That 
 an alteration similar to that now described, and due solely 
 
Metamorphic Rocks. 
 
 185 
 
 to the gases and suchlike products of vulcanicity can take 
 place, is proved in various localities where tracts of similar 
 paroptetic rocks occur, although there are no protrusions of 
 eruptive rocks associated with them. * The vents or pas- 
 sages of the Plutonic outburst are also found higher up in 
 the formation among the lower rocks of the Ballymoney 
 series. Here, since many of the altered rocks were origi- 
 nally felspathic and basic tuffs or tuffose rocks, the new 
 
 \iicus{ SVvaZeJ 
 
 - + 4 
 
 Choked Shales)? 
 Hornstone. 
 
 [_>< * xj 'eLitone 
 
 Map of isolated patches of Hornstone and Felstone, Tigroney (Ovoca), County 
 
 Wicklow. 
 
 rocks are very puzzling; as these tuffs readily changed into 
 rocks which are in places undistinguishable from felstones, 
 eurites, and gabbros. 
 
 These paroptetic rocks form numerous small tracts in 
 SE. Waterford, in Wexford, and in Wicklow. In the 
 latter county those found in the vicinity of the Ovoca 
 
 * It was probably an action of this kind that altered the Jurassic rocks at 
 Portrush, County Antrim, as described in the chapter on the Mesozoic rocks. 
 
1 86 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 mines are very remarkable. Here, associated with the 
 Mineral channel, are detached masses which by most writers 
 have been called felstones. Weaver, however, in his 
 description pointed out that some of them were hornstones, 
 and that these, to all appearance, were originally shales. 
 Usually each patch is abruptly cut off, as shown in the 
 accompanying map ; but in a few places the hornstone 
 graduates into fine felspathic shale or schist. The easiest 
 way to account for these patches of hornstone is to sup- 
 pose that small tracts, by means of joints or other fissures, 
 were invaded by steam, gases, and such like, that altered 
 them while the associated rocks remained unchanged. 
 
 The third period of alteration was after the Cambro- 
 Silurian rocks were deposited. During it the metapeptic 
 action was not universal, as it seems to have been most 
 intense in certain lines that crossed the county obliquely, 
 the rocks at these lines being more altered than those 
 situated between them. It is also remarkable that while 
 the rocks along the north-west margin of the great tract 
 of the Wexford Cambrians are generally unaltered, the 
 adjoining black Cambro-Silurian rocks are altered. 
 
 The metapeptic action seems in general not to have 
 been very intense, as the rocks usually are submetamorphic. 
 In the County of Wicklow, however, the rocks are more 
 changed, some belonging to the schist series, others to the 
 gneiss, while some seem even to be changed into granite ; 
 these, however, appear to have been also subjected to a 
 more recent change. In the county north of Aughrim 
 some of the rocks seem to be of Cambrian age. These 
 are the rocks previously alluded to; but, if Cambrians, they 
 were evidently altered at this time, and not by the meta- 
 morphism that changed the Cambrians in Wexford. 
 
 It was evidently after the alteration of the Cambro- 
 
Metainorphic Rocks. 187 
 
 Silurian rocks by metapepsis that the granite in the hills 
 between Dublin and New Ross on the Barrow was in- 
 truded. Some of these granites seem to have been 
 intruded immediately after that metamorphism of the 
 Cambro-Silurians, but prior to the Carboniferous age ; 
 while there was a second protrusion of granite at a later 
 period, the exact time of which is discussed in the next 
 chapter. There may have been paroptetic action asso- 
 ciated with the first protrusion, but it undoubtedly accom- 
 panied the second. 
 
 In the County of Wexford the rocks adjoining the 
 earlier granite are less altered than those farther away ; 
 but to the north-east, in the Counties of Wicklow and 
 Dublin, we find that alongside the granite the schists are 
 more strongly mineralized and foliated. This, however, 
 may possibly have been due to later vulcanicity, as some 
 of the granite adjoining the schist seems also to be altered, 
 while in many places a newer granite comes up at the 
 margin of the older. To the west of the granite range in 
 the County of Kildare the rocks are evidently altered by 
 paroptesis into hornstone, jasperized grits, &c. Here, also, 
 it is possible the change may be of a later date, as the 
 adjoining granite looks like the newer kind, but no satis- 
 factory section of the rocks can be seen. Farther south- 
 ward, in the County of Carlow, west and south-west of 
 Mount Leinster, the rocks are very much altered ; but in 
 this county there are evidently protrusions of the later 
 granite coming up through the older. 
 
 The newer granite also occurs in isolated exposures in 
 the Counties of Wexford and Wicklow, where the adjoin- 
 ing rocks are always affected by paroptesis. A striking 
 accompaniment of the action produced by these later pro- 
 trusions is the excessive ochreization of the adjoining rocks ; 
 
1 88 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 they, when weathered, having the same appearance as the 
 metallic schists, but when broken the iron stains seem to 
 be principally in the minute structural planes and other 
 open lines in the rocks. 
 
 In the Metamorphic rocks of Wicklow and Wexford 
 some of the beds have been subjected to methylotic action^ 
 and became steatitic and ophitic, but rarely is good stea- 
 tite or ophite found. In the County of Waterford, asso- 
 ciated with the sheets of eruptive rocks of the Ballymoney 
 series, Willson has recorded steatites and ophites between 
 Checkpoint and Tramore, while west of the latter place, 
 at Ballydouane Bay are fossiliferous seams of green 
 ophialite in calcareous shales. 
 
 In the Carboniferous rocks of Wexford, Kildare, Carlow, 
 and Kilkenny, and less frequently in some of the other 
 counties, are dolomitic limestones and dolomites, some 
 of which seem to be methylotic rocks. Those in Wex- 
 ford, as also those lying on the granite and Cambro- 
 Silurian rocks in Kildare and Carlow, seem to have been 
 so deposited ; while in Kilkenny there are peculiar masses 
 and dykes of dolomite that have abrupt boundaries ; 
 and in these all traces of bedding and of fossils are 
 obliterated, while the rocks adjoining are distinctly 
 bedded and fossiliferous. These masses and dykes seem 
 to be methylotic. 
 
 MUNSTER. 
 
 In the province of Munster, regional metamorphism or 
 metapepsis has not affected the rocks conspicuously ; 
 although, as mentioned in the description of the Upper 
 Carboniferous rocks, such rocks in Munster, as also in 
 
Metamorphic Rocks. 189 
 
 Leinster, seem to have been subjected to an incipient 
 metamorphism of this kind. 
 
 Paroptetic action can be observed in the vicinity of the 
 protrusions of the eruptive rocks, but it is usually very 
 limited, and rarely of much importance. Adjoining the 
 granitic roots of the Limerick eruptive rocks, the rocks 
 are altered, but for the thickness of a few inches only ; the 
 shales being changed into a kind of hornstone, while the 
 limestones are hardened and ochreized, and have calcite 
 strings developed in them. 
 
 In Beginish, Valentia Harbour, County of Kerry, the 
 Silurian (?) slates adjoining the vent of eruption are altered 
 into hornstone, and south-east of Killarney, adjoining 
 the massive intrusion of felspathic rocks in Glenflesk and 
 near Lough Gitane, the slates are similarly changed. 
 
 CONNAUGHT AND ULSTER. 
 
 In these provinces there are more metamorphic rocks 
 than elsewhere in Ireland, a great metamorphosed district 
 extending from Galway north and north-eastward through 
 Mayo and Sligo in Connaught, into Donegal, Londonderry, 
 Tyrone and Antrim in Ulster. 
 
 In Galway and Mayo the altered rocks belong to the 
 Cambrian, Cambro-Silurian, and Silurian formations, and 
 in these counties there were three periods, at least, of 
 metamorphic action. Here, as previously mentioned when 
 describing the Cambrian rocks, the Cambrians and Cam- 
 bro-Silurians form a continuous sequence, and after the 
 latter rocks were deposited, all were more or less meta- 
 morphosed. The metapeptic action seems to have been 
 most intense in a tract extending WNW. from Galway 
 town to the Atlantic, but in this tract it diminished in 
 
190 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 intensity towards the WNW. and ESE. To the southward 
 of this tract, in Lettermullen and the adjoining islands 
 north of Galway Bay, the rocks are very little altered, 
 while north of the tract, in the County of Mayo, some of 
 the Cambro-Silurian rocks near Killary Harbour are 
 unaltered. Farther north, however, in north-west Mayo, 
 there seems to be another line of intense metamorphism, 
 the action having been greatest near the coast at Black- 
 Sod Bay, while it diminished towards the ESE. The 
 rocks adjoining Clew Bay seem to be of Cambro-Silurian 
 age, but some of those to the NW. are considered by 
 McHenry to be Cambrians. 
 
 In west Galway the rocks can be examined in great 
 detail, as they are so little concealed by superficial accu- 
 mulations. In this area, to the north of Galway Bay, there 
 is a vast tract of metamorphic granite, which is in places 
 cut up and penetrated by protrusions of oligoclasic and of 
 orthoclasic granites and by dykes of other eruptive rocks. 
 In the most altered portion of the metamorphic granite, all 
 of which is porphyritic, no foliation can be seen in hand 
 specimens; but if the rock is viewed in mass, the prominent 
 crystals of orthoclase are found to occur in lines, while 
 slices of the rock under the microscope show distinct leaves. 
 This granite graduates northward into distinctly foliated 
 granite, and the latter, through granitic gneiss, in which 
 there is perpendicular foliation, and ordinary gneiss, into 
 schist, and the last, through submetamorphic rocks into 
 unaltered Cambro-Silurian rocks. All these rocks, from the 
 extremely metamorphosed to those of the Schist series, are 
 exceedingly well exposed in the north and south section 
 through the hill called Seefin, a little south of Oughterard ; 
 while the change from the rocks of the schist series to the 
 unaltered rocks can be seen in the country north of Kil- 
 
Metamo7 r phic Rocks. 191 
 
 lary Harbour. All the various phases of metamorphism 
 due to metapepsis can be studied in this area, and those 
 displayed by the conglomeritic rocks are most interesting. 
 
 The second period of conspicuous metaphorphism occurs 
 in Silurian rocks. Symes was the first to point out that 
 the schists in the country south and south-east of Louis- 
 burg, between Clew Bay and Killary Harbour, are 
 newer than those in the Croagh Patrick hills ; and sub- 
 sequent examination proved the newer rocks to be of 
 Silurian age, containing fossils of Upper Llandovery and 
 Wenlock types. The Silurian rocks above certain bedded 
 sheets of eurite are unaltered by metapepsis, and the 
 probable age of the metamorphism of those to the SW. of 
 Croagh Patrick will be discussed hereafter, in Chapter XIII. 
 
 The sheets of eurite are connected with granitic roots 
 which form protrusions in the country to the S W. of Kyle- 
 more lake ; and in places in the vicinity of these protru- 
 sions there are distinct traces of paroptesis, especially on 
 the south slopes of Bengooria or Diamond hill, where a 
 columnar-like structure has been developed in the schist. 
 
 At a still later time, after the rocks of the Salrock Series 
 had been deposited, another alteration of certain rocks 
 took place. The rocks affected by this occur only as small 
 patches and alongside joints and faults ; the action may 
 have been paroptetic ; steam, gases, and such like, from 
 internal sources, having found their way up through the 
 joints and other shrinkage fissures in the rocks. This 
 action is supposed to have taken place during the Carbo- 
 niferous period, as will be mentioned in Chapter XIII. 
 
 The metamorphic rocks of Sligo, Donegal, London- 
 derry, Tyrone, and Antrim are supposed to be of Cambro- 
 Silurian age. It may, however, yet turn out that some of 
 them are Cambrians, or even Laurentians, as suggested by 
 
192 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Jukes. These rocks have not been fully worked out as 
 yet ; but Haughton, Jukes, Scott, and others have shown 
 that they graduate from submetamorphic rocks, through 
 rocks belonging to the Schist and Gneiss series, into 
 metamorphic granite very similar to that of Galway. 
 In Donegal are some very interesting and peculiar rocks, 
 some of them being metamorphosed eruptive rocks. 
 
 Associated with the metamorphosed sedimentary rocks 
 in these different areas are metamorphosed eruptive rocks. 
 These are very variable in character, and would take a 
 long time to describe ; those, however, of most importance 
 will be mentioned in the next chapter, along with the 
 rocks from which they are derived. 
 
 Many of the metapeptic rocks in these portions of 
 Connaught and Ulster have also been subjected to 
 methylotic action, and methylotic rocks are found in 
 various places, being most numerous in west Galway and 
 Donegal ; they include ophite, ophiolite, steatite, eklogite, 
 onkosin, pyrallolite, magnesite, epidosite, sepiolite, meer- 
 schaum, and others. 
 
 In the Counties of Down and Armagh metamorphic 
 rocks occur, associated with the granitic range (Slieve 
 Croob granite) that runs NE. from Newry, and paroptesis 
 in connection with the great protrusion of granite forming 
 the Mourne Mountains. These metamorphic rocks are of 
 Cambro-Silurian age, and, in places, were twice altered. 
 In the vicinity of the Slieve Croob granite there is an 
 additional alteration that formerly was thought to be due 
 to the intrusion of the granite ; but, as first pointed out 
 by Traill, the granite adjoining these additionally altered 
 rocks is itself altered, as also are the veins that extend 
 from the granite into the metamorphic rocks, foliation 
 being developed in them. It is therefore evident that the 
 
Metamorphic Rocks, 193 
 
 second action is of a much later date than the protrusion 
 of the Slieve Croob granite, and it possibly took place 
 during the vulcanicity in connection with which the 
 Mourne granite was protruded, which is supposed to have 
 been in post-Carboniferous times. The time of the first 
 metamorphic action has not been determined, but pro- 
 bably these Cambro-Silurian rocks were first altered con- 
 temporaneously with the alteration of the rocks of the 
 same age in the other portions of Ireland. 
 
 o 
 
194 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ERUPTIVE ROCKS. 
 
 Exotic Rocks (Sterry Hunt). 
 
 Extravasated Rocks (American Survey). 
 
 Intrusive Rocks. 
 
 Igneous Rocks. 
 
 South-east Ireland. 
 
 The Eruptive rocks may be divided into Catogene y or 
 Granitic, and Anogene, or Plutonic and Volcanic rocks. 
 Both of these may have been metamorphosed after their 
 original formation. 
 
 In south-east Ireland the various kinds now referred to 
 are well represented. In the south of Wexford, in the 
 Carnsore district, are very old rocks, which are interbedded 
 with the Cambrian rocks and were metamorphosed along 
 with them. They consist of hornblende rock, probably 
 metamorphosed gabbro ; conglomeritic, concretionary, and 
 nodular hornblende rock, probably metamorphosed tuffs 
 and agglomerate ; with granitic and foliated felstones, 
 the latter evidently being metamorphosed felstones. In 
 the same district are protrusions of granite that are older 
 than the associated Cambro-Silurians. 
 
 In the Cambrians at, and to the SW. of, Wexford town 
 (Forth Mountains) are dykes and cake-like masses of 
 quartzite that are metamorphosed quartz-rocks. Such 
 
Eruptive Rocks. 195 
 
 cakes of quartz-rock appear to have been deposited from 
 springs, or some such accompaniment of feeble vulcanicity, 
 the cakes being surrounded and eventually covered up by 
 the deposition of the contemporaneous sedimentary rocks, 
 while the dykes mark the sites of the passages through 
 which the mineralized waters found egress. To the north- 
 ward and eastward of the Cambrian rocks are other 
 masses of quartz-rock in the Cambro-Silurians. These are 
 especially numerous to the south-westward near Bannow, 
 where some of them are felsitic and graduate into rocks like 
 petro-silex and fine elvan. In this neighbourhood some of 
 the quartz-rocks in the Cambrians are altered, and are of 
 the same age as the rocks of Forth Mountains ; but others 
 are unaltered and were probably intruded at the same time 
 as those in the adjacent overlying Cambro-Silurian rocks. 
 In the Cambro-Silurian rocks are also peculiar masses of 
 steatitic rock ; as if, in connection with the silicious 
 springs, there were also calcareous and magnesian springs 
 that deposited cakes around them. 
 
 North of Wexford, at Glenbrian and thereabouts, to the 
 SE. of Enniscorthy, are small protrusions of granite that 
 came up at a later age than the general granite of the 
 Leinster range. Possibly they are of Carboniferous age, 
 as will be hereafter mentioned. 
 
 To the N. and NW. of Arklow, and also SW. from 
 Arklow, in a tract that extends to the valley of the 
 Barrow south of New Ross, and from thence westward 
 half across the County of Waterford, are Cambro- 
 Silurian rocks, of the " Ballymoney Series," having in 
 them eurites, gabbros, felstones, agglomerates, and other 
 tuffs ; and in the older underlying rocks belonging to 
 the " Dark Shale-Series," are protrusions and dykes of 
 granitic and other eruptive rocks. The protrusions and 
 
 O 2 
 
196 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 dykes are associated with the paroptetic rocks mentioned 
 at page 184. 
 
 The protrusions, which evidently are the roots of the 
 bedded eruptive rocks, principally consist of syenite, 
 diorite, a rock like diorite, but containing orthoclase in 
 addition to the triclinic felspars, hyperite, granitone and 
 such like rocks. 
 
 There are, however, also felspathic elvans that in places 
 graduate into typical granite. These are probably the 
 roots of the felstones, while the basic elvanites are pro- 
 bably the roots of the eurites and gabbros. 
 
 Associated with these rocks, and probably of the same 
 age, are dykes of gabbro in the " Dark Shale Series " and 
 in the Cambrians. But there are also newer rocks, mela- 
 phyre, eurite, petro-silex, and other felstones, that are very 
 similar in aspect to the Carboniferous eruptive rocks of 
 Munster. 
 
 In the Cambrian rocks of the Counties of Wicklow and 
 Dublin are protrusions, dykes, and cakes of quartz-rock. 
 In the country north of Aughrim and eastward to the 
 valley of the Avonmore are masses of quartzite, evidently 
 metamorphosed quartz-rock, the age of which, as previously 
 mentioned, is uncertain, but probably they are in the 
 Cambrians. NW. of Wicklow town, especially in Carrick 
 Mountain, are long, more or less continuous cakes of 
 quartz-rock ; near Kilcoole, and at Bray Head, and in 
 the country to the west thereof, are dykes and protrusions 
 of quartz-rock. One of the principal quartz-rock dykes 
 in Bray Head runs SW. from the Brandy Hole, and the 
 junction between it and the other rocks is well exposed at 
 the path above the Railway. It breaks up through the 
 Cambrian rocks, and those to the north of it seem to be 
 altered, being very much mineralized, still not so much as 
 
Eruptive Rocks, 197 
 
 to destroy the fossils, this being a locality for Oldhamia. 
 Of the protrusions the largest and most remarkable 
 constitute the Great and Little Sugarloaves. Another 
 remarkable hill of quartz-rock is that called Shankill or 
 Carrickgollogan, to the NW. of Bray. The quartz-rock 
 in these portions of the Counties of Dublin and Wicklow 
 clearly cannot be a metamorphosed rock, because it 
 occurs as dykes and masses in unaltered grits, shales, 
 and slates. The protrusions of quartz-rock in the Howth 
 promontory have been mentioned in the description of the 
 Cambrian rocks. 
 
 Extending SSW. from Dublin Bay through the Counties 
 Dublin, Wicklow, Kildare, Carlow, Wexford, and Kilkenny, 
 to the valley of the Barrow near New Ross, is the great 
 granitic protrusion of Leinster, in which there are some 
 marked peculiarities. Large tracts for great depths 
 weather in situ into GROWAN or granitic sand. In nearly 
 all there is a foliation-like structure, or grain, as it is locally 
 called, although most of the rocks are intrusive. In some 
 places portions appear to be of metamorphic origin ; this, 
 however, is very hard to be proved as sections are rare, 
 the slopes of the hills being enveloped in deep drift, often 
 a granitic sand derived from the growan. 
 
 In this range of hills there are evidently granites of two 
 distinct ages partly jumbled up together, and hard to 
 separate on account of the paucity of sections, also because 
 some characters of the different rocks are so similar. In 
 both there is the " grain" that makes them capable of 
 being split easily into long blocks. The older granite, 
 however, seems to be a better stone than the later, as the 
 later usually weathers deeply, either getting rusty or 
 changing into growan. Becoming growan is not solely a 
 characteristic of the later granite, as in the main range some 
 
198 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 of what seems to be the older granite, is thus weathered. 
 In the later granite at the Carrick quarry near Rathdrum, 
 and also in other protrusions, albite is said to be one of 
 the constituents ; to this we will refer when describing 
 the newer granites of Connaught and Ulster, as it may 
 indicate a Carboniferous or post-Carboniferous age for the 
 rocks. 
 
 South of Mount Leinster, in the County Carlow portion 
 of the valley north of Blackstairs (Scullogue Gap), there are 
 in one place beds of green schist in foliated granite, the 
 foliation of the granite and the bedding of the schist being 
 parallel, which would seem to suggest that the granite in 
 this place is metamorphic. But if we follow this granite 
 southwards to the valley between St. Mullins and Ballywil- 
 liam, we find in it caught up patches of schist ; while a little 
 north of Scullogue Gap, west of Mount Leinster, there is 
 foliated growan and similar granite that is evidently in- 
 truded into the associated metamorphosed Cambro-Silurian 
 rocks. 
 
 It may here be pointed out that in Ireland nearly all 
 the intrusive granites have a grain along which, in two 
 planes at nearly right angles to one another, the rocks 
 will split more or less easily. In some places in the 
 rocks which compose these masses of granite this grain is 
 well marked, giving the rock a foliation-like structure ; 
 w T hile in other places it is so obscure that the "grain" 
 cannot be detected by an ordinary observer until pointed 
 out by the quarrymen. On the other hand, the meta- 
 morphic granites, although in general distinctly foliated, 
 will not split ; and consequently, although often handsome 
 stones, they are not as good materials for tool-work, as 
 under the chisel and hammer they will not always cut in 
 the required direction. Intrusive granite, which sub- 
 
Eruptive Rocks. 199 
 
 sequently has been subjected to metamorphic action, seems 
 to lose, in part, its " grain," or facility of splitting. 
 
 In rocks that seem to belong to the Ballymoney series 
 (Cambro-Silurian), in the north of the County of Dublin ; 
 also north and south of the Boyne (Counties Louth, 
 Meath, and Dublin), near Clogher Head, Balbriggan, and 
 Lambay ; in the Chair of Kildare ; and in the Tipperary 
 and Kilkenny hills to the north of Carrick-on-Suir, are 
 gabbros, eurites, and felstones ; while in the lower rocks 
 are their granitic roots. 
 
 In the King's County, a few miles north of Philipstown, 
 is Croaghan Hill, made up of melaphyres, eurites, fel- 
 stones, and tuff, that are interbedded with the Carbon- 
 iferous limestones at and above the cherty zone, at the 
 junction of the Lower and Calp (Upper) Limestone. 
 
 South-West Ireland. 
 
 In Munster there are no typical granites, but the Erup- 
 tive rocks displayed are instructive. Among the hills west 
 of Lough Graney, County Clare, in Cambro-Silurians be- 
 longing to the "Ballymoney series," are beds and intrusions 
 of gabbro and eurite. In the same hills, also farther south 
 and south-east respectively, in Slieve Bernagh, the Cratlow 
 Hills, and in Slieve Phelim (Counties of Limerick and 
 Tipperary), forming the basal beds of the Old Red or 
 Lower Carboniferous Sandstone, is a quartz-rock which in 
 places is replaced by a silicious limestone. These silicious 
 and calcareous rocks are evidently not sedimentary, but 
 were probably deposited from springs due to feeble vulca- 
 nicity at the dawn of the action which was more fully 
 developed later on in the Carboniferous period, at the time 
 when the sheet of eruptive rocks like those at Croaghan 
 
200 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Hill, King's County, and those now to be mentioned, were 
 forced up. 
 
 Among the Old Red Sandstones of Knockfeerna and 
 Ballinleeny, in the County of Limerick, are eruptive rocks. 
 Those in the first are evidently intrusive, and are of the 
 hybrid kind of rocks, that may be classed either as eurite 
 or melaphyre, while those in Ballinleeny were supposed by 
 Jukes to be contemporaneous with the associated sand- 
 stones, as their outside portion has a tuffose aspect 
 Farther south, in the Old Red Sandstone of the Cork 
 type to the south of Mallow, is a mass of agglomerate 
 that seems to belong to about the same geological horizon 
 as these Limerick eruptive rocks. 
 
 In the Carboniferous Limestone of South Clare, of 
 Limerick, and of North Cork (NW. of Mallow) are great 
 interbedded sheets of melaphyres, eurites, agglomerates, 
 and other tuffs, with their associated granitic roots. In 
 the County of Limerick, where the roots are seen, they 
 graduate from elvan into porphyrites. They occur in 
 some places as isolated protrusions among lower beds, but 
 in many others they are joined on to the sheets. In all 
 the isolated masses the rock is basic elvan, except one 
 that forms Castle Hill, north of Hospital, in which the 
 rock is very peculiar ; hand specimens from some portions 
 of the mass being similar in aspect to, and having been 
 mistaken for, trachyte, although the rock probably is of 
 Carboniferous age. 
 
 The agglomerates in Cork and Clare lie on the cherty 
 zone at the base of the Calp (Upper Limestone), as do 
 also the major portion of the eruptive rocks in the County 
 of Limerick, but in the latter county they also occur at 
 other horizons. To the ENE. of Limerick city, and a 
 little south of Castleconnell, is a mass of agglomerate in 
 
Eruptive Rocks. 201 
 
 which are two small protrusions of melaphyre. This 
 agglomerate is in the Fenestella (Lower) Limestone, and 
 on the same horizon is a local cherty zone. At Carrigo- 
 gunnel, a few miles west of Limerick ; under the south- 
 east suburb of Limerick ; a little southward of Limerick, 
 in the Roxborough and Cahernarry hills ; also further 
 south-east, forming a more or less wide ring, having the 
 Coal-Measure hill of Ballybrood in the centre, are great, 
 sheets of eurite, melaphyre, agglomerate, and other tuffs, 
 which occur at or a little above the cherty zone at the base 
 of the Calp. The melaphyres are principally found in the 
 outer ring round Ballybrood above the eurite, although 
 small tracts occur in some of the other places. 
 
 Above the rocks just mentioned, a little to the SE. of 
 Shanagolden, at the cherty zone, which in West Limerick 
 divides the Upper Limestone of the Calp type from that of 
 the Burren type, is a bed of agglomerate ; while inside 
 the ring previously mentioned, east and south of the 
 Ballybrood Coal Measures, are great sheets of tuff asso- 
 ciated with sheets of rock in some places evidently 
 melaphyres, in other places apparently eurites, and 
 occasionally the lower portion of a bed will be one 
 class of rock which changes upwards, so that the top of 
 the bed is another. The lowest bed in this tract is on the 
 same horizon as the Shanagolden agglomerate, but to the 
 east of Ballybrood there is such a number and thickness 
 of beds that the whole of the Burren type Limestone is cut 
 out, and the Coal Measures seem to have been deposited 
 on the eruptive rocks. 
 
 Some of these rocks are more or less columnar. In the 
 Knockfeerna tract are small fagades of columns ; to 
 the east and north of Ballybrood, at Linfield and Caher- 
 conlish, especially at the first, there are fine columns. 
 
202 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 The tuffs to the NVV. of Lough Gur are peculiar, as in 
 them is a structure having all the appearance of columns 
 when viewed from the south. This probably was caused 
 by paroptetic action, due to the vent of one of the sub- 
 sequent eruptions. It may be pointed out that each of 
 these outbursts of eruptive rocks has in connection with 
 it a series of cherty beds. 
 
 In SW. Cork, on Dursey Island, and to the NE. thereof, 
 in the vicinity of Cod's Head, a little below the base of 
 the Yellow Sandstone, are thick sheets and protrusions of 
 a rock like gabbro. These rocks seem to be a little below 
 the geological horizon on which the quartz- rock and 
 silicious limestone occur, at the base of the Old Red 
 Sandstone in the Counties Clare and Tipperary. 
 
 On the north of the entrance of Bantry Bay, in the 
 Carboniferous Slate of Bear Island, and the mainland to 
 west thereof, are felstones and gabbro (?). These first 
 occur about half-way up in the group (at about the horizon 
 of the base of the Calp), and from thence upwards to the 
 highest beds seen. Most of the felstones are bedded 
 masses, having on them tuffose rocks ; while, in general, 
 the gabbros (?) occur as dykes running with the strike of 
 the beds, except in the uppermost slate, where they appear 
 to be bedded. 
 
 To the SW., at White Ball Head and in its vicinity, are 
 a remarkable mass and dykes of agglomerate. To the 
 north, in the Yellow Sandstone near Cahirmore, is a nearly 
 N. and S. dyke of agglomerate; while south of it, in the 
 overlying Carboniferous Slate, are two dykes, that at 
 White Ball Head expands into a large mass, from which 
 extend apparently bedded sheets of felstone and gab- 
 bro (?) ; while in the lower strata are interbedded sheets 
 of agglomerate, one being in the Yellow Sandstone. 
 
Eruptive Rocks. 203 
 
 Jukes gave it as his opinion that this was the site of an 
 ancient igneous vent, from which the eruptive rocks were 
 ejected ; while subsequently tuff fell in and filled the 
 fissure, thus forming the dykes of agglomerate. The 
 most remarkable fragments in the tuff are pieces of 
 Silurian (?) limestone and numerous abraded large crystals 
 of black Uralite (?). 
 
 In the Glengariff grits (Silurian) to the south-east of 
 the Lakes of Killarney are great beds of felstones and 
 tuffs, while associated with them in Bennaunmore, south 
 of Lough Guitane, is an intrusive mass which to the east- 
 ward forms a grand fagade of massive columns, in places 
 over 200 feet high. In similar rocks in the vicinity of 
 Valentia Harbour, principally in Beginish and in the 
 mainland to the east, are thick beds of gabbro and 
 agglomerate and lesser ones of felstone, while in Valentia 
 island is a great dyke of gabbro. Farther north, in the 
 fossiliferous Silurians of the Dingle promontory, are beds 
 and protrusions of similar rocks. 
 
 North-west Ireland. (Connaught.) 
 
 In Slieve Dart, north of Tuam, County Galway, is a 
 mass of felstone first described by Mr. Bermingham, which 
 Symes supposes to be associated with the accompanying 
 conglomerates and sandstones (shore-beds of Upper Lime- 
 stone age ?). The age of the felstone and its relations to 
 the associated rocks, however, are obscure, and possibly it 
 may be of Cambro-Silurian age, belonging to rocks below 
 the Carboniferous. 
 
 In west Galway and south-west Mayo the eruptive rocks 
 are very numerous and various. The oldest occur as 
 dykes, protrusions, and interbedded sheets, in the meta- 
 
204 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 morphosed Upper-Cambrians and Cambro-Silurians. 
 These to the south, in the islands of Gorumna and 
 Letter Mullen, and to the north in Murrisk or the tract 
 north of Killary Harbour, are very little altered, and con- 
 sist of gabbro, hornblendic-gabbro, eurite and felstones, 
 while among the more altered sedimentary rocks they 
 have been changed into hornblendic-granite, syenite 
 (amphibole + orthoclase), diorite (amphibole + triclinic 
 felspar), kersanton, or micaceous diorite, a rock some- 
 what like diorite but containing both monoclinic and 
 triclinic felspars, hornblende rock, hyperite, granitic fel- 
 stones passing into granite, granulite, gneissite, peculiar 
 granular compounds of quartz and felsite (felsitic quartz- 
 rock), massive quartzite (metamorphic quartz-rock), and 
 various others ; some also having been subsequently again 
 changed by methylotic action. The felsitic quartz-rock 
 occurs principally in the vicinity of the Corcogemore and 
 Lackavrea mountains. 
 
 After the Cambrian and Cambro-Silurian rocks were 
 altered, and probably in connection with the vulcanicity to 
 which their metamorphism was due, oligoclasic and ortho- 
 clasic granites were intruded ; while newer than these 
 are dykes and protrusions of elvans, felstones, and gabbro, 
 many of the felstones being petro-silex ; while later on was 
 the intrusion of the Silurian granitic and plutonic rocks, 
 next to be described. 
 
 In the NW. of Galway in the country to the south of 
 the Ballynakill and Kylemore valley are protrusions of 
 granite and elvan, which are connected by dykes with the 
 interbedded sheets of eurite in the Silurians, north and 
 south of Killary harbour ; the dykes gradually changing 
 from elvan into quartzitic felstone, and from the latter into 
 the eurite. The eurite is of purple and green varieties, 
 
Eruptive Rocks. 205 
 
 the latter being the most basic, and in places by the 
 addition of pyroxene it changes into gabbro. With these 
 eurites, but especially to the eastward near Lough Mask, 
 are great masses of agglomerate and other tuffs, some 
 being calcareous, or even good limestones. These lime- 
 stones come in peculiarly, some apparently as if deposited 
 from springs ; some of them are fossiliferous, the fossils 
 being principally in the concretions. One of the eurites 
 usually occurs as the base of the Mweelrea beds ; but 
 when it is absent its place is taken by a quartz-rock of 
 the same nature as that previously mentioned as occurring 
 at the base of the Carboniferous rocks in Munster (p. 71). 
 It should be mentioned that to the north of the Silurians, 
 in the Cambro-Silurians of the country SW. of Lough 
 Moher, are intrusive masses of steatitic, dolomitic, and 
 calcareous rocks, which are evidently newer than the 
 associated rocks, and probably are connected with this 
 period of Vulcanicity. In the neighbourhood of Clifden 
 and Ballynahinch are dykes and protrusions of elvan and 
 eurite that seem to be of a similar age to those just 
 described. 
 
 Higher up in the Toormakeady rocks is a thick bed of 
 melaphyre, while in higher Silurians (Salrock Slates) 
 are dykes of uralitic-gabbro or diabase and eurites. 
 These latter seem to be of the same age as the protru- 
 sions of granite that come up through the Silurian rocks 
 at Corvockbrack to the SW. of Croagh Patrick, as the 
 elvans extending from that granite mass graduate into 
 rocks like these gabbros and eurites. Elvans of two kinds 
 can be traced from the granitic mass SW. of Croagh 
 Patrick — one kind graduates through quartzitic felstone 
 into petro-silex, and the other through a hornblendic rock 
 into a trap or eurite. If, therefore, the granite is of the 
 
206 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 same age as the dykes cutting the Salrock Slates it must 
 be newer than all the Silurians of the country. The granite 
 is said to be albitic. 
 
 Apparently the newest rocks in the area are dykes 
 and protrusions of melaphyre. The dykes in general are 
 very massive, but to the west in some of the headlands 
 they are very numerous, and only from "25 to 2 inches 
 wide. This melaphyre also occurs in a mass to the north 
 of the west end of Killary harbour. Here it is, on the out- 
 side, except in one place, a hard compact rock, while the 
 central portion is friable, and, as this has weathered, the 
 whole mass is formed like the crater of a volcano. As 
 most of the melaphyres are newer than the Silurian, they 
 are probably of Carboniferous age, and, as the rocks of 
 the latter age lie nearly horizontal in the neighbouring 
 country, it is just possible that this mass is the site of a 
 Carboniferous igneous vent that still retains its original 
 perpendicular position. The outside portion of the core 
 that filled the funnel, being more compact than the inner, 
 has remained, while the rest has weathered away. 
 
 Although some of the melaphyres are evidently newer 
 than all the Silurian rocks, yet they are similar in aspect 
 to the interbedded mass in the Toormakeady conglome- 
 rates ; therefore, it is possible that some of the melaphyre 
 dykes may be of Silurian age. Usually these dykes 
 weather much more rapidly than the associated rocks, and 
 leave deep perpendicular gashes through the hills, which 
 are locally called Boher-na-callee (anglice Witch's path), 
 but some are of a harder nature, and stand out as dykes 
 or ridges above the associated rocks. These latter are 
 very like the Miocene dolerites of Ulster. 
 
 To the NE. near Castlebar, coming up through the 
 Carboniferous limestone are long tracts of melaphyre, 
 
Eruptive Rocks. 207 
 
 the rock weathering to a great depth, like the melaphyre 
 in the Toormakeady (Silurian) conglomerates. Symes, 
 however, considers the Castlebar melaphyres to be of Car- 
 boniferous age. 
 
 In north Mayo and the adjoining portion of Sligo there 
 are igneous rocks similar to those that occur in west 
 Galway. Here are basalts and dolerite, which, as they 
 penetrate through the Carboniferous rocks, must be of 
 newer age. Traill considers some of these to be Miocene 
 rocks of the same age as those in Antrim : while it is 
 highly probable that others of them may be of Triassic 
 age. In the west of Sligo and in Roscommon there are 
 rocks associated with the metamorphic Cambro- Silurians ; 
 some being altered, while others are newer than the meta- 
 morphism, but all seem to be more or less similar to those 
 already described in west Galway. 
 
 North-East Ireland (Ulster). 
 
 Associated with the metamorphosed rocks of Donegal, 
 Londonderry, Tyrone, and Antrim, there are metamor- 
 phosed eruptive rocks, and intrusive granite, elvan, fel- 
 stones, and whinstones, more or less similar to those in 
 the metamorphic rocks of Connaught. 
 
 In Donegal the ages of the metamorphic rocks have 
 still to be worked out. Some of them seem to belong to 
 the Cambrian, or as suggested by Jukes, may be even of 
 Laurentian age. In addition to the varieties of the 
 metamorphosed eruptive rocks found in Connaught there 
 are others which, as yet, have been discovered only in 
 Donegal. These and the minerals of the area have been 
 described by Mr. Robert Scott, F.R.S., in papers in the 
 Dublin Quarterly Journal of Science, vols. ii. & iii. One of 
 
2o8 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 the most remarkable of the metamorphic eruptive rocks 
 is called by this authority Sphene-rock ; it consists princi- 
 pally of oligoclase and titanite. 
 
 In Antrim, Londonderry, and adjoining parts of 
 Tyrone and Armagh, are the great sheets of Miocene 
 dolerites already described among the Tertiary rocks. 
 The roots of these sheets occur in various places as dykes 
 and protrusions of elvan and other rocks in the under- 
 lying Mesozoic strata. Some of the most remarkable of 
 these are the granitic rocks in the NW. of Antrim, in the 
 Skerries, and at Portrush, associated with the metamor- 
 phosed Jurassic rocks, and the protrusion at Slemish, 
 about seven miles eastward of Ballymena. This forms a 
 bold ridge 3,000 feet long, about 1,000 feet wide, that rises 
 abruptly from 300 feet to an altitude of 1,437 f ee t- It is a 
 mass of dark greenish blue crystalline intrusive dolerite. 
 Between Portrush and the Giant's Causeway, is a 
 mass of breccia or agglomerate coming up through 
 the White Limestone and the overlying dolerite, which 
 apparently fills up an old fissure of eruption. North-east 
 of Antrim town is a mass of Nevadite (Tardree trachyte 
 porphyrite) which occupies a centre of eruption. To the 
 south of Londonderry, at Tamlaght, near Coagh, is a wide 
 columnar dyke margined by perpendicular layers of a 
 substance that has a composition like meerschaum or 
 magnesite ; while at Ballyknock, about four miles WSW. 
 of Hillsborough, County of Down, are masses of trachyte 
 that were considered by Du Noyer to be the most recent 
 eruptive rocks in Ireland. Traill states, " other undoubted 
 old igneous vents occur, and many vertical dykes, cutting 
 through the bedded dolerite and the older rocks. In some 
 localities the dykes are so numerous that they present 
 great impediments to the working of the beds of iron-ore. 
 
Eruptive Rocks. 209 
 
 Near Ardtrea, County of Tyrone, in the Triassic rocks, 
 is a thick bed of dolerite. Two miles east of Moira, in 
 the south of the County of Antrim, are dolerites in the 
 Triassic rocks, but whether they are bedded or intrusive 
 rocks has not been proved ; while at Scrabo Hill, in the 
 north of the County of Down, are the dolerites which 
 Portlock considered to be interbedded with the associated 
 Triassic rocks ; some of the eruptive rocks in this locality, 
 however, have been proved by Du Noyer and Warren 
 to occur as protrusions. 
 
 In the vicinity of Carlingford Lough, in the Counties of 
 Down, Armagh, and Louth, is a most interesting assem- 
 blage of eruptive rocks that have been carefully worked 
 out by Traill. Perhaps the oldest rocks are some dykes 
 of either gabbro or eurite in the Cambro-Silurian rocks, 
 and next to them are the granites forming the tract that 
 extends NE. and SW. from Newry (Newry or Slieve Croob 
 granite). These intrusive orthoclasic granites are newer 
 than the Cambro-Silurian rocks, as they were intruded 
 into them after they were metamorphosed. The peculiar 
 secondary metamorphism to which some of these rocks 
 have been subjected was described in the last chapter. 
 Associated with these rocks are elvans. 
 
 Next in order of age are pre-Carboniferous gabbros and 
 eurites ; and next, the post-Carboniferous " granitoid rock " 
 of the Carlingford Mountain and Slieve Foye, called by 
 Haughton "anorthite syenite" (page 212). This rock 
 may be classed among the basic elvans, being a very basic 
 granitic rock, but closely allied to the Plutonic rocks. It 
 is of Post-Carboniferous age, as it intrudes into the 
 Carboniferous Limestone, while it graduates into dykes 
 which in some places may be called melaphyre, but in 
 others eurite, some being more pyroxenic than others. 
 
 P 
 
2 1 o Geology of Ireland. 
 
 They belong to Durocher's group of " Hybrid rocks." 
 This rock and its associated dykes, as seen near Carling- 
 ford, are very similar to, and apparently identical with, 
 the dykes which, in the country to the north of the Lough, 
 are cut out by the intrusion of the Mourne granite. The 
 Mourne granite mass is associated with elvan, identi- 
 cal in aspect and composition with the Fathom mountain 
 and Barnavave elvan, which in the country to the south of 
 the Lough cuts out the dykes from the Slieve Foye grani- 
 toid rock. If the Mourne granite and the Barnavave elvan 
 are of the same age, the Mourne granite must be Post- 
 Carboniferous. At Slievebrack and Slievenabolea, SW. of 
 Newry, are remarkable masses of agglomerate, which Nolan 
 believes to graduate into a rock which seems to be of the 
 same type as the Mount Fathom elvan. 
 
 Coming up through the Barnavave elvan, and appa- 
 rently much newer than it, are dykes and protrusions of a 
 spotted eurite or toadstone, while these later rocks are cut 
 up and traversed by dykes of dolerite and basalt, in 
 general very like the Miocene dolerites of Antrim. In 
 places, however, the dykes of dolerite graduate into the 
 spotted eurite, while the latter, when in wide dykes or in 
 protrusions, merge into a granitoid rock or spotted elvan. 
 The latter rock is of a bluish colour, spotted over with 
 crystalline spheroids of whitish felspar, being identical in 
 appearance with the margins of the large course of elvan 
 at Goragh-wood station, now extensively quarried under 
 the name of the " Goragh-wood granite." This elvan 
 course comes up through the Newry granite, and evidently 
 is much newer than it ; and at its margin is the rock 
 similar to the spotted elvan of the Carlingford promon- 
 tory, all being of the same age, which is probably Mio- 
 cene. 
 
Eruptive Rocks. 
 
 211 
 
 o 
 
 P 2 
 
2 1 2 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 It has been shown that farther northward, in the pro- 
 vince of Ulster, there are interbedded pyroxenic rocks of 
 both Triassic and Miocene ages, the later being much more 
 developed than the older. Carlingford Lough District 
 seems to have been a centre of vulcanicity during the 
 Mesozoic and Cainozoic periods, or perhaps even earlier, 
 the eruptive rocks in it being of different ages ; it is there- 
 fore probable that the pyroxenic rocks of Triassic, as well 
 as those of Miocene age, have their representatives. The 
 dykes are exceedingly numerous, as seen in the Carboni- 
 ferous quarries in the neighbourhood of Carlingford. 
 
 In reference to the "anorthite-syenite" of Haughton 
 mentioned in page 209, Traill states, " this rock en masse 
 would be more appropriately called Gabbro, graduating 
 on the one hand into hypersthene-dolerite or hyperite, and 
 on the other into diorite ; as the pyroxenic mineral changes 
 from diallage, either into hypersthene or into hornblende." 
 Such rocks may be included under the general name of 
 Granitone (page 181). 
 
 In the County of Cavan, coming up through the 
 Cambro-Silurian rocks, is a tract of intrusive orthoclasic 
 granite, very similar in aspect and composition to the 
 intrusive granites found elsewhere associated with the 
 Cambro-Silurian rocks. In places there are also dykes 
 and protrusions of gabbros, eurites, and felstones. 
 
^3 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE ERUPTIVE AND MET AM ORPHIC ROCKS 
 CHRONOLOGICALLY CLASSIFIED. 
 
 In the first chapter of this section (Chapter X.) it was 
 stated that the Eruptive Rocks are products of Meta- 
 morphism, they being the result of extreme metapeptic 
 action, by means of which the different sedimentary and 
 other rocks of each formation were so variously and com- 
 pletely changed. In the chronological classification of the 
 eruptive rocks, there is this difficulty, that in Ireland the 
 great alterations took place after the rocks of one forma- 
 tion were deposited, and prior to the accumulation of 
 those succeeding. Still, the eruptive rocks seem nearer 
 in age to the older than the newer formations, as the 
 metamorphism, of which they are the product, had not only 
 ceased, but the altered rocks were more or less denuded 
 prior to the later rocks being deposited on them. On this 
 account the metamorphic and their accompanying eruptive 
 rocks must be nearer in age to the rocks out of which 
 they were formed than to those which succeeded them ; 
 and in the following table the eruptive rocks are grouped 
 under the names of the formation with which they are 
 thus connected. 
 
214 
 
 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Chronological Table of the Eruptive Rocks. 
 
 Formation. 
 
 Groups of the Rocks. 
 
 Q 
 
 
 a 6 
 
 o 
 >• - 
 
 
 2 
 < 
 
 K 
 H 
 2 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 i— i 
 
 S h 
 
 
 1/3 
 
 C/3 
 
 § 
 
 Oc/3 
 
 z< 
 
 J 
 
 £ 
 
 Miocene 
 
 Triassic 
 
 Carboniferous 
 
 Silurian 
 
 Cambro-Silurian 
 
 Cambrian 
 
 5. Dolerite, eurite, and felstone 
 (Trachyte) .... 
 
 4. Elvan ..... 
 
 3. Intrusive triclinic felspar granite 
 
 2. Intrusive monoclinic felspar 
 
 granite .... 
 
 1. Metamorphic granite 
 
 5. Dolerite, eurite, and felstone 
 
 4. Elvan . . . . 
 
 3. Intrusive triclinic felspar granite 
 
 2. Intrusive monoclinic felspar 
 
 granite .... 
 
 1. Metamorphic granite 
 
 5. Melaphyre, eurite, and fel- 
 
 stone ..... 
 
 4. Elvan 
 
 3. Intrusive triclinic felspar granite 
 
 2. Intrusive monoclinic felspar 
 
 granite .... 
 
 1. Metamorphic granite 
 
 5. Melaphyre, gabbro, eurite, and 
 
 felstone .... 
 
 4. Elvan ..... 
 
 3. Intrusive triclinic felspar granite 
 
 2. Intrusive monoclinic felspar 
 
 granite .... 
 
 1. Metamorphic .... 
 
 5. Gabbro, eurite, and felstone 
 
 4. Elvan ..... 
 
 3. Intrusive triclinic felspar granite 
 
 2. Intrusive monoclinic felspar 
 
 granite .... 
 
 1. Metamorphic granite 
 
 5. Gabbro, eurite, and felstone 
 
 4. Elvan .... 
 
 3. Intrusive triclinic felspar granite 
 
 2. Intrusive monoclinic felspar 
 
 granite 
 1. Metamorphic granite 
 
 ? 
 ? 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 ? 
 ? 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 ? 
 ? 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 ? 
 ? 
 
 * 
 # 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 ? 
 
 ? 
 
Eruptive and Metamorphic Rocks Classified. 215 
 
 In this table the first column indicates the different 
 formations that in Ireland are associated with eruptive 
 rocks. In the second column is given the general classifi- 
 cation of the eruptive rocks, to which metamorphic 
 granite is added, so that it may be seen in what forma- 
 tions and localities the gradual change from unaltered, 
 through metamorphic, into the eruptive rocks can be seen 
 and studied. The rest of the columns are devoted to the 
 districts into which it seems most convenient to divide the 
 country. In them an * denotes the existence, a ? the prob- 
 able existence, of the rocks in the place indicated ; while 
 the columns are left blank when the rocks of the class are 
 not represented, or are supposed not to be represented. 
 
 Cambrian. 
 
 In the County of Donegal there may be very ancient 
 eruptive rocks, but at present this is uncertain. The 
 oldest ones in Ireland of which there is a certainty are 
 the hornblende-rock and granitic-felstone {metamorphosed 
 gabbro andfelstone), found among the Cambrian rocks near 
 Greenore and Carnsore, County of Wexford. In higher 
 beds are cakes and sheets of quartzite {metamorphosed 
 quartz-rock) in the country between Wexford town and 
 Bannow to the SW. 
 
 After the intrusion of these rocks, and before the begin- 
 ning of the Cambro-Silurian age, the Cambrian rocks 
 were altered ; to the SE. the alteration was sufficiently 
 intense to form metamorphic granite, and with the 
 latter is associated intrusive Granitic and Plutonic rocks. 
 This metamorphism must have taken place while the 
 Upper Cambrians, or passage rocks between the Cam- 
 brians and Cambro-Silurians, were being accumulated in 
 
2 1 6 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 west Galway ; interstratified with the latter are massive 
 beds of Plutonic rocks associated with their elvan and 
 other granitic roots ; all of which are probably products of 
 the metamorphism that altered the Wexford rocks. 
 
 In the Cambrians of Wicklow and Dublin are found 
 cakes, sheets, and dykes of quartz-rock similar to those 
 found in Wexford ; while in the vicinity of Corcogemore 
 Mountains, County of Galway, in the lower beds of the 
 Upper Cambrians (Great Quartzite Series, page 21), are 
 found masses and protrusions of quartz-rock now meta- 
 morphosed. 
 
 CAMBRO-SILURIANS. 
 
 Among the lower beds of the " Dark Shale Series " of 
 this age, are cakes and masses of quartz-rock, with dykes 
 and protrusions that come up through the underlying 
 Cambrians. In the upper beds, or the "Ballymoney 
 Series," are great interbedded masses of Plutonic rocks, 
 with which are associated their granitic roots (elvans and 
 granites). These interbedded masses in the " Ballymoney 
 Series " are best developed in the Counties of Wicklow, 
 Wexford, and Waterford, but they also occur to the north- 
 ward of Carrick-on-Suir in Tipperary and Kilkenny ; 
 near Lough Graney, County of Clare ; in the Letter Mullen 
 and Croagh Patrick beds, Counties Galway and Mayo ; 
 probably also in Donegal and Londonderry ; and in the 
 County of Louth, near Clogher, &c. 
 
 Toward the end of the Cambro-Silurian age was the 
 greatest period of metamorphism of which there is 
 evidence in Ireland. This more or less altered all the 
 Cambro-Silurian rocks in Wexford and Wicklow ; also, 
 perhaps, portions of the Cambrians. In the Counties of 
 
Eruptive and Metamorphic Rocks Classified. 217 
 
 Galway and Mayo it altered all the Upper Cambrians (or 
 the passage beds between the Cambrians and Cambro- 
 Silurians) and nearly all the Cambro-Silurians ; it did the 
 same in Sligo and Donegal ; in Londonderry, Antrim, 
 and Tyrone it also prevailed, and partially in the south 
 of the County of Down and in the County of Cavan. 
 
 Connected with this period of metamorphism are the 
 metamorphic granites of Galway, Mayo, Sligo (?),and Done- 
 gal ; the older intrusive granites of the Leinster range of 
 hills; the intrusive granites with their accompanying elvans 
 and Plutonic rocks, in west Galway ; the older intrusive 
 granites of Mayo and Sligo, with their accompanying 
 elvans and Plutonic rocks ; some at least of the intrusive 
 granites, their elvans and Plutonic rocks in the County 
 Donegal; the intrusive granites of Londonderry, Antrim (?), 
 and Tyrone"; the Newry, or Slieve Croob, intrusive 
 granite, Counties Armagh and Down ; and the intrusive 
 granite near the town of Cavan. 
 
 Silurian. 
 
 Among the lowest of the Irish Silurians (rocks contain- 
 ing Upper Llandovery fossils) are found interbedded 
 Plutonic rocks, remarkable from the fact that in some 
 places the more typical rocks are replaced by a sheet 
 of quartz-rock ; they are also accompanied by protrusions 
 of dolomite and limestone. In north-west Galway some 
 of the bedded rocks can be traced downward by dykes, 
 to bosses of elvan and granite in the Upper Cambrian 
 rocks at Lugnanoon, south of the Kylemore and Bally- 
 nakill valley. 
 
 In the Silurians of the Dingle promontory, County 
 Kerry, Plutonic rocks also occur ; and in the GlengarifT 
 
2 1 8 Geology of h'eland. 
 
 Grits (Upper Silurians, or the passage beds between the 
 Silurians and the Carboniferous) there are interbedded 
 eruptive rocks at Valentia Harbour, and in the hills to 
 the SE. of the Killarney Lakes. 
 
 To the SW. of Croagh Patrick, County of Mayo, there 
 is a considerable tract of metamorphic Silurians, associ- 
 ated with the intrusive granite of Corvockbrack ; and an 
 unaltered portion of these rocks at Creggaunbaun contains 
 fossils of Upper Llandovery and Wenlock types. The 
 exact time at which this metamorphism took place is 
 uncertain. It is possible it was towards the end of the 
 Silurian period, during the accumulation of the Glengariff 
 Grits, and that the interbedded Plutonic rocks in them 
 are products of this metamorphism. The Corvockbrack 
 granite, however, seems very similar to the Carboniferous 
 granite, and is said to be albitic ; therefore it seems 
 possible that this metamorphism took place in, or after, 
 the Carboniferous age. 
 
 CARBONIFEROUS. 
 
 In the Old Red Sandstone of the promontory of 
 Bear, west Cork, are bedded eruptive rocks associated 
 with dykes and protrusions ; and, in the upper rocks, up to 
 the highest bed of the Carboniferous Slate, others are found. 
 
 The basal rock of the Old Red Sandstone in the Clare, 
 Galway, and Tipperary hills, margining on the north and 
 east the plain of Limerick, is often a quartz-rock or a 
 silicious limestone ; while in the Carboniferous rocks of 
 the plain, at different horizons up to the base of the Coal 
 Measures, are great beds of Plutonic rocks with their 
 elvan roots. At Croaghan Hill, King's County, there are 
 eruptive rocks similar to those in the plain of Limerick. 
 
Eruptive and Metamorphic Rocks Classified. 219 
 
 The rocks that have been mentioned are undoubtedly 
 of Carboniferous age, while the granites now to be re- 
 ferred to, may possibly be of the age of the Glengariff 
 Grits (Silurian), as just now stated ; all of them, however, 
 are said to be albitic, which is supposed to prove their 
 Carboniferous or Post Carboniferous age. In Mayo, to 
 the SW. of Croagh Patrick, are the Corvockbrack granite 
 and metamorphosed Silurians, supposed to be of Carbon- 
 iferous age. One kind of elvan from this granite graduates 
 into a Uralitic gabbro, which possibly may render question- 
 able the Carboniferous age of the granite. The granite, 
 however, is said to be albitic. In SE. Ireland, forming 
 isolated protrusions at Glenbrien, SE. of Enniscorthy, 
 County Wexford ; in different small masses between 
 Aughrim and Rathdrum, County Wicklow ; and in 
 various places associated with the older granite in the 
 range between Dublin and New Ross, are newer albitic 
 granites. In connection with the formation of these newer 
 granites in SE. Leinster, there seems to have been Local 
 metamorphic action (paroptesis), which caused in places 
 additional alteration in the Cambro- Silurian rocks, 
 especially at the SE. margin of the older granite between 
 Killiney, County Dublin, and Tinahely, County Wicklow ; 
 also in the County of Carlow, to the westward of Mount 
 Leinster. 
 
 In west Galway, in Mayo, Sligo, and Donegal, and 
 also in SE. Ireland, are melaphyres, eurites, and felstones, 
 newer than the Lower Palaeozoic rocks, that must be of 
 Carboniferous or newer age. The melaphyres and eurites 
 are very similar to those of Carboniferous age, but in 
 west Galway, associated with them, are rocks very like 
 the Miocene dolerites of Ulster. 
 
2 20 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 TRIASSIC. 
 
 Reference has been already made (p. 209) to the bedded 
 masses of dolerite which occur among the Triassic rocks 
 near Ardtrea, County Tyrone ; at Scrabo Hill, County 
 Down ; and on the east of Moira, County Antrim. 
 
 In N. Mayo are eruptive rocks that Traill has proved 
 to be post-Carboniferous ; it seems probable that some 
 at least of them are Triassic, while others may be Caino- 
 zoic. 
 
 In the Carlingford Lough district are the Mourne 
 granite, the Barnavave or Mount Fathom elvan, and the 
 Slieve Foye granitoid rock, with their associated dolerites, 
 eurites, and felstones ; all of which are evidently of post- 
 Carboniferous age, while they seem to be pre-Cainozoic 
 and probably were intruded during the Triassic age ; the 
 Mourne granite and Barnavave elvan representing the 
 monoclinic-felspar intrusive granites and elvans of the 
 period of vulcanicity ; and the Slieve Foye granitoid rock 
 the triclinic-felspar elvans. Associated with the intrusion 
 of the Mourne granite, there was probably metamorphic 
 action, which additionally altered the Cambro-Silurian 
 rocks alongside the Slieve Croob granite, and also an 
 adjoining strip of the granite. 
 
 MIOCENE. 
 
 In Antrim, and the adjoining portions of Londonderry, 
 Tyrone, and Armagh, are the great sheets of eruptive 
 rocks of Miocene age. They have their associated 
 granitic roots near Portrush, at Tardree, and in other 
 
Eruptive and Metamorphic Rocks Class 
 
 places. At Portrush, in the neighbourhood of ti. 
 protrusions, the Jurassic rocks are metamorphosed, 
 bably in connection with this period of vulcanicity. 
 
 In the Carlingford district are dykes and protrusions c 
 dolerite, eurite, and felstone, newer than the Carlingford 
 granitoid rock (Triassic ?) and all other rocks in the district ; 
 some of them are apparently identical with the Miocene 
 rocks of Antrim. These rocks have their granitic roots 
 in the country westward of Carlingford, and also, in a 
 great course coming up through the Newry granite in 
 the vicinity of Goragh Wood. 
 
 The vulcanicity to which the interbedded Cambrian 
 eruptive rocks in south Wexford were due seems tc have 
 ended in springs that deposited great cakes and sheets of 
 quartz-rock. In the Upper Cambrian of west Galway 
 the vulcanicity appears to have begun in springs that 
 deposited the quartz-rocks and masses of dolomite in the 
 Corcogemore and Lackavrea mountains ; while the dawn 
 of vulcanicity in the Cambro-Silurian, the Silurian, and 
 Carboniferous ages seems likewise to have begun in springs 
 which deposited quartz-rock, dolomite, and limestone. 
 Silicious and calcareous deposits seem also to have been 
 deposited at other times while the different vulcanicities 
 lasted, especially during the Carboniferous age, as large 
 Cherty Zones occur at each horizon where the outburst of 
 the eruptive rocks began. 
 
 The late David Forbes, F.R.S., in a communication in 
 reference to a collection of different Irish eruptive rocks, 
 stated that he believed he would be able by their felspars 
 to divide into three groups both the Felstones and 
 Whinstones ; but at the time he wrote his classification 
 
Geology of Ireland. 
 
 perfected. In this communication the proposed 
 *ng of the Felstones was not given, although there 
 a provisional one for the Whinstones ; viz. — 
 
 Cai?iozoic and Mesozoic. — Dolerite (pyroxene + triclinic felspar). 
 Upper P ales o zoic. — Melaphyre (pyroxene + amphibole + triclinic 
 
 felspar). 
 Lower Paleeozoic. — Diabase (diallage + triclinic felspar). 
 
 The felspars of each division have distinct characters : 
 these, however, were not given. The rock called diabase 
 by Forbes has, in the foregoing descriptions, been named 
 gabbro, as diabase seems to be used by most petrologists 
 for a granitoid variety of pyroxenic-whinstone containing 
 some quartz and amphibole. Forbes' classification of the 
 Whinstones seems very applicable to the Irish rocks, as only 
 in two places are there exceptions to it ; namely, in the 
 Carboniferous rocks of the Cork type, where the Whin- 
 stones seem to be allied to gabbro ; and in the Toorma- 
 keady Conglomerate (Silurian), where there is an inter- 
 bedded melaphyre like the Carboniferous Whinstone. 
 
22 
 
 SECTION III.— SUPERFICIA T 
 ACCUMULATIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 DRIFT.* 
 
 In Ireland the drifts may be classed as GLACIAL, 
 Aqueous, and Meteoric. The Glacial has been divided 
 into the Boulder-clay-drift and the Moraine-drift. The 
 Aqueous may be Marine, Estuarine, Lacustrine, or Fluvia- 
 tile. A marked variety of the Meteoric is the JEolian 
 drift. 
 
 Glacial Drifts. 
 
 The Boulder-clay -drift, called Till in the province of 
 Ulster, has a more or less clayey — often limy — matrix, in 
 which are imbedded irregularly striated, polished, and 
 etched blocks and fragments, principally of the rocks in 
 the vicinity, but also associated with many pieces of 
 foreign rocks. In places it may contain irregular pockets, 
 patches, and channels of fine sand or gravel. It is sup- 
 posed to have resulted from the general glaciation of 
 
 * A considerable portion of this chapter was published in a paper read 
 before the Manchester Geological Society ; and to the Council of that Society 
 I am indebted for the use of the accompanying diagram, 
 
Geology of Ireland. 
 
 .ring the time of the Ice cap on the Northern 
 .^sphere. The Moraine-drift has a sandy-clayey 
 matrix containing angular or sub-angular partially ice- 
 dressed blocks and fragments of the local rocks, foreign 
 rock fragments being of rare occurrence. It is only found 
 in the groups of hills, or in their immediate vicinity ; and 
 when in .ie latter position it often overlies the Boulder- 
 clay-d.lit. Between these newer and older glacial drifts it 
 is rare to find any aqueous drifts, and when they do occur 
 they are generally not more than a few inches thick, and 
 rarely exceed two or three feet. They are usually fine 
 sand or laminated clay (Book or Leaf-clay). Of the Moraine- 
 drift, there is a remarkable rocky variety, that occurs in 
 irregular hummocks, having in it, and on it, large angular 
 blocks of rocks, often tons in weight. The Moraine-drifts 
 are supposed to have been formed by local systems of 
 glaciers in the different groups of hills, whilst the Rocky- 
 moraine-drift would answer to Clarence King's description 
 of the drift he found on the dying-out glaciers of the West 
 Pacific slopes. Local systems of glaciers seem to have 
 existed among the hills during the time of the 300 feet 
 sea beach (Esker sea), while in the west Cork and the 
 Wicklow hills they seem to have lasted much longer, 
 probably to the time of the 100 feet sea beach. To these 
 we will refer hereafter. 
 
 Aqueous Drifts. 
 
 The sea-formed or Marine drifts of Ireland are very 
 interesting and important, as they are supposed to include 
 the remarkable ridges (Celtic Eskers) so characteristic of 
 the central plain of Ireland. Of the existence of pre- 
 Glacial Marine drifts there are no positive proofs. Usually 
 
Drift. 225 
 
 the Boulder-clay-drift is found resting on grooved, striated, 
 polished, and etched surfaces of rock ; but Pump-sinkers 
 say that sometimes they find sands and gravels inter^ 
 vening. These must, however, be very local, as in the 
 miles of railway and other cuttings that have been ex- 
 amined, they were only found on one or two occasions, 
 and then in such positions that possibly they were intra- 
 glacial, not /^glacial. Among and on the hills of the 
 Queen's County, Tipperary, Clare, Galway, and Derry, are 
 gravels apparently marine ; sometimes under typical 
 Boulder-clay-drift, but more often under Moraine-drift ; 
 in the latter case they are evidently intraglacial, while the 
 others possibly may be preglacial. 
 
 A very common marine drift among, and in the vicinity 
 of, the groups of hills, is a Glacialoid-dnft. This is a 
 boulder-drift, made up of very similar materials to one or 
 other of the glacial-drifts, but always having a distinct 
 stratification ; the materials of which it is composed 
 having been re-arranged by, and deposited in, water. 
 This Glacialoid-drift seems to be marine, on account of its 
 extending over large areas ; in some places, however, it 
 may be lacustrine. Usually it is made up of the mixed 
 debris of the Boulder-clay and Moraine-drift, but in some 
 localities as, in SW. Mayo, it is divided into two distinct 
 members ; the lower drift being the debris of the Boulder- 
 clay, while above, over a denuded surface of the first, and 
 often having a parting, of thin beds of fine sand or Book- 
 clay between, is a drift made up of the debris of the 
 Moraine-drift. 
 
 The marine drifts, that are undoubtedly post-Glacial, may 
 be divided into the accumulations formed — when the sea 
 was at about the 300 feet contour line (Esker Sea) ; when 
 the sea margin rested for a time at about the 100 feet 
 
 Q 
 
226 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 contour line ;* when the sea rested for a time at about the 
 25 feet contour line ; and more recent drifts. This brings 
 us to the subject of " Raised beaches;" but these will be 
 discussed in the next chapter. The " Esker Sea " drifts 
 are found in the country a little above or below the 
 300 feet contour line ; as the sea margin, similarly to 
 that of the present sea, varied in height. The margin of 
 the Esker Sea will be found in places in the hills ; some- 
 times as a shelf cut in their sides, at other times as a beach 
 accumulation. It is extremely well marked in parts of 
 Tyrone and Derry, forming circles of gravel and sand 
 round the isolated drift hills so common thereabouts. 
 
 In some places on the low ground the Esker Sea drifts 
 are spread out in undulating sheets, as in the County of 
 Kildare. In places in these sheets there is fine gravel and 
 sand under a shingly gravel. Such sections, however, are 
 only to be found in narrows, like that in the Valley of the 
 Nore, at the City of Kilkenny. This is easily accounted 
 for. When the waters were deep and broad, there were fine 
 deposits accumulating ; but as it shallowed and narrowed, 
 the current became more rapid and the deposit coarser. 
 
 In many places in the central plains, between the 100 and 
 250 feet contour lines, sands, gravels, and shingles are 
 piled up in ridges or Eskers. These are best exemplified 
 in the plain between Galway and Dublin. The formation 
 of the Eskers is a disputed subject, but it seems probable 
 that they are modifications of the banks and shoals which 
 accumulated at the colliding and the dividing of the 
 " Flow " tide currents of the Esker Sea ; similar to those 
 that are found in the seas round Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 * This margin is always above the ioo feet contour line, and sometimes up 
 nearly to the 190 feet contour. The average would be about the 130 feet 
 from the heights on the east coast of Ireland. 
 
Drift. 227 
 
 at the present day. In the Irish Sea, in the vicinity of the 
 Isle of Man, there is a meeting of the north and south 
 " Flow " tide waves, or a " Head of the tide." Here the tidal 
 currents meet and neutralize one another in one place, form- 
 ing a mass of currentless water, that simply " rises " and 
 " falls," and deposits there silt and such like materials. 
 The other " Heads of the tide" in these seas are south and 
 east of England, in the Straits of Dover, and between 
 Norfolk and Holland. But in these places there are 
 different results, as the currents collide and pass one 
 another, for greater or less distances ; and at their edges, 
 or the junctions of the different currents, long banks 
 of gravel and shingle accumulate. It is also found that 
 long banks of gravel and shingle may form at the dividing 
 or splitting up of the " Flow " tide current. This is exem- 
 plified off the south-east coast of Ireland. From Greenore 
 Point a main current runs northward up the Irish Sea, 
 while secondary currents branch off into Wexford Bay ; 
 and at the junction of these currents with the main 
 current, there are long banks between Greenore and 
 Wicklow Heads. Similar results must have occurred in 
 the Esker Sea. 
 
 The flow tide wave entering at Galway must have sent 
 a main current eastward to the coast between Droeheda 
 and Dublin ; south of this current there would be a 
 bay somewhat similarly circumstanced to Wexford Bay, 
 off which banks would form between Galway Bay and the 
 Dublin mountains, that is, in the line of country occupied 
 by the principal Eskers. 
 
 By a similar process long banks and shoals would have 
 accumulated in positions which the Eskers now occupy ; 
 but the typical Eskers are very unlike shoals and other 
 sea banks, they being comparable to railway embank- 
 
 2 
 
228 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 ments, some being so narrow that you could nearly shake 
 hands across them ; and it has yet to be explained how- 
 shoals could be thus modified. 
 
 Although it cannot be positively affirmed, yet it appears 
 possible, that as the sea shallowed and the shoals and 
 banks became " awash " the current would have the power 
 of changing the massive banks into narrow ridges. In 
 favour of such a supposition it may be mentioned that at 
 the half-tide or " awash " portions of banks, and in other 
 shallow places where two currents collide, there are Esker- 
 like ridges ; as St. Patrick's Bridge between Kilmore and 
 the Saltees, County of Wexford ; and on the Dogger 
 Bank off the mouth of Wexford Harbour.* 
 
 At the same time it has not been shown that, in any 
 place, long continuous ridges like the Irish Eskers are any- 
 where being formed by marine action, although similar 
 ridges, but more massive, occur at the " Head of the Tide " 
 in the sea between England and Holland, as pointed out 
 by Milne-Home. 
 
 In favour of their marine origin it may also be mentioned 
 that they are often in the higher parts capped with 
 accumulations of fine sands like yEolian-drift, similar to 
 those that, at the present day, are blown up into mounds 
 and ridges by the wind out of reach of the waves ; while 
 in other places there are fine and coarser sands interstrati- 
 fied, like those in the recent ridges between Lady's Island 
 Lake (County Wexford) and the sea ; the fine deposits 
 being ^Eolian, and the coarse ones sand driven up during 
 high tides. Moreover, no action but marine, at the present 
 day, forms ridges at all like the Eskers.-f- 
 
 * This was carried away with the bank in the winter 1876-77. 
 f In a previous writing on this subject, I suggested that the Eskers were 
 produced directly by a " Head of the Tide " like that in the Irish Sea. Such 
 
Drift. 
 
 229 
 
 If the marine origin of the Irish Eskers is allowed, 
 the various details and complications in the eskers in 
 the Central plain of Ireland could be explained by the 
 colliding, or the meeting of the " Flow " tide currents 
 branching from the main, with those coming through the 
 straits, now valleys in the surrounding hills ; as also the 
 different eskers in the country to the north of the main 
 current ; such details, however, would occupy too much 
 space if fully entered into.* 
 
 Fi6. U. 
 
 Lugnaquillia and adjoining mountains, Co. Wicklow. 
 
 Drift deposits, which must have been formed at the 
 " heads of tides," similar to those in the vicinity of the 
 Isle of Man, can be observed in various places ; as in SE. 
 Wexford, where the esker drift is represented by large 
 
 a meeting of tidal currents would not produce ridges, but massive shoals. 
 This supposition, therefore, has to be abandoned ; and it appears more 
 probable that to the colliding and parting of the tidal currents as above 
 described such banks must be due. 
 
 * The eskers proper of Scotland seem to have had a similar origin to 
 those of Ireland — not, however, all the drift now classed as Karnes, as under 
 that name have been included ridges of marine, lacustrine, fluviatile, and 
 meteoric drifts 
 
230 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 accumulations of fine fossiliferous sand, marl, and clay ; 
 also in some of the valleys further north ; and in the 
 County Dublin, where there are also thick beds of brick- 
 clay in the esker drift. 
 
 Some observers question the marine origin of the eskers, 
 on account of the paucity of fossils in them, and also 
 on account of the number of contained ice-dressed frag- 
 ments. But in many similar accumulations formed by 
 the sea at the present day fossils are rare, as the nature of 
 the deposits and the materials they are composed of are 
 adverse to the preservation of fossils : the drifts they 
 were formed from were principally glacial, consequently, 
 many of the fragments in them, especially near the old 
 drifts, ought to be ice marked ; but in no esker will you 
 find any fragments that have not also some marks of sub- 
 sequent water action. It might as reasonably be said 
 that all recent accumulations that contain ice-marked 
 fragments are glacial ; some of the present estuarine 
 accumulations contain between 50 and 75 per cent, of 
 glacially marked stones. 
 
 At the base of the Esker drift along the coast between 
 Bray Head, County Wicklow, and the coast south of 
 Bannow, County Wexford, remarkable recent conglo- 
 merates and sandstones occur, while higher up in the 
 drift near Blackwater, County Wexford, are fossiliferous 
 sandstones and friable conglomerates ; as also in the 
 Curragh of Kildare and elsewhere. 
 
 The marine drifts more recent than those of the " Esker 
 Sea " period are very similar to the older drift, being rear- 
 ranged glacial, marine, or meteoric drifts ; consequently no 
 definite rule can be laid down for distinguishing the older 
 from the newer, except the heights at which they occur. 
 But in the valley of Lough Corrib, north of Galway, 
 
Drift. 2 
 
 o 
 
 there is a distinction, as the newer gravels are principally 
 made up of granitic gravels, and sands, while the older 
 are more or less limestone gravels. In this valley there is 
 a long esker, which seems to have been piled up by the 
 colliding of the tidal " flow " currents that entered respec- 
 tively through Galway and Kilkieran bays during the 
 time of the ioo feet sea. Terraces of the newer marine 
 drift that accumulated when the sea stood for a time 
 at about the ioo feet and at the 25 feet contour lines, 
 are well marked in various places on all the east coast 
 of Ireland and in the associated valleys ; also in the 
 valleys of the Slaney, Barrow, Nore, Suir, and Black- 
 water ; and to the west, especially in the valleys of Gal- 
 way, Mayo, and Donegal. 
 
 The peculiar drifts containing sea shells found at great 
 heights in the Dublin and Wicklow mountains will be 
 mentioned hereafter. 
 
 The Estuarine drift, although marine, is put in a dis- 
 tinct class on account of its partaking in part of the 
 nature of lacustrine and fluviatile drifts ; it often contains 
 terrestrial and freshwater fossils, while it is very different 
 from those accumulated in the open sea. The latter 
 are always well washed, sorted, and water-worn, but the 
 estuarine drifts may be nearly similar to the drifts of 
 which they are the debris ; some being scarcely distinguish- 
 able from glacial drifts, while many are more or less 
 clayey or marly. No pre-Glacial estuarine drifts are 
 known. In the Queen's County portion of the Castle- 
 comer tableland, in the Newtown colliery, an intra-glacial 
 peat was found by Mr. B. B. Edge, which is probably 
 estuarine, as the gravel associated with it contained 
 marine fossils. A peculiar blackish pre- or intra-Glacial 
 drift has been lately exposed in the railway cutting near 
 
232 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Dalkey, County of Dublin, which possibly may belong to 
 this division. 
 
 The post-glacial estuarine drifts occur in many valleys, 
 being respectively of the ages of the 300 feet (Esker), 100 
 feet, 25 feet, and more recent, seas. Plains of estuarine 
 drifts are often miscalled " river gravels," they being sup- 
 posed to have been formed by the rivers that flow in them. 
 A little consideration, however, will show the error in such 
 a supposition. All estuaries, but especially those that are 
 long and narrow, which seems to have been a very general 
 character during the time of the Esker 100 and 25 feet seas, 
 form two distinct deposits ; one nearly horizontal, that 
 marks the shore or margin of the estuary ; and the other 
 sloping more or less from the tidal strand at the head of the 
 estuary to its mouth, the latter being the bottom accumu- 
 lation. If the land rose the bottom accumulation would 
 form a sloping plain (often called a terrace) with a river 
 flowing through it. This plain is said to have been formed 
 by the river, because it slopes with it and because the fossils 
 may be, for the most part, terrestrial or freshwater. Rivers, 
 however, rarely form a sloping plain, as the floods form 
 ridges, hills, and other irregular accumulations. Further- 
 more, fossils are rarely deposited in river accumulations, as 
 they are generally carried down by the floods to the lakes, 
 estuaries, or other still waters. In Ireland fluviatile action 
 has no doubt added to the surface of the estuarine plains 
 during floods ; or in the immediate vicinity of the river 
 channel, parts of the flats may be cut away, and the 
 materials be re-arranged, but all the extensive flats 
 adjoining the rivers were originally formed by estuaries or 
 lakes. 
 
 In the Slaney River valley these estuarine drifts are 
 well seen ; those belonging to the 25 feet sea being found 
 
Drift. 233 
 
 up the valley to about half-way between Enniscorthy and 
 Newtownbarry ; the drift of the 100 feet sea to Clonegal, 
 in the County Carlow ; and those of the Esker sea to above 
 Stratford, in the County Wicklow.* During the latter 
 time a bar of drift formed east of Tullow, in the County 
 Carlow, that diverted the waters into the valley through 
 the Carlow and Wicklow hills at Clonegal ; as, apparently, 
 prior to that time, the portion of the valley of the Slaney 
 north of Clonegal was included in the water-basin of 
 the Barrow. 
 
 There are also estuarine accumulations, hereafter men- 
 tioned, that were deposited between the time of the 100 
 and the 25 feet sea beaches ; these are now submerged 
 30 feet or more below the present sea levels. Such accu- 
 mulations seem to consist principally of marl, clay, sand, 
 and peat. Some of the estuarine deposits, like those in 
 the estuary of the Shannon, are remarkable from the quan- 
 tities of bones of Cervus Megaceros and other terres- 
 trial animals found in them. Many of the estuarine 
 accumulations that contain ice-worked fragments have 
 been called " Upper Glacial Drift," the associated estuarine 
 gravels being called " Middle Gravels." 
 
 Of the drifts due to lakes, or the Lacustrine drift, some 
 are said to be pre-Glacial. In the province of Ulster, are 
 the previously mentioned Lough Neagh clays and sands, 
 which have been provisionally placed and described 
 among the Cainozoic rocks. To the same may possibly 
 be referred similar deposits that occur near Cahir, County 
 of Tipperary. These, however, may more properly 
 belong to the drift, t 
 
 * The peculiarity of the aqueous drift of Glen Imale or the upper portion 
 of the valley of the Slaney is mentioned farther on. 
 
 f Baily states that the Lough Neagh beds are undoubtedly Post-Pliocene, 
 and the fossils found in them are of that type. 
 
234 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 South of the district of the Lough Neagh beds, at 
 Knockagraffy, 3 miles west of Armagh, oak timber was 
 found under 45 feet of drift ; also in a railway cutting 
 west of Armagh, and charcoal-like wood under 30 feet 
 of drift near Aghavilly church, SW. of Armagh. In 
 the Boleyneendorrish River valley, near Gort, County 
 Galway, there are plant beds and clays under glacial 
 drift ; the latter are probably lacustrine, and evidently 
 intra-glacial : and near Nenagh, County Tipperary, Mr. 
 Wilkinson has found an intra-glacial peat that is probably 
 lacustrine. 
 
 The sites of post-Glacial lakes are numerous, but most 
 of them are now filled by deep accumulations of peat 
 and marl. 
 
 In places in the glacial drift are sinuous channels with 
 branches from them, filled with fluviatile shingle, gravel, 
 and sand. Such channels were probably formed by rivers, 
 which, as Dana suggests, flowed under or in the ice. The 
 post-Glacial fluviatile drift occurs in the mountain valleys 
 and in the low valleys associated with the ancient estua- 
 rine gravels. 
 
 Some of the fluviatile drifts occur under deep accumu- 
 lations of meteoric drift ; this seems to be the case with 
 the " gold sand " of the County Wicklow. As before 
 stated, the glaciers seem to have continued longer among 
 the Wicklow hills than in most of the other Irish hill 
 groups. This is surmised because in the tributary valleys 
 of the Aughrim river the Esker sea gravels do not appear 
 to exist, while in the cooms in the hills west of Glenma- 
 lure there are traces as if of very recent glaciers. While 
 the last traces of the sea were disappearing off these hills, 
 torrents rushed down the different ravines forming drifts, 
 of which the very lower portion was composed of ferrifer- 
 
Drift. 235 
 
 ous auriferous sands (" Black sands "). After the ice had 
 melted, the torrents left the ravines, and the sides wea- 
 thered into slopes, thus covering the fluviatile for a greater 
 or less depth with meteoric drifts. Whether the gold 
 drift extends under the 25 feet estuarine drift of the 
 Ovoca valley has not as yet been proved. 
 
 The Fluviatile drift now forming has produced deltas 
 or " srahs " in many of the lake basins, also well-defined 
 ridges and hills on the estuarine flats. The ridges seem 
 due to sudden and great floods going through a narrow, 
 or gorge, on to a flat. Such sudden floods must have 
 been of frequent occurrence prior to the climate becoming 
 as temperate as it is now. During the historical period 
 they are from time to time recorded in the annals, and a 
 small one occurred in the Ovoca river as late as March, 
 1 86y. This flood was not due to heavy rains, but to a heavy 
 fall of snow in the highlands. This remained longer than 
 usual, giving time for lakes or ponds of water to accumu- 
 late in the valleys behind the snow drifts. When the 
 thaw came, all these lakes burst nearly at once, the water 
 rising in the valley from 10 to 15 feet higher than the 
 more ordinary violent floods. 
 
 Meteoric Drift. 
 
 This includes the deposits due to weathering more or 
 less in situ, and also the vast accumulations of sEolian or 
 wind-formed drift. 
 
 The drifts due to weathering are of considerable 
 extent in Ireland, although little notice has been taken of 
 them. As the Ice-sheet, and subsequently the local 
 systems of glaciers, melted away, the meteoric abrasion 
 must have been excessive, not only on account of the 
 
236 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 surface of the ground being devoid of vegetation, but 
 also on account of the excess of water trickling down 
 every slope of ground. 
 
 In portions of the low lands in Ulster under the Till, 
 and in a few places under the Boulder-clay-drift in Galway 
 and elsewhere, there is a greater or less thickness of 
 angular debris of rock, called Broken shelf by the miner, 
 and Foundation or Rubble by the quarryman. These seem 
 to be pre-Glacial meteoric formations. In the south of 
 Ireland, especially in parts of Cork, Waterford, and Wex- 
 ford, there are large, and in some places thick, accumula- 
 tions of an angular drift, characterized in general by 
 having most of the contained rock-fragments standing 
 more or less on edge. If we examine drifts that are in 
 process of formation, we find that at corners and curls in 
 rivers the pebbles may be on edge ; and also in estuarine 
 deposits near the margin, in eddies, or where slips of the 
 adjoining cliffs take place, the pebbles are on edge ; and 
 in marine drift if a slip take place from a cliff, the dis- 
 turbed stones may be forced up on edge ; and we may 
 suppose that floating ice grounding on drift would have a 
 similar effect. These, however, are all local or exceptional 
 cases, while in meteoric slopes such an arrangement is not 
 uncommon ; we may, therefore, believe that the drifts just 
 mentioned are meteoric, formed while the ice was dis- 
 appearing. In the County Carlow, we find on the hills near 
 Borris, that this drift is thin, but that it thickens as we go 
 to the base of the hills, and that afterwards it again thins, 
 as it is followed out on to the estuarine gravels of the 
 valley of the Barrow. In this valley the meteoric drift 
 has been called erroneously " upper glacial drift/' and 
 the estuarine gravels " middle gravels." In the same 
 county, but on the north slope of Mount Leinster, there 
 
Drift. 237 
 
 is a great thickness of meteoric drift, which in one place 
 tails out over a recent bog, from a few inches to four or 
 five feet deep. On the south coast of Wexford a lime- 
 kiln has been smothered by meteoric drift, and the recent 
 meteoric drift over it is identical in every particular with 
 that which further west forms cliffs from twenty to nearly 
 a hundred feet high.* A very puzzling variety of 
 meteoric drift is found in the meteoric slopes that have been 
 formed out of the weathering of ancient cliffs of glacial 
 drift. In artificial works, such as those for railways, after 
 the new ground has had time to consolidate, it is extremely 
 difficult to point out the exact boundary between the old 
 drift and the artificial work. Similarly with these 
 meteoric drifts, it is hard to distinguish them from the 
 old drift, except that the fragments in them, if flattish, 
 have a tendency to stand on edge. The estuarine gravels 
 of many of the Irish river valleys are more or less covered 
 with such talus. 
 
 The accompanying diagrammatic section represents the 
 25 feet, the 100 feet, and the 300 feet sea terraces in the 
 Valley of the Barrow, the distances between the different 
 terraces being curtailed to allow them to fit into our dia- 
 gram — the dotted lines representing the cliffs prior to their 
 being weathered. The talus on the 300-f- feet terrace is 
 extremely similar to glacial drift, it being the debris of 
 glacial drift ; while those over the 1 00 and 25 feet 
 terraces are more or less a mixture of the debris of glacial 
 drift and estuarine gravels, as usually the upper portion 
 of the cliffs from which they were formed is gravel. The 
 
 * This drift, as also that over the limekiln, contains ice-dressed fragments, 
 some of hard grit retaining the old polish and etching. 
 
 f The heights given are the average ones, as the terraces rise in height 
 slightly as we proceed up the estuary. 
 
238 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 meteoric drift in both of these slopes contains a large per- 
 centage of ice-dressed fragments, often polished and 
 etched, and many observers have classed them as glacial 
 drift. The depths of these meteoric drifts vary, their 
 maximum depth being generally about half the height 
 of the original cliffs. Such meteoric drifts capping 
 gravels have of late years been called in many places 
 " Upper glacial drift," and from such data we are asked 
 to believe in the existence of a second Glacial period. 
 
 Diagrammatic Section of the Old Sea-beaches in the 
 Valley of the Barrow. 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 A. B. C— Ancient Marginal Cliffs. 
 
 n. b. c. — Meteoric talus due to the weathering of the Old Cliffs. 
 
 e. f. g. — Meteoric Slopes. 
 
 The j&olian drift is conspicuous in many places. We 
 cannot point to any undoubted pre-Glacial or intra-Glacial 
 accumulations, but those of post-Glacial age are well repre- 
 sented. In places at the margin of the " Esker Sea," 
 such as on the Cratloe hills, County Clare, north of the 
 estuary of the Shannon, there are great tracts of fine 
 sand, locally called in Ireland "rabbit sand;" also in 
 places at the margin of the 100 feet sea, as at Birdhill, 
 County Tipperary. These accumulations are usually 
 
Drift. 239 
 
 found at, or near, the inver or mouth of a valley down 
 which a glacial river probably flowed. We may, there- 
 fore, suppose that the sand was formed in glaciers, similar 
 to what is going on at the present day, while subse- 
 quently, after it had reached the seashore, it was blown 
 up into hills by aeolian action. In other places, such as 
 in the Eskers at high levels, and at the previously men- 
 tioned " Heads of the Tide," the sands seem to have been 
 brought to, or near, their present positions by tidal action, 
 and afterwards to have been drifted by wind. All these 
 older aeolian accumulations are now clothed with vegeta- 
 tion, as are also some of those that were formed at the 
 margin of the 25 feet sea ; but many of the latter, and 
 most of those belonging to more recent times, are still 
 shifted hither and thither by the wind. Those at present 
 forming are of two distinct kinds — silicious and calcareous, 
 or Shell sand. On the east and south-east coasts they are 
 very silicious ; and are very prevalent along the coast, in 
 places forming bars enclosing lagoons, in places filling up 
 bays that were formed when the sea was at about the 
 12 feet contour line. On the west coast many of them 
 are calcareous, some of those at the mouth of Galway 
 Bay containing more than 75 per cent, of limy matter. 
 Along this coast, as the prevailing winds are from the 
 westward, this drift is usually piled up at the heads of the 
 bays, or on a low coast line backed by high land ; while in 
 some places it occurs as Sand-streams. In south-west 
 Mayo the inhabitants near the shore have great difficulty in 
 keeping the sand from travelling inwards and smothering 
 up the arable and pasture land. In the north-west of the 
 same county, adjoining Broadhaven, there were sandhills 
 covered with Bent grass. This was burnt off, and the 
 sand began to travel up the hill to the north-eastward. 
 
240 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 It has gradually crept up the hill, about 700 feet, destroy- 
 ing all before it, so that the inhabitants have had to 
 migrate to the other side of the hill. In Omey island, off 
 the coast of Galway, the sand has covered up a village, 
 and the inhabitants now come out of holes, like rabbits in 
 a burrow. In the vicinity of Galway Bay, in Aranmore, 
 and to the north in Errismore, the sands, within the last 
 forty years, have taken to travel southward, and have 
 nearly all disappeared out to sea ; also on the east coast, 
 between St. Helens and Greenore, County Wexford, the 
 sand dunes formed during the time of the 25 feet sea 
 (Plate V.) have within late years been nearly entirely 
 carried away by the wind into the sea, and by the 
 latter round Greenore point ; and they are now accumu- 
 lating and forming sand dunes to the east of the new pier 
 of Ballygeary ; at Arklow, County .Wicklow, the great 
 sand dunes that once existed have now nearly disappeared. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 GLACIATION, ERRATIC BLOCKS, RAISED 
 
 BEACHES, AND SUBMERGED LAND 
 
 AND FORESTS. 
 
 Connected with the Drift are — the Glaciation of the 
 country, the Erratic blocks, and the Raised beaches or 
 Ancient Sea Margins ; and to some extent the Sub- 
 mergence of the land. 
 
 Glaciation. 
 
 It would appear, as has been elsewhere stated (Journal 
 Roy. Geol. Soc, vol. i., and " Memoirs Irish Branch Geol. 
 Survey"), that at one time there was a general south-south- 
 westward movement of a thick sheet of ice across Ireland, 
 while in later times there were systems of local dispersion 
 in connection with the different groups of hills, and still 
 later, minor glaciers in the highland valleys ; some of the 
 latter have only disappeared in very recent times. 
 
 These conclusions, however, are different from those ar- 
 rived at by the Rev. M. H. Close, who has paid particular 
 attention to the study of the Glaciation of Ireland.* This 
 authority believes " that during the glacial period the uni- 
 versal ice sheet had no general movement across Ireland, 
 though it so happened that its longest flows on the surface of 
 
 * I would refer those interested in this subject to the various papers by the 
 Rev. M. H. Close, as in many particulars our opinions differ. 
 
 R 
 
242 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 the land were towards the SE. ; that the most predominant 
 centre of dispersion was near the hills of Fermanagh ; and 
 that there were others in Donegal, north Galway,and Kerry, 
 but none on the east side of Ireland. The mountains of 
 the Counties Dublin, Wicklow, and Wexford, were swept 
 by ice from the less important hill group of Fermanagh. 
 The Waterford Mountains also were swept by ice from the 
 interior of the country ; so that it was not always the 
 greater height of the ground that determined the position 
 of the centres of radiation." 
 
 The earliest movements of the ice will for ever be a 
 subject for controversy. The later movements are more 
 or less distinctly marked and can be followed, although 
 some are very hard to be accounted for. But they have 
 in places so changed and obliterated the earlier work that 
 a great portion of the latter has to be guessed at. Further- 
 more the different observers often come to different, or even 
 opposite, conclusions from the same phenomena ; some 
 believing that they belong to the older, others to the 
 newer ice, or they may even not agree as to the direction 
 in which the ice was moving. 
 
 In the Central plain the earlier movement to us seems to 
 have been southward, as the rocks are planed in that direc- 
 tion, they sloping northward and cragging southward. The 
 form of the grooves and striae would lead to a similar con- 
 clusion. The hard limestones when freshly uncovered are 
 generally beautifully rounded, polished, scratched, and 
 etched ; but the softer limestones and shales of the Calp 
 rarely retain the marks. The general bearing of these striae, 
 especially in the western portion, seems to be from NNE. 
 or NE. to SSW. or SW., the easting in these bearings 
 being due to the form of the ground. As the axes of the 
 lines of the Pre- and Post-Carboniferous Hills in general 
 
G lactation. 243 
 
 had such bearings, and as these hills must have formed 
 prominent features during the glaciation, they would have 
 influenced the direction of the streams of ice. The 
 records of this general southward movement, so preva- 
 lent in the plain, are less frequent among the hills, the 
 traces having been obliterated by the more recent local 
 systems. 
 
 When ice first invades a country it effects great denuda- 
 tion ; rapidly wearing away and removing, except in pro- 
 tected places, all loose and soft portions of the surface. 
 But when the solid rocks are reached the work goes on 
 more slowly, till eventually the surface becomes so re- 
 arranged, even, and polished, that the ice has very little 
 power of denudation.* 
 
 We learn this from various circumstances. In many 
 places over large areas are two sets of striae on one rock 
 surface, and in some places three or even four sets ; show- 
 ing that ice- streams, all moving in different directions, had 
 succeeded one another. If ice at all stages had the same 
 denuding power this could not occur, as the older marks 
 would have been obliterated by the newer ice ; but if the 
 rocks had been hardened and polished by the passage of 
 the first ice, all that passed subsequently could only record 
 their passage by the scratches and other marks due to the 
 protruding points and edges of contained pieces of rocks. 
 Also in many areas, such as in west Galway, where two 
 or more sets of striae occur, large tracts are found without 
 any drift on them ; as if the first ice effected the denuda- 
 tion, and when the later ice melted there was no detritus 
 in it to form drift. 
 
 In the hills occupying west Mayo and west Galway 
 the markings left by the system of glaciers are better 
 
 * This is similar to the process of artificially polishing a block of stone. 
 
 R 2 
 
244 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 preserved than elsewhere ; and it would appear that the 
 dispersion was not from off the highest hill (Mweelrea), 
 or from the greatest mass of highland (Formnamore table- 
 land), but out of the valley between the Bennabeola and 
 the Maumturk Mountains. Radiating from this centre 
 glaciers flowed in every direction, more or less following 
 the valleys, but to the north and north-east crossing the 
 present watershed in places at considerable heights. 
 
 To the west is a remarkable newer glaciation, that had a 
 NNW. movement : what was the cause of it is unex- 
 plained. The marks are very perfect and recent looking, 
 much fresher than any of the others. As will be presently 
 mentioned, similar recent-looking glaciations also occur 
 near the coast of Ulster. 
 
 The great development of the ice in west Connaught 
 was long prior to the Esker Sea period, as all the principal 
 glaciers of the age occupied the valleys in which the 
 Esker drift occurs ; but during the Esker Sea period 
 smaller glaciers existed in the hills, as large blocks of the 
 Galway rocks are found perched on the Eskers. These 
 cannot be a residue from a glacial drift, as suggested by 
 some, being always on, and never in, the Esker drift, as 
 pointed out by O' Kelly, Foot, and Jukes. 
 
 In the Counties of Cork and Kerry also, in which are 
 found the highest Irish hills, Ice-marks are conspicuous, 
 although not as prevalent as in west Galway. In the low 
 ground in the neighbourhood of Kenmare there seems to 
 have been a centre of dispersion somewhat like that of 
 the Galway Mountains, and some of the striae show that 
 part of this ice went SSE. over the high mountain ridge 
 that divides Kerry from Cork ; but the best marked 
 sculpturing is due to very recent glaciers. 
 
 Of these recent glaciers Du Noyer and Close record 
 
G lactation. 245 
 
 traces in the Dingle promontory and among the moun- 
 tains west of Killarney, while in the promontory between 
 Kenmare River and Bantry Bay they are of great interest. 
 In the latter locality, in a ravine immediately south-west 
 of Hungry Hill, striae occur which are continuous from the 
 commencement of the ravine down to the low land, when 
 they end at a hill of drift that evidently was a terminal 
 moraine. As this hill is on land only 140 feet above the 
 level of the sea, it is evident a glacier existed here long 
 subsequent to the Esker Sea period. But in the County of 
 Kerry, to the north of the mountain ridge, as also farther 
 NE. near the lakes of Killarney, and especially at the 
 mouth of Glenflesk, are well-preserved marine gravels up 
 nearly to the 300 feet contour line ; suggesting that in 
 these portions of Kerry no glaciers extended down into 
 the low ground after the time of the Esker Sea. 
 
 In the mountains and hills near Skibbereen, and in the 
 country to the E. and NW., Wyley and Willson have 
 recorded the traces of glacial abrasion and moraines, and 
 also numerous perched blocks. The undercutting and 
 sculpturing in the transverse valleys near Mount Gabriel 
 are most perfect and fresh- looking. 
 
 To the eastward, in the Knockmealdown, the Galtees, 
 and the Commeraghs, there are, besides the general glacia- 
 tion across them, the records of several small glaciers, that 
 retreated gradually up the different valleys till eventually 
 they were confined to the limits of the different cooms. 
 In some of the valleys the ends of the different glaciers 
 during pauses in their retreat, are marked by terminal 
 moraines at different levels. 
 
 In the Leinster range of hills there seem to be traces 
 of mer-de-glace in the low hills to the south and north, 
 of Lugnaquillia. These sent glaciers N., NW., W., and 
 
246 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 SW., into the valleys of the Liffey, Barrow, and Slaney, 
 and E. and SE. into the valleys of the tributaries of the 
 Ovoca. The glaciation in the valleys of the Aughrim 
 river and Avonbeg is well marked, bearing about N. 40 
 to 45 W. 
 
 To us it would appear that during the general glacia- 
 tion the southward movement of the ice was diverted 
 in the County of Dublin, by the mass of the Dublin and 
 Wicklow Mountains ; part going SW. into the valleys of 
 the Barrow and Nore, then nearly south across Kildare 
 and Kilkenny to the County of Wexford, where it turned 
 towards the SE. (N. 6o° W.) ; part across the Dublin and 
 Wicklow hills with the general bearing of Glenmalure 
 (N. 40 W.), and the other main valleys ; and part south- 
 east till it passed the hills, when it turned south along the 
 low ground in Wicklow and Wexford. A later ice went 
 from west to east, across the north portion of the County 
 of Wexford. 
 
 In the County of Kilkenny, on the high land between 
 the Nore and the Barrow, striae occur in different places 
 with a general bearing of about N. io° W. In south and 
 west Wexford striae are very rare, although, in places, the 
 rocks have been planed over extensive areas. This is pro- 
 bably due to the glacial drift having been washed away 
 over most of the county, and replaced by marine and 
 meteoric drifts. In north Wexford and in Wicklow striae 
 are much more frequent, especially in the latter county. 
 
 The traces of the local glaciers connected with Lugna- 
 quillia are interesting. In Glenmalure, the valley of the 
 Avonbeg, the gravels belonging to the Esker Sea period 
 are well preserved, they becoming very conspicuous at 
 Ballinacor, and from that northward to Drumgoff, where 
 they form a high mound or bar, on which the barrack is 
 
Erratic Blocks. 247 
 
 situated, across the valley, at a height of 440 feet. North 
 of this bar, is the site of an ancient lagoon, and everywhere 
 above the level of the surface of this lagoon are moraine 
 drifts ; while to the north of the valley and in the valleys 
 coming down from Lugnaquillia are terminal moraines at 
 successive heights, marking the gradual retreat of each 
 small glacier up their respective valleys. 
 
 In the province of Ulster there seems to have been a 
 general southward movement, as boulders and fragments 
 of the Ulster rocks are found to the southward in Leinster 
 and Connaught. Since then, however, there have been 
 various local movements ; in the eastward portion towards 
 the south-east, and in the western part towards the west and 
 south-west. There has also, in certain localities near the 
 north coast, been a northward movement, like the recent 
 glaciation already mentioned in West Connaught, which 
 has left traces so perfect and fresh-looking that they must 
 be the records of a much more recent movement than any 
 of the others. In Ulster this northward movement evi- 
 dently was due to the ice, when finally breaking up, 
 slipping off the high lands ; but it is hard to explain why 
 there was a movement in a nearly similar direction in 
 West Connaught. 
 
 Erratic Blocks. 
 
 Erratic blocks are distributed over the whole of Ireland, 
 but are more numerous and conspicuous in some places 
 than in others. Ice as land-ice, icebergs, or shore-ice {ice- 
 foot), seems to have been in all cases the motive power 
 that carried the large blocks from their parent rocks to 
 their present sites ; but in some places smaller erratics 
 may have been brought by strong oceanic currents. 
 
248 
 
 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 In west Galway and Mayo, the erratics are more 
 numerous and of greater size than elsewhere. In the 
 mountainous country south of Galway Bay, most of 
 the largest ones are found, some being very remarkable ; 
 the largest known in Ireland being a porphyritic granite 
 block on the Carboniferous limestone at Ballagh, a few 
 miles to the NNW. of Galway. Formerly it was larger, 
 but a considerable piece was blasted off its side to form 
 the pedestal on which the statue of William Dargan 
 now stands in Leinster Lawn, Merrion Square, Dublin. 
 Attention may be also called to Clogh-Currill, at the 
 
 Clogh-Currill, County Galway. 
 
 margin of the lake similarly named, in the flat country, 
 between Recess and Kilkieran (Fig. 13). This stands on its 
 end, and from a distance looks like one of the old castles 
 so frequent in Ireland. Of this stone there is a legend 
 that it was thrown by a giant (Currill) from the 
 Corcogemore Hills at another, Moidaun, who was 
 
Erratic Blocks. 249 
 
 carrying off his daughter, and Currill's fingermarks are 
 shown on the base of the stone. This seems to have 
 been rather a far "push" for the stone, a distance of 
 over twelve miles. 
 
 Among these hills there are large erratics on hummocks 
 of Rocky-moraine-drift ; the latter apparently being the 
 debris left by dying-out glaciers, similar to those de- 
 scribed by Clarence King, on the West Pacific slopes ; 
 while margining the hills in the flat country, between 
 Killala Bay on the north and the estuary of the Shannon 
 to the south, and also in other places, are numerous large 
 and small erratics on the limestone crags, that seem to be 
 the residue of the Boulder-clay-drift. The numerous 
 blocks found on the Aran Islands, at the entrance into 
 Galway Bay, appear to have had a similar origin. 
 
 Erratics of the west Galway rocks, principally of the 
 porphyritic granite, are found at great distances to the 
 eastward, south-eastward, and southward. To the east 
 they are very numerous, in places, on the Eskers, especially 
 between Woodlawn and Loughrea, also near Ballinasloe ; 
 while smaller ones occur in the country about Eyrecourt, 
 Portumna, Birr, Silvermines, Nenagh, and even on the 
 slopes of the Slieve Bloom mountains. In the valleys 
 looking west of the Slieve Phelim, to the NE. of Newport, 
 Tipperary, are remarkable gravels and shingles, made up 
 almost solely of fragments of these west Galway rocks. 
 
 To the southward, blocks and pieces of the west 
 Galway rocks occur in the Galtee mountains, while Will- 
 son has found them farther south in the County of 
 Cork. In Limerick, on the Coal Measures between 
 Foynes and Glin, the Rev. Ponsonby Lyons pointed out 
 that the blocks and pieces of rock in the drift, were 
 chiefly portions of the Galway granitic and metamorphic 
 
250 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 rocks. These seem to have been brought south by 
 the oceanic current that ran southward between Killala 
 Bay and the estuary of the Shannon, when the sea was 
 100 feet higher than at present. 
 
 In the mountainous country that includes portions 
 of Limerick, Kerry, and Cork, also in the hills of 
 Tipperary and Waterford, erratics occur ; but in none of 
 these places are they as remarkable or as large as in west 
 Galway ; all the more remarkable of these erratics are 
 mentioned, and some of them figured, in the Geological 
 Survey Memoirs. The most remarkable are Cloughvorra, 
 a block of limestone, figured by Du Noyer, lying on 
 the Old Red Sandstone of the Kenmare valley ; huge 
 blocks of Limestone on the Old Red Sandstone near 
 Ballingarry, County of Limerick ; and large blocks of Old 
 Red Sandstone conglomerate scattered over the country 
 between Kilmacthomas and the sea, County of Waterford. 
 The largest of these NW. of Stradbally, on the bank of 
 the river Tay, is called Cloughlowrish, and a picture of it 
 is given by Du Noyer in the Memoir. 
 
 In the hills of South Leinster large erratics are not very 
 numerous, although small blocks are not uncommon. In 
 the mountains of Wicklow and Dublin they are larger, 
 some in Annamoe valley near Glendalough being of con- 
 siderable size. On the ice-planed surface of Brockagh 
 north of the Seven Churches they are plentiful, four con- 
 spicuous ones being perched on the eastern summit, 
 1,550 ft. There is a very great one close by Annagolan 
 bridge, near the N.W. end of the Devil's Glen. In 
 the valley of the King's River there is a remark- 
 able assemblage, the blocks being so near together as to 
 look like a pavement ; while perhaps the best known of 
 the erratics in the County Wicklow, is the Motto Stone, 
 
Ancient Sea Margins, 251 
 
 perched on Cronebane Hill, over the Ovoca mines. In 
 the central plains of Ireland, the erratics, that have not 
 been broken up, are of small size. In north-east Ireland, 
 including Ulster and the neighbouring portion of Con- 
 naught, erratics are in general not very numerous, although 
 in a few places many occur, some in Donegal being of 
 large size. 
 
 Ancient Sea Margins, or Raised Beaches. 
 
 A sea margin is not necessarily a horizontal line. It is 
 lowest at the " Nodal " or " Hinge lines " of the tide, when 
 such exist, higher at the " Head of the Tide," and often 
 exceedingly high at the heads of narrow bays and estuaries. 
 At the present day the mean height of the tide around 
 Ireland varies eight feet, but the difference between the 
 mean height at Courtown, County Wexford, the point 
 of the lowest rise of the tide in Ireland, and that of 
 the opposite coast at Cardigan Bay, the point of lowest 
 rise on the west coast of England, is thirteen feet ; while 
 between the mean heights at Courtown and Chepstow, in 
 the Bristol Channel, there is a difference of forty-five feet. 
 These are the variations between the mean heights of 
 the Spring tides, but the variations between the maximum 
 heights are much more striking, and it is the latter that 
 form the " foreshores " which represent the terraces of the 
 Raised beaches. 
 
 The present variations in the rise of the tide are due to 
 the tidal wave coming from the west dividing on the 
 west coast, part going northward, and part southward 
 round Ireland, to meet in the Irish Sea, as has been ex- 
 plained by Haughton.* It is found that the wave rises 
 
 * "Manual of Tides and Tidal Currents," by the Rev. S. Haughton, 
 M.D., F.R.S., &c. 
 
252 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 less on the islands off the west coast of Ireland than on 
 the coast itself, and on the east coast of Ireland than 
 on the west coast of England, and variations, due more or 
 less to similar causes, occur in the heights of the ancient 
 sea margins. 
 
 The most conspicuous and continuous of these ancient 
 sea margins or raised beaches occur at about the following 
 heights : — A little above high-water mark, or at about the 
 Ordnance 12-feet contour line;* at about the 25-feet 
 contour line ; at about the 100- feet contour line ; and at a 
 little below the 300-feet contour line. Besides these, there 
 are in the different groups of hills, cliffs, rock terraces, 
 and shelves, that may possibly mark older sea margins ; 
 they being found at about the 450-feet, 650-feet, 750-feet, 
 1,000-feet, 1,200-feet, 1,500-feet, and 1,800-feet contour 
 lines. 
 
 The 12-feet beach varies much in height, being a few feet 
 above the present level of high spring tide. Some extra- 
 ordinary tides rise to or above it ; consequently in many 
 places it has been obliterated, but traces of it can be found 
 in most of the bays and estuaries. In the neighbourhood 
 of Dublin Bay it seems to have formed the flat that joins 
 the hill of Howth to the mainland, also the low ground on 
 which Trinity College and the adjoining portions of Dublin 
 are built. Formerly it was conspicuous as a beach with caves 
 at Dunleary (coal harbour, Kingstown) ; these, however, 
 were covered up when the hill at De Vesci Terrace was 
 cut away. South-east of Dublin Bay until lately it could 
 be seen at Bullock and Dalkey, and it is still preserved 
 at the inver of the Shanganagh river, and was formerly 
 
 * The Irish Ordnance zero plane is 20 '9 feet below a permanent mark on 
 the Poolbeg lighthouse, Dublin Bay ; and this has been found, from a system 
 of levellings, to be 8 "094 feet below the mean level of the sea round Ireland. 
 
Ancient Sea Margins. 253 
 
 in the estuary of the Bray river. Between Bray Head and 
 Carnsore, County Wexford, it is seen in many places. 
 Between Greystones and Wicklow it is very conspicuous as 
 a flat, wide gravel bank or murrough (Anglice sea plain), 
 behind which are lagoons and salt marshes ; while farther 
 south it has filled up portions of nearly all the bays, and 
 on it there are now accumulations of ^Eolian drift, mar- 
 gined by the old sea cliffs. In the vicinity of Wexford 
 Harbour it is seen in the ravines occupied by the Black- 
 water and other streams. 
 
 On the south coast it has been observed in the Bally- 
 teigue lagoon (now an Intake), between Ballyteigue and 
 Bannow ; in the Bannow estuary, near Fethard and else- 
 where ; in the estuary of the Suir, where it has been 
 described by Captain Austen {London Geol. Soc. Proc, 
 page 360) ; in Tramore lagoon ; in the estuary of the Lee 
 (Cork Harbour), especially about Inishmore, and in some 
 of the smaller bays. 
 
 To the west it is conspicuous among the islands and 
 promontories of west Cork, and it joins Crookhaven 
 Island to the mainland ; while it has been observed in 
 places near the heads of the bays in Cork, Kerry, Galway, 
 Mayo, and Sligo, it having formed rich land in the estuary 
 of the Shannon (corcasses, or meadows), and on the 
 middle island of Aran, Galway Bay, it occurs as a shell- 
 gravel beach. 
 
 To the north it does not appear to be so well seen, as it 
 has been more or less cut away by the encroachment of 
 the sea ; but on the N. and NE. coasts of Antrim it 
 occurs as caves a little above high-water mark, as pointed 
 out by Portlock. Near Larne it is very interesting, as 
 mentioned hereafter. It also occurs on the east coast, 
 between Belfast and Dublin, where its existence has been 
 
254 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 shown by Du Noyer, Traill, and others. Usually this 
 beach is below the 12-foot contour line, but in some of the 
 estuaries it rises to the 16 or even about the 22-feet 
 contour line, as in Carlingford Bay, where the gravels 
 contain flint implements ; its rises and falls, apparently 
 corresponding with those of the present sea margins. This 
 beach is often confounded with the 25 -feet sea beach, 
 next described. They, however, are perfectly distinct, as 
 between the formation of the two there was an upheaval of 
 the land to between 30 or 40 feet above its present level. 
 The low parts of most of the maritime towns in Ireland 
 are built on portions of the estuarine flat of the 12-feet 
 and 2 5 -feet beaches, the corcagh (or low flat) after which 
 Cork* is called being part of the latter. 
 
 The 2^-feei beach can be traced in the vicinity of Dublin 
 Bay, rising from about the 25 -feet contour line at the Heads 
 (Dalkey and Howth) to over 35 feet at the west end of 
 the ancient estuary, as traced out by Cruise. About thirty- 
 five years ago, or more, it was very conspicuous along the 
 cliffs from King George's monument, Kingstown, eastward 
 towards Sandy Cove, but all traces of it have since been 
 obliterated ; also in places at Bullock, Dalkey Sound, and 
 at the north end of Killiney Bay. 
 
 To the south of Killiney Hill there are gravels in the 
 Shanganagh and Bray river valleys that seem to have 
 accumulated at this time. From Wicklow r southward to 
 Kilmichael in the County Wexford this beach is perhaps 
 more conspicuous than elsewhere in Ireland, in places 
 forming a shelf in the cliffs at about the 22-feet contour 
 line ; and it can also be traced up the river valleys, the 
 terrace rising slightly up the ancient estuary. 
 
 In the County of Wexford the old cliff, as it was cut in 
 drift, has in part been removed by the encroachment of the 
 
Ancient Sea Margins. 
 
 255 
 
 sea ; but in many places, at about the 25-feet contour line, 
 there is a sloping escarpment that seems to mark its site, 
 and its marginal gravels can be seen in many places in the 
 valley of the Slaney to about half-way between Ennis- 
 corthy and Newtownbarry, while the old beach was well 
 shown in the railway cutting at Park, near Wexford, prior 
 to the slopes being finished off and soiled. In the estuaries 
 of the Suir, Barrow, and Nore, it is well marked, especially 
 north of Graiguenamanagh and near Dunmore. 
 
 In Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, and Clare, it has 
 been observed and recorded by Capt. Austen, Wyley, 
 
 Vis. 14.. 
 
 Ballynakill Harbour with Terraces, County Galway — Terraces, v, vv. 
 
 Willson, Du Noyer, Jukes, Foot, Wynne, and others, gene- 
 rally in the bays or on the eastern sides of the islands, as 
 on the headlands and open seaboards it has been nearly 
 invariably washed away by the storm waves of the 
 Atlantic. In part of Kerry, however, and in the plain of 
 Limerick, to the south of the estuary of the Shannon, it is 
 well preserved in places as a low cliff in the limestone. In 
 
256 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 the Burren, County of Clare, it also occurs as a limestone 
 cliff, while in the County of Galway it forms gravel 
 terraces in the valley of Ballynakill Bay, and at Leenaun 
 near the east end of Killary Harbour, where a height of 
 32 feet is marked on the terrace, although down near the 
 open sea the terraces are below the 25 -feet contour line. 
 At Leenaun this beach and higher beaches are con- 
 spicuously marked, as shown in the accompanying sketch 
 (Fig. T5). Farther northward, it has been observed in 
 Clew, Blacksod, Broad -Haven, Killala, Sligo, and Donegal 
 Bays, besides in some of the smaller inlets ; also in the 
 bays, especially Lough Foyle, to the west and north of 
 Donegal and Londonderry ; while Portlock has drawn 
 attention to the caves cut in connection with it in the chalk 
 on the north coast of Antrim, in some places there being 
 even three sets of caves, marking the 12, 25, and 100-feet 
 old beach lines. 
 
 On the east coast, between Ballycastle and Dublin Bay, 
 this sea margin seems to be very generally marked by 
 caves or beaches, attention having been directed to it 
 by Du Noyer, Traill, and others. On the open coast it 
 is below the 20-feet contour line to the northward, but 
 southward rises gradually to above the 25-feet contour 
 line in Dublin Bay. On the coast of Antrim, as 
 pointed out by Du Noyer, it is of special interest, as 
 at Larne, at Magheramorne, and Island Magee, east and 
 west of Larne Lough, and at Kilroot, on Belfast Lough, 
 flint arrow-heads and other implements occur in the 
 marine gravels. Du Noyer considered that the imple- 
 ments found at Magheramorne are of an older type than 
 those at Kilroot. The Kilroot gravels rest on bluish clays, 
 and contain shells, some of which are stated by Dr. 
 Grainger and Mr. Stewart to have now disappeared from 
 
Ancient Sea Margins. 
 
 257 
 
 the neighbouring seas. The upper beach at Larne belongs 
 to the 2 5 -feet sea. But it would appear probable that the 
 Kilroot sands belong to the 12-feet beach, while the 
 underlying clays are the estuarine deposits of the time of 
 the 25 -feet sea beach. Dr. Grainger and Mr. S. A. Stewart 
 have published a list of the shells found, in the "Brit. 
 Assoc. Report for 1874." The Curran, Larne, is apparently 
 one of the best places for procuring them. Besides the raised 
 
 Lugs and Terraces at Leenaun, Killary Harbour, Co. Galway, v. gravel terrace ; vv, 
 sloping terrace ; vvv ioo feet terrace ; vvvv, 320 feet terrace ; vwvv flat bottomed coom. 
 
 beaches on this coast are the previously-mentioned caves, 
 formed at the times both of the 12 and 25 -feet beaches. 
 
 Near Greenore, Carlingford Bay, Traill records shell 
 gravel terraces at a little above high-water mark and 
 about 15 feet higher. In the gravels near Greenore coast- 
 guard station are flint implements, and in other places 
 Mr. D. J. Rowan found the remains of kitchen middens. 
 Du Noyer has also directed attention to the beaches on 
 the east coasts of Meath and Dublin, in which are found 
 J.he bones of such animals as the sheep, pig, and ox, also 
 
 S 
 
258 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 numerous shells and the remains of fires, as if kitchen 
 middens had existed prior to the formation of the beaches. 
 Some of these ancient human relics seem to be in the 
 12-feet, others in the 25-feet sea beaches. The 25-feet 
 sea beach all round Ireland rises and falls very similarly 
 to the levels of the present sea margin. The " Head of 
 the Tide," however, in the Irish Sea would seem to have 
 been a little more south (opposite Dublin Bay) than at 
 present. 
 
 The 100-feet sea beach is more inland than those which 
 have been described, and it is not as conspicuous, as in 
 many places it must have been cut in drift, whence weather- 
 ing and the tillage of the land have often obliterated it. 
 
 In the valley of the Liffey its gravels occur, as also on 
 the promontory of Howth, near the town, while formerly 
 they were well seen in the neighbourhood of Dalkey. In 
 the valley of the Bray and the other Wicklow rivers they 
 are found, being very conspicuous in the Vale of Ovoca, 
 especially in the transverse valley opposite Kilmacadam 
 Church, in the vicinity of the Mines, and the upper Meet- 
 ing of the Waters, that of the Avonmore and Avonbeg. 
 Above Enniscorthy, in the valley of the Slaney, the 
 gravels can be traced to beyond Clonegal into the County 
 of Carlow ; while in the valleys of the Suir, Nore, and 
 Barrow it forms well marked terraces, as near Mount 
 Loftus in the last. Similarly it is found in the valleys 
 of the Cork, Kerry, and Limerick rivers ; while near 
 Galway town and the branching valleys from Lough 
 Corrib are terraces at about no feet; the beach on the 
 crags north of Galway looking as fresh as some of those 
 at the present sea margin. 
 
 In the valleys of the hills of Galway and Mayo these 
 gravels are very numerous and conspicuous, as in the 
 
Ancient Sea Margins. 259 
 
 Kylemore valley and near Leenaun, Killary Harbour ; 
 while some remarkable bars, with associated terraces, 
 occur in Gleninagh and other mountain valleys at about 
 the 1 25 -feet contour line. These seem to mark the bars of 
 the terminal lagoons at the ends of the narrow bays. 
 
 In north-west Mayo there are shell gravels that seem to 
 belong to this beach, and in Sligo terraces ; while in the 
 valleys of Donegal are bars, terraces, and cliffs. In 
 Antrim there are the caves mentioned by Portlock and the 
 fossiliferous gravels described by Bryce and Hyndman ; 
 while many of the inland cliffs seem to have been cut at 
 this time. In the County of Down this beach occurs in 
 some of the valleys. 
 
 The Esker sea margin is the most important in Ireland, 
 usually occurring between the 270 and 300-feet contour 
 lines, but to the west, in the County of Galway, it is lower, 
 though in some of the long, narrow valleys, like that of 
 Killary Harbour, it rises higher ; in some of the Dublin 
 and Wicklow valleys it is very high. 
 
 In the valleys among the hills of west Galway it is in 
 general well marked, rising up each valley, sometimes to 
 above 300 feet, except in the Maum valley and its tribu- 
 taries, where the margin is as low as 255 feet. Terraces 
 are conspicuously marked on Leckavrea, the hill to the 
 south of Maum. In the valley of Killary Harbour, to the 
 westward near Salrock, the terraces are at a height of 
 about 290 feet, and reach more or less continuously east- 
 ward, for twenty miles, to great terraces and flats of gravel 
 in the Erriff valley, on which heights of 350 feet and more 
 are marked. 
 
 Further northward and north-eastward, in the different 
 hills above 300 feet high, some traces of this sea margin 
 are sure to be found ; it being very conspicuous, as before 
 
 S 2 
 
260 
 
 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 mentioned, in the County of Tyrone, forming rings of 
 gravel and sand round the drift hills, at a little below the 
 290 feet contour line. In the eastern portion of the 
 central plain of Ireland, the margin is usually a little 
 above or below the 300-feet line, while westward, it decreases 
 in height. A rock terrace and cliff due to this sea is 
 very continuous all through the Burren hills in North 
 
 Pirt. 16 
 
 Terraces in Limestone Burren, Co. Clare. 
 
 Clare, while in the neighbouring hills of Galway it 
 is also found ; south of the Shannon in the plain of 
 Limerick, to the west of Ballingarry, there is a remarkably 
 perfect recent-looking beach, a little below the 290 feet 
 contour line, and north of the Shannon on the slopes 
 of the Cratloe hills, is a great accumulation of ^Eolian 
 drift just above this height. 
 
 Among the Kerry hills, in the valleys that open north- 
 ward and westward, these gravels occur a little below the 
 300-feet line ; while to the SE. of Killarney, at the mouth 
 of Glenflesk, at about the same height, is an enormous 
 
Ancient Sea Margins. 261 
 
 accumulation of shingle. In the west Cork hills, these 
 gravels are absent or rare ; but they occur in the valleys of 
 the Waterford, Wexford, and Wicklow rivers, being very 
 conspicuous in those of the Suir, Nore, Barrow, Slaney, 
 and Ovoca. 
 
 In some of the Wicklow valleys, as previously men- 
 tioned, these gravels appear to be absent ; while in others 
 and in the Dublin hills they are very complicated. In the 
 County of Wexford, to the south and south-east of the 
 Leinster range of hills, the shell drifts containing flints and 
 pieces of chalk have nowhere been recorded above the 
 300- feet contour line.* 
 
 Along the valley of the Slaney, through the range of 
 hills into the County of Carlow, they keep at about the 
 same height, but in that county to the north of Mount 
 Leinster, chalk fragments occur at a height of 760 feet ; 
 in Glen Imale the upper portion of the basin of the 
 Slaney, the valley of the King's River, and the valley of 
 the Liffey, there are great terraces of aqueous drift up 
 to, and above, the 750-feet contour line ; while eastward 
 of that Close has found them up to 1,200 feet. In Glen- 
 malure, the valley of the Avonbeg, is the previously 
 mentioned bar and terrace up to a height of 440 feet ; 
 while in the Vale of Clara, the valley of the Avonmore, 
 terraces are conspicuous in the vicinity of Clara bridge, 
 and can be traced up the valley till they terminate in the 
 flat bar and terrace, on which the Seven Churches were 
 built, at a height of 445 feet, or a few feet higher than in 
 Glenmalure. South and north of the Glen of the Downs 
 
 * Sir H. James states that they occur on the Forth Mountain at 500 feet. 
 This, however, seems a misprint for 300, as Wyley nowhere found them above 
 the 280-feet contour line ; neither could I, although I examined every section 
 and carefully questioned the natives of the hills. 
 
262 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 the surface of the gravel rises to 470 feet. The reason 
 for this difference between the north and south of the 
 Wicklow hills, has still to be explained. 
 
 In the Esker-sea, and newer, drifts of Wexford and 
 Wicklow chalk flints are numerous ; these are said by 
 some to come from the County Antrim. This, however, 
 seems improbable, as the quantity and size of the flints 
 decrease northwards, when we leave the County of Wex- 
 ford. To me it would appear that they were drifted from 
 the Continent or England — or perhaps, as suggested by 
 Wyley, from a tract that occupied a portion of the Irish 
 Sea. 
 
 Above the Esker sea margin are the previously men- 
 tioned cliffs, shelves, and gravel accumulations, at heights 
 of about 450, 650, 750, 1,000, 1,200, [,500 and 1,800 feet. 
 These occur in places among the Wicklow, Carlow, 
 Waterford, Tipperary, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, Clare, 
 Galway, and other hills ; those at about the 450, 750, 
 and 1,200 feet lines being best marked. At the 1,800 
 contour line on the Knockadober range, County Kerry, 
 there is a remarkable beach of shingle. (Plate VIII). 
 
 As these marginal markings occur on nearly similar 
 horizons in places so widely separated, it would appear 
 that they must have been made by some wide spread 
 denudant like the sea. But if the sea made them, at 
 what time was it? Was it prior to, or after the glacial 
 period ? If prior, why were they not obliterated by the 
 ice action? And if since, why did not the seas that cut 
 the terraces, denude away the glacial drifts ? 
 
 It seems more probable that such marks were formed 
 subsequent to the accumulations of the Boulder-clay-drift ; 
 and that since the sea was 1,800 feet higher than at 
 present, there has been no general glaciation of the 
 
Ancient Sea Margins. 263 
 
 country ; that is, no second " Ice-cap," but only local 
 systems of glaciers connected with the different groups of 
 hills. 
 
 In favour of these suggestions, it is found that the 
 glacial drift on the hills is usually Moraine ; while in those 
 places on the hills in which Boulder-clay-drift does occur, 
 it is in isolated patches, and in situations where it could 
 not have been easily denuded away by the sea. Local 
 systems of glaciers could not remove all the old sea 
 marks ; they would have great power on the gravels and 
 such accumulations, but could not easily destroy the rock- 
 shelves, cliffs and cooms. Such records are now found 
 best preserved in the hard rocks, as shown in the west 
 Galway hills, where they are frequent in the hard quartz- 
 ites, while in the adjoining slate rocks, nearly all of them 
 are obliterated. 
 
 In the valleys among the hills, the marine gravels 
 that were not carried away would be covered up by 
 Moraine-drift, while in the vicinity of the hills, the 
 gravels and Moraine-drifts would be mixed up together 
 and deposited in the adjoining sea, forming the glacialoid 
 drifts. This is what seems to have taken place ; as only 
 among, or in the vicinity of, the hills, but in such places 
 often at low levels, are thick accumulations of gravel 
 found under Moraine drift;* while it is only in the vicinity 
 of the groups of hills that the glacialoid drifts, of the 
 kind just mentioned, are found capping the Boulder-clay- 
 drift. 
 
 * In various places on the Castlecomer table-land (Queen's and Kilkenny- 
 counties), patches of Limestone Boulder clay drift are found in hollows under 
 the Moraine drift, while in one place, in an old ravine along the fault between 
 the Modubeagh and Wolfhill Collieries, a great thickness of sand is preserved 
 under the Moraine drift, although not a particle of it was found in the pits a 
 little to the east and west. 
 
264 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Submerged Land and Forests. 
 
 As there are indications afforded by raised beaches that 
 the land formerly stood at levels lower than its present 
 one ; so on the other hand there are indications afforded 
 by the peat bogs now submerged off our shores, that the 
 land has been at one time, at least, higher than it is now. 
 This time was certainly after the formation of the 25 feet 
 beach ; but whether it was before or after the time of the 
 12 feet beach is not so certain. In the west of Ireland, 
 the sea-side bogs in various places, and the ancient habi- 
 tations on Aran islands, Galway Bay, extend from above 
 highwater-mark down below the level of low water of 
 spring tides ; this would seem to suggest that the sub- 
 mergence took place after the time of the 12 feet sea 
 beach. But on the east coast, different beaches of this 
 age lie on the submerged peat, proving that the 12 feet 
 beach was formed more recently than the submergence. 
 
 In reference to this last subsidence of the land, there are 
 statements in the ancient annals that may be important. 
 We are given accounts of the formation (the " bursting 
 forth ") of different lakes ; there are also traditions with 
 regard to different bays, stating that at one time they 
 were fresh water loughs. A tradition of the latter kind, 
 states that Galway Bay was at one time a land-locked 
 sheet of water, having a passage out of it to the NW. ; 
 but that subsequently the barrier between it and the sea 
 sank. This tradition gets weight from the recent dis- 
 coveries made by the Rev. W. Kilbride, Vicar of Aran, 
 who has proved that at Tramore, on the largest island, 
 human habitations and other structures can be traced 
 down below low water of Spring tides. It has also been 
 found that margining the bay are bogs below low water of 
 
Submerged Laiid. 265 
 
 Spring tides, with oak corkers in situ at their base, being 
 in places over 12 feet deep. In connection with Galway 
 Bay is Lough Corrib. Of this lake tradition says that 
 formerly it was but half its present size ; and if it was 
 now raised less than 15 feet, more than half the area 
 would be drained through the subterranean passages in 
 the surrounding Burren limestone. 
 
 Off the south-west of Ireland submerged bogs are 
 common, one of the most interesting being that discovered 
 by Dr. C. Farran at Clonea, near Dungarvan, after one of 
 the highest tides known in the country. Here are the 
 remains of an ancient pine forest, miles in length, now 
 usually covered with many fathoms of water. At Dun- 
 worley Bay on the south coast of Cork, as recorded by 
 Mr. Good, a bog was bored for 50 feet in depth without 
 finding its bottom (" Geol. Surv. Memoirs "). 
 
 Very little is known of the distance to which these 
 peats extend seaward, but in a few places their out- 
 crop has been recorded, between the four and five 
 fathom lines ; at about this depth peat is said to occur 
 off Tramore, County Waterford ; while adjoining the 
 lagoon it can be seen at and below low water mark. 
 
 In the estuary of the Barrow the following are the beds 
 passed through, when putting down the piers for the New 
 Ross bridge : — 
 
 6. Hard marl 
 
 5. Debris .... 
 
 4. Soft marl 
 
 3. Debris .... 
 
 2. Soft marl 
 
 1. Gravel and shingle . 
 
 4i » 
 
 The surface of the marl No. 6 is 38 feet below high 
 
 12 
 
 feet 
 
 I 
 
 >> 
 
 14 
 
 '> 
 
 I 
 
 5> 
 
 6 
 
 JJ 
 
 7 
 
 JJ 
 
266 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 water mark of Spring tides, which gives a full depth to 
 the rock of 79 feet. Higher up in the estuary, near the 
 junction of the Nore and Barrow, the estuarine deposits 
 have been proved to extend down for about 65 feet below 
 high water of Spring tides. 
 
 When sinking the foundation for the engine-house in 
 the north Intake of the slobs in Wexford Harbour, the 
 following were proved : — 
 
 4. Mud 16 . feet. 
 
 3- Peat 5 „ 
 
 2. Grey muddy stuff . . . 1*5 „ . 
 
 1. Marl 
 
 This section was opened at the margin of one of the 
 islands in the estuary, and cannot give the full thick- 
 ness of the estuarine deposits ; its surface is 5 feet below 
 the rise of Spring tides. In the peat were logs of oak, 
 apparently " drift timber," and it is possible that they 
 were drifted into their present site ; but, at the same time, 
 peat is found on the same level, as to depth, to the NE. in 
 Curracloe Bog, at the margin of the Intake, while the 
 oyster dredgers find it outside the sand-hills in about 4 
 fathoms of water, also at the same depth farther north- 
 ward, to the south of Cahore point. 
 
267 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 PEAT-BOGS AND PRE-HISTORIC REMAINS. 
 
 Peat-Bogs* 
 
 Peat may be classed as Pre- or Intra-glacial and Post- 
 glacial, the latter including the Submarine, and that accu- 
 mulating at the present day. 
 
 Pre-glacial, or perhaps Intra-glacial peat, was found 
 near Nenagh, County Tipperary, under 43 feet of Boulder 
 clay ; in the Boleyneendorrish valley, near Gort, County 
 Galway, under 25 feet of glacial drift ; and at the New- 
 town Colliery, Queen's County, under 94 feet of drift. 
 In the latter locality it was 3 feet thick, and more a lignite 
 than peat. Pieces of peat occur in the Marine gravels in 
 the country south of Oughterard, County Galway. 
 
 In the peaty accumulation of Boleyneendorrish, are the 
 cones of Pinus sylvestris, Abies excelsa (De C), fragments 
 of wood, chiefly coniferous, portions of branches, scales 
 of bark, hazel nuts, and the leaves and stalks of plants, 
 which prove the presence of such trees in Ireland during 
 intra-glacial times. 
 
 The submarine peat has been mentioned in the last 
 chapter. At the present time very little peat is growing 
 on the lowlands of East Ireland, yet submerged bogs are 
 not uncommon ; those off the south and west coast seem 
 
 * A more popular description of the Irish Peat-Bogs has already appeared 
 in the London Quarterly Journal of Science, No. xliii., July, 1874. 
 
268 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 m 
 
 partly to have grown where now found, and partly to 
 have been deposited from the denudation of bogs mar- 
 gining the sea. In the submarine bogs the roots and 
 trunks of the oak, yew, deal, willow, and hazel, are found, 
 similar to the tree remains that occur in the inland bogs. 
 
 The normal lowland or Red bogs of the central plain of 
 Ireland, usually have a marl or clay under them, which is 
 more or less penetrated by the roots of the trees and 
 larger plants that once occupied the land. Usually 
 the roots and trunks of the trees under the peat, or in the 
 lowest strata, are principally those of the oak and yew, as if 
 prior to the growth of the peat, the low country was a 
 vast forest of these trees. It would appear that subse- 
 quently mosses and other peat-producing plants began to 
 grow and flourish, until eventually they stopped the drain- 
 age and formed an envelope of peat, thus killing the trees, 
 which one by one toppled over and were buried in the 
 succeeding growth of the peat. After the disappearance 
 of the major portion of the oak trees, the bogs year by year 
 gradually increased in depth, until, apparently, suddenly, 
 for some as yet unexplained cause, their growth ceased, and 
 on their surface forests, principally of deals, sprang up. 
 During all this time, however, portions of the oak forests 
 remained, which seems due to the oaks being destroyed 
 only in those low places where the peat could easily 
 accumulate ; while on hills the oak still flourished, forming 
 oak groves. These hills, or " islands," in the bogs, although 
 now destitute of trees, are still called derries (Anglice 
 oak-woods), the ancient name which has survived down to 
 the present day, probably from the time when they were 
 oak groves surrounded by forests of deal. In some of the 
 wilds of Mayo, the oak may still be found growing on 
 the drift islands in the bogs, it always being associated 
 
Plate VI.] 
 
 [To face J> age z6g. 
 
 ,ivy-% 
 
 Surface 
 
 of -Bog 
 
 Deed; Conkers I 1 
 
 OaJc CorJcerj 
 
 Deals Corkers 1 
 
 _Dicuar<unmaiJbic Section of wBog Shewuny the Oah&Beal Corkers 
 
 Stone Crccrtnoa *■ rrvZiOtoohSolci- 
 
 cuvci Flooring 
 
 Section/ of Crcarvrwa (after? TViZde) 
 
Peat- Bogs. 269 
 
 with yew, hazel, birch, ash, and holly ; probably the last 
 three kinds of trees were also denizens of the Primary 
 forests, but their timber has long since disappeared, they 
 being of kinds that rot quickly in bog. 
 
 That such was the growth of the red bogs is proved by 
 the different sections exposed, as beneath the peat in the 
 under-clay, marl, or gravel, are found the " Corkers " or 
 roots of the oak and yew, following the undulations of 
 the ground, while above them in horizontal layers, and 
 separated from them by from 4 to 12 feet of peat, are the 
 roots of the deal forest, which at the sides of the hills, as 
 shown in the accompanying section (see Plate VI.) join 
 into the oak roots. 
 
 In a few lowland bogs in the west of the island, and in 
 many of the bogs in the mountainous districts, the two 
 systems of corkers belong to deal trees, as if in such 
 places there were two distinct ages of deal forests. 
 
 Some of the red bogs are of great depth, being in places 
 over 50 feet deep, but in general they do not exceed 20 or 
 30 feet, and often are of less depth. A typical red bog 
 gives four kinds of peat ; near the surface is the clearing 
 of more or less living organic matter from 2 to 6 feet in 
 thickness ; under this white turf, then brown turf, and 
 lowest of all, black, or stone turf. White turf is a nearly 
 pure organic substance, very light when dried, burns 
 quickly, giving out only a moderate heat, and leaves little 
 or no ash. Brown turf is always slightly mineralized, 
 while Black or Stone turf is a chemico-organic production, 
 and may contain such minerals as pyrite or marcasite, 
 it is often very compact and passes into lignite ; it always, 
 when burnt, leaves more or less ash. 
 
 A variety of Turf in Ulster is called " Flow bog," but 
 in Munster "Monagay turf;" it is always full of the 
 
270 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 stems of reeds and flag-like plants, from which the latter 
 name, and in places extends down through the Brown and 
 Black turfs to the base of the peat. Monagay turf 
 is evidently peat that grew either in a marsh or in the 
 vicinity of a spring where water abounded, and facilitated 
 the growth of water plants and grasses. A variety of 
 Black turf when freshly cut is like soap, but of a pale 
 greenish yellow colour. This turf, if entirely dried, 
 " melts " or disintegrates under the influence of the atmos- 
 phere, but if stacked when half dried, it becomes a hard, 
 compact, beautiful turf, that burns with a strong heat and 
 brilliant light ; this turf seems due to local circumstances, 
 as it will be only found in a limited portion of a bog. 
 An allied variety is " candle, or gas turf," of a dirty, yellow- 
 ish-white colour, that has the consistency of soap, and 
 when dried is very inflammable and burns with a clear, 
 bright, steady flame. This kind is rarely found, and only 
 in irregular veins. 
 
 The residue, or ash of Red bog peat, generally, but not 
 always, is greater the more deeply the peat is seated. 
 Some mineral matter must be carried up into the peat 
 from springs and the underlying soil ;* but usually the ash 
 of peat, as suggested by Mr. Hugh Leonard, " appears to 
 be due to the plants growing on the surface collecting 
 their inorganic food from the atmosphere, and after their 
 decay, to the collected mineral substances being continually 
 carried downwards by the water percolating through the 
 mass. In this way each lower stratum becomes more 
 impregnated than the parts above it, and when burnt its 
 ash is greater." 
 
 The mountain bogs in some respects are very different 
 
 * The vegetable soil on which the first plants grew, has been quite changed 
 by the subsequent growth of the bog. 
 
Peat- Bogs. 271 
 
 from those on the lowlands. The latter usually grow on 
 more or less flat places, having a non-porous substratum, 
 where they form extensive, nearly level plains ; w r hile 
 mountain bog may grow on the hill tops or in the valleys, 
 or they may creep up or down slopes over porous or non- 
 porous strata. They are generally shallow, the peat 
 growing much more slowly and more densely than on the 
 low lands, and consist of a clearing or "sod," rarely more 
 than 12 inches thick, brown turf, and sometimes under- 
 neath, black turf, the latter, however, is often absent. The 
 great difference between the lowland and mountain peat 
 is for the most part due to the different rates of growth ; 
 but not entirely, as in all mountain districts portions of the 
 peat are subjected to denudation by rain, runlets and wind, 
 which carry particles of peat from one place to another, 
 adding to the surface of the growing peat, and keeping it 
 compact and firm. In this way, after rain or wind, a stra- 
 tum of sedimentary peat may be deposited, afterwards to 
 become interstratified by a subsequent growth of the 
 plants. In flat mountain bogs and also in the lowland 
 bogs (when the latter are situated at the base of a hill or 
 along a river, or in any other place where at times they 
 are subject to floods) layers of sand, gravel, silt, or the 
 like, may be found in the peat ; such foreign materials 
 having been deposited on the surface of the bog during 
 freshets, for the peat afterwards to grow over them. 
 
 In the mountain bogs the prevailing timber seems to be 
 deal, and some of the sticks are of lengths to which the 
 fir rarely attains in this country at the present day. The 
 absence of remains of the oak seems to suggest that it 
 could not flourish above a certain altitude, which seems to 
 have been about the 400 feet Ordnance contour line, from 
 which it would appear that prior to the growth of the Red 
 
272 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 bogs, the low lands, and the hill sides to a certain height, 
 were covered with oak forests, while above that height the 
 hills grew deal ; the deal trees then flourishing at greater 
 heights than now, as large sticks are now found in some 
 bogs at heights above 1,000 and 1,200 feet. 
 
 It is probable that since the Glacial period there have 
 been, at least two ages of the most active growth of peat, 
 first, after the great oak forest age ; and second, subsequent 
 to the deal forest period. That a considerable time elapsed 
 between them on the lowlands is evident ; but the cause of 
 the change in the nature of the trees is unknown. There 
 may, indeed, have been a third period, while the now sub- 
 marine bogs were growing ; but it seems more probable, 
 especially in the south-west and west of the island, that 
 the submarine bogs were accumulating at the same time 
 as the lower strata of the subaerial bogs, although now 
 found under such different conditions. 
 
 A great difficulty in reference to bogs is to procure 
 reliable data by which to estimate the rate at which they 
 grow. If drained, they will not grow ; while undrained bogs 
 do grow. This introduces various complications, as it is 
 known that large areas of the Irish bogs were, at different 
 times, drained, afterwards again to run wild. This speci- 
 ally refers to the lowland bogs, as in the mountainous 
 districts Nature has been less interfered with, and there 
 many facts in relation to the growth of bogs can be advan- 
 tageously studied. In such places we find that the bogs 
 naturally grow most readily on flats in the valleys and 
 on flat hilltops ; but they also creep up and down the 
 slopes, creeping up faster than down. This is due to the 
 bogs on heights being often denuded at their edges, 
 especially in exposed situations, which prevents their 
 creeping downward, while the annual growth and decay of 
 
Prehistoric Remains. 273 
 
 the plants increase their thickness, thus forming low long 
 cliffs in all exposed places ; and it is only in sufficiently 
 sheltered situations that the peat covering will extend con- 
 tinuously downward. But bogs creep rapidly upwards, 
 even over porous materials ; as the wind, rain, and runlets 
 will add boggy stuff rapidly to the edge, in which heather, 
 moss, and other peat-producing plants quickly grow ; and 
 this soil may accumulate on any porous substratum, so 
 that in places in Connemara there is thick peat over deep 
 coarse shingle slopes. 
 
 Many bogs are a more or less felt-like mass ; but in 
 others each year's growth is represented by a layer or 
 lamina, and these laminae in the white tit,rf are about, on 
 an average, one hundred to the foot ; in brown ticrf two 
 hundred to three hundred ; and in black turf from six 
 hundred to eight hundred ; but their numbers are different 
 in the different bogs, as one grows more rapidly than 
 another.* 
 
 As yet no human relic is recorded from the Submarine 
 peat ; but such accumulations have only been proved by 
 borings or small excavations, while vast extents are unex- 
 plored ; but in the Subaerial peats they are very numerous. 
 One of the most important was a two-storey log-house in 
 an enclosure, found under 14 feet of peat in Drumkelin 
 bog, Inver, County of Donegal. Each storey of the house 
 was 4 feet high, while under it was 15 feet of bog, making 
 a full depth of 37 feet, over 22 feet of which must have 
 grown around and above the house since it was inhabited. 
 On a level with the floor of the house were the corkers of 
 sallow, ash, and oak ; while in its vicinity a piece of a 
 
 * In a former estimate, in the already mentioned paper on Peat bogs, I made 
 these numbers much less, but from subsequent research I would make them on 
 an average as above. 
 
 T 
 
2 74 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 leather sandal, a flint arrow-head, and a wooden sword 
 were subsequently found. In 1824, a man's body, clad in 
 woollen garments of antique fashion, was found at a depth 
 of six feet in a bog, in the parish of Killery, County of 
 Sligo (" Catalogue R.I.A.," vol. i., p. 326). In 1783, on the 
 estate of the Earl of Moira, in the County of Down, a 
 female body, clothed in a very antique hair-garment was 
 found in two feet of gravel under eleven feet in thickness 
 of peat. In a bog at Castlewilder, County of Roscommon, 
 another female body was exhumed, having peculiar shoes 
 (pampoota), antique gold ornaments and long black hair. 
 Other human remains have also been found in the Irish 
 bogs. 
 
 In Duncan's Flow bog, Ballyalbanagh, County Antrim, 
 a cash {casan, a path) or wooden road, under about five feet 
 of "flow bog," was found ; and under it was about four feet 
 of black turf. At the base of the black turf are oak logs 
 and corkers, and, on the level of the cash, deal corkers. 
 The road was seven feet wide, formed of round longitudi- 
 nal oak beams, covered with transverse planking or slabs 
 of oak. In the centre of the bog there were eight longi- 
 
 'oooououu' 
 
 Fig. 17.— Section of Cash, " Duncan's Flow," County Anrrim. 
 
 tudinal beams (see Fig. 1 7), but in the north and south por- 
 tions there were only three, one in the centre and one at each 
 side (see Fig. 18) ; the great number in the centre evidently 
 having been used to bridge over a soft portion, while in the 
 firmer ground, near the margin of the bog, they were 
 unnecessary. Three sections of the road were exposed 
 when the bog was visited, and in that to the south one of 
 the longitudinal beams was found to be deal timber. This 
 
Prehistoric Remains. 
 
 275 
 
 roadway evidently was formed prior to the deal-forest age, 
 as none of the associated deal corkers occur under it, but 
 all are on the same horizon. The oak timber to form the 
 road probably was procured from the neighbouring upland, 
 as on such situations they are known to have existed 
 
 U 
 
 Fig. 18. — Section of Cash, " Duncan's Flow," County Antrim. 
 
 during and subsequent to the deal-forest age. The road 
 probably was used as long as the deal forest existed, and 
 during its occupation, holes in the oak sheeting were 
 mended with deal slabs placed across them (see Fig. 19). 
 
 Fig. 19.— Plan of part of Cash, " Duncan's Flow," County Antrim. 
 
 After the four feet of lower peat had accumulated, which 
 represents at least 16 feet of uncompressed peat, the climate 
 must have changed for the place to dry, thus stopping the 
 growth of the peat, and forming a surface, on which the deal- < 
 trees grew ; or it may have been drained artificially. Probably 
 both contributed, as it appears likely, when the road was 
 formed, some drainage also was accomplished, to keep sur- 
 plus water away. The road seems to have been abandoned 
 
 T 2 
 
276 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 and the deal forest destroyed at about the same time, 
 which appears due to flooding, as the peat above both is 
 " Flow bog " (Ulster), that is, peat full of sedge and 
 flaggers, which only grow and accumulate in marshes or 
 flooded bogs. On the roadway there are now 5 feet of 
 uncut turf, while 10 feet of " good turf" are said to have 
 been cut away. Over the good turf there must have been 
 "white turf" and "clearing," which would add at least 
 about 5 feet more to the thickness of the peat over the cash. 
 
 On the floors of, and the roads into, crannogs, we 
 usually find cut reeds, ferns, or heather, sand, clay, or some 
 such ; but this roadway seems to have been swept clean, 
 and the bog to have grown direct on the planking. In the 
 bog, however, the following have been found — as I have been 
 informed by Mr. J. Wilson, a farmer in the vicinity — near 
 the south end of the cash : a stone hatchet, very large 
 horns of a cow or ox, and four sticks like "walking-staves;" 
 near the centre of the roadway, where Fig. 19 was taken, a 
 shoe, in shape like a weaver's shuttle. It probably be- 
 longed to a woman or a small man, " it was near twelve 
 inches long, and very narrow;" also a carved block of wood, 
 which seemed to represent the head and shoulders of a 
 man of ordinary size. 
 
 " Other submerged roadways in Ireland are as follow r s : — 
 A roadway constructed somewhat similar to an American 
 corderoy, in the bog between the old castle of the O'Con- 
 nings (corrupted into Castle Connell) and the esker called 
 Goig, County Limerick." — " Mem. Geol. Survey Ireland," 
 Explanation of sheet 134. 
 
 " A roadway in the bog margining Loughnahinch, King's 
 County, and Tipperary. This evidently was made for 
 the convenience of the crannog in the lake." — Dublin 
 Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. vi p. 69. 
 
Prehistoric Remains. 277 
 
 " A roadway in the ' North Intake,' Wexford estuary. 
 This ran south from Begerin to Great Island. It was con- 
 structed of longitudinal oak beams, supported on two 
 rows of oak piles." — "Jour. Roy. Hist, and Arch. Ass., 
 Ireland," vol. ii. (4th series) p. 435-* 
 
 Stone huts, sharpened stakes, and methers full of lard 
 or butter, have been exhumed from under bog 10 to 15 
 feet deep in the mountain pass NW. of Glenbonniv, 
 parish of Feakle, County Clare ; and Jukes stated that the 
 huts were similar to those built by the natives of New- 
 foundland to shelter them while waiting for the deer in 
 their annual migrations. In the hills N W. of Clifden, West 
 Galway, wattle fences were found stuck in the clay under 
 bog from 8 to 10 feet deep. The ridge of these hills is 
 very uneven, large flat places occurring connected by more 
 or less narrow passes, in one of which this wattle fence 
 occurred, formed of stakes driven into the ground and 
 interwoven with horizontal rods or branches, gaps here and 
 there being left open. This wattle fence answers to the 
 description of the traps for deer in use at the present day 
 in parts of Russia. 
 
 Near the already mentioned road at Castle Connell a 
 mether full of a substance like whey was found standing 
 by an oak corker, and five feet higher up is the horizon of 
 the deal corkers, while a little above the latter was the 
 corderoy road, over which was 12 feet of good peat, not 
 including the white peat and clearing. Alongside the road 
 were the remains of old bog holes in which the peat seemed 
 to have been cut by a process similar to that at present in 
 use. The roadway was made of round oak sticks, pro- 
 bably procured from the adjoining hill of Doig. 
 
 * Extracted from the "Proceedings of the Anthropological Society," to 
 whose council we are indebted for the woodcuts. 
 
2/8 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 The finds of stone weapons and others, of woollen stuffs, 
 also of butter or lard, are too numerous to mention,* the 
 last occurring sometimes in lumps without the trace of 
 any envelope — sometimes in methers, barrels, cloths, and in 
 conical vessels made of hoops and straight sticks lined with 
 cloth. Some of them evidently were purposely buried, 
 while others seem to have been dropped and were subse- 
 quently covered by the growth of peat. There are also 
 the remains of crannogs in accumulations of peat, appa- 
 rently filling up shallow lakes or morasses ; also the bones 
 of the Megaceros Hibernicus and other deer, bears, cows, 
 pigs, sheep, and other animals. A list of the principal 
 Mammalia found in the Superficial Accumulations is given 
 at the end of the next chapter. 
 
 Three varieties of pines, distinguished by their cones, are 
 known, Pinus sylvestris, P. pinea, and P. pinaster : the first 
 and last are said to be still indigenous to the country. On 
 the crags near the ferry of Knock and west of Lough Corrib 
 — also in other places — are the remains of very ancient 
 yews, that probably are of a similar age to those in the 
 bogs. 
 
 Crannogs. 
 
 Crannog is now the generally accepted name for the 
 ancient lake-dwellings in Ireland ; it is, however, a modern 
 term introduced to supply the place of the ancient one, 
 which is unknown, or unrecognized. These habitations are 
 invariably roundish or irregularly oval, and were built in 
 lakes and morasses. When in lakes, they were usually 
 constructed in shallow places, by the enlargement of 
 islands, or the heightening of shoals ; a few, however, are 
 
 » See " Catalogue of the R. I. Academy," by Sir W. R. Wilde. 
 
Plate VII.] 
 
 [To face page 278. 
 
 View looking S '. cLown, Glens CogTuccn/, Shewing Dri/t/bcvr- cucross 
 themoLrffv of the. Valley (c^boiAX, 26 'O) feet . 
 CcLetveb in/ the nitf/sinr-^ 
 
 Twelve Pin& 3€oarctazri$ ZooJcina _£" {BenruzbeclaJ) 
 
Crannogs. 279 
 
 found in deep water. Some were built entirely of stone 
 others of wood, but most of them, of a combination of 
 stones and piles. Some seem to have been made of 
 
 basket work and sods, and a few stand on platforms like 
 the Swiss lake-dwellings. 
 
 The Stone Crannogs have been recorded in Connaught 
 and Ulster. The finest and largest is Hag's Castle in 
 Lough Mask, opposite the mouth of the Robe river, County- 
 Mayo. This seems to have been built in connection with 
 a small rock or island ; outside its circular wall is very 
 deep water. Those recorded in west Galway are, one in 
 a lake in the island of Gorumna, a second in Lough Cam to 
 the north of Roundstone, and a third (see Fig. Plate No. vi.) 
 in Lough Bola, Irrisaniagh ; to the SE. of Roundstone a few 
 others also occur. In Ulster they occur in the lakes of 
 the rocky districts of Antrim and Donegal. None of 
 these have as yet been excavated, and their internal 
 arrangement is unknown. 
 
 According to the sections of the more usual crannogs, 
 it would seem that in general a portion of a shallow, or a 
 circular belt round an island, was enclosed by one or more 
 sheets of piles usually of split oak, or of piles in which 
 rods and branches were entwined forming a circular wall. 
 Inside these circles, branches of trees were placed on the 
 mud, and over them stones, sods, and branches, until the 
 structure was raised above the level of the water, when a 
 platform was constructed, sometimes quite rudely of sticks, 
 but at other times, carefully made ; piles being driven, on 
 which cross beams were laid, and over the latter, basket- 
 work floors, while in other places, the floors were neatly 
 paved (Plate VI). 
 
 On the large crannogs, the habitations seem to have been 
 constructed round the edge, leaving an open space in the 
 
2 So Geology of Ireland. 
 
 centre. The outside walls were of round piles, lined inside 
 with sods ; while the partition walls were of shingle or 
 double wicker-work, or of sods. These seem to have been the 
 earlier habitations, but in much later years stone structures 
 were erected on the crannogs, and on some, as at Bally- 
 nahinch, west Galway, large castles. In the central open 
 space, there are always the remains of one or more fire- 
 places with heaps of ashes, while outside in the lake is a 
 kitchen-midden where the bones of the animals eaten 
 and other refuse were thrown. Some of the crannogs 
 are joined to the land by causeways ; these, however, may 
 not have been original appendages. After the crannogs 
 were built, they were strengthened in such places as were 
 exposed to the waves by stone ramparts and piles ; and 
 we learn from the annals that a condition imposed on the 
 occupiers in later years, was the placing yearly of a certain 
 number of boat-loads of stones outside the piling, to 
 prevent damage from the waves of the lakes. 
 
 The crannog of Lough Cimbe, now Lough Hacket, 
 County Galway, seems, from the descriptions, to have been 
 originally a platform on piles. There are records of its 
 having been twice destroyed during severe storms ; after 
 the second, an artificial island was constructed, stones 
 having been brought from the adjoining land in boats. 
 The large crannog in Lough Rea also in the same county, 
 Avas in part on a platform adjoining an island — while a 
 smaller crannog in the same lake, the crannog in Lough- 
 nahinch at the mearingof Tipperary and the King's County, 
 also others, were platforms erected on piles. 
 
 Reed island, or the small crannog just mentioned in 
 Lough Rea, except that it was round, was very similar in 
 construction to some of the Swiss lake-dwellings. On piles 
 driven in the lacustrine accumulation, two sets of horizontal 
 
Crannogs. 281 
 
 beams at right angles to one another were placed, and on 
 the upper, wooden structures were built. Subsequently, 
 however, when the lake rose, the crannog seems to have 
 been heightened and surrounded with stones brought from 
 the adjoining land. 
 
 At the SE. of the large crannog in Lough Rea, are 
 the remains of piles, on to which cross beams were rudely- 
 morticed. This crannog is interesting, as its section 
 demonstrates that it was abandoned, and re-inhabited 
 several times. The oldest habitations were built of pilings, 
 basket-work, and sods ; the second of split timber, and 
 sods ; and more recent ones of stones and sods. When 
 the crannog was first erected, the water of the lake must 
 have been about six feet lower than at present. The 
 first habitations were burnt down, after this the lake rose, 
 and before the subsequent habitations were built, the island 
 was raised several feet in height. 
 
 After the last time the crannog was inhabited, it was 
 flooded again. During recent years, the lake level has 
 been lowered by two feet or more, yet the ordinary sur- 
 face of the lake is now nearly four feet higher than the 
 basket floor of the first habitations. 
 
 Some of the crannogs are now enveloped in peat ; 
 this was the case with the crannog at Lagore, near 
 Dunshaughlin, County of Meath, peaty matter having 
 grown over it. This seems to be also the case with 
 Crannagh Macknavin, parish of Tynagh, barony of 
 Leitrim, County of Galway, the last crannog men- 
 tioned in history — for although it was destroyed by the 
 English as late as 16 10, its exact site is now unknown in 
 the tract of bog in which it was situated. Sir W. R. Wilde 
 was the first to direct public attention to the crannogs, 
 in his description of that of Dunshaughlin, read before 
 
282 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 the Royal Irish Academy in 1840, but since then over 200 
 have been discovered, the accompanying section (Plate VI.) 
 of a crannog is taken from one of his drawings in the 
 catalogue of the Royal Irish Academy. 
 
 In the crannogs are found various kinds of articles, 
 ranging from the rudest flint implements to highly finished 
 golden ornaments. 
 
 These are very much mixed up together, but usually in 
 the older habitations, implements of stone and bronze 
 predominate. In the large crannog of Lough Rea, iron (?) 
 implements, with rude stone implements, highly finished 
 stone hammers and sling-stones, and a few rude bronze 
 articles, were found on the floors of what seemed to be 
 the oldest habitations ; while near the surface were stone 
 and bronze celts, numerous iron scissors or small shears, 
 a straight sword with a cross handle, a bishop's crozier, a 
 metal die for a medal, and the head and horns of a 
 Megaceros, besides innumerable bones of the ox, pig, 
 sheep, goat, and other animals. 
 
 Kitchen Middens, and other Records of 
 Ancient Man. 
 
 The Kitchen Middens have been principally found a 
 little above the present shore line. Those to which 
 attention was first directed, are in the vicinity of the 
 bay called Kenmare River, County of Kerry. Some of 
 these, about 25 to 35 feet above the present rise of the 
 tide, are covered with from one to two or three feet of 
 peat, although the late Mr. W. S. Trench has stated that 
 the oyster shells of which they are principally composed, 
 were put there within the last fifty years. Subsequently, 
 
Kitchen Middens. 283 
 
 Du Noyer recorded the middens previously mentioned on 
 the coast of Dublin and Meath; while a little later, those 
 at the east end of Galway Bay were described, and at 
 about the same time, others on the coast of Donegal, by 
 Mr. Harte, County Surveyor. Since then middens have 
 been recorded on the islands of Aran, Galway Bay ; on 
 the shore of Cashla Bay and Omey island, County 
 Galway ; in Bannow Bay and other places in the County 
 Wexford ; and at Greenore, County Louth. 
 
 Of all of these Kitchen Middens, except those in the 
 County Donegal explored and described by Mr. Harte, 
 very little can be told. In general they consist, for the 
 most part, of the shells of edible mollusks, ashes, and more 
 or less burnt stones, with rude stone flakes which seem to 
 be artificial. 
 
 In some places, as at Bannow island, County Wexford, 
 bones of the ox, pig, sheep, and other animals predominate. 
 In the same county, but farther eastward, at the " Bar of 
 Lough," there are two peculiar middens ; as seen in the 
 low cliff, masses of ashes, about five feet wide and four 
 deep, occur with bones and shells, in apparently artificial 
 trenches, while over the ashes is from two to three feet of 
 soil. On the shore of Cashla Bay, County Galway, is a 
 remarkable, conspicuous, conical mound, over 30 feet high. 
 It seems to be principally made up of shells, but as yet 
 has not been explored. 
 
 Inland, the middens recorded are usually in the vicinity 
 of ancient forts or other habitations, and contain metal 
 implements, such as axes, arrowheads, pins, and such like. 
 A midden occurs at a pre-historic tuam or sepulchral mound 
 in Kennycourt demesne, County Kildare, remarkable for 
 the quantity of ox teeth found in it, while other bones 
 are scarce, or broken up into little bits. Perhaps the most 
 
284 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 important midden is that recorded by Mr. Thomas 
 Plunkett, and discovered at the entrance into one of the 
 Knockmore Caves, County Fermanagh, in which occurred 
 burnt human bones, bones of other animals, iron imple- 
 ments, and other relics. 
 
 In the County Wicklow, townland of Knockmillar, to 
 the SW. of Wooden bridge, in the river flat, immediately 
 north of the hill called Lyra (Anglice a fork formed by 
 two glens), Mr. M. H. Jones states that about thirty- 
 five years ago, the Placer-miners found under about 
 5 or 6 feet of meteoric drift, an oak frame about 14 
 feet by 10 or 12 feet. The oak beams were neatly squared, 
 the shorter ones being morticed into the others about a 
 foot from their ends. On the outside of all the beams, 
 were rude figures of animals, some being mounted by 
 men. These animals " were like mules with long bobtails, 
 goats or deer, and nondescript animals." The sculpture 
 on the beams was discovered when they were washed, to 
 get rid of the sand and drift, previous to their being sawn 
 into ground joists for the east wing of the Wooden Bridge 
 Hotel. 
 
 Caves (Lusca). 
 
 Natural luscas, or caves, are very numerous in Ireland, but 
 fossils and pre-historic relics are not as common in them 
 as might be expected. In Clare and Galway there are 
 numerous caves that were explored by Foot and others 
 without any results ; also caves in the County of Limerick 
 and at the Banteer limestone quarries, County Cork. 
 The last are apparently favourably situated for the 
 haunts of not only wild animals, but also man ; yet, 
 
Luscas or Caves, 285 
 
 although they have been largely opened by the quarries, 
 nothing important has been found in them. 
 
 The first " find " of importance was in the cave of 
 Shandon, near Dungarvan, County Waterford, by Mr. 
 James Brenan. This, as far as the excavations have 
 been carried, has given rich returns in the remains of 
 mammalia ; but it may be eclipsed by the caves of Knock- 
 more, County of Fermanagh, lately discovered, and now 
 being explored by Mr. Thomas Plunkett, who has given 
 the following list of the mammalia and other relics 
 found : — Homo (remains of thirty-two individuals), Sus 
 scrofa (portions of forty animals), Eqitus fossilis (repre- 
 senting about twelve animals similar to those found fossil 
 in France and India), Cervus, Lepus cuniculus, L. timidus 
 (of very large size), Cams vulpes, C lupus, C. familiaris 
 (representing over thirty dogs), Bos longifrons, Capra hircus, 
 Ovis aries, Sturmts vulgaris ; also a quantity of flint 
 flakes, sea-shells, some of them wrought into the form 
 of spoons, pottery, and bone pins. Some authorities 
 believe that the remains are quite recent ; Plunkett, 
 however, thinks in reference to the deposits, that 
 " there is strong evidence pointing to the presence or 
 operation of ice in this region since these remains were 
 deposited." If Mr. Plunkett is correct it would appear 
 that the Luscans or Cave-dwellers of Fermanagh were a 
 race somewhat similar to the Lapps of the present day, 
 who lived portions of the year in places that at other 
 seasons were enveloped in snow and ice. 
 
 Caves that have still to be explored are Dunmore Cave, 
 County of Kilkenny ; the historical caves of Aille, County 
 Mayo ; a cave in the middle island of Aran, Galvvay Bay, 
 and others in different localities. It has been stated that 
 there is a cave somewhere near Omagh in Ulster from 
 
286 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 which large bones were taken, but where it is situated is 
 uncertain. 
 
 In the Dunmore Cave human remains occur, but this 
 place, as also the Caves of Aille, history tells us, were 
 scenes of various massacres of the Irish by the English ; 
 hundreds of the natives being driven into the caves and 
 there smothered. At Aille the mouths of the caves were 
 blown up, so that now they cannot be entered, or even 
 their exact position pointed out. 
 
 On the coast of Antrim at Ballintoy, and on Carrick- 
 arede, there are caves in which Drs. Bryce and McDonnell 
 found ox, deer, horse, sheep, and other bones. The cave 
 in the first locality is about sixty-six feet from high water 
 line and about ten feet above it, while the Carrickarede 
 cave can only be entered at low water. 
 
 Before concluding this brief notice of the caves, those 
 near Mitchelstown, County of Cork, in the hill to the 
 north of Ballyporeen, may be mentioned. Although it 
 appears probable that they were never inhabited by any 
 Mammalian, yet they are remarkable for their size and 
 the beauty of their interior ; the latter due to the variation 
 in form and size of the Stillactites in the different grottos 
 or chambers. 
 
287 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 SOIL; POST-PLIOCENE MAMMALIA. 
 
 THE Irish soils may be generally classified as Local and 
 Transported ; the former being subdivided into Vegetable 
 and Mineral. Vegetable Soil, as the name expresses, is 
 composed nearly solely of vegetable remains ; it is the 
 first subdivision of the Local soils. Certain classes of 
 plants grow and die on the surface of the land, forming an 
 envelope which, under favourable conditions, will increase 
 in thickness until it forms a deep bog. In many places, 
 however, this vegetable decay only forms a thin stratum, 
 naturally poor and unproductive, but usually capable of 
 being much increased in value by culture. Such soils are 
 very common in some of the mountain districts, especially 
 in those where " cold " rocks, such as granite, gneiss, 
 quartzite, grits, and some kinds of clays, come to the 
 surface ; also over hard subsoils similar to bog-iron-ore. 
 In the lowlands they are also found, occasionally, on the 
 Calp and on clays in the Drift ; bog often occurring on the 
 Calp and ceasing at its boundary. An artificial soil similar 
 to this vegetable soil has been formed over considerable 
 tracts by the cutting away of bogs for fuel, and leaving 
 the waste on the subsoil. 
 
 The second subdivision of Local Soil, as defined by 
 Kane, is the product of the decomposition of the minerals 
 of which the surface rocks consist. " The water which flows 
 
288 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 over the surface is absorbed into the pores and fissures of 
 the rocks, and in frost it expands with such irresistible force 
 as to crumble down even the materials of the densest and 
 hardest stone. Independent of the mechanical action of 
 water, the constitution of numerous rocks is such as to 
 cause their gradual decomposition by its chemical action, 
 as in the case of felspar and other minerals, and by the 
 direct action of the atmosphere. All rocks which contain 
 protoxide of iron rapidly decompose and crumble away. 
 As the soils originate from the decomposition of the rocks 
 of a country, those in the areas in which the rocks vary in 
 composition are necessarily the richest." 
 
 Areas of quartz-rock and quartzite, unless drift over- 
 lies the rocks, are nearly always destitute of soils, except 
 the portions of peaty stuff which form in the hollows and 
 crevices. Other silicious rocks like grit and sandstones 
 produce a small quantity of soil or a poor unproductive 
 sand. On this account areas of the Old Red Sandstone, 
 or similarly constituted rocks, produce tracts of wild 
 heathery land, except where the sandstones are inter- 
 stratified with argillaceous rocks, the debris of the latter 
 mixed with the sand causing strips of country to be fertile, 
 while the debris of subordinate beds of limestone or 
 calcareous shales will have a similar effect. 
 
 In the Old Red and Yellow Sandstones of the Cork 
 type, also in the Carboniferous Slate, there are many beds 
 or series of beds of slate or other argillaceous rocks and 
 some calcareous beds, and although the general aspect of 
 the country is rocky, yet among these rocks there are 
 innumerable small patches of deep rich soil, formed from 
 the mixed silicious, argillaceous, and calcareous detritus 
 that has collected in the hollows. Most granites, like the 
 sandstones, are bad soil producers, but some disintegrate 
 
Soil. 289 
 
 into a coarse sand, as in many places in the granitic range 
 of Leinster. Granitic sand by itself is poor and unpro- 
 ductive, but when mixed with shale or limestone debris 
 the result is often a highly productive soil. 
 
 In a metamorphic area the quantity and quality of the 
 soil bear a certain proportion to the intensity of the action 
 which has affected the rocks. Rocks belonging to the 
 gneiss and schist series are usually bad soil producers, 
 except when containing inliers of limestone and other 
 calcareous rocks. In West Connaught and the meta- 
 morphic districts of Ulster the beds of calcareous rocks 
 can be detected miles away by the strips and patches of 
 green or arable land upon them. 
 
 The submetamorphic rocks, if consisting for the most 
 part of varieties of argillite, are fair soil producers, giving 
 land rather light for pasture, but excellent for tillage ; 
 and the hills of these rocks in the Counties of Wicklow 
 and Wexford are productively cultivated to considerable 
 altitudes. Similarly the Cambrian, the Cambro-Silurian, 
 and Silurian rocks, if the argillaceous rocks predominate, 
 form productive but light soils;* and the richness of 
 these soils is much augmented by the detritus of calcareous 
 inlying rocks, or of beds, dykes, or other protrusions of 
 basic eruptive rocks. Among the Silurian conglomerates 
 in the hills west of Toormakeady, County Mayo, is a thick 
 bed of melaphyre, and its debris has formed a belt of rich 
 land. Similarly in the Counties of Wicklow, Wexford, 
 Waterford, Tipperary, Clare, &c, the inlying beds and 
 
 * Slate and other argillaceous rocks usually have between them and the soil 
 a shingle that acts as a drain and carries off the manure applied to the land. 
 This, in a few districts, is broken up by the cultivators and mixed with the 
 soil, greatly adding to the value of the latter. Unfortunately, however, this 
 practice is only adopted by a few ; while, if it were more general, the value of 
 these slate soils would be greatly increased. 
 
 U 
 
290 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 protrusions of basic eruptive rocks among the Cambro- 
 Silurians produce rich soils in their vicinities. 
 
 On the limestones of Carboniferous age the soils are 
 very variable. This is, in a great measure, due to the 
 limestone tracts lying low, the consequence being that 
 materials are transported to them from the higher lands 
 and become mixed up with the limestone debris. Such 
 soils, however, belong to the third or transported class 
 hereafter mentioned. 
 
 The Calp limestone in general forms a " cold " or a wet 
 retentive soil. It has, however, good qualities, and if 
 treated properly may be made very productive. In the 
 central plain of Ireland the bogs are more deep on the 
 Calp than on the Lower and Burren limestones ; this 
 seems due to its non-porous nature. Bogs, however, are 
 not uncommon on the Shore-beds of the Lower Limestone 
 shale type, their nature being very similar to that of the 
 Calp. 
 
 The Burren and Fenestella limestones seem incapable of 
 forming a deep soil by themselves, but the thin soil on 
 them produces rich herbage with great fattening qualities ; 
 lands in Clare, Tipperary, and other counties, on these 
 limestones, being famous for the meat they produce, 
 although the cattle grazing on the land have to push the 
 surface stones about to get at the grass. These limestone 
 soils in places are vastly enriched by the debris of eruptive 
 rocks. To this, in a great measure, is due the richness of 
 the soil of the plain of Limerick and the land in the 
 vicinity of Croghan Hill, King's County ; as in both 
 localities the debris of the associated eruptive rocks is 
 mixed up with that of the limestones. 
 
 The Transported soils are the richest and most impor- 
 tant. The materials forming them may be carried for miles 
 
Soil. 291 
 
 during floods, to be deposited on the flats along the rivers, 
 or by the tide in the estuaries, and in other places by the 
 wind. The most extensive flats in Ireland due to floods 
 and tides, are the Callows along the Shannon and its 
 tributaries, and the Corcasses, or salt marshes in con- 
 nection with its estuary. The soil in most of these is of 
 great depth, and year after year produces a vast weight of 
 meadow, and, when tilled, of other crops. The Callow 
 alluvium is composed of particles of the various rocks 
 and accumulations forming the land drained by the 
 tributaries of the Shannon and their head waters, cal- 
 careous and peaty matter predominating ; while in the 
 Corcass alluvium, a large admixture of the debris of shells 
 and other marine products are added to them. 
 
 There are considerable Corcasses and Callows associ- 
 ated with other river systems, although these are small 
 compared with those of the Shannon. Of these the most 
 extensive in South Ireland are those connected with the 
 Suir, Nore, and Barrow ; and in North Ireland, those 
 in connection with the river Bann. The alluvium of the 
 rivers mentioned is collected from various rocks, but in 
 cases where the water-basin of a river is principally or 
 entirely confined to rocks that are bad soil-producers, the 
 alluvium in the flats is poor, in places a nearly barren 
 shingle, gravel, or sand. The remains of Mammalia are 
 not uncommon in some of these alluvial depostis. 
 
 The pulverulent materials generated in the hills or high- 
 lands, are carried down by rain, floods, and wind to the 
 lower grounds, to be there mixed with the local detritus, thus 
 causing great variations in the composition of the soils, 
 and in most cases increasing their productive qualities. 
 This is exemplified in the valley of the Lagan, in 
 Ulster, and in the tract called the "Golden Vein," in 
 
 U 2 
 
292 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Minister ; the latter extending from Cashel, in Tipperary, 
 to near Limerick. These tracts are known to agricul- 
 turists as the richest in Ireland. 
 
 Both the Lagan Valley and the " Golden Vein " receive 
 detritus from numerous and various rocks. The Lagan 
 Valley is on the Triassic rocks, but on one side, in the 
 County of Antrim, are the Miocene dolerite, the Cre- 
 taceous limestone, and the Jurassic rocks ; while on the 
 other side, in the County of Down, are the Cambro- 
 Silurian rocks, principally argillaceous and granitic. The 
 " Golden Vein " has in connection with it, different Car- 
 boniferous rocks, but principally varieties of lime- 
 stone, with which are associated melaphyres, eurites, 
 tuffs, sandstones, shales, and clay-rocks, sufficient in 
 themselves to form rich soils ; but in addition to these is 
 the debris of the Cambro-Silurian slates, shales, and grits, 
 and of the Old Red Sandstone, from the Galtees and 
 Slieve Phelim, combined with the detritus of the rocks of 
 the East Munster Coalfield. 
 
 In some places the soil is due to the decomposition of the 
 drift, and has no relation to the rocks of the country. This 
 is the case in parts of Leinster, as in considerable portions 
 of Wicklow and Wexford, where there are marls and 
 shell sands that were transported into their present position 
 by the seas of the Esker and subsequent periods. But in 
 parts of Dublin, Kildare, Carlow, and Kilkenny, although 
 the soil is derived from the disintegration of the under- 
 lying limy drift over the granitic rocks, yet it appears 
 highly probable that many of its rich qualities are due to 
 matter carried down in solution by the water draining off 
 the adjoining high granitic ground. 
 
 The animals that form soils are earth-worms, ants, 
 rabbits, rats, mice, foxes, badgers, and others that burrow 
 
Mammalia. 293 
 
 in the ground. Of these, the most important is the 
 earth-worm, and next in order the ant. This is an inter- 
 esting study, but too extensive to be entered on here ; 
 but those interested in it will find the work of these 
 different soil-producers fully discussed in the appendix to 
 my book on "Valleys, and their Relations to Fissures, 
 Fractures, and Faults." 
 
 POST-PLIOCENE MAMMALIA. 
 
 The list of these mammalia found in Ireland is at present 
 in a very unsatisfactory condition. In the latest papers 
 published on the subject, by A. Leith Adams, M.D., F.R.S., 
 {Journal Roy. Geol. Soc. Ireland, vol. iv. (new series) p. 
 246) the list is reduced to ten species ; while if we add to 
 the lists given by previous writers, the mammalia found in 
 Knockmore Caves, County Fermanagh, by Plunkett, the 
 number is over twenty. In the following list all the 
 mammalia that may possibly be not recent, are included ; 
 but as previously stated, the character, in this respect, of 
 the remains found in the Knockmore Caves is questioned. 
 
 Homo ? Knockmore Caves. Peat Bogs (page 274). 
 
 LEPUS TIMIDUS {^variabilis) ? Knockmore Caves, and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 L. CUNICULUS ? Knockmore Caves, and elsewhere. 
 
 ELEPHAS PRIMIGENIUS. Teeth and bones in Shandon 
 Cave, near Dungarvan, County Waterford. Teeth at 
 Maghery, 8 miles from Belturbet, in Ulster. Reported to 
 have been found in brick clay, near Drogheda, County 
 Meath ; also, bones in the County Wicklow ? 
 
 EQUUS FOSSILIS. Knockmore Caves ; Port Ballintoy 
 Caves, County Antrim, and elsewhere. 
 
 Sus SCROFA. Knockmore Caves ; also not uncommon 
 
294 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 in the river and lake accumulations. These pigs were of 
 the long-faced variety, somewhat like the old Irish pig, 
 now nearly extinct, but they seem to have had very long 
 tusks, more than twice the size of those of the pigs of the 
 present day. This mammal is not included in Dr. Adams's 
 list, but its presence in a naturally-fossil condition can 
 scarcely be disputed. 
 
 Hippopotamus. Dr. Moore states that a tusk of a 
 hippopotamus was found in gravel a mile NW. of Carrick- 
 fergus, County Antrim. What has become of the tusk is 
 now unknown. 
 
 Bos FRONTOSUS — B. LONGIFRONS. The long-faced 
 ox occurs in the Knockmore Caves ; while both varieties 
 occur in the lake and river accumulations, as also under the 
 bogs. Bones of the ox occur in the Ballintoy Caves and 
 numerous broken bones in the Crannogs and Kitchen- 
 middens. The finding of the remains of the ox associated 
 with those of the Cervus elaphiis and megaceros* in the 
 Crannogs, would seem to prove they were animals in- 
 digenous to the country, while some of the bones found 
 in the gravels are evidently fossil. 
 
 CERVUS ELAPHUS var. fossilis Hibernicus. According to 
 Haughton, the Ancient Irish Red Deer, or Marsh deer, 
 as it is often called, was different from those of the present 
 day, having fourteen instead of thirteen dorsal vertebrae. 
 
 Cervus tarandus (Tarandiis rangifer). The first 
 discovery of these of which there is any record, was in 
 the bog of Ballyguiney, near Dungarvan, this occurred in 
 1 76 1, but the fossils were not determined until they were 
 brought under Dr. Carte's notice in 1863. Other localities 
 are, Curragh bog, near Ashbourne, and Ballybetagh, near 
 
 * Lough Rea Crannog. — Dziblin Quarterly Journal of Science, vol. vi. 
 p. 113. 
 
Mammalia. 295 
 
 Golden Ball, County Dublin (in the latter locality they 
 were associated with the remains of C. megaceros) ; Coonagh, 
 County Clare, three miles from Limerick ; Lough Gur, 
 County Limerick, and in the County of Meath. 
 
 Cervus MEGACEROS {Megaceros Hibemicus). Of all 
 the fossil mammals, the remains of the C. megaceros and 
 C. elaphus are the most common, large numbers of their 
 bones having been found in some places. It is stated that 
 near Dunmore, County Galway, and in the County Meath, 
 bones of the Irish Elk have been found in the Esker 
 gravels, but the remains of that animal and of the Red Deer 
 are more often found in the clay and marl under the bogs, 
 or in lake and river deposits. It often happens that the 
 skulls and horns are away from the rest of the skeleton ; 
 this may be due to the deer having been lost in marshes, 
 as happens to horses at the present day, the body sinking 
 while the head remains above the surface to be eventually 
 carried away, perhaps by floods which would be likely to 
 leave a number together in a sheltered place ; thus many 
 heads and horns are often found together without any 
 other bones. 
 
 The plain of Limerick seems to have been a favourite, or 
 rather, perhaps, a dangerous place for these different deer to 
 graze in, as so many of their skeletons are found there, 
 entombed in the alluvial deposits. Other places where 
 large finds have occurred are, Turloughmore, near Tuam, 
 County Galway ; also, in a boggy tract in the same 
 county, close to Mount Shannon, on the margin of Lough 
 Derg. In reference to the last place, there is a tradition 
 that the hunters in ancient times used to drive the deer 
 into a marsh there situated, for the purpose of capturing 
 them. In the "Elk hole" at Killowen, near the north 
 of the County of Wexford, the remains of man and of 
 
296 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 from twenty to thirty skeletons of the C. megaceros weix. 
 found. Many other large finds were made during the 
 different drainage and other works, but the most remark- 
 able was that at Ballybetagh, near Kiltiernan, County of 
 Dublin, where in a boggy tract, the remains of over 105 
 individuals of C. megaceros were found associated with 
 bones of Reindeer and other animals. 
 
 The late J. R. Kinahan, M.D., made the following 
 suggestions to account for so many remains of C. 
 megaceros being found in Ireland. At the present day 
 the Moose and other deer in subarctic and arctic regions 
 migrate during the winter across the ice to pasture on the 
 islands, returning to the mainland before the ice breaks up. 
 If the Megaceros acted similarly during the age when 
 Ireland and England were joined by ice to Europe, more 
 of the deer when weak from want of food would die in Ire- 
 land than elsewhere, many being drowned in the marshes 
 and swamps. Also after the climate began to change, and 
 the seasons for the ice remaining on the intervening sea 
 became shorter, many of the deer would be too late in 
 returning ; while eventually many of them would be 
 pounded in the island on the final breaking up of the ice. 
 
 Capra HIRCUS. The goat is not included in Adams's 
 list, but its remains, besides being found in the Knockmore 
 caves, occur also in the rivers and lake accumulations ; 
 while broken bones are common in the crannogs. 
 
 Ovis. These also are absent from Adams's list. The 
 sheep, whose remains are generally obtained in the cran- 
 nogs, although some are also found in the alluvial deposits 
 and in the Ballintoy caves, usually belong to the horned 
 varieties, some skulls having even four or more horns. 
 Hornless skulls also occur in the crannogs. 
 
 Cetacea. In the marl of Wexford Professor Scouler 
 
Mammalia. 297 
 
 found the rib of a whale. A bone supposed to be that of 
 a whale was found in the marl in the Railway cutting at 
 Ballygeary in the same county, but was lost before it 
 was submitted to any competent authority. The bones of 
 different cetaceans are found in various places near the 
 coast in the accumulations of the ^Eolian drift ; but in 
 nearly all cases they seem to be recent. 
 
 Canis Lupus, C. Vulpes, and C. familiaris. The 
 bones of the wolf, the fox, and the domestic dog, occur in 
 the Knockmore caves and various other places ; they are 
 also found in the crannogs. 
 
 Ursus arctos, U. spel^us and U. maritimus (?). 
 Dr. Carte records three kinds of bears as being found 
 in Ireland, while Dr. Adams states that only one, 
 Ursus spelceus, or Ursus ferox fossilis, has been found. 
 Adams's reasons for this conclusion are given in his paper 
 just now referred to. The bears' skulls are so very like 
 those of large dogs that they may have often been found 
 without being particularly noticed. Bears' remains have 
 however been discovered in the County Longford ; near 
 Leinster bridge, barony of Carberry, County Kildare, 
 where they were associated with a quantity of heads and 
 bones of deer; in Shandon cave ; in Loughgur, County of 
 Limerick ; while a skull and tusks supposed to be those of 
 a bear were found near Broadford, County Clare. 
 
 The remains of the hare found in the Knockmore 
 caves belonged to larger animals than those at present in 
 Ireland. The breed of cattle with mouse-coloured muzzles 
 met with in West Connaught previous to the famine (1850) 
 were very like the B. longifrons ; these are now nearly if 
 not entirely extinct. The red deer still exist in Kerry, but 
 they have been extensively crossed by foreign blood. 
 Whether the Megaceros existed into the historical period 
 
298 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 is still a disputed question, but the evidence seems to be in 
 favour of its having become only recently extinct. At the 
 present day there are wild goats on some of the Antrim 
 cliffs margining the dolerite plateau ; while according to 
 the records the last wolves killed in Ireland were in Kerry 
 in 1700, and in west Galway in 17 10. 
 
 In addition to these mammalia, Dr. Bryce recorded as 
 found in the Ballintoy caves remains of the badger, otter, 
 and water-rat. It is possible, however, that these may be 
 quite recent. Associated with the other bones in these 
 caves were those of several kinds of birds ; but as yet 
 there are no authentic records of fossil bird remains in 
 Irish recent deposits. 
 
299 
 
 SECTION IV.— PHYSICAL FEATURES. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 ESCARPMENTS, CLIFFS, HILLS, AND COOMS. 
 
 It is evident that the sculpturing of the Irish hills is 
 due in a great measure to marine and ice action aided by 
 meteoric abrasion ; under the latter being included the 
 work done by the sun, cold, heat, wind, rain, rivers, and 
 surface chemical action ; but none of these denudants 
 could have effected much work but for the aid given them 
 by faults, fractures, and other shrinkage fissures in the 
 rocks and the surface accumulations. 
 
 We shall not now confine the term escarpment, as 
 some do, to the class of cliffs formed by the outcrop or 
 basset of strata. Such escarpments are not very com- 
 mon in Ireland, on account of the greater portion of 
 the country being occupied by the Lower Palaeozoic 
 rocks that have been greatly faulted, contorted, twisted, 
 and denuded. The Upper Palaeozoic, the Mesozoic, 
 and the Cainozoic rocks in general have not been 
 much contorted, and as some of the first and all of the 
 others lie more or less horizontal, escarpments occur in 
 connection with them. 
 
 On the hills at the junction of Clare and Galway, also 
 in other places, the basal beds of the Old Red Sandstone 
 
300 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 cap horizontally, or nearly so, the hills of Cambro-Silurian 
 rocks, their boundaries being escarpments, in places 
 continuous for miles. In the Burren, County Clare, the 
 Limestone beds lie nearly horizontal, the escarpments 
 being most remarkable in a tract of country about 20 miles 
 long and 18 wide. Here the rocks are generally bare, 
 and form systems of huge steps, which surround the 
 entire group of hills, from base to summit, in lines that are 
 continuous in and out of all the valleys. In connection 
 with the Coal Measures of Leinster, Munster, and 
 Connaught, there are more or less continuous escarpments 
 at their base. 
 
 In connection with the Mesozoic and Cainozoic rocks of 
 Ulster the escarpments are very conspicuous, especially the 
 cliff that margins the great plateau of Miocene dolerite, 
 while the bassets of the different flows or beds of the 
 dolerite form minor escarpments. It seems nearly impos- 
 sible these great escarpments were, as supposed by some, 
 originally formed by meteoric abrasion ; as this denudant 
 at the present time, and ever since the Esker sea period, 
 seems to have been employed in changing the original 
 cliffs into slopes ; perpendicular cliffs now being rarely 
 found except where the sea washes the base of the 
 escarpment. 
 
 These cliffs in Ulster seem to have been formed at two 
 distinct periods ; the base of the slope of the older ones 
 being at about the 270 feet contour line, and the base 
 of the newer cliffs a little above or below the no feet 
 contour line. That the former are much older than the 
 latter is proved by the former being damaged by 
 meteoric action, which is well exemplified at the NW, 
 margin of the plateau in the County of Londonderry, 
 where landslips have so obscured the strata between the 
 
Plate VIII.] 
 
 [To face page 302. 
 
 Sh&iyZz iecLchat a height of abocuttSOO feet> 
 Jdhcck£Lclober> from, AghjaxLcu 
 
 JjxjurT>en, Sills C? Clarke, View looking S. across &ah*>ay Bay 
 
 
 Uooms at tttk. margin, of the 
 FormnriTTTorvtahle-lcLncL C? Mayo. 
 
 
 W :^ao 
 
Cliffs. 301 
 
 dolerite and the Carboniferous rocks, that rarely are the 
 Mesozoic rocks found in situ. On the other hand, although 
 slopes have been formed below the newer cliffs, yet they 
 are only very partially modified, and the rocks under the 
 dolerite can be easily studied and their positions traced out. 
 
 The escarpments of the Cainozoic rocks in Ulster are on 
 nearly similar horizons to cliffs among the Palaeozoic rocks 
 in Munster and Leinster. A cliff at the 270 feet contour 
 line occurs in the north-east of the Leinster Coalfield, pass- 
 ing from the Coal Measures into the hills of limestone near 
 Stradbally ; while in NW. Munster there are other cliffs 
 on the same horizon that pass from one set of beds in the 
 Coal Measures to higher or lower, or from the Coal 
 Measures to older rocks. Similarly in the Burren, County 
 Clare, at the faults the cliffs will pass from one set of beds 
 to another. 
 
 In the Burren the rocks have usually a low westerly dip, 
 rarely exceeding 5 ; but in a few hills to the south-east 
 near Corrofin the dip is about SW. at from io° to 20 . 
 The escarpments or terraces round most of the hills are 
 extremely regular, some being completely circular, (page 
 260) the best marked examples occurring at about the 100, 
 275, 450, and 700 feet contour lines, but not in the same 
 beds, as a terrace will leave one to go to a higher or lower 
 according as the beds sink or rise. On a careful examina- 
 tion, it is apparent that all the valleys and fissures in these 
 hills occur along lines of breaks, some of which have con- 
 siderable displacement, so as to cause quite different beds 
 to be on the same horizon. This is more conspicuous in 
 the adjoining Aran islands, Galway Bay, where there are 
 certain beds of shale and clunch interstratified with the 
 Burren limestone. 
 
 As the principal terraces in the Burren are on nearly the 
 
302 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 same horizons as those of the other Irish hills, it would 
 appear they were formed in the first instance by some 
 universal denudant like the sea, but at the same time it is 
 apparent that meteoric abrasion has greatly modified them ; 
 while it is also changing them at the present time. Heat 
 opens the joint lines, and chemical action, combined with 
 wind, rain, and runlets, deepens and widens them, thus 
 gradually breaking up beds into very coarse shingle : or if 
 the joint lines are few and far between, more or less large 
 surfaces are eaten away, part being removed in solution, 
 and the insoluble particles by the wind. Erratics of 
 granite and other hard rocks in places record the amount 
 of weathering since the rocks were uncovered ; this is in 
 general about 2 or 3 inches in thickness, but near the sea 
 from 4 to 6 inches. 
 
 The perpendicular faces of the terraces appear to be 
 weathered backwards by the wind driving the rain against 
 and into them ; and this, combined with the effects of 
 changes of temperature and chemical action erodes them 
 away. These denudants act more at corners than else- 
 where ; consequently, all angles are rapidly worn away and 
 replaced by curves, so that they only occur now at recent 
 falls. The falls are due to master-joints opening and 
 getting filled with water, which by freezing, and by 
 means of its weight, gradually wedges out masses of 
 rock. The wind driving along the terraces sweeps them 
 quite clean, and thus prevents slopes from forming ; it 
 also acts as much on the base of the cliff as higher up, 
 thus keeping it perpendicular. The few localities in 
 which slopes occur in the Burren, are sheltered nooks or 
 other places in which the wind cannot act. Plate VIII. 
 and Fig. 16, p. 260, gives sketches of some of these hills. 
 
Hills, 303 
 
 Hills. 
 
 In the introduction it was mentioned that across the 
 central part of Ireland is an undulating plain, while to the 
 north and south are hilly districts. In general the nucleus 
 of the hills is of granitic or Lower Palaeozoic rocks, while 
 under the central plain are Carboniferous rocks. There 
 are, however, exceptions to this general rule, as most of 
 the Coal Measures form high ground, while the hills of 
 Antrim are of Cainozoic rocks. 
 
 The hills may be generally classed as follows ; those in 
 which the rocks are contorted and crumpled up, they 
 having been elevated by a more or less lateral crushing 
 of the strata ; and those in which the rocks lie com- 
 paratively horizontal, being formed either by the strata 
 having been lifted evenly, or by the continuation of the 
 strata having been denuded away, and portions only left. 
 
 Everywhere in Ireland the Lower Palaeozoic rocks are 
 much crushed, crumpled, and dislocated ; while the Upper 
 Palaeozoic and newer rocks in general lie more or less 
 horizontal. In Munster, however, there is a marked 
 exception to this rule, as in that province the Carbonifer- 
 ous rocks in Waterford, Cork, Kerry, and part of 
 Limerick, have been crushed up into sharp folds, the 
 strata standing in places perpendicular, or being even 
 inverted. This marked crushing up, dislocation and over- 
 turning of the Carboniferous rocks, occurs principally to the 
 south of the valley and fault running from Dingle Bay to 
 Dungarvan ; although immediately north of it, in the south 
 portion of the West Munster Coalfield, the rocks are also 
 inverted, while farther northward they form marked anti- 
 clinal and synclinal curves ; but these undulations die out 
 
304 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 to the northward in Clare and eastward in Limerick. In 
 the vicinity of the great nearly east and west dislocations 
 north of the lower portions of the Shannon, the rocks 
 have high dips due to their suddenly rising or falling to 
 faults. 
 
 It is evident that prior to the Carboniferous rocks being 
 deposited, except in South-west Munster, and perhaps, 
 also, in South-west Ulster, the Lower Palaeozoic rocks 
 were elevated by lateral pressure into hills and ridges, 
 round and among which the Carboniferous rocks were 
 deposited ; accumulations of conglomerate, sandstone, and 
 suchlike, margin the hills, and these in general dip away 
 from them. But it is probable that in some places during 
 subsequent movements to which the land was subjected, 
 the ridges were elevated more than the adjoining plains, 
 thus giving a high dip to the arenaceous rocks ; in many 
 places, however, the dips of these rocks are not greater 
 than those of shore accumulations at the present day. 
 
 The Leinster range of hills south-west of Dublin was 
 elevated prior to the Carboniferous period, as probably 
 were also the hills of West Connaught and the Ulster 
 hills formed of Lower Palaeozoic rocks. 
 
 In the south-west portion of the central plain there 
 must have been pre- Carboniferous hills, but, the present hills 
 seem, in part, at least, to have subsequently acquired their 
 elevations above the surrounding country (Clare, Limerick, 
 and Tipperary). 
 
 In South-west Munster, especially in Cork and the 
 adjoining portion of Kerry, during the end of the 
 Silurian period the land was gradually sinking, while 
 elsewhere in Ireland, except in South-west Ulster, the 
 older rocks were being elevated into hills and ridges. 
 This sinking in South-west Munster seems to have 
 
Hills. 
 
 305 
 
 continued until after the accumulation of the Coal 
 Measures, when all the rocks of the country were 
 subjected to violent convulsions that squeezed them up 
 together, and formed ridges and hollows afterwards to be 
 modified into the present hills and valleys. Among the 
 hills thus formed is Carrane-tual (3,414 feet) the highest 
 in Ireland. In this area is the greatest extent of ground 
 above the heights of 1,000 and 2,000 feet ; although the 
 high land does not form a continuous mass, being traversed 
 and cut up by deep valleys, one of which, the well-known 
 Gap of Dunloe, is sketched in Fig. 20. 
 
 Fi6. 20. 
 
 Gap of Dunloe, County Kerry, looking north. 
 
 The crumpling and distortion of the Cork rocks took 
 place after the end of the Carboniferous period. In 
 Ulster and Leinster, in the country in the neighbourhood 
 of Carlingford Lough, are hills of granitic rocks that were 
 elevated since the Carboniferous period, and probably 
 
 x 
 
306 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 during the Triassic age. It is therefore not impossible 
 that the vulcanicity to which they were due may have 
 had some connection with the crumpling up, dislocations, 
 and other disturbances of the Cork rocks. 
 
 The Coal Measure hills of Leinster and Connaught, 
 the Limestone hills of north Clare (Burren), Queen's 
 County, and Sligo, and the Dolerite hills of Ulster, are 
 principally due to denundation, that cut away por- 
 tions of the strata, leaving other portions to form the 
 hills. It, however, was not the sole agent, as in many 
 places the same bed or series of beds are now at very 
 unequal heights, proving that they were either elevated or 
 depressed. The numerous minor elevations and depres- 
 sions, although of local importance, cannot be here men- 
 tioned. 
 
 The granitic rocks form roundish massive hills about 
 Lugnaquillia (3,039 feet) in Wicklow and Dublin (page 
 229). This is the most continuous highland in Ireland, a 
 considerable area being over 1,000 and 2,000 feet in altitude. 
 To the NE. of this tract, near Bray, protrusions of quartz- 
 rock form several conspicuous sugar-loaf shaped hills. 
 
 Extending obliquely across Wicklow, Wexford, and 
 Waterford, are conspicuous although low hills due to 
 interstratified masses and protrusions of eruptive rocks 
 of Cambro-Silurian age. The Coal Measures of Leinster 
 and Tipperary form more or less regular tablelands, 
 while the isolated exposures of Lower Palaeozoic rocks, 
 with their associated Qld Red Sandstone conglomerates 
 and other Lower Carboniferous rocks, occur as massive 
 hills ; sometimes table-topped, when capped by a hori- 
 zontal outlying portion of conglomerate ; but often 
 peaked, when a sheet of conglomerate dips away from 
 the summit of a hill at a high angle. Keeper or Slieve 
 
Hills. 
 
 307 
 
 Kimaltha (2,278 feet), SW. of Nenagh, County of Tip- 
 perary, is a good example of the first, and Galtymore 
 (3,015 feet), south of Tipperary, of the second. In 
 connection with both of these summits may be men- 
 tioned the low-seated narrow valleys immediately north 
 of each ; called respectively Glencolloo and the Vale 
 of Aherlow. Both of these summits are so conspicuous 
 that they, especially Keeper, were important stations in 
 the trigonometrical survey of the country. 
 
 The GlengarifT grits and Carboniferous rocks of Cork 
 and Kerry form ridges from which proceed broken 
 
 Iveragh Mountains, County Kerry, from Ballinskelligs. 
 
 lateral spurs, usually rather flat-topped, but in places 
 peaked like Carrane-tual, Macgillicuddy's Reeks, and 
 others farther westward. Most conspicuous among these 
 hills, as viewed in travelling by rail from Mallow to Kil- 
 larney, are The Paps, a pair of equally high, isolated 
 peaks (2,268 feet), appropriately described by their name. 
 The sketch, Fig. 21, represents the Iveragh Hills as seen 
 from Ballinskelligs. 
 
 In west Galway and Mayo there are different characters 
 in the different hills. Those of granite form more or 
 
 x 2 
 
308 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 less rounded masses that contrast with the rugged outlines 
 of the hills of hornblende-rock (metamorphic eruptive 
 rocks), such as those in Errisbeg, near Roundstone ; while 
 quartzites form the peaks so characteristic of the Benna- 
 beola mountains ; and the Silurian sandstones, masses 
 like Mweelrea and the tableland of Formnamore. On the 
 latter in places are patches of Carboniferous conglomerate, 
 showing that the denudation which formed the present 
 tableland has just removed the great mass of Carbonife- 
 rous strata which once covered it Croagh Patrick on Clew 
 Bay, Slievemore in Achill (of which a sketch is given in 
 Fig. 10, p. 21 1), and various other peaks in north-west 
 Mayo, are other examples of conical hills formed of 
 either quartzite or quartz rock. 
 
 The hills in Erris or north-west Mayo, north of Clew 
 Bay, have their greater slopes southward and their cliffs 
 falling northward. This is also a character of many of 
 the Sligo and Donegal hills ; the latter, like those of Erris, 
 are principally composed of metamorphic rocks, while 
 those of Sligo are for the most part Carboniferous rocks, 
 but all seem to have been scarped by marine action. Some 
 of the latter are shown in the sketch Fig. 6, p. 91. 
 
 In Londonderry and Tyrone the general character of the 
 higher hills is massive, and in Antrim and adjoining 
 portions of Londonderry is the great dolerite plateau 
 already described. Down, as the name expresses, consists 
 of numerous low hills, except to the south, where the 
 previously mentioned post- Carboniferous granites protrude 
 to form the Mourne mountains. 
 
 The Conical hills that have been already mentioned, are 
 formed of arenaceous or silicious rocks ; the highest being 
 Carrane-tual, formed of Glengariff grits ; while the Old 
 Red Sandstone forms such hills as Galtymore ; quartz 
 
Cooms. 309 
 
 rock the Sugar-loaves near Bray ; and quartzite the 
 peaks of the Bennabeola mountains. In the grits and 
 the conglomerates, the peaks seem principally due to a 
 combination of a high angle of dip with jointing ; but in 
 quartz rock and quartzite, to the rocks weathering into 
 shingle. There are also peaks of other kinds of rocks, 
 but of much lower altitude. The metamorphosed eruptive 
 rocks, sometimes form peaks, like Cashel hill, NE. of 
 Roundstone, west Galway (Plate VII.) ; while in various 
 places rising from the limestone plains are peaks like Tory 
 hill, N W. of Bruff, County Limerick, which, although small, 
 are conspicuous, rising suddenly from the surrounding 
 plains. The limestone in such hills appears in general to 
 have been subjected to some kind of metamorphic action, 
 as previously described ; and to be less fossiliferous, and 
 more hardened than the limestones of the adjoining 
 country ; but in some places it would appear as if it was 
 a mass of Fenestella limestone, that had originally been 
 surrounded by another type of limestone, the latter being 
 now denuded away from it. 
 
 COOMS OR CORRIES. 
 
 In connection with the hills are the cooms or corries ; 
 which are more or less rounded, bowl-shaped hollows or 
 valleys enclosed on all sides but one, by steep, and in some 
 cases perpendicular, cliffs. In SW. Kerry the cooms are 
 very numerous and of great dimensions, some of their 
 bounding cliffs being over 1,000 and 2,000 feet high, and in 
 nearly all of them there are lakes, sometimes in rock- 
 basins, but more often the lake-basin is partially due to a 
 
310 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 drift accumulation. One of the best known of these 
 cooms is Glen-na-gappul or the Horses' -glen, on the north 
 of Mangerton (2,756 feet), and to the south of Killarney ; 
 but farther westward in the mountains of Dunkerron and 
 Iveragh they are very numerous. These cooms are in 
 general on the east or north sides of the hills. 
 
 In the neighbouring hills of the County of Cork there 
 are a few cooms, but generally small and insignificant 
 when compared with those of Kerry ; in the Comeragh 
 mountains, County of Waterford (so called from that cir- 
 cumstance), there is a conspicuous assemblage of cooms, 
 some being to the south and west, although the larger 
 ones look north and east. In the County of Wicklow, 
 grouped round the summit of Lugnaquillia (3,039 feet) 
 are some very instructive cooms : the two largest are 
 called the South and North Prisons, which open respec- 
 tively due south and north-west ; while other large cooms 
 face to the east and north-east. There are also a few other 
 cooms in the Wicklow mountains, in the tract north of 
 Glendalough and south-west of Glencree, including those 
 at Lough Bray. 
 
 In west Galway and Mayo only a few of the cooms can 
 be compared in dimensions with those of Kerry, but small 
 ones are numerous. Among them are two remarkable 
 groups, one forming a line along the north slopes of the 
 hills south of Croagh Patrick, and the others along the north- 
 west margin of the Formnamore tableland. (Plate VIII.) 
 In both localities the cooms are on nearly one horizon, about 
 750 feet, and among the latter, is Glennawooa, the premier 
 coom of the country, occupied by a lake and having nearly 
 perpendicular sides ; others of the corries in the west 
 Galway and south-west Mayo hills, are also at about the 
 same level. The corries in the quartzite hills are remark- 
 
Cooms. 311 
 
 able for not having lakes in them, their floors sloping 
 slightly outwards. To the east of Mweelrea (2,688 feet), 
 the highest hill in Connaught, there are two cooms with 
 lakes at about the 1,200 feet contour line ; while farther 
 east on the south slope of Benlugmore there is a coom on 
 the same level without a lake. Near the east end of 
 Killary Harbour south of Leenaun is a large coom having 
 floors at about the heights of 320, 750, and 1,200 feet 
 (Fig. 15, p. 257), the latter being very small. There are 
 several well-marked cooms on the northward side of the 
 Maum-Thomoish range of mountains north of Clew 
 Bay. 
 
 According to Ramsay, cooms are eminently characteristic 
 of all glacier countries, past and present ; while the Rev. 
 M. H. Close points out that in Ireland they are principally 
 found in glaciated hills, and that the majority of them face 
 northward and eastward, and affect high altitudes. For 
 these reasons they are supposed to have been scooped out 
 by small glaciers that occupied the different cooms, the 
 drift accumulation or bars across their mouths being the 
 terminal moraines of the glaciers. 
 
 All the cooms in Mayo, Kerry, Cork, Waterford, and 
 Wicklow, appear to have been occupied by small glaciers, 
 some of them up to very recent times. In those of Lug- 
 naquillia, with their associated valleys, there seem to be the 
 remains of three or four of these supposed terminal mo- 
 raines at different levels, the lowest being at about 450 feet, 
 while the highest, composed solely of blocks, may be seen 
 forming at the present day. In some years, as in the winter 
 of 1876-77, great snow-drifts form in these cooms, and 
 occupy them for three or four months. These drifts, 
 being due to the wind, are generally of about the same 
 size in each coom ; and when the surface of the snow 
 
3 1 2 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 becomes frozen, all blocks that fall from the adjoining cliffs 
 on to these snow-drifts slide off them, and form at their 
 margins moraine- like accumulations, which are very con- 
 spicuous in the North-Prison, Ballinaskea, and Corra- 
 sillagh. 
 
 The cooms of the different hills, miles apart, have their 
 floors on somewhat similar horizons ; which would suggest, 
 that at first they were cut by some universal denudant like 
 marine action, although subsequently their forms may have 
 been more or less modified by ice. In west Galway there 
 is a gradation from the smallest to the largest cooms ; and 
 on the neighbouring coastline are found bays being cut 
 by the sea similar to the small cooms ; while larger coom- 
 like bays are being formed, in places, on the coasts of 
 Kerry and Cork. 
 
 At the present day snow drifts like those in the Lugna- 
 quillia cooms preserve the cliffs ; and the ancient coom- 
 glaciers ought to have acted similarly. Therefore, high up 
 in the hills, especially to the northward and eastward, 
 where such glaciers would remain the longest, the cooms 
 should be most numerous ; not because they were formed 
 by the ice, but because they were preserved by it. On 
 the south and west the snow and ice would melt first, 
 thus leaving these portions of the hills exposed to all 
 the vicissitudes of the atmosphere. In nearly all the Irish 
 hills the slopes are longest to southward and westward ; 
 while northward and eastward they are steep, or even form 
 cliffs. These south and west slopes seem due to solar 
 influences (perhaps aided by the hot sea winds), the 
 repeated changes from heat to cold, weathering and 
 wearing them away ; while the north and east slopes have 
 more equable atmospheres. Thus the old sea cliffs and 
 cooms on the south and west slopes would be weathered 
 
Cooms. 313 
 
 away and more or less obliterated. It may also be observed, 
 that all the coom-like bays that are being now cut by the 
 sea are associated with faults or other shrinkage fissures, 
 and similarly faults or other shrinkage fissures are connected 
 with the cooms in the hills. These sea-formed cooms in 
 most cases are not quite as round as the corries or cirques, 
 to give the French name. It must, however, be remem- 
 bered that the corries were, not long since, occupied by 
 glaciers and masses of snow ; also that a very slight 
 modification of the cooms now being cut by the sea, would 
 make them similar to the more ancient corries. 
 
3H 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 VALLEYS AND SUBTERRANEAN RIVERS. 
 
 It is a popular belief that Rivers and Streams have ex- 
 cavated the valleys in which they flow. This may be the 
 case in reference to some valleys no doubt, but in Ireland 
 in general, the rivers are due to the valleys, not the valleys 
 to the rivers ; the valleys occupying dykes of fault-rock or 
 lines of breaks or other shrinkage fissures in the strata or 
 accumulations in which they are situated.* 
 
 West Galway is well adapted to study the connection 
 between breaks and valleys, as large areas of the rocks 
 are bare, or only covered with a few feet of peat, and the 
 breaks in the strata show as if on a map. In this area it 
 is found, with rare exceptions, that even the smallest 
 streams occupy lines of breaks, whether faults or only 
 joint lines ; while, in the exceptional cases, where a stream 
 
 * Although most valleys may have originated with breaks, yet it does not 
 follow that all breaks must form valleys. In the older rocks there are more 
 breaks than in the newer. In the Lower Palaeozoic they are much more 
 numerous than in the Upper Palaeozoic, in the Palaeozoic than in the Mesozoic 
 and Cainozoic, and in the latter than in the Drift. Sometimes the newer 
 breaks occur more or less along the lines of older ones, but always each newer 
 formation obliterates most of the older breaks and the valleys due to them. 
 Accumulations of drift, or even bog, may have even surfaces while they are of 
 variable thicknesses. In some mining districts, both for coal and metals, the 
 great faults of the country have been found to run obliquely, or even at right 
 angles to the river valleys, but in such cases the main faults of the country are 
 breaks that are not developed in the highest accumulation of the country. 
 
Valleys. 3 t 5 
 
 has been found to cross over a continuous bed of rock, 
 the stream has had very little effect, in some cases not 
 having been able even to efface the striae and polish due 
 to the ice of the glacial period. 
 
 In SW. Cork and Waterford, the rivers sometimes leave 
 the valleys that run along the synclinals in the strata, and 
 cross the bounding anticlinal ridges in transverse breaks. 
 Jukes, in his paper on the River Valleys of SW. Ireland, 
 suggested that the transverse valleys were first formed by 
 nearly N. and S. streams coming from much higher land 
 to the northward, and that, subsequently, the longitudinal 
 valleys were formed by meteoric denudation.* However 
 denuded, it is evident that the transverse valleys run along 
 lines of breaks ; while, farther westward, similar valleys 
 are being cut at the present day along breaks by marine 
 action. Westward there are also maums or gaps across 
 the ridge of hills south of Ballydonegan Bay, that have 
 nearly level floors a few feet above the surface of the sea, 
 which must have been cut by marine action ; for if 
 these maums had been excavated by meteoric denudation, 
 their floors would slope in some direction. As these maums, 
 and the gaps at present being cut, are similar to the 
 transverse valleys that the rivers occupy, it appears 
 extremely probable that marine action must have had 
 something to do with the excavation of them, more 
 especially as all of them were fiords during the time of 
 the Eskersea. If, however, these were formed by meteoric 
 abrasion, it must have been previous to the Glacial period, 
 as since then meteoric action has not been able to empty 
 
 * Jukes, at the time, considered that the " Cork rocks" were once covered 
 by the Carboniferous Limestone of the central plain. Subsequently he had to 
 allow that this was incorrect, and his theory, formed on the supposed Lime- 
 stone hills, therefore falls to the ground, although it is still quoted. 
 
3 1 6 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 them of the drift, which is partly glacial, but for the most 
 part marine or estuarine, belonging to the Esker ioo-feet 
 and 25 -feet seas. 
 
 The largest of these rivers is the Blackwater, which 
 rises in the Coal Measure hills at the boundary of Kerry 
 and Cork to the east of Castleisland, and flows south 
 till it enters the nearly E. and W. valley of the great 
 fault line between Dingle and Dungarvan. In this valley 
 it flows eastward to Cappoquin, where it turns at a right 
 angle, and, in one of the transverse fissures, passes through 
 the ridge of Old Red hills to empty into the sea at 
 Youghal. The western portion of the east and west valley 
 is occupied by the Flesk, which empties into Dingle 
 Bay. This river passes by transverse valleys, which, appa- 
 rently, it ought to have occupied, if such valleys were 
 those which were first excavated. The second river in 
 size is the Lee. This rises to the north of Bantry in the 
 mountain ridge that divides Cork and Kerry, and runs 
 nearly east to Cork, where it falls into its nearly N. and S. 
 estuary, that occupies one of the transverse valleys. This 
 river also in its course passes-by some transverse valleys. 
 
 In Kilkenny, Wexford, and Wicklow, the rivers occupy 
 valleys which for the most part are oblique, or at right 
 angles to the strike of the rocks of the country. The 
 Suir, the Nore, and the Barrow, have their sources nearly 
 together in the isolated mass of hills (Devil's Bit Moun- 
 tains and Slieve Phelim) at the Junction of the King's, 
 Queen's, and Tipperary Counties, and after taking different 
 courses through the south portion of the central plain, join 
 together in the fiords that enter the open sea at the Hook 
 Point. The fiords or estuarine portions of these rivers are 
 in deep gorges cutting transversely across the Cambro- 
 Silurian rocks, in which are many bedded eruptive rocks 
 
Valleys. 317 
 
 which, by their displacements, prove the gorges to occupy 
 lines of faults. In the valley of the Barrow there seem to 
 have been successive displacements in different geological 
 times, one having been later even than the Esker sea 
 period, as the gravel of this sea on the west of the valley 
 appears not to reach as high levels as those on the 
 east. 
 
 There are some remarkable peculiarities about the valley 
 of the Suir. In the upper portion the course is about 
 NNE. and SSW., as far south as Golden, from which it 
 runs in a south-easterly direction past Caher to Newcastle, 
 where it enters a nearly N. and S. fissure ; unable to cross 
 the southward hills it runs north along this fissure to Old 
 Bridge, where it takes an east course past Clonmel to 
 Carrick in the soft Lower Limestone Shales. These, how- 
 ever, it shortly afterwards leaves, and winds along breaks, 
 in and out of the Old Red Sandstone and Lower Palaeo- 
 zoic rocks in the neighbourhood of Waterford, till even- 
 tually it joins the estuary of the Barrow, which extends 
 nearly N. and S. 
 
 As previously mentioned, the estuary of the Barrow must 
 have been a valley at the beginning of the Carboniferous 
 period ; while, during the Esker sea period, the valleys of 
 these three rivers were straits joining the sea in the central 
 plain of Ireland with the sea to the south ; at that time, 
 and much later, there was also a channel running south 
 from Waterford to Tramore. At the present day these 
 rivers are tidal for many miles ; in the Suir the tide extends 
 a mile and a half above Carrick, in the Nore to above the 
 village of Innistioge, and in the Barrow a mile above St. 
 Mullins, thirty-seven, thirty-one, and thirty-two miles, 
 respectively, from Hook Point. The sea at the present 
 day is effecting scarcely any denudation in these estuaries, 
 
3i8 
 
 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 its principal work being to carry in sand, and to spread 
 out on the slobs the detritus brought down by the rivers. 
 
 The Slaney river valley is remarkable, as the upper 
 portion is to the westward of the Leinster range of hills, 
 
 Aughrim River Valley, County Wicklow. 
 
 and, apparently, ought to belong to the basin of the Barrow. 
 To this it probably did belong before the Esker sea period, 
 as in the neighbourhood of Tullow, County of Carlow, there 
 is a bank of Esker gravel which deflects the river into the- 
 
Valleys. 
 
 19 
 
 gap through the hills. The Slaney keeps altogether to the 
 W. and SW. of its water basin, and all its large tributaries 
 flow into it from the county to the east, some of them into 
 its estuary, it being tidal up to Enniscorthy, about nine- 
 teen miles from the open sea. Wexford Harbour, on the 
 lower portion of the estuary, is a spacious lagoon, margined 
 
 
 -+■ + ! ~ r "* 7 j. 
 
 ShaLes&Griie 
 
 \V" \Fazte*-Tocks 
 
 Map of the Fault-rock in Kilmacrea Pass, County Wicklow. 
 
 to the east by long ridges of ^Eolian sand, called the 
 Raven and Rosslare banks, the length of the two being 
 nearly eleven miles. Nowhere in this valley till it reaches 
 the mountains around Glen-Imale do rocks appear, the 
 river course being cut in estuarian sands and gravels 
 
320 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 belonging to the Esker, and the more recent, seas. Spencer 
 calls the Slaney the " Sandy Slaney ; " this may refer 
 either to the sands at the mouth of the Estuary, or to the 
 sands through which the river flows. 
 
 The Ovoca and its tributarie's, which drain the greater 
 portion of the County of Wicklow, occupy deep narrow 
 valleys excavated along lines of faults, that of the 
 Aughrim river being shown in Fig 22. Along these 
 fault-lines dykes of fault-rock seem to occur, as can be 
 seen at the Ovoca mines, in Glenmalure, and in some of 
 the neighbouriug fissures, like that called Kilmacrea Pass, 
 of which the accompanying is a map (Fig. 23). Here the 
 fault-rock is shaly flucan with hard ribs, having a stratifi- 
 cation transverse to the strike of the rocks of the country. 
 
 The following valleys ; the Vale of Ovoca, the Vale 
 of Clara (Avonmore), and Glenmalure (Avonbeg), were 
 fiords during the time of the Esker sea, the terminal 
 bars in the two last being very conspicuous at the Seven 
 Churches and Drumgoff, where they separated the sea 
 from lagoons. In Glenow (Aughrim river) the Esker 
 sands are not conspicuous, and the drift presents pecu- 
 liarities, which would seem to suggest that during this time 
 ice occupied the valley. The Avonmore and Ovoca, 
 from their source at Crockan Pond (1,770 feet), on the 
 NNW. of Lough Tay, have all their principal tributaries 
 coming from the hills to the westward ; and nearly all the 
 basin of the Vartry seems to have been at one time 
 included in that of the Avonmore, as the water of the 
 Vartry is deflected out of the upper part of the valley into 
 the gorge of the Devil's Glen by a drift bank only a few 
 feet high ; one of the tributaries of the Avonmore rising 
 on this bank a few perches distance from the NW. end of 
 the gorge. 
 
Valleys. 321 
 
 The Liffey rises near Sally Gap in the Wicklow moun- 
 tains, only a few miles south of Dublin ; and after a cir- 
 cuitous course of over sixty miles westward, northward, and 
 eastward, through the County of Kildare, it enters the sea 
 at Dublin. The mountainous portion of this river valley, as 
 also the valleys of all the small rivers and the tributaries 
 of the larger ones, in the Dublin mountains and the 
 adjoining portion of the County of Wicklow, are of a diffe- 
 rent type from those in the south of Ireland ; for although 
 in most portions of their courses they follow breaks, yet in 
 many places they cross continuous masses of rock, that 
 cause cascades and waterfalls, a thing rare among the 
 southern rivers, except in some of their mountain head- 
 waters. The principal waterfalls are Glenmacanass, on 
 one of the tributaries of the Avonmore ; Powerscourt 
 waterfall, on the Dargle river ; and Poulaphuca on the 
 Liffey, at the boundary of Wicklow and Kildare. 
 
 It seems remarkable that the Liffey should cross the 
 rocks at Poulaphuca, as its course was previously in a direct 
 line a little farther south. To the NE. of the fall there 
 was an extensive lake or other sheet of water, and appa- 
 rently it would have been easier for the stream to deepen 
 its old bed than to cut the present ravine. If a dislocation 
 formed the ravine, it must have been a very irregular one, 
 as it has not much the appearance of a line of fault ; still 
 residents state that chaff thrown into the river above 
 the bridge finds its way by a subterranean passage to the 
 pools below the fall. There are here and farther south, 
 at Hollywood, traces of very recent faults and displace- 
 ments, to one or more of which the diversion of this 
 portion of the course of the Liffey may be due. Westward 
 and south of Bray are the two great maums called the 
 Scalp and Glen of the Downs. These lie in lines of 
 
 Y 
 
322 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 fault, and were probably excavated by marine action, 
 aided by ice, along dykes of fault-rock. The last was a 
 fiord during the Esker sea_ period, and possibly the Scalp 
 also ; if it is allowed that since the Esker sea period the 
 country north of the valley of the Dargle has been raised 
 more than that to the south thereof. 
 
 The Boyne commences in the bogs of central Ireland, 
 and flows north-east to Drogheda. Its valley has not much 
 the appearance of a fault line, yet, when sinking the foun- 
 dation for the viaduct at Drogheda, it was found that the 
 Calp limestones are thrown down northward over sixty 
 feet. 
 
 The Bann has its source in the Mourne Mountains, 
 County of Down. It first flows northward, then NW. to 
 Gilford, where it joins the great valley and fault between 
 Coleraine and Carlingford Lough, in which it runs north- 
 ward ; but it appears that if the drift were cleared out of 
 the valley S. of Gilford it would run southward into Carling- 
 ford Lough. This accumulation of drift and the deflection 
 of the river seems to have occurred in recent times. The 
 river Foyle and its tributaries, as also the rivers to the 
 north-west in the County of Donegal, manifestly follow 
 dislocations in the strata, some of them apparently being 
 very recent faults. 
 
 The Shannon, the premier river of Ireland, is considered 
 to have its source at the " Pot of the Shannon " in Cavan, 
 a great gushing spring out of the limestone under the Coal 
 Measures of Cuilcagh. The stream from the Pot is not, 
 however, the largest stream flowing into Lough Allen, out 
 of which, at the south end the Shannon flows as a consider- 
 able river. South of Lough Allen, the Shannon and its 
 tributaries, some of which are very large, such as the 
 Inny, the Brosna, the Suck, and the Maigue, drain a very 
 
Valleys. 323 
 
 low tract of land, most of it, except some of the land 
 adjoining the head waters, being below the 250 feet contour 
 line. From Carrick-on-Shannon to Doonass at Castle 
 Connell, County of Limerick, the river is characterized by 
 being margined by extensive flat bogs and callows 
 (alluvial flats), as if the valley had once been a series of 
 lakes which were subsequently for the most part filled up 
 by bog and alluvium ; some of the lakes, however, still 
 remaining, such as Loughs Derg, Ree, Forbes, and others. 
 It is evident that the valley of the Shannon in general 
 coincides with lines of breaks, although in some places 
 continuous rocks cross it. A little NNE. of Portumna a 
 bench of rocks crosses the bed of the present river ; at 
 Killaloe it breaks across a ridge of Cambro- Silurian rocks, 
 and at Doonass are limestones making the fall. That the 
 river crossed the rocks in the last two places seems to be 
 due to diversion, caused by drift accumulated during the 
 Esker sea period, as before that time the channel would 
 seem to have run SE. from the bay of Dromineer, Lough 
 Derg, towards Nenagh, and thence SW. by Birdhill to 
 Annacotty. This channel, however, was filled up by accu- 
 mulations of drift to the NE. of Birdhill and to the east of 
 Castle Connell, which forced the water to find a new 
 channel. If the river had kept to the ancient course, the 
 surface of Lough Derg would be about 60 feet lower than at 
 present. This fall from Lough Derg to below Doonass is the 
 greatest in the main river. The eskers of the central plain 
 cross the valley in a tract extending from Meelick to Ath- 
 lone. These ridges of gravel, although cut through by the 
 river, are not obliterated. Besides, as they narrow the 
 valley in places, they raise it from 108 feet, the height of 
 Lough Derg, to 122 feet, the height of Lough Ree ; from 
 this it rises gradually to about 160 feet in Lough Allen. 
 
 Y 2 
 
324 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 The eskers crossing the valley of the Shannon, the 
 " Rock of Killaloe," and the limestones at Doonass, show 
 what small power a river has to deepen its bed. This 
 mighty river has been running over these gravel ridges and 
 these rocks ever since the Esker sea period ; yet it could 
 not cut to the base of the eskers ; while at Killaloe it was 
 only able to remove the drift off the rocks, and similarly at 
 Doonass the limestones are but slightly worn except along 
 the lines of joints. 
 
 Subterranean Rivers. 
 
 In some of the mountainous districts such as those of 
 Cork, Kerry, Galway, and Clare, streams are for short dis- 
 tances subterranean, or lakes have subterranean outlets. 
 These seem in most cases to be due to dykes of incoherent 
 fault rock through which the water flows as through shingle; 
 and such often get choked, especially in a boggy country, 
 by particles of matter being carried into them ; thus 
 causing the waters to rise and form surface channels. In 
 Slieve Aughter, County of Clare, there are subterranean 
 passages that have been dissolved out along the joints in 
 the peculiar limestones which in places form the basal bed 
 of the Old Red Sandstone. In the Upper Limestones, 
 however, are found the great systems of subterranean rivers, 
 with which are associated lakes, Turloughs or Blind lakes, 
 and holes, locally known as Sluggas, Swallow-holes, or 
 Pot-holes. 
 
 The Turloughs and Sluggas are remarkable features. 
 The latter are due to portions of the rock falling into the 
 underlying vacancies made by the subterranean rivers ; 
 sometimes the courses of the rivers can be traced by 
 them ; in some localities they are dotted irregularly over a 
 
Subterranean Rivers. 325 
 
 tract of ground as if the ground was traversed by nume- 
 rous subterranean streams. Some are abrupt deep holes, 
 others^ open into shallow hollows ; and when the water 
 during floods rises in the latter, it overflows the adjoining 
 land, forming the turloughs, which are usually lakes in 
 winter and callows in summer. The subterranean chan- 
 nels seem to have commenced by the water dissolving 
 out vacancies along joints and other weak portions 
 of the rocks, more in some places than in others ; as 
 the channels and the streams increase in size, vents 
 (sluggas or pot-holes) break in from the surface, and stones 
 and such like find their way into the stream, thus causing 
 the currents to act more like surface ones, abrading as 
 well as dissolving away the rocks. 
 
 A slugga is usually shaped like an hour-glass, although 
 some have perpendicular sides ; they seem always to be 
 formed from below. The water of the underground rivers 
 and streams during floods acts upwards, in the joints and 
 other weak portions of the roof, till eventually openings 
 are formed, connected with the surface, while afterwards 
 the holes are more or less increased in size by meteoric 
 abrasion. 
 
 In the limestone country between the estuary of the 
 Shannon, and Killala Bay in Sligo, the rivers and streams 
 are more or less subterranean, the best developed 
 system being in the neighbourhood of Gort. Lough 
 Cooter, near Gort, receives the drainage from most 
 of the north-west portion of Slieve Aughter. The Beagh 
 river flows out of Lough Cooter, having for about two 
 miles an open course, when it disappears in the lime- 
 stone under a drift cliff. But its course can be traced by 
 sluggas, called the Devils Punch-bowl, the Black Weir, 
 the Ladle, and the Churn, to Pollduagh, a cave, out of 
 
326 Geology of Ireland, 
 
 which it again comes to the surface. After this it is an open 
 river for about three miles, when it sinks again SE. of Kii- 
 larten, but rises w T est of that village to again sink and rise 
 several times, till eventually it finds its way into Coole 
 Lough ; into which the Boleyneendorrish river and Owen- 
 shree also flow. These are similar in their passage across the 
 limestone, being in places subterranean ; and the combined 
 waters of these rivers, during floods, form an extensive 
 turlough, over five hundred acres in area, in connection 
 with Coole Lough. From Coole Lough the water finds 
 its way by subterranean passages to the sea. Part seems 
 to flow into Galway Bay at Kinvarra, in the vicinity of 
 Dungory Castle, a distance of six miles as the bird flies ; 
 but the water does not all come out here ; some may have 
 vents in Galway Bay, but it is popularly believed that a 
 considerable portion of it goes south into the lakes that 
 join with the Fergus ; thus flowing into the estuary of the 
 Shannon. 
 
 In connection with this river system are Caherglassaun 
 Lake, the small turloughs in its vicinity, and a small lake 
 west of Gort, which rises and falls with the tide in Galway 
 Bay. This rise and fall cannot be observed during floods, 
 on account of the expanse of water, when it is so small 
 as to be scarcely perceptible ; but at other times it is most 
 marked. 
 
 To the south of this area is the water basin of the 
 Fergus. The main stream bursts, as a fully formed river, 
 out of a limestone cliff under the Coal Measures a few 
 miles north-west of Ennis ; to the north and north- 
 east are numerous lakes that have an underground con- 
 nection with the Fergus, and also, probably, with Coole 
 Lough. To the east of the basin of the Fergus, at Kil- 
 tannon, are the celebrated Tomines, or immense natural 
 
Subterranean Rivers. 327 
 
 vaulted passages in the Limestone, through which the 
 river Ardsolla winds an extraordinary course. These pre- 
 sent a scene of magnificence never to be forgotten by those 
 who have viewed it. South and west of Galway Bay, in 
 the Burren and in the County of Galway, nearly all the 
 rivers and streams are more or less subterranean. In the 
 latter district there were formerly most extensive tur- 
 loughs ; now, however, surface canals have been made 
 throughout all the area ; these only act in winter, and 
 prevent the turlough forming, while in summer the under- 
 ground passages are sufficient to carry off the water. 
 
 In the Upper Limestone country of the Burren type, to 
 the north of Galway, especially in the water-basin of 
 Loughs Corrib and Mask, the rivers were formerly, for 
 the most part, subterranean, here also the land has been 
 relieved from the winter floods by artificial cuts. This is 
 especially the case in the neighbourhood of Tuam, where 
 there were formerly extensive turloughs, in which the 
 water now never rises. The Aille river, however, has not 
 been opened up, and at the Caves of Aille (Upper Aille) 
 the winter floods often rise over 50 feet. Farther north- 
 ward there are subterranean streams connected with the 
 water-basin of the Moy, although the main channel, from 
 its source near Ballaghaderreen to Killala Bay, is open. 
 In the County of Fermanagh, in connection with the 
 water-basin of the river Erne, are many subterranean 
 rivers and streams, more or less of similar character to 
 those already described ; some fine arches and caves occur 
 in places. 
 
28 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 BAYS, LAGOONS, LAKES, AND ISLANDS. 
 
 The bays round the coast occur, more or less, in systems, 
 due to breaks or other peculiarities of the rocks in which 
 they occur. On the south coast all the bays have a ten- 
 dency to run north and south ; but in their upper parts 
 they nearly always turn and run westward. Their direc- 
 tions are due to prominent breaks in the rocks. 
 
 On the west coast of Cork and part of Kerry they bear 
 about N. 6o° E., having in general been excavated in the 
 troughs of the synclinal folds of the rocks, except, per- 
 haps, Dingle Bay, in which there is a great line of fault. 
 From Dingle Bay northward to Donegal Bay all the 
 principal inlets run eastward. But in Connemara or west 
 Galway there are lesser bays that run north, south, and 
 north- east ; while in north Mayo they have N. and S. 
 bearings. In north Ulster (Donegal and Londonderry) 
 the bearings at first appear to be very irregular, but when 
 examined, they seem in general to be associated with 
 two systems of breaks that bear nearly N. and S., and 
 NE. and SW. 
 
 On the east coast bays are not very numerous. Those 
 in Ulster run in different directions, Avhile those south of 
 Carlingford Lough have a tendency to extend east and 
 west. All of the latter, except Dublin Bay, are more or less 
 filled up with sand, or have become lagoons. To the north 
 
Bays and Lagoons. 329 
 
 o Dublin there are the estuary of the Boyne and the bays 
 at Rush and Malahide, the entrances to which have been 
 blocked by great accumulations of ^Eolian drift, and in 
 part formed into lagoons ; but the most typical lagoons 
 occur south of Dublin Bay, viz., at Wicklow, where the 
 long lagoons to the east of the railway are now more or 
 less filled by peaty and alluvial accumulations ; at Wex- 
 ford Harbour, where a considerable portion of the mud- 
 lands are now Intakes ; on the south coast of Wexford at 
 Lady's Island lake, Tacumshin, and Ballyteigue, the latter 
 being now an Intake ; and on the coast of Waterford 
 at Tramore : there are also minor lagoons associated 
 with these, which are now all more or less filled with 
 peaty deposits. There are lagoons on the west coast 
 of Mayo, south of Clew Bay ; these, however, are very 
 shallow, and have low dividing bars between them and 
 the sea. Above the upper part of Dublin Bay there 
 seems to have been once a considerable lagoon ; but im- 
 provements to the port have nearly obliterated the 
 enclosing bar, while the estuarine muds and salt marshes 
 have been enclosed and built upon. The lagoon, how- 
 ever, not very long ago extended up to Dublin Castle. 
 In south-east Ireland the sea is encroaching considerably 
 on the land, and the lagoon bars are being gradually 
 pushed inwards. 
 
 All the bays, except, perhaps, those of west Cork, are 
 intimately connected with lines of dislocation in the rocks ; 
 but in some places the denudant that excavated the 
 original valley left one break to occupy another ; a good 
 example being-the fiord of Killary bay, which, beginning 
 at its lower end, runs first along a SE. break, then along 
 an E. and W. break, and at its upper end along a NE. 
 break. The relations between the breaks and bays are 
 
330 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 very manifest in west Galway, in Donegal, and other 
 places, but to give the details would occupy too much 
 space. 
 
 Lakes. 
 
 In connection with lakes the greatest point of interest 
 is the basins in which they occur. These may be classed 
 as Rock basins ; Drift basins, and Bog basins. Many, how- 
 ever, partake of the nature of two, or even of all three, of 
 these classes. 
 
 Rock basins are hollows in the rocks. In many cases 
 the bed of the lake may not be now a simple rock 
 basin, but it is evident that the basin originally had that 
 character, and that its present conditions are due to sub- 
 sequent accumulations. On examination it is seen that 
 the basin of Lough Neagh, in Ulster, the premier lake of 
 Ireland, was originally a hollow or valley bounded by 
 rocks ; afterwards it was filled more or less by accumula- 
 tions of plastic clay, sand, and vegetable matter, which 
 subsequently were in part denuded away, and a new 
 basin formed, which is again being filled up by alluvial 
 deposits. 
 
 Lough Corrib, the second lake as to size, is now 
 nearly entirely margined by rocks, except some of its 
 bays and the south end. It appears to have been, before 
 the glacial period, a rock basin, but during that time it 
 was partly or wholly filled up by glacial drift, which in 
 some way or other has since disappeared, leaving a few 
 mounds forming islands as records of its former existence. 
 The other large lakes of Ireland, most of them at least, are 
 clearly in rock basins. 
 
 The mode of formation of rock basins is a disputed 
 question. As pointed out by Ramsay, they are charac- 
 
Lakes. %%! 
 
 oo 
 
 teristic of all glaciated regions, past and present, whence 
 it would appear that ice helped to form them. In west 
 Galway, where they are numerous, they are found to be 
 connected, in most cases, with lines of breaks ; their 
 greatest length and breadth, and the bays which branch 
 off from them, always coinciding with prominent dislo- 
 cations of the strata ; but in a few rare instances it is 
 possible that they may have been scooped out of softer 
 strata ; furthermore in the Errisbeg hills, near Round- 
 stone, and in Lettermore north of Ballynakill Bay, since 
 the glacial period, rocky basins, or deep rocky dells, due 
 to the drying and contraction of the rocks, have formed 
 at the crossing or junction of two or more faults. These 
 are not, and probably never will be lakes, as all the water 
 escapes from them on account of the dykes of fault-rock 
 being loose and incoherent. 
 
 As the rocks in most of the small rock basins of west 
 Galway are ice dressed, it appears probable that after the 
 basins had in part been formed by the breaking up and 
 shrinkage of the strata, the glaciers as they passed along 
 lifted up and carried away all loose blocks and debris ; at 
 the same time wearing off the angles and projections, and 
 in part modifying the rock basin. Similarly, in the large 
 basins, the dislocations of the strata produced the original 
 basins, while ice cleared out all loose materials, and more 
 or less modified their forms. 
 
 Ice, however, could not alone have formed the large 
 basins ; as the charts of them show that they are not of 
 the forms which could be produced by a denudant working 
 similarly to ice, as pointed out by Mr. J. Ball, in his 
 paper " On Soundings in the Lake Como." * The Irish 
 lakes of which there are charts are Loughs Neagh, Corrib, 
 
 * Geo/. Mag., vol. viii. No. 8, August, 1871. 
 
332 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Mask, Derg, and the other lakes connected with the 
 inland navigation. Of these Lough Derg, on the Shannon, 
 especially shows the connection of its form and of its bays 
 with the faults in the rocks of the adjoining county. * 
 
 Drift basins are situated in hollows in the drift. Some 
 seem to be due to original hollows in the deposit, but 
 others have been formed by the subsequent growth of 
 bars or other accumulations. In some places, but espe- 
 cially in parts of Wexford, are peculiar small lakes 
 and ponds that have no surface outlet ; some of them may 
 be due to original hollows in the drift, but many seem to 
 have been formed by portions of the ground sinking ; this 
 may be owing to the underlying rock giving way, as 
 previously mentioned when describing the sluggas, or 
 from a pocket or lenticular mass of sand in the drift 
 having been gradually carried away by a subterranean 
 stream, forming a hollow into which the overlying beds 
 sank. That they are due to some such causes is suggested 
 by the fact that they occur in more or less regular systems, 
 and are often connected by slight hollows on the surface 
 of the ground as if over subterranean streams. 
 
 In many other places hollows in the original surface of 
 the glacial and newer drifts are now filled with water. 
 This is frequently the case in mountain valleys, but 
 there are many hollows in the Esker and newer gravels, 
 which on account of their porous nature will not hold 
 water. In some of them, however, vegetable accumulations 
 have formed a layer of non-porous matter, and in such 
 as these shallow lakes occur. 
 
 Among the hills some of the drift basins appear to have 
 been due to agencies described by Hooker, Forbes, and 
 other mountain explorers ; moraines, avalanches, and 
 
 * "Valleys, and their Relations to Fissures, Fractures, and Faults, "p 153. 
 
Lakes. 2>33 
 
 other debacles of rocks, stones, clay, and mud, damming 
 up the water ; others are formed by streams creating a bar 
 across a valley, and some are due to recent landslips. A 
 stream or glacier may descend into a lake, forming a 
 stragh or delta ; if subsequently the lower barrier be dimi- 
 nished in height, two lakes form at different levels. This 
 is well exemplified at the classical Glendalough, County 
 Wicklow ; the original lake or lagoon that extended from 
 the Seven Churches westward was, near its centre, barred 
 across by debris that was carried by a torrent or glacier 
 out of the ravine called Lugduff ; while subsequently, 
 when the sea retreated out of the adjoining valley, the 
 bar, on part of which the Seven Churches stand, was 
 cut across, and the lower part of the lagoon almost 
 entirely drained, only a small lake now remaining. The 
 surface of the lagoon was a few feet higher than the 
 present Upper Lake, as shown by the marginal terrace 
 on the slopes of the hills to the north. 
 
 Bog basins are surrounded by peat, and often have no 
 surface outlet. They are supplied by springs, which in 
 general come from breaks in the underlying strata. As 
 the peat grows it cannot cover up the springs, but forms a 
 a wall round them, thus ponding up the water and form- 
 ing a lake. When one of these lakes is situated on low 
 ground it is often associated with a morass or swamp : but 
 if on high ground, its margin is well defined, and usually 
 higher than the surrounding bog. This high prominent 
 margin is due to the spring-water equalizing the tempera- 
 ture during all the year ; so that even in the heat of 
 summer or the frost of winter, vegetation is going on in 
 the vicinity of the lake, in some cases extending over con- 
 siderable spaces, and raising the bog so fast that the lakes 
 eventually are on the watersheds of the bogs. 
 
334 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Some of the bog lakes have perpendicular sides, or they 
 may even cove in ; others, however, have boggy sloping 
 sides. This difference seems due to the springs being 
 perennial in some lakes, and dry during summer in others. 
 The drainage from a bog lake is usually by soakage 
 through the surrounding peat, but in some cases cracks 
 form in the peat during the dry weather, through which the 
 water flows and converts them into open streams ; or, as is 
 often the case, an artificial cut has been opened. In the 
 mountainous districts the lakes of this kind are usually 
 small, some being mere pools ; but those in the low lands, 
 in the Red bogs, are more or less considerable in size. 
 
 A remarkable bog lake occurs in west Kerry on the 
 north of Killmakilloge harbour. This is situated in the 
 centre of a grassy flat, and is margined by a fringe of reeds ; 
 on this flat, a Patron or Saint's festival, is held on St. 
 John's Eve (June 24), and the reeds move out into the lake. 
 This movement is evidently due to the weight of people 
 on the flat, its soft subsoil pressing out towards the lake 
 while the people are on it, but returning to its original 
 position when the weight is taken off. 
 
 In Ireland lakes are more numerous in the more 
 strongly glaciated tracts than elsewhere, and in west 
 Galway they are innumerable, varying from small ponds 
 or loughauns in bog basins up to the large sheet of Lough 
 Corrib. In this area all the different kinds of basins 
 occur, and can be easily studied. In the low portions of 
 Mayo, Galway, and Clare, are the lakes previously men- 
 tioned in connection with the subterranean rivers. In 
 Kerry are the well-known lakes of Killarney, with other 
 similar ones, and besides, there are numerous and remark- 
 able tarns embosomed among the hills, in the previously 
 described cooms. In Cork, besides the lakes at India- 
 
Islands. 335 
 
 geelagh and Gougane Barra, there is a host of small ones 
 on the high ground immediately west of Glengariff. 
 
 In the central plain of Ireland there are not many 
 lakes. Those along the Shannon Valley have already 
 been mentioned, when describing that) river ; but 
 there are also the beautiful Westmeath lakes that feed 
 its tributaries, the Inny and Brosna. In Cavan and 
 Monaghan there are many small lakes, the largest being 
 Virginia Water ; and in Fermanagh the principal ones are 
 the two Loughs Erne, with their innumerable islands; while 
 in Sligo and the adjoining portion of Roscommon are the 
 picturesque Loughs Gara, Kay, Arrow, Gill, and Melvin. 
 In Donegal the lakes are somewhat like those of west 
 Gal way, but smaller, and less numerous. 
 
 Islands. 
 
 Off the West Coast, especially in Donegal, Mayo, 
 and Galway, islands are numerous. Of these the largest 
 is Achill, but the sound between it and the adjoining part 
 of Mayo is fordable at low water. The islands in Clew 
 Bay are noticeable for their number and their consisting 
 of drift, and those off the Coast of Galway, as being the 
 peaks of the western continuation of the ridges from the 
 Bennabeola Mountains. To the north of the entrance to 
 Galway Bay is a remarkable archipelago ; and at the 
 mouth of the bay are the three islands of Aran, which 
 tradition says were formerly joined to the Burren, in 
 Clare. Off the coast of Kerry are some remarkable stacks 
 of rock, including the Skelligs. These are generally the 
 first land sighted by home-bound ships from America. 
 A little to the NE. of them is Valentia, separated from 
 the mainland by a narrow channel and harbour. 
 
1 1 f\ 
 
 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 On the W. coast of Cork is Dursey Island, severed 
 from the mainland by one of the transverse valleys men- 
 tioned when describing the rivers, and off Dursey Head 
 are three remarkable sea rocks called the Bull, the Cow, 
 and the Calf. On the south coast of Cork is an archi- 
 pelago, the most southern island being Clear, but the most 
 southern land is the rock called the Fastnet, which lies 
 four miles south-west of Cape Clear. It is also striking 
 for its aspect, as it rises with nearly perpendicular sides to 
 
 24. 
 
 Skelligs, County Kerry. 
 
 a height of about 95 feet from the water, with not much 
 more than room for the base of the lighthouse that stands 
 on it. It is represented in the vignette on the cover of 
 this Book, from a sketch by Wyley taken during one of my 
 first field lessons. The different N. and S. straits 
 between Clear and the other islands are parallel to the 
 already described transverse valleys of south-west Cork. 
 
 It is remarkable that there are no islands, except the 
 Tuskar rock, off the E. coast of Wexford and Wicklow, as 
 
Islands. 2>Z7 
 
 the masses of interstratified eruptive rocks in the Cambro- 
 Silurians might have been expected to form prominences 
 there as on the land ; yet it would appear from the charts 
 that the}?- do not do so anywhere E. of the coast line. Off 
 the Dublin coast are Lambay, a considerable sized island, 
 Ireland's Eye, the Skerries, and the remarkable sea-rock 
 called Rockabill. 
 
SECTION V.— ECONOMICAL PRODUCTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 MINES AND MINERALS. 
 
 INDICATIONS of the ores of minerals are frequent in Ire- 
 land, but only in comparatively few places are the minerals 
 found in large quantities ; in some promising places, 
 however, no deep trials have been made as yet. The 
 ores oftenest found are those of iron, copper, lead, sul- 
 phur (iron pyrite), and barytes ; while others are anti- 
 mony, manganese, cobalt, arsenic, and tin. Native gold, 
 silver, copper, and sulphur, auriferous copper ore, argen- 
 tiferous lead ore, and nickeliferous pyrrhotite (magnetic 
 pyrite), also occur. Other useful minerals are salt, gyp- 
 sum, steatite, magnesia, pipe-clay, etc. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Gold has been got principally by Streaming, or Placer- 
 mining, being found in diluvium near Slieveanorra, 
 County Antrim, in the Moyola river, County Londonderry, 
 in the Dodder, County Dublin, and in different tribu- 
 taries of the Ovoca, County Wicklow. Of the finds in 
 Antrim and Londonderry little is known. In reference to 
 
 Z 2 
 
34-0 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 the first, gold was found in the streams from Slieveanorra 
 into Glendun, prior to 1820 ; while in other streams from 
 the same hill, into Glenshes and the valley of the Bush, 
 there are ferriferous sands. The gold of Londonderry is 
 mentioned in Gerard Boate's " Natural History of Ireland," 
 written about the time of Charles II. ; since then no gold 
 has been recorded from the latter locality ; but in some of 
 the head waters of the river near Moneyneany there is 
 ferruginous sand very like that which accompanies the gold 
 in auriferous regions. Small pieces of gold have in late 
 years been picked up in the gravel at Glennasmole, part < -f 
 the valley of the Dodder ; while, quite recently, a small 
 nugget of gold was found in St. Stephen's Green, Dublin, 
 in a load of gravel brought from the valley of the 
 Dodder. 
 
 That the gold in the mountains of Dublin and Wick- 
 low was worked by the ancient Irish seems proved by the 
 annals. One of the names by which the people of 
 Leinster were called was Laighnigh-an-oir t or the Lage- 
 nians of the gold ; and we are told that the king, 
 Tighernmas or Tiernmas, who reigned about 1000 years 
 B.C., was the first that smelted gold in Ireland, and that 
 the mines were situated in the Foithre, or woody dis- 
 trict east of the Liffey (the Dublin mountains). The 
 name of the artificer is said to have been Uchadan, and 
 his residence in Fercualan, or the present barony of 
 Powerscourt. Although no gold has lately been found 
 in the valley of the Liffey or those of its tributaries, yet in 
 some of the valleys are rugged places that may possibly be 
 ancient "diggings," or placer-mines ; while at the hill of Lyra, 
 nearly a mile SW. of Woodenbridge, County Wicklow, 
 ancient workings were discovered 35 years ago, and about 
 the same time the oak frame described at page 284, which 
 
Mines and Minerals. 341 
 
 was supposed to have had some connection with the 
 ancient miners. 
 
 Other kings also are mentioned who introduced certain 
 golden ornaments, or made the custom of wearing 
 them common. In proof of these traditions and records 
 are the quantities of ancient gold ornaments found in 
 various parts of the country, many of which are now in 
 the Royal Irish Academy's collection, Dublin. Near the 
 village of Cullen, on the borders of Limerick and Tippe- 
 rary, there is a bog long celebrated for the quantities of 
 golden ornaments found in it. For the last 100 years they 
 have been dug up at the bottom of the bog associated 
 with crucibles, ladles, and other implements necessary for 
 working the gold ; as if — as pointed out by O' Curry — 
 this place was anciently inhabited by a race of goldsmiths 
 who carried on the manufacture of gold ornaments in the 
 woods that existed prior to the growth of the bog. 
 O'Curry suggested that these goldsmiths were those 
 whose genealogy is given in the Book of Lismore ; they 
 would be, if so, descended from Olioll Olum, King of 
 Munster, and according to the annals they followed the 
 trade uninterruptedly for seven generations, from about 
 A.D. 300 to 500 (O'Curry, Lecture III., 205) ; the depth 
 of the bog, however, suggests they may have been more 
 ancient. This bog is alluded to by Crofton Croker in his 
 " Enchanted Lake " — 
 
 " And her wealth it far outshines 
 Cullen's bog or Silvermines." 
 
 In recent times gold was not generally known to exist in 
 Wicklow till about ninety years ago, when it was observed 
 that the Wicklow people from time to time brought in 
 pieces of gold to sell in Dublin. When a nugget, nearly 
 
34 2 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 22 oz. in weight, was exhibited, inquiries were made, and 
 it was found to have been got in the small river running 
 eastward from Croghan-Kinshella to join with the 
 Aughrim river, a tributary of the Ovoca, at Wooden- 
 bridge. This caused a rush to the place in 1795, and a 
 good deal of gold was picked up by the diggers for about 
 six weeks, after which time Government took possession 
 of the Gold-mine Valley ; while the country people carried 
 on works in the neighbouring streams of Knockmiller 
 and Clonwilliam, Ballintemple, and Coolballintaggart, the 
 latter running north from Croghan-Kinshella. Besides 
 those, in these streams, placer-mines were also worked 
 farther northward in the streams at Mucklagh, Ballina- 
 gappoge, and Ballycreen, tributaries of the Aughrim river 
 or the Ow. 
 
 The Government works, under Messrs. Mills, King, and 
 Weaver, were carried on till May 1798, when they were 
 interrupted by the Rebellion, and were not resumed till 
 1 80 1, when, beside placer-mining, a tunnel or level was 
 driven into the east side of Croghan-Kinshella, and miles of 
 trenches (open casts) were cut down to the rock around 
 its summit. In these works numerous irregular veins of 
 quartz were found, but not a particle of gold in situ. After 
 these works the Government abandoned the undertaking. 
 
 The Government placer-mines are said to have been 
 remunerative ; 944 ounces of gold were procured, the ingots 
 being, according to Weaver, from 21^ to 21^5 carats fine, 
 the alloy being silver, and of a total value, at the time, of 
 £3,675. Alchorn's assay gives an alloy of silver and 
 copper. The money made by Government was all spent in 
 looking for the " mother-rock " of the gold. According 
 to Sir R. Kane, the gold collected and sold by private 
 individuals was worth over £10,000. 
 
Mines and Minerals. 
 
 4' 
 
 o^-o 
 
 Since then, placer-mining has been carried on by 
 companies and private individuals, but without any great 
 success. Professor W. W. Smyth suggests, " partly on 
 account of the small amount of gold in the Placer, and 
 partly from the difficulty experienced, in all gold-stream- 
 ing or gold-digging regions, of obtaining from the work- 
 men full produce of their labours." 
 
 Professor Le Conte states, in reference to the placer- 
 mines of California, that the gold gravels always occur on, 
 and at the bottom of, the slopes in which there is an out- 
 
 Diagram, showing the Section of a Placer Mine, County Wicklow. 
 
 a. Meteoric drift slopes. 
 
 b. Diluvium with black auriferous sand at its base. 
 
 The strong nearly perpendicular lines represent breaks and master-joints. 
 
 crop of an auriferous quartz-vein. The gold gravels of 
 Wicklow always occur below the outcrops of certain iron 
 and copper ore veins from which it is supposed to origi- 
 nate. In California, gold is found in the quartz-veins ; 
 while no gold has been found in the mineral veins of Wick- 
 low above the placer-mines ; although a little has been 
 proved farther NE. ; in the Ballymurtagh, Cronebane, and 
 
344 Geology of I inland. 
 
 Connary mines, to the west and east of the valley of the 
 Ovoca. Still it would seem as if these mineral veins, 
 especially the iron ore veins, must have a connection with 
 the gold, as pieces of these iron ores are always found 
 with the gold, while above all the placers are iron-ore 
 veins. But some of the nuggets are attached to quartz, 
 as if a quartz-vein carrying gold must somewhere 
 exist. Numerous experiments, however, have been made 
 on the quartz blocks so common in the country ; and 
 hundreds of tons of them were reduced at Ballintemple 
 without a particle of gold being got in return for all the 
 labour. 
 
 At Mr, Acheson's mines, in the Gold-mine Valley, mete- 
 oric drift occurs over water drift ; the latter containing 
 many rounded* blocks and fragments of various stones ; 
 at the base of the water drift is sand and gravel, containing 
 the auriferous or " black sand." The " runs " of the " black 
 sand " occur in parallel lines which coincide with hollows 
 denuded along the master joints and faults in the " bed 
 rock " (Cambro-Silurian) ; and the miners can tell when 
 they are coming to a " run " of " black sand," as the rocks 
 are " crumpled," as they designate the twisting and bend- 
 ing of the lines of lamination to the fault lines. When 
 one of these fault lines meets cross joints, hollows occur, in 
 which there is more gold than elsewhere in the run ; as 
 these cross joints are more or less systematic, the spots 
 in which the gold is found form regular patterns, some- 
 what like the corners of the squares on a chess-board. The 
 gold usually occurs as Eyesills or minute scales, but in some 
 localities as "large gold," or grains; while "nuggets" or 
 
 * In places the bed rock is rounded and smoothed, evidently by water, as 
 no trace of ice stria? could be found on the rocks or on the blocks contained in 
 the overlying drift. 
 
Mines and Minerals. 
 
 345 
 
 large lumps are found from time to time ; the heaviest 
 nugget weighed 21*5 ounces, while others have been found 
 of 18, 11, and less weights. The sand in the "runs" is 
 harrowed out and washed in " Long Toms," or narrow, 
 shallow, wooden troughs, at the streams, and the residue 
 
 Gold washing, Gold-mine Valley, Wicklow. 
 
 " panned ; " formerly cradles and wide buddies were used, 
 but the small quantity of gold in the stuff made the opera- 
 tion tedious and but little profitable. 
 
 According to Weaver the following minerals occur with 
 the gold : magnetic iron, sometimes in pieces of half a 
 
34 6 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 hundred-weight ; titaniferous iron ; specular, red and 
 brown ores ; pyrite ; tin ore associated with wolfram ; 
 manganese ore ; garnets ; quartz ; and ripidolite. To 
 this list Mr. Mallet has added {Jour. Geol. Soc. Dub. 
 vol. iv. p. 271) : platinum ; galenite ; chalcopyrite ; molyb- 
 denite ; sapphire ; topaz ; zircon ; and spinelle. Mallet 
 gives a very large return of tin ore (3* 5 lbs. from i5olbs. 
 of sand), while all others observers have found very little 
 of it* In the old working (Ballinasilloge) more tin 
 occurred than higher up (to the SW.) in Ballinavally. 
 
 Most of the gold seems to be abraded and more or less 
 worn by attrition, but some of it is frosted and has an 
 appearance as if it grew in the drift, similar to some of the 
 gold that occurs in the deep placers in California. All the 
 Wicklow mines are shallozv placers, the deepest working 
 being less than 50 feet. As the gold occurs in so many 
 of the small tributary streams, it ought, also, as is the case 
 in other gold regions, to be found under the deep alluvia 
 of the rivers. Those, however, have never been mined, 
 but it does not appear at all improbable that a quantity 
 of gold may exist in deep placers beneath the river and 
 estuarine gravels at Woodenbridge and other places in the 
 vale of Ovoca. 
 
 A little gold has been found in the gaussen at Bally- 
 murtagh and Cronebane, adjoining the vale of Ovoca ; 
 also farther eastward in the Silver-blend (Kilmacoite) of 
 Connary. In the County of Cork, south of Bantry Bay, 
 it has been found in the gaussen of the copper lode at 
 Carrigat or Dhurode. 
 
 * Possibly Mallet's experiment was made on 150IDS. of the washed sand at 
 the mouth of the buddle, in which the tin ore had collected. 
 
Mines and Minerals. 347 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Silver, similarly to gold, is mentioned by the old his- 
 torians. Enna Airgtheach, who reigned about eight cen- 
 turies and a half B.C., is said to have been the first who 
 made silver shields for his chieftains. They were made at 
 Argetros or Silverwood on the Nore, County Kilkenny. 
 In that neighbourhood, at Ballygallion and Knockadrina, 
 are very ancient mines in which native silver associated 
 with argentiferous lead occurs. Silver is also said to have 
 been found near Toomavara, County of Tipperary, at a 
 place called Rosargid, which also means Silverwood. 
 This name has not reached our day, but a little south- 
 ward of Toomavara, at Kilnafinch, are the remains of 
 of very ancient " Silver Mines," as they are locally called. 
 
 This old mine, southward of Toomavara, lies on the great 
 fault line that can be traced SW-ward, to near Six-Mile 
 Bridge in Clare, and on this fault to the south of Nenagh 
 are the village and mines of Silvermines. The mines at 
 this village were worked so long ago that the attal (pyrite 
 and sphalerite or blende) in the stulls and old levels have 
 undergone a complete chemical change into peroxide of 
 iron, with carbonate and silicates of zinc ; a little impure 
 carbonate of lead [cat's tooth ore), filiform veins and botry- 
 oidal incrustations of binoxide of manganese, and a 
 fibrous or stalactitic oxide of iron like decayed wood, 
 are also found, besides other minerals. 
 
 Of recent years the principal workings have been to the 
 west of Silvermines at Shallee, and in adjoining mines ; 
 where some native silver occurs, while the lead ore has 
 given in places as much as 80 ounces of silver to the ton. 
 Farther west on this great fault line, tumblers of argenti- 
 
348 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 ferous lead have been found in the hills SE. of Six-Mile 
 Bridge, County Clare, but here a lode is not known. 
 
 Native Silver is also recorded from Milltown, near Tulla, 
 County Clare, a locality that was worked in very ancient 
 times ; while there is a tradition that it was found at 
 Carhoon, near Tynagh, County Galway. This mine was 
 worked so long ago that nearly all traces of it are gone, 
 and nothing is known about it but the above tradition and 
 pieces of argentiferous lead found on the sites of the old 
 burrows or attals. Other localities for native silver are 
 Ballysteen, County Limerick ; Lissooleen, near Tralee, 
 and Clogher, near Castleisland, County Kerry ; Bouly- 
 sallagh, near Crookhaven, County of Cork ; Cronebane, 
 (Ovoca) County of Wicklow ; Ballycorus, County Dublin, 
 where a large mass occurred ; and Lugawarry, County 
 Sligo. Argentiferous lead occurs in many other places ; 
 a very ancient mine being at Garrykennedy, on the 
 Tipperary shore of Lough Derg, in which were found 
 ancient tools of wood and stone. 
 
 Lead and Zinc. 
 
 The ores of lead seem to occur in more places than 
 those of any other metal. It usually is the sulphide 
 (galeuite), and very generally it is accompanied by sul- 
 phide of zinc (sphalerite), and sometimes with those of 
 iron (pyrite) and copper {chalco-pyrite) ; in many localities 
 it is argentiferous. It also may be associated with baryte 
 (sulphate of baryta), strontianite (sulphate of strontium), 
 fluor spar (fluorite), and other minerals. 
 
 Some of the veins of galenite in the micalite and 
 granite of the Leinster range are associated with baryte, 
 
Mines and Minerals. 349 
 
 the cawk of the miner. In this range more lodes have 
 been discovered in the vicinity of Glendalough than else- 
 where, that of Camaderry being the largest ; it was gene- 
 rally five feet wide, and sometimes twelve, the principal 
 gangue stone being quartz ; under Weaver from 3 to 4*5 
 tons were got per cubic fathom. Associated with it were 
 cerussite ({white lead ore), sphalerite, chalco-pyrite, and py- 
 romorphite (phosphate of lead) ; the galenite yields 70 per 
 cent of lead. The Glendalough veins and those in Glen- 
 malure, contained some baryte and siderite (sparry iron 
 ore). 
 
 In many localities in the unaltered Lower Palaeozoic 
 rocks, the galenite is alone, or the ores accompanying it 
 are in such small quantities as to be inappreciable. In 
 the metamorphic Cambrians and Cambro-Silurians of 
 West Galway, the sulphides of copper, lead, and iron, are 
 often mixed up together. In some veins, however, the 
 copper or iron (the latter being often in the form of 
 Pyrrhotite or magnetic pyrites) predominates, but when in 
 the limestone, the galenite. The richest lead lode in this 
 district that has been discovered, was in East Glengowla, 
 near Oughterard, where the ore was of the variety called 
 " Plumber's lead." In vugs in this lode, large and beautiful 
 crystals of quartz were very numerous ; also crystals of 
 very pale green or yellowish fluorite. 
 
 In the Carboniferous limestones, the lead ore in general 
 is argentiferous, and is usually associated with zinc and 
 sulphur (pyrite) and a little copper ore. When a lode 
 extends down through the limestone into the sandstone, 
 the lead is replaced by copper. This also takes place in 
 the Lower Palaeozoic rocks, the lead lodes in limestone 
 and slate often changing into copper in the sandstone. 
 
 In the Counties of Limerick, Clare and Galway, some 
 
350 Geology of h r eland. 
 
 rich pockets of silver-lead ore have been discovered and 
 worked out. It seems probable, however, that there are 
 others, as a rich vein was cut between Rathkeale and 
 Shanagolden, when making the Limerick and Foynes 
 Railway. In the working at Monanoe (Kilbreckan) was 
 discovered the peculiar compound of lead and antimony, 
 called Kilbreckanite. The galenite here gave 76 per cent, 
 of lead, and 120 ounces of silver to the ton. Other new 
 localities for lead-ore in the Carboniferous limestone, as 
 yet untried, are Gibberpatrick and Killiane, County Wex- 
 ford. Remarkable lead ores occur at the Ovoca Mines, 
 County Wexford, to be mentioned presently. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Copper ores were worked at a very early period in the 
 Bonmahon district, County of Waterford, as Mr. Pederick 
 records, very ancient wooden tools being found in the 
 Stage-lode, Knockmahon. Since then, mining opera- 
 tions have been carried on, at intervals, with greater 
 or less activity ; sometimes with great success, at other 
 times with loss. The lodes are of prse- Carboniferous age, 
 as they are cut out by certain red conglomerates and sand- 
 stones, probably belonging to the Old Red Sandstone. 
 The ore is principally chalco-pyrite ; native copper has 
 been found in these lodes sometimes in geodes. 
 
 In the County of Wicklow there were considerable 
 workings for copper ; also said to have been worked 
 in very ancient times. At the beginning of the last 
 century extensive works were carried on, and the mining 
 operations have been continued ever since ; at that time 
 copper was raised in all the mines, while lead was also 
 
Mines and Minerals. 351 
 
 worked in the eastern ones (Cronebane and Connary). In 
 1840 the raising of the copper ores was neglected, and 
 attention was turned to the pyrite or sulphur ore to 
 supply the English market, on account of the interruption 
 of the sulphur trade with Sicily. For some time a great 
 quantity of the pyrite was raised, but now the demand 
 has fallen off, and very little mining is going on. 
 
 The copper ore in the western mines is principally 
 "yellow ore" (chalco-fiyrite), of a very low per centage, 
 on account of the admixture of pyrite, quartz and other 
 impurities, rarely reaching eight, and usually being be- 
 tween four and six per cent. 
 
 In East Cronebane and Connary the ore is principally 
 black copper (melaconite) associated with lead ore, but in 
 one of the Connary lodes, especially near the surface, there 
 was a good return of " yellow ore." 
 
 Usually in these lodes under the gaussen was lead ore, 
 lower down sulphur and copper, and in depth sulphur ore 
 only. 
 
 In the eastern portion of Connary (Kilmacoo), is the 
 remarkable ore Kilmacoite (" silver-blende," or " blue- 
 stone"), a combination of silver, lead, and zinc ores, 
 associated with the sulphides of iron, copper, anti- 
 mony, silver (?) and arsenic, with a trace of gold. Native 
 silver has been found in Cronebane, and native copper 
 in Connary, Cronebane, and Ballymurtagh. The waters 
 from all these mines are rich in copper, and the metal 
 is extensively collected by precipitation on iron, in landers, 
 through which the water is conducted. 
 
 Copper ore has been found in various other places in 
 the Lower Palaeozoic rocks, but not in very large quanti- 
 ties. An untried district, however, is West Galway ; but 
 in this area the ore usually seems to be associated with 
 
352 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 pyrite or pyrrhotite, quantities of which have to be raised 
 with it ; in a few places pockets of rich " yellow ore " have 
 been discovered and removed. 
 
 Rich lodes unknown to the ancients were discovered 
 about the year 1810 by Col. Hall at Allihies, to the 
 west of Bearhaven, and since then were worked most 
 successfully, and vast quantities of ore raised. It was 
 principally the yellow ore {chalco -pyrite), but in the north 
 mine there was a large pocket of the carbonates {Mala- 
 chite and Azurite) which is said to have given over 60 per 
 cent, of copper. These lodes occur at the junction of the 
 Yellow and Old Red Sandstones of the Cork type. 
 
 To the south, in similar rocks in the Mizen Head and 
 Muntervary promontories, numerous small lodes occur ; 
 none of them, however, are equal to those which were 
 worked at Bearhaven ; with these are associated coppery 
 beds. In the lodes the yellow ore is principally found, 
 while in the beds the grey ore (tetrahedrite) predominates ; 
 but there is great mixture of minerals in the lodes ; in 
 some of the largest, barytes is mixed with the copper, 
 rendering the ore nearly valueless ; a little native copper 
 has been found. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 The Iron ores of Ireland were extensively worked, and 
 iron mills were numerous prior to the introduction into 
 England of the smelting of iron ore by coal. The last 
 iron furnace, which seems to have been either that situated 
 at Woodford, in Galway, or that at Portroyal, in Mayo, 
 was put out more than 100 years ago. After this time all 
 iron mining seems to have ceased until within the last few 
 years, when an extensive trade sprang up in the Antrim 
 
Mines and Minerals, 353 
 
 Miocene ores {Belfast Aluminous ore), which is now very 
 briskly carried on. Other ores are also being looked after, 
 and lately a vein of red hematite has been discovered in 
 the Cambro-Silurian rocks at Deehommed, 8 miles from 
 Banbridge, County of Down. The Miocene Iron-ore 
 Measures have already been described among the Caino- 
 zoic rocks. 
 
 The iron ores of the Coal Measures have also been 
 mentioned previously ; they are in the greatest quantity 
 in the Connaught field ; but in old times they seem to 
 have been most worked in the Queen's County, near 
 Maryborough ; in the County of Limerick adjoining the 
 Shannon ; and in Fermanagh. In the Upper Limestone 
 of the Burren type, limonite occurs at Desart, near Mary- 
 borough ; and in the County of Limerick at Kilcolman 
 and Shanagolden. In the Calp the best ores are found in 
 the Ballycastle Coal-field, but nearly similar stone was 
 anciently worked in the Calp near Draperstown, County of 
 Londonderry. Other localities are Baldongan Hill, and 
 near Donabate, County Dublin, and Woarway Bay, 
 County of Wexford. 
 
 In the Counties of Cork and Waterford, the red hematite 
 was extensively worked about 200 years ago, as in Smith's 
 History of the County of Cork, written 1750, iron works 
 are mentioned at Araglin, near the eastern extremity of 
 the County of Cork; at Aghadown, near Roaringwater 
 Bay; and at Coomhola, near GlengarifT. The sites of 
 the mines are not mentioned, but veins of the ore are not 
 uncommon in different places ; near the west end cf 
 Bear Island is a thick untried vein of red hematite. 
 At # Drumslig on Slieve Grian, near Dungarvan, are the 
 mines discovered and worked by Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 Near Glandore, on the south coast, is a remarkable 
 
 A A 
 
354 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 mineral channel, three distinct formations occurring 
 together, manganese-ores, hematite, and fault-rock. The 
 hematite occurs as a lode that crosses and sends veins into 
 the fault-rock, while there are pockets and veins of the 
 manganese-ores cutting through both. The hematite 
 seems to be the " back " to a copper lode. Farther east- 
 ward the existence of this mineral channel has been 
 proved under the town of Rosscarbery. 
 
 In the Cambro-Silurian rocks there are various iron 
 veins and deposits, most of which were worked in old times. 
 In the County of Down are the previously mentioned red 
 hematite veins, at Deehommed, others at Carnreagh and 
 Slievecroob ; in Londonderry are veins at Benedy, Carn- 
 daisy and other places ; in Tyrone at Lissan and Unagh ; 
 in Donegal at Welchtown, and Marfagh ; in Fermanagh 
 at Rossbeg; in Leitrim at Gortinee ; in Longford in 
 Cleeragh and Enaghan ; in Clare at Glendree, Ballymalone 
 and Bealkelly, where there were also extensive iron works, 
 and on Knocksnaghta a vein associated with graphite ; 
 in Tipperary at Scotchmen's Cooms and Gortnamilla ; in 
 Kilkenny at Grenan ; in Wexford at Ballybrennan, where 
 there were very ancient workings, while at Ballynastraw, 
 near Gorey, and farther eastward at Courtown, and along 
 the coast at Ballymoney, are beds of iron ore in which it 
 seems to occur principally as chalybite or siderite (car- 
 bonate of iron) ; none of the beds, however, have been 
 opened into. 
 
 In Wicklow, in connection with the great mineral 
 channel between Wicklow Head and Croghan Kinshella, 
 are large deposits of iron ore. To the north-east there 
 were formerly extensive works at Ballycapple, where speci- 
 mens of limonite containing manganese, and chalybite, have 
 been picked up. To the west of the Ovoca, at Bally- 
 
Mines and Minerals. 355 
 
 murtagh, a great deposit of ochre and iron was discovered 
 about 1850; it is the back of a great sulphur or (pyrite) 
 lode. Farther SW., at Ballymoneen (Hodgson shaft), a 
 great mass of magnetic iron ore has been discovered that 
 gives 5 5 '5 per cent, of iron. To the SW. of Hodgson 
 shaft, extending for half a mile, into Knocknamohill, are 
 very old iron workings, magnetic iron having been lately 
 raised at Knocknamohill. To the south of the Aughrim 
 Valley, in the NE. spur from Croghan Kinshella, iron 
 occurs in Ballycoag, Ballinasilloge, and Moneyteige, a 
 large deposit of magnetic iron having been proved in the 
 latter. In the hills north of Aughrim and west of Glen- 
 malure, traces of iron and the remains of old sinkings 
 have been observed in different places. In Glenasplinkeen, 
 Cloghleagh and Knockatillane, near Blessington, there is 
 red hematite associated with manganese ore, which, 
 according to Haughton, gives 59 percent, of metallic iron. 
 On Lambay Island, County Dublin, Du Noyer records 
 iron ore. 
 
 Graphite (Plumbago). 
 
 This mineral has been recorded from Knocksnaghta, 
 County Clare, where it occurs with iron ore ; Upper 
 Church, County Tipperary ; Doonooney, County Wexford. 
 
 Manganese. 
 
 This is usually associated with the iron ores ; it has been 
 recorded from Clay, County Armagh ; Cappagh in the 
 Burren, and Glendree, County Clare ; Glendore mine, 
 County Cork ; Malinbeg, County Donegal ; near Dro- 
 more, County Down ; Sutton, County Dublin, where a 
 
 A A 2 
 
356 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 large quantity was raised ; Corduff, County Monaghan ; 
 Aherlow, County Tipperary ; Glenasplinkeen, County 
 Wicklow ; and a few other places. 
 
 SULPHUR Ore (Pyrite and Pyrrhotite). 
 
 Sulphur-ore, as has already been mentioned, was raised 
 largely in the Ovoca mines, County Wicklow ; there seems 
 to be a considerable quantity in west Galway, but here 
 a great deal of it is pyrrhotite, an ore hard to be reduced. 
 Native sulphur occurs as concretions in the limestone at 
 Oughterard, County Galway ; at Lough Carra and West- 
 port, County Mayo ; near Finoge Bridge, County Wex- 
 ford ; and small quantities have also been found in some 
 of the copper mines. 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 This mineral is recorded from Rabbit Island, near 
 Castletownsend, County Cork ; Jonesborough, County 
 Louth ; Lisglassan, Tullybuck, and Clontibret (where 
 there is a vein of stibnite four inches thick in clay slate), 
 County of Monaghan ; Munterlony, County Tyrone ; at 
 Monanoe, County Clare, in the form of Kilbreckanite, a 
 mineral having the sulphides of lead and antimony united 
 in the same proportions as they are in manufacturing 
 printing type ; at Connary, County Wicklow, in the 
 remarkable mineral kilmacoite, or " bluestone," as it is 
 locally called. 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 This occurs at Lackamore, County Tipperary ; Adrigole 
 Bay, County of Cork ; and at Connary, in the kilmacoite. 
 
Mines and Minerals. 357 
 
 Tin. 
 
 This important mineral is recorded by Griffith as 
 occurring with lead and zinc in a lode in Dalkey, County 
 Dublin. It also occurs in the "black sand" with the 
 gold in the diluvial workings or " placer mines," County 
 Wicklow, but no lode of it has been discovered in that 
 county. 
 
 Cobalt. 
 
 Cobalt has been found in small quantities in the copper 
 lodes at Knockmahon, County Waterford ; while at 
 Muckross, Killarney, it was found in great profusion as a 
 granulated metallic-looking hard mineral of a dark blue 
 colour tending to pink. All of the deposit was thrown as 
 rubbish into the lake, except about twenty tons which had 
 been taken away by one of the miners, who recognized it 
 to be Erythrite (Arseniate of Cobalt). Dr. Stokes found 
 Cobalt ore at Sutton Howth. 
 
 Molybdenite. 
 
 This not very common mineral occurs in considerable 
 quantities disseminated in a wide endogenous vein of 
 granite in the townland of Murvey, near Roundstone, 
 County Gal way. 
 
 BARYTES. 
 
 The Sulphate of Barytes (Baryte) occurs very abundantly 
 in various parts of Ireland. In Ulster it is found in veins 
 in different parts of the Carboniferous sandstones (Old 
 Red Sandstone and Shore-beds), also in some of the lead 
 mines situated in the granitic range of Leinster. It occurs 
 
358 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 at the North Intake, Wexford Harbour, and in Cork ; 
 some of the deposits in the latter county near Clonakilty, 
 Bantry, and Skull, being of great size. It is also found 
 in various places in Connaught ; a transparent crystalline 
 variety occurring at Cregg, near Oughterard. 
 
 Magnesia. 
 
 The mineral from which the earth Magnesia and its 
 sulphate, Epsom salts (epsomite), are prepared, occurs 
 abundantly in the dolomite so common in the Upper 
 Carboniferous Limestone. It is also found at the base of 
 the Mesozoic rocks near Ardtrea in Tyrone, and at Cultra 
 near Belfast ; from the latter place it was formerly largely 
 exported to Glasgow to be manfactured into Epsom salts. 
 In the County of Cork the Carboniferous dolomites are 
 said to have been used for similar purposes and in the 
 making of fluid magnesia. 
 
 Alum and Copperas. 
 
 Alum shales are very abundant in the Lower Coal 
 Measures, especially in Munster, while pyritous shales 
 suitable for the manufacture of copperas occur among the 
 Upper Measures. To these shales special attention was 
 directed by Kane as long ago as 1844, but as yet no one 
 seems to have endeavoured to utilize them. 
 
 Salt and Gypsum. 
 
 Salt has been found only in Antrim in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Carrickfergus and Larne ; this has been 
 described among the Triassic rocks at page 137. Gypsum 
 
Mines and Minerals. 359 
 
 has been found associated with the salt, and in the Triassic 
 rocks of the valley of the Lagan in the same county ; at 
 Coagh, County of Tyrone ; and at Derrynasrobe and 
 Knocknacran, near Carrickmacross, County of Monaghan, 
 where the deposit is said to be over 60 feet thick. Here 
 it is probably a deposit allied to the Salt Measures at 
 Carrickfergus, and somewhat similarly accumulated. 
 The gypsum does not appear to be of the variety called 
 Alabaster, suitable for architectural and ornamental pur- 
 poses ; but as a manure its practical value is indisputable. 
 Its composition is sulphuric acid 46*5, lime 32*5, and 
 water 21 ; and its peculiar value, as a manure, according 
 to Kane, " consists in supplying lime for the rapid growth 
 of clover and other papilionaceous crops, which its 
 moderate solubility in water enables it to effect better than 
 any other compound of that earth." It is also invaluable 
 in the manufacture of artificial fertilisers. 
 
 Steatite. 
 
 This rock occurs in mass on Bofin and Shark Islands 
 in the County of Mayo, but off the coast of Galway ; 
 also on Achill Island, and in a tract of country running 
 nearly E. and W. south of Clew Bay and Westport, same 
 county ; and at Church Hill, County of Donegal. Smaller 
 deposits and veins are found in various places in the 
 Counties of Galway, Waterford, Wexford, and elsewhere ; 
 a red or orange steatite occuring in Killahurla, County 
 Wicklow. Fault-rocks in eruptive rocks, especially if 
 they are melaphyres or eurites, are often more or less 
 pure steatite. This mineral is worked a little on Bofin 
 Island, to the extent of one or two small cargoes yearly, 
 but more largely in Donegal. 
 
360 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Clays and Sands. 
 
 At Kilranelagh, near Baltinglass, County Wicklow, 
 kaolin of a fine quality has been obtained ; and at 
 Tullow, County of Carlow, is a porcelain clay, but partly 
 impregnated with iron. A little SE. of Westport, County 
 of Mayo, a decomposed petrosilex forms a dyke of 
 kaolin ; while, as previously mentioned, in the same 
 neighbourhood, and near Roundstone, County of Galway, 
 are dykes of petrosilex capable of being manufactured 
 into kaolin ; also in other places. At Belleek, County 
 Fermanagh, kaolin is manufactured from a pink orthoclase, 
 an endogenous granitic vein rock. 
 
 The clays of Lough Neagh, County Tyrone, and those 
 near Caher, County of Tipperary, have already been men- 
 tioned at page 168. Besides these, there are a deposit of 
 pipeclay on Arran island, County of Donegal ; along the 
 shore of Lough Ree, County of Roscommon, but especially 
 near St. John's Point, are similar clays that are locally 
 manufactured into tobacco pipes ; these clays Foot con- 
 siders to be in the drift. Pipeclay also occurs near Black- 
 ball, north of Brosna, King's County, and in addition to its 
 being made into tobacco pipes it was used by the late Earl 
 of Rosse for lining his furnaces. Near Ardmore, County of 
 Waterford, is a clay very suitable for coarse pottery ; while 
 in the neighbourhood of Menloe Castle, County of Galway, 
 an excellent clay is said to have been lately discovered. 
 
 In places in the Esker-sea drift, especially in the Coun- 
 ties of Wexford, Wicklow, Dublin, and Carlow, are good 
 brick and tile-clays, formerly very largely worked ; while 
 in various places, as in the valley of the Shannon, are 
 coarser clays in the alluvial deposits. 
 
Mineral Localities. 361 
 
 The best clays are in the Coal Measures, especially the 
 Coalisland portion of the Dungannon field, County of 
 Tyrone, where the supply is very abundant. 
 
 Silicious sands, and pure silicious rocks from which they 
 could be made, are not uncommon, although very little 
 used for manufacturing purposes. Formerly sand was 
 exported from Donegal, Ballycastle, and elsewhere. Vast 
 quantities of pure quartz-rock and quartzite could be 
 obtained in the Counties of Donegal, Sligo, Mayo, Gal- 
 way, Wexford, Wicklow, and Dublin. Silicious sand is 
 found in various places among the ^olian drift ; a large 
 deposit of excellent sand occurs in Achill Island, County 
 Mayo. 
 
 Mineral Localities. 
 
 These are arranged in counties ; each of them is indicated 
 by the name of the townland and of the nearest post 
 town, those localities in which ore has been worked being 
 printed in italics. The different minerals are designated 
 by the following letters : — G., Gold ; S., Silver ; C, Copper ; 
 L., Lead ; Z., Zinc ; I., Iron, if Hematite or Limonite, 
 and C-I. if clay-ironstone ; M., Manganese ; As., Arsenic ; 
 P., Sulphur-ore (Pyrite) ; Py., Pyrrhotite ; (magnetic 
 pyrites) ; S-L., Silver Lead ; A., Antimony ; B., Barytes ; 
 T., Tin. 
 
 Antrim. 
 
 Ballycastle coal field, C-I. In numerous places in the 
 Miocene dolerite (see page 164), I. Rathlin Island, I. 
 Slieveanorra, Glendun, G. ; near Cushendall. 
 
362 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Armagh. 
 
 Carrie kgal log ly, L. ; Drumnahoney, L. ; near Belleek. 
 Dorsy, L. ; Tullyard, L. ; Tullydonnell, C. ; near Cross- 
 maglen. Aughnagurgan L.; Clay L. and M. ; Doohat or 
 Crossreagk, L. ; Drummeland (Derrynoose), L. ; near Keady. 
 Tamlaght, L. ; near Middletown. Drumbanagher (Church- 
 glen), L. ; Kilmonaghan (Jerret's or Tuscan Pass), C. ; near 
 Newry. Ballintemple, L. ; near Newtown-hamilton. Bally- 
 more, L. ; near Poyntzpass. 
 
 Carlow. 
 
 Coal Measure Hills, C-I. ; near Leighlinbridge. Car- 
 ricklead Mountain, C. ; near Graiguenamanagh. 
 
 Cavan. 
 
 Farnham Demesne, C, near Cavan. Comannrney, L. ; 
 near Cootehill. South-east of Shercock, L. Ciiilcagh 
 Mountains (Coal Measures), C-I. ; near Swanlinbar. 
 
 Clare. 
 
 Cappagh, C, S-L. and M. ; Moneen, L. ; Glenulla, C. ; 
 Mogoahy, L. ; Glencrawne, L. ; Skeshodonnell, Z. (botry- 
 oidal calamine) ; Lough Aleenaun, L. ; Lisnanroum, L. and 
 C. ; Doolin Castle, L. ; near Ballyvaughan. Glendree y 
 L., I. and M. (the last as diallogite in the drift) ; 
 Corrakyle, C. ; Leaghort, C. ; near Feakle. Carrownakilly, 
 S-L. ; Rathlaheen West, L. and P. ; Newmarket L. ; near 
 Newmarket on Fergus. Ballyhickey, S-L., C. and Z. ; 
 Castletoivn, L. ; Moyreisk, S-L. ; Monanoe (Kilbreckan), 
 
Mineral Localities. 363 
 
 S-L. and A.; near Quin. Ballyvergin, L., C. and P. 
 Knockaphreagaun (Crowhill), S-L. ; Miltown, S. and L. 
 near Tulla. Crumlin, S-L. ; Doolin, S-L. ; Ballykelly, I. 
 Shannaknock, C. and P. ; near Broadford. Rathlaheen, 
 L. and P. ; Knocksnaghta, I. ; near Sixmilebridge. Bally- 
 hurly, Cahir and Ballynagleragh, L. ; Ballymalone and 
 Bealkelly, I. ; near Tomgraney. 
 
 Cork. 
 
 Allihies, C. ; Cahermeeleboe, C. ; Caminches, C. ; Cloan, 
 C. ; Coom, C. ; Kealoge, C. ; Kilkinnikin, L. ; Bear Island, 
 I. (red hematite) ; Killaconenagh, L. and C. ; near Bear- 
 haven. East of Adrigole Bay, As. ; disseminated in the 
 rocks, C. ; near Adrigole. Esk Mountain, C. ; near Glen- 
 gariff. Carravilleen, C. ; Clashadoo, C. ; Derreengreanagh, 
 C. and B. ; Glanalin, C. ; Gortavallig, C. ; Gortacloona, L. ; 
 Holly hill, C. ; Killeen, C. ; Killoveenoge, S-L. ; Roorksa, S-L. ; 
 Derryginagh, B. ; near Bantry. Ballycummisk, C, L. and 
 B. ; Cappaghglass, C. ; Foilnamuck, C. ; Horse Island, C. ; Ross- 
 brin } C. ; Ballydekob, C. ; Boleagh, Cooragurteen, C. ; Kilcoe, 
 C. ; Skeagkanore, C. ; Derreennalomane, C. ; Kilkilleen, C. 
 and L. ; Laheratanvally C. and L. ; Leighcloon, C. ; near 
 Ballydehob. Castlepoint, C. ; Castle Island, C. ; Coosheen, 
 C. and I. ; Gortnamona, C. ; Long Island, C. ; Skull, C. ; 
 Leamcon, C. ; Mount Gabriel, C. and B. ; near Skull. Altar, 
 C. ; Ballydivlin, C. ; Ballyrisode, C. ; Balteen, C. ; Carrigacat 
 (Dhurode), G. and C. ; Boidysallagh, C, S. and L. ; Callaros, 
 C. ; Cloghane (Mizen Head), C. ; Crookhaven, C. ; Kilbarry, 
 C. ; Midlavoge (Brow Head), C. ; Spanish Cove (Kilmoe) 
 C. and S-L. ; Lackavaun, C. ; Toormore, C. ; near Crook- 
 haven. Bawnishall, C; near Skibbereen. Cosscroneen, 
 C. ; Rabbit island, C, L. and A. ; near Castletownsend. 
 
364 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Aghatubrid, I., M. and C. ; Derry, C. ; Drom, C. ; Keamore, 
 C. ; Kilfinnan, C. ; Ronrey glen, I. and M. ; Rosscarbery, 
 I. and M. ; Gortagrenane, C. ; Little Island, C. and B. ; 
 near Rosscarbery. Duneen, L., C. and B. ; near Clona- 
 kilty. Demesne, P. ; Derreens, C. ; Coom (Lackue wood), 
 C. ; Inchanadreen, C. ; near Dunmanway. Knockadoon, 
 C; near Youghal. Minane, L. ; Ringabella, S-L. ; near 
 Nohaval. Rathpeacon, C. ; near Cork. Vicinity of Car- 
 rigtohill ; L. and Z. Vicinity of Mill Street, C. 
 
 Donegal. 
 
 Welcktown, L. and I. ; near Ballybofey. Abbey island, 
 S-L., Z. and C. ; Abbeylands, S-L., Z. and C. ; Bally- 
 magrorty, L. ; Firmer, S-L., Z. and C. ; Tonregee, L, ; near 
 Ballyshannon. Vicinity of Bundoran, L. and C. Car- 
 rowmore or Glentogher, S-L., Z. and P. ; Clonca, C. ; near 
 Carndonagh. Ards, L. ; Keeldrum, L. ; Marfagh, L., C, P. 
 and I. ; near Dunfanaghy. Dmmnacross, L. ; Fintown 
 (Loughnambraddan), L. ; Gweebarra river, L. ; Kilrean, 
 L. ; Mullantiboyle, L. ; Scraig Mountains, L., Z. and P. ; 
 near Glenties. Malinbeg, S-L. and M. ; near Killybegs. 
 Eighterross (Castlegrove), L. ; near Letterkenny. Innis- 
 keel, L. and C. ; near Naran. 
 
 Down. 
 
 Glassdrumman, C. and L. ; near Annalong. Ardtole, L. ; 
 Gun's Island, L., C. and B. ; near Ardglass. Fofanny, L.; 
 near Bryansford. Ballyleidy, L. ; near Crawfordsburn. 
 Lisnasliggaun, Tanvally, and Finnisbridge, iron-spas ; Dee- 
 hommed, I. (red hematite) ; near Banbridge. Spa cottage, 
 iron-spa ; near Ballynahinch. Slieve Croob (Begny, 
 
Mineral Localities. 365 
 
 Gransha, Leganany, Moneybane, &c), I. ; near Dromara. 
 Vicinity of Dromore, L. and M. Moneylane, L. ; 
 Wateresk, L. ; near Dundrum. Carnreagh, I., near 
 Hillsborough. Leitrim, L. ; Moume mountains, C. and L. ; 
 near Kilkeel. Ballydargan, L. ; Killough, L. ; Rath- 
 mullen, L. and B. ; Rathdrum, L. ; St John's Point, 
 C. and P. ; near Killough. Corporation, L. ; near Killy- 
 leagh. Whitespots (Conlig), L. ; near Newtownards, in a 
 pure amphibole gangue, according to Haughton. Tully- 
 ratty, C. andS-L.; Castlezvard, L. and Z. ; near Strangford. 
 
 Dublin. 
 
 Ashtown, L. ; Castleknock, L. ; Cloghran, L. ; Clontarf, 
 L. ; Killester, L. ; Crumlin, L. ; Dolpkinsbam, L. and Z. ; 
 Kellystown, L. ; Kilmainham, L. ; Phoenix Park, L.; Dod- 
 der Valley, G. ; near Dublin. Ballycorus, S-L., Z. and S. ; 
 Rathmickael, L. ; Skankill, L. ; near Golden Ball. Hozvth, 
 L. ; Sutton, M. and Cobalt ; near Howth. Dalkey, L., Z. 
 and T. ; Mount Mapas (Killiney Hill), L.; Seapoint, C; 
 near Kingstown. Vicinity of Malahide, C. ; Baldongan 
 Hill, C-L; near Skerries. Railway cutting, C-L; near Dona- 
 bate. Lambay, C. and I. ; Loughshinny, C. ; near Rush. 
 
 Fermanagh. 
 
 Rossbeg (Castle Caldwell), C. and I. ; near Belleek. 
 Maheraboy district (Coal Measures), C-L; near Ennis- 
 killen. 
 
 Galwav. 
 
 Crannagh, L. ; Carhoon, S-L. and L. ; Quarry Hill, L. ; 
 near Tynagh. Ballymaquiff, S-L. ; Muggaunagh, L. and 
 
o 
 
 66 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 C. ; Parkatleva, L. ; near Ardrahan. Caherglassaun, S. 
 and S-L. ; near Kinvarra. Killeely, L. ; near Kilcolgan. 
 Rinvile West, L., Z. and P. ; near Oranmore. Galway 
 dock, P. ; Lenaboy, L. ; near Galway. Spiddle, L. ; 
 Kilcoe West, L. ; Inverrin and Minna, L., P. and C. (fluor 
 spar gangue) ; Derrynea (Loughaunweeny), L., C. and P. ; 
 Lettermuckoo (Carrafmla), L. and P.; Clynagh (Crumpaun), 
 L. ; Booroughaun, L. ; Derroogh South, L. ; Rossaveel, 
 L., P. and C. ; Tully, L. ; Carrowroe South, L. ; Maumeen 
 (Gorumna Island), C. and P. ; Teeranea, C. and P. ; 
 Keeraunbeg, L. ; near Spiddal. Wormhole (Gortmore), 
 L. ; near Moycullen. Knockroe, L. ; near Monivea. 
 Curraghmore, L. and P. ; near Headford. Bally gaily, P. ; 
 Canrawer, L., C., B. and P. ; Cregg, L., C., B. and P. ; 
 Claremo7it,~L. and P. ; Glengowla East and West, L., B., Z., 
 P. and C. (Crystals of green fluor-spar) ; Tonweeroe, L. ; 
 Ardvarne, L. ; Illaunnacreeva, L. and P. ; Moyvoon East, 
 L. and P. ; Lemonfield, P. and L. ; Portacarron, L. ; Barra- 
 tleva, L., P. and C. ; Derroura, L., P. and C. ; Curraghduff 
 West, Middle, and South, C., L. and P.; Gowlaun, P. ; Gort- 
 nashingaun, P. ; Farravaun, P. ; Gorteenwalla, C. and P. ; 
 Ballygally, C. and P. ; Drumminnakill, P. ; New Village, 
 P. ; Barnagorteen, L. and P. ; Eighterard, Carrowmanagh, 
 and Fough, concretions of native sulphur in the Carbonife- 
 rous Limestone ; Eighterard, L. and P. ; Derryeighter, P. ; 
 Leam East, P. ; Letterfore, P. ; Derreennagusfore, Py. ; 
 Deny, Py. ; Currane, P. ; near Oughterard. Ashford, 
 P. ; Doorus, P. ; near Cong. Doughta, P. ; Drums- 
 nauv (Doon), C, M., L. and I. ; Maumean, Py. ; 
 Lackavrea, Py. ; Maumwee, Py. and C. ; Teernakill, P. ; 
 near Maura. Leenaun, L. and C. ; Griggins, S-L. ; near 
 Leenaun. Ardbear, C. ; Boolard, C. ; Cloon, C. ; Derrylea, 
 L. ; Doon, C. ; Doonccn, C. ; Feckeeragh, C. ; High island, 
 
Mineral Localities. 367 
 
 C. ; Dawrosmore, P. ; Cloonlooaun, P. ; Cashleen, P. ; Bojin, 
 C. and P. ; Bamaoran, L.; near Clifden. Kylemore and 
 Gleninagh, Py. ; near Recess. Roundstone, L. ; Murvey, 
 C. ; Dogsbay, C. ; near Roundstone. 
 
 Kerry. 
 
 Vicinity of Ardfert, L. Clogher, S., L. and C. ; near 
 Castle Island. Armagh East, S-L. and Z. ; Meanus, L. 
 and C. ; Ballybrack, S-L. ; near Castlemaine. Ballin- 
 glauna, L. ; Coast east of Cashen river, L. and C. ; Lixnav, 
 L. ; near Causeway. Vicinity of Dunquin, C. Greenlane, 
 C. ; Cromwell's fort and Mucksna, C. ; Ardtully (Cloontoo), 
 C. ; Caher West (Shanagarry) S-L. and C, Caher East, C. ; 
 Gortnacurra, C. ; Killowen, L. ; west of Kenmare, C. ; 
 Public gardens, L. ; near Kenmare. Cahemane, S-L. ; 
 Muckross, C, P. and Cobalt ; Ross island, C, L. and Z. ; 
 near Killarney. Behaghane, C. ; Garrough, C. ; Staigue, 
 C. ; near Sneem. Ballybeggan, L. and C. ; Ballymullen, 
 L. and C. ; Lissooleen, S., L. and C. ; Oak park, L. ; near 
 Tralee. Tinnies Upper, C. ; Oughquick, C. ; Clynacartan, 
 C. ; Garranearagh, C. ; near Cahersiveen. St. Crohan, 
 C. ; near Westcove. 
 
 KlLDARE. 
 
 Ardclogh, L. ; Wheatfield Upper, L. and Z. ; near Cel- 
 bridge. Freagh, L. ; near Edenderry. Punchersgrange, 
 C. ; near Newbridge. 
 
 Kilkenny. 
 
 Castlecomer Coal-field, C-L; near Castlecomer. Bally- 
 gallon, S-L.; near Inistioge. Dunkitt, L. ; near Kilmacon. 
 Knockadrina (Flood Hall), L. and S. ; Knocktopher, C. ; 
 
368 Geology of Ireland, 
 
 near Knocktopher. Grenan, I. ; (red hematite) ; near 
 Thomastown. 
 
 King's County. 
 
 Monasteroris, C , ; near Killan. Blundell mine, L. ; near 
 Edenderry. Slieve Bloom, L. and C. ; near Kinnity. 
 
 Leitrim. 
 
 Creevelea district (Coal Measures), C-L; near Drumkeeran. 
 Gortnaskeagh, C. ; Pollboy, C. ; Barrackpark, S-L. ; Twig- 
 park, S-L. ; near Lurganboy. Gortinee, I. ; near Dromod. 
 
 Limerick. 
 
 Ballycanauna (Ballysteen), S-L. and S. ; Graiguelough, 
 L., Z. and P.; Askeaton, I.; Kilcolman, I. ; near Askeaton. 
 Ballydoole, C. and S-L. ; Charter School, C. ; near Pallas- 
 kenry. Ardgoul South, S-L. ; Freagh, L. ; Boolaglass, 
 L. ; Ballingarrane, S-L., Z., P. and C. ; Cloghatrida, S-L., 
 Z., C. and P. ; Ballinvirick, L. ; near Rathkeale. Mahoo- 
 nagh, L. ; near Newcastle. Oolahill, S-L., C, B. and P. ; 
 near Oola. Carrigbeg, L. ; near Doon. Glin and Loghill 
 (Coal Measures), C-I. ; near Foynes. 
 
 Londonderry. 
 
 Carrick-mountain, I ; near Dungiven. Moydamlaght, 
 I. ; Ballynascreen mountains, I. and P.; Gortnaskea, C-L; 
 near Draperstown. Slieve-Gallion-Carn, I. ; Tirgan and 
 Carndaisy, I. ; near Moneymore, Moyola river, G. 
 
Mineral Localities. 369 
 
 Longford. 
 
 Two miles ESE. of Longford, S-L. Cleenragk, I. ; near 
 Scrabby. Enaghan, I. ; near Arva. 
 
 Louth. 
 
 Clogher, C. Oldbridge, L. and C. ; near Drogheda. 
 Crumlin, L. ; Fairhill, L. ; near Dundalk. Vicinity of 
 Jonesborough, A. Salterstown,. L, and C. ; near Togher. 
 
 Mayo. 
 
 Beldergmore, C. ; Geevraun,. C. ; near Ballycastle. Bally- 
 nastockagh (Bellaveel) L. ; near Ballyhaunis. Vicinity of 
 Louisburg, C. and P. Achill island, P. ; Clare island, 
 P. ; Bolinglana, C, P. and S-L. ; Srahmore, C, P. and S-L. ; 
 near Newport, Tawny crower (Sheefry), S-L~ ; near West- 
 port. Ballymacgibbon, L. ; Ballycurrin, P. ; Gortbrack, 
 L. and P. ; Bunnacunneen,, B. ; near Headford. 
 
 Meath. 
 
 Cloghan, L. ; near Ardcath. South of Athboy,!^. Dol- 
 lardstown, C. and L. ; Painestozvn, C. ; near Slane. Browns- 
 tow7i,C. ; Cusackstoivn, C. ; Kentstown, C. ; near Walters- 
 town, 
 
 MONAGHAN. 
 
 Corbrack, L. ; Cornamucklagh South, L. ; Demaclug, 
 L. ; Derrylusk, L. ; Sra, L. ; near Ballybay. Derryleedigan 
 Jackson, L. and Z. ; near Bellanode. Corduff, M. ; near 
 Bellatrain. Carrickagarvan, S-L. and B. j Cornaloiigk t 
 
 B B 
 
3/0 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 S-L. and B. ; Dromore, L. ; near Castleblayney. Anna- 
 glogh, L. ; Annayalla, L. ; Avalbane, L. ; Avalreagh, L. 
 and Z. ; Carrickaderry, L. ; Carrickanure, L. ; Coolar- 
 traghyS-L.., Z. and B. ; CornamucklaghNorth, L. ; Croaghan, 
 L. ; Crossmore, L. ; Glassdrumman East, L. ; Kilcrow, L. 
 and Z. ; Latnakelly, L. ; Lemgare, L. ; Lisdrumgormly, 
 L. ; Lisglassan, L. and A. ; Tassan, L. ; Tonnagh, L. ; 
 Tullybuck, L. and A. ; Clontibret, A. ; near Monaghan. 
 
 Queen's County. 
 
 Dysart y I. and L. ; Cidlinagh, C-I. ; near Maryborough. 
 £<?#/ Measure hills, C-I. ; near Crettyards. Coolbaun and 
 Ballickmoyler, L. ; Wolf Hill, C-I. ; Moyadd, C-I. ; near 
 Ballickmoyler. 
 
 Roscommon. 
 Lough Allen Coal-field, C-I.; near Keadew. 
 
 Sligo. 
 
 Abbey stown, L. and S. ; Lugawarry, L. ; near Ballysadare. 
 Glencarbury, C, L. and B. ; Tormore, C. and L. ; near 
 Sligo. 
 
 TlPPERARY. 
 
 Clomnurragha, C. ; Gleenoagh Upper, C. ; Lackenacreena, 
 C. ; Reafadda, C. ; Scotchmen's Cooms, I. ; near Cappagh- 
 white. Garrane, S-L.; near Toomavara. Lackamore, C, 
 P., B. and As. ; Tooreenbrien Upper, C. ; near Newport. 
 Coonagh Castle, L. ; near Doon. Tower hill, L. ; near 
 Pallasgreen. Corbally, L. ; Derry Demesne, C. ; Garry- 
 kennedy, L. ; Laghtea, L. ; near Portroe. Cooleen, L. ; near 
 
Mineral Localities. 371 
 
 Borrisoleigh. Rathnaveoge, C. ; near Dunkerrin. Gortna- 
 Imlla, I. ; Upper Church, Graphite and Anthracite ; near 
 Thurles. Bally gowan, S-L. ; Cloo7ianagh, P.; Cooleen, L. ; 
 Coolrnntha, C. ; Garryard East and West, Gorteenadiha 
 (Gurtnadyne),and Gortshaneroe (Ballynoe), S-L. and argen- 
 tiferous C. ; Knockanroe, L., Z., C. and P. ; Lacka, S-L. ; 
 Shallee, East and West, L., S. and C. ; Ballyhourigan, C. ; 
 near Silvermines. Glenough, Turraheen Lower, and 
 Hollyford, B. ; Aherlowvale, S-L., C. and M. ; Ballycohen 
 (Hollyford), C. ; near Tipperary. Earls Hill Colliery, C-I. ; 
 near Killenaule. 
 
 Tyrone. 
 
 Annagher, C-I. ; near Coal Island. Lissan, I. ; Unagh 
 (Slieve Gallion), I. ; near Cookstown. Crockanboy, L. ; 
 Munterlony Mountain, A. ; Teebane West, L. ; near 
 Gortin. Crannogue, C. ; Bardahessiagh, I. ; near Pomeroy. 
 
 WATERFORD. 
 
 Knockane, C. ; Woodstown, C. ; near Annestown. 
 Ballydowane, C. and S-L. ; Ballynagigla, C. ; Ballynarrid, 
 C. ; Ballynasissala, C. ; Kilduane, C. ; Kilmnrrin, C. ; 
 Knockmahon, C, S-L., Z. and Cobalt ; Tankardstown, C. ; 
 Templeyvrick, C. ; Seafield, C. ; near Bunmahon. Carrig- 
 roe, C. ; Knockatrellane (Bally macarbry), C. ; near Bally- 
 namult. Killerguile, I. (red hematite) ; Monminane, L. ; 
 near Carrick-on-Suir. Dttmslig (Slieve Grian), I. ; near 
 Dungarvan. Killelton (Lady's Cove), C. ; Kilminnin, 
 C. ; near Stradbally. Ballykinsella, C. ; near Tramore. 
 Coast opposite Youghal, L. Camphire, S-L. ; near Lis- 
 more. 
 
 B B 2 
 
372 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Wexford. 
 
 Clonmines, L. ; Barrystown, S-L., Z. and I. ; near 
 Carrick-on-Bannow. Gibberpatrick, L. ; St. Tenants, C. ; 
 near Duncormick. Killiane, L. ; South Intake, Wexford 
 harbour, L. and B. ; Forth Mountain, P. and C. ; Kerloge, 
 C. ; vicinity of Finoge bridge, native sulphur in Carboni- 
 ferous Limestone ; near Wexford. Woarwoy bay, C-I. ; 
 near Fethard. Balybrennan, I. ; Aughathlappa, S-L. ; Bree, 
 P. ; Cairn, S-L., Z., C, I. and P. ; Killoughrum, L. ; Mangan, 
 L. ; near Enniscorthy. Ballynastragh, I. ; Courtown har- 
 bour, I. ; Ballymoney, I. ; near Gorey. 
 
 WlCKLOW. 
 
 Bray Head, C. ; near Bray. Douce Mountain, L. and 
 C. ; Powerscourt, L. and C. ; near Enniskerry. Glen of 
 Hollywood, L. Lough Tay, L. ; Lough Dan, L., Z. and C. ; 
 near Roundwood. Ashford, C. ; B allymacahara, C. ; near 
 Ballinalea. Cloghleagh and Knockatillane (Glenasplin- 
 keen), I. and M. ; near Blessington. Boleyley (Moata- 
 moy), L. ; near Baltinglass. Vicinity of Shillelagh, L. ; 
 Carrigroe, L. ; near Tinahely. Brockagh (Luganure and 
 Glendasan), L. ; Lugduff, L., C. and I. ; Camaderry 
 (Seven Churches), S-L., C. and Z. ; near Glendalough. 
 North Prison, Lugnaquillia, L. ; Ballinafunshoge, L. 
 and Z. ; Ballinagoneen, L., Z. and C. ; Ballyboy, L. ; 
 Baravore, L., Z. and B. ; Camenabologue, L. and C. ; 
 Clonkeen, L., Z. and I. ; Clonvalla, L. ; Corrasillagh, L. and 
 Z. ; Cidlentragh Park, L. ; Ballinacarrig Lower, C. ; 
 Ballinaclash, L. ; Ballinagappoge, G. and T. ; Ballycreen, 
 G. ; Muc lagh, G. and I. ; near Rathdrum. Aghavannagh, 
 L. and C. ; Aughrim Lower, C. ; Coolbawn or Coolballintag- 
 
Mineral Localities. 3 7 3 
 
 gart, G. ; Moneyteigue, C, I. and G. ; near Aughrim. 
 Ballinagore, C. and G. ; Ballintemple, L. and G. ; Bally- 
 coog, C, P. and I. ; Ballinasilloge, C, L, P. and G. ; Ballin- 
 v alley, P. and G. ; Gold mine river, G. and T. ; Knockmiller, 
 G. ; Clonwilliam, L. and G. ; Kilacloran, G. ; Templelusk, 
 P. ; Knocknamohill, C, P. and I ; Ballinapark, I. ; Killeagh, 
 C. and P. ; Ballymoneen, I., C. and P. ; Ballygahan Upper 
 and Lower, C. and P. ; Tinnahinch and Kilqueeny, C. and 
 P. ; Ballymnrtagh, C, P., I. and auriferous gaussen ; Kil- 
 cashel, C. and P. ; Knockanode, L. and P. ; Tigroney, C. 
 and P. ; Casilehoward, C. and P. ; Avondale (Meetings), 
 P. ; Shronghmore, P., C. and L. ; Connary Upper, P.,C, S-L., 
 L. and Z. ; Cronebane, P., C, S-L. and S. ; Kilmacoo, C, L., 
 Z., P., A., As. and S-L. ; near Ovoca. Kilmacrea, C. and 
 P. ; Templelyon, I., C. and P. ; Ballykean, C. and P. ; near 
 Redcross. Ballycapple and Ballard, I., M. and C. ; near 
 Wicklow. 
 
374 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 QUARRIES, MINERAL MANURES, AND WATER 
 
 SUPPLY. 
 
 The stones that are utilized in Ireland for building and 
 other economical purposes, may be generally classed as 
 Slate, Slabs, Flags, Marbles and other Limestones, Sand 
 and Gritstones, Granites, Felstones, Whinstones, with 
 others of less importance. 
 
 Slate. 
 
 Slate is either cleaved shale or cleaved clay-rock. If 
 the first, there is always a riband in it ; the cleaved clay- 
 rocks are therefore usually the best slates, or, to use the 
 quarryman's term, are the best " metal." The cleavage of 
 slate in Ireland, as in most other countries, degenerates 
 when the rock is weathered ; and usually a greater or 
 less thickness, or " head " must be removed before the 
 best slates are reached ; consequently considerable 
 capital is required to open a slate quarry and make it 
 profitable. This may account in a great measure for the 
 Irish slates not being more general in the market ; as 
 many undertakings on veins of good slate have failed 
 solely because there was not sufficient capital forth- 
 coming to push on the works to a prosperous termina- 
 tion. 
 
 Usually in the Irish slates the more nearly perpendicular 
 
Quarries. 375 
 
 the cleavage, the more pure and argillaceous the rock ; to 
 this general rule there is an exception, as in the arenaceous 
 rocks belonging to the GlengarifT Grits group, the angle of 
 the cleavage is high, while in the argillaceous rocks it is low, 
 as exemplified in the slates and other rocks on the island 
 of Valentia, County of Kerry. 
 
 The slates are found in rocks of different ages, but all 
 belonging to the Palaeozoic ; numerous small workings 
 are found scattered over the country, but principally in 
 the province of Munster. In Munster the largest and 
 more numerous quarries are in the Killaloe district, or 
 those portions of Clare and Tipperary west and east of 
 the south extremity of Lough Derg, between Broadford 
 in Clare and Portroe in Tipperary. 
 
 Of these quarries the largest is that at Corbally, near 
 Portroe, where there seems to be a nearly inexhaustible 
 supply of excellent slate ; but the quarry is too confined 
 to be worked to the best advantage, and a great deal of 
 what ought to be profit, is spent in raising the slates and 
 rubbish out of the workings, Some of the slate veins in 
 this county have a curve or " wind " in their cleavage, 
 which makes the slates, otherwise excellent, nearly value- 
 less. The slates in this district are in the " Dark Shale 
 series," the lowest division of the Cambro- Silurian. 
 
 The second district in regard to the number of quarries 
 in work, is that generally called the " Ormond Slate 
 quarry district" in the valley of the river Lingaun, at 
 the boundary of not only the Counties of Tipperary and 
 Kilkenny, but also of the provinces of Munster and Lein- 
 ster, the nearest town being Carrick-on-Suir ; the rocks, 
 as in the Killaloe district, belonging to the " Dark Shale 
 series " of the Cambro-Silurians. 
 
 The veins of slate are numerous ; but unfortunately 
 
376 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 they are greatly cut up, shifted and displaced by faults, 
 which adds considerably to the expense of working them ; 
 and when a quarry is in full working order the vein of 
 slate is found to be cut out, necessitating all the work of 
 opening up a quarry to be gone over again. At the 
 present time, all the large workings are in the valley, 
 where the strata must be most broken and displaced. If, 
 however, the works were on the hills, they ought to be 
 more remunerative ; for even if the veins are as much 
 displaced as below, which is not probable, the quarries 
 could be worked by levels and tunnels, which would save 
 the present vast outlay for lifting and pumping. 
 
 In the slate vein at the Victoria quarries, also on the 
 hills to the SW., Mr. Hughes, Junior, one of the agents of 
 the Company, has lately found most interesting fossils, of 
 which the following is a list supplied by Mr. James Budd, 
 of Tramore, County Waterford : — Graptolites Hisingari, 
 Diplograpsus pristis, Didymograpsus ? Fucoids, Buthotrepis 
 antiquata. 
 
 In the County Cork, in the Silurian rocks of the GlengarifT 
 Grits type, various trials have been made on the slate veins, 
 but the only ones that have been prosecuted with vigour 
 are those belonging to the Knight of Kerry in the island of 
 Valentia. The veins in this island do not give good roof- 
 ing slates, but they are famed for the slabs made from 
 them ; all the larger sizes of slabs supplied to the London 
 market coming from this locality. The best roofing slates 
 are in a vein in the townland of Coole, and in another in 
 the adjoining island of Beginish. 
 
 In the " Yellow Sandstone " of the same county, or 
 in beds immediately below it, good red slates have been 
 raised in different places, as at Crookhaven and on 
 Sherkin Island, but no extensive works have been opened. 
 
Quarries. 377 
 
 Some of the bright green slates at the base of the group 
 ought to supply a good slate for ornamental purposes ; 
 as yet, however, no quarries have been opened in them. 
 Blackish grey slate veins occur in the Carboniferous strata, 
 and have been worked in places in the County of Cork, 
 the largest quarries being at Benduff near Rosscarbery, at 
 Clonakilty, and the Old Head of Kinsale. 
 
 In the County Tipperary, in the vale of Aherlow, are slate 
 veins, on one of which in olden times an extensive quarry 
 was opened. The rocks here however, are of an uncer- 
 tain age, as this is one of the tracts that may possibly 
 belong to the Cambrians. One of the veins is of very 
 superior quality, and capable of producing excellent roof- 
 ing slates and slabs, but the quarry is distant from either 
 water or railway carriage. The cleavage is nearly per- 
 pendicular. 
 
 In the County of Waterford, in the " Dark shale series," 
 slates have been worked east of Kilmacthomas, and 
 farther northward, in different places in the Rathgormuck 
 district, some of these veins seem to be of good quality. 
 
 In the County of Wexford, near Newtownbarry, there is 
 a vein from which fair slates for local use are raised ; the 
 works, however, as yet are shallow. 
 
 In the County of Wicklow, at Clonwilliam, a little S. of 
 Wooden bridge, is a vein of slate from which is being raised 
 a material excellent for the manufacture of "school slates;" 
 also a handsome green roofing slate. In the same neigh- 
 bourhood, north and south of the Aughrim river, is a vein 
 easily wrought into large slabs. This was, to a small 
 extent, worked in the townland of Ballycoog, principally 
 for tombstones. In the same county, in different places 
 south and south-east of Rathdrum, there have been trial 
 openings and workings on slate veins. Those in the 
 
3J& Geology of Irela7td. 
 
 Kilmacrea hills, north of Redcross,were the most extensive, 
 and good slates seem to have been got in places, but the 
 veins are narrow ; as, however, they could be easily 
 worked, they ought to be remunerative. At Glanmore, to 
 the north, but in Cambrian rocks, a quarry was opened 
 by Mr. Synge, from which were procured slates stated by 
 Kane to be " of a quality and appearance fully equal to 
 those imported from Bangor." 
 
 In the County Mayo, in the Cambro-Silurian rocks near 
 Westport, and probably on the same geological horizon as 
 those already mentioned, slate veins have been worked a 
 little, but as they have not been followed in depth, their 
 quality cannot be stated. Farther south-westward, in the 
 country north of Killary Harbour, in the neighbourhood 
 of Doolough, and also margining the bay, are slate veins, 
 some apparently of good quality, which are as yet untried, 
 except at Derrygarve, where an excellent slate is found, 
 but here the vein is too insignificant to be followed. In 
 other places in the same group of Cambro-Silurian rocks, 
 slate veins occur ; it is, however, unnecessary to enume- 
 rate them. In the " Salrock beds " — Silurian age — at the 
 farm-yard of Salrock, there seems to be a good bed of pur- 
 plish slate ; as, however, most of the rocks of this age in 
 this portion of Galway are much affected by " concealed 
 joints," it is possible the vein may not be of much value. 
 
 Slabs. Flags. 
 
 The slabs made from slate rocks have been mentioned ; 
 others are the thick slabs into which the foliated granites 
 are capable of being split, which are excellent for the 
 flagging of pathways in towns ; those procured from the 
 Leinster granite being extensively used in Dublin. In 
 places in the Old Red Sandstone, and in the similarly 
 
Quarries. 379 
 
 constituted shore beds of Carboniferous age, parallel 
 systems of fine jointing occur in some sandstones, render- 
 ing them capable of being split into slabs ; this is also the 
 case in some of the limestone of the Burren type. The 
 slabs due to fine jointing are usually of less value than 
 flags, as they are liable to be easily broken across. 
 
 In the " flagstone-series " at the base of the Middle Coal 
 Measures there are even-bedded thin but tough flags, 
 on an average about two inches thick, which can be raised 
 either in small or large sizes ; the principal places in 
 which they occur have already been mentioned in Chap- 
 ter VI. on the Coal Measures. 
 
 In the Lower Carboniferous there are local series of 
 flags, those of most value occurring in the Old Red 
 Sandstone, the " Shore-beds," and the Calp. Near 
 Kinnitty, King's County, are thick flags, capable of being 
 easily worked to a beautiful even surface and edge ; 
 and the same class of stone is found in the Old Red 
 Sandstone and the " Shore-beds " in other localities. 
 
 In the Calp, except in Ulster, the flags are usually 
 limestone, and thick bedded, but in places they are 
 arenaceous and thin bedded ; the latter occuring near 
 Loughrea, County of Galway, at Rathgar, County of 
 Dublin, and in other places. In the Carboniferous Slate of 
 the County of Cork good flags have been noted, as near 
 Adrigole, Bantry Bay ; but in no place have they been 
 extensively worked. In places in the Triassic rocks of 
 Ulster there are coarse flags, but not to be compared with 
 those of the Palaeozoic rocks. 
 
 In the Lower Palaeozoic rocks good even flags are not 
 very common ; but they are locally worked, as at Mylers- 
 park quarry, to the SE. of New Ross, County Wexford ; 
 also in other localities. 
 
^8o Geology of Ireland. 
 
 3 
 
 Marbles and Limestones. 
 
 The Irish marbles are not only very varied, but some of 
 them are handsome, and even beautiful. To Messrs. Sib- 
 thorpe of Dublin, and Colles of Kilkenny, who are best 
 acquainted with those in the market, we are indebted for 
 valuable information about them, which has been incor- 
 porated in the following descriptions ; information has 
 been derived also from Kane's " Industrial Resources of 
 Ireland." 
 
 The marbles principally worked are black, grey, red, 
 mottled, green, and white, in colour. The Upper Lime- 
 stone gives more marbles than any other group, but 
 the best red varieties occur in the Lower Limestone ; 
 while the white and green marbles are different kinds of 
 metamorphic Lower Palaeozoic calcareous rocks. Those 
 quarries enumerated by Messrs. Sibthorpe and Colles 
 will be described first, the others afterwards. 
 
 In Donegal, near Church Hill, is a white marble (meta- 
 morphic), value unknown, as it has not been opened up. 
 SSW. of Armagh is the well-known red Carboniferous 
 limestone, formerly much worked, but its colour is light 
 and unsatisfactory, and of late its place has been taken 
 by the Cork and Belgian marbles. Near Belleek, County 
 Fermanagh, is a fossiliferous marble of a very peculiar 
 colour, but the beds are thin. In Partry, Mayo, there 
 is a fair black marble, but not in sufficient quantity to 
 form a large quarry. SE. of Oughterard, County Gal- 
 way, are black stones that can be raised in great lengths ; 
 they have not been, however, favourably received in the 
 market. In the same vicinity, but nearer to Oughterard, 
 
Quarries. 381 
 
 in the townland of Billymore, is a " shelly black " stone 
 like that of Kilkenny. 
 
 A little NE. of Gal way, at Angliham, are the world- 
 famed black marbles. The bed locally called "the London 
 bed," which, according to Mr. Sibthorpe, is the best black 
 marble known, unfortunately has now a great " clearing " 
 over it, and has dipped considerably below the level of 
 Lough Corrib, so that it is nearly impossible to keep the 
 water out. In the same neighbourhood is an excellent 
 grey stone, but only as yet worked for tombs and other 
 local purposes. At the Merlin Park quarries is a bed 
 of black stone, considered by Mr. Sibthorpe to be nearly 
 equal to the Angliham " London bed." 
 
 The fossiliferous crinoidal marble of Clonmacnoise, 
 near Athlone, is well known and much used, but the beds 
 are thin. Near Bagenalstown and elsewhere in the 
 County of Carlow are black marbles ; but the colour is 
 not so good as that of the Angliham stone. At Kilkenny 
 are the well known marbles. Of these there are three 
 varieties ; " shelly black," " pure black," and " dark grey." 
 
 The shelly black was one of the first marbles worked 
 in Ireland. Nearly two centuries ago it was worked by 
 the great-great-grandfather of the present proprietor, 
 Mr. Richard Colles, into chimney-pieces, picture frames, 
 and various other articles, by machinery of his own 
 invention, worked by water power. There is a very old 
 and popular belief that this stone when raised is perfectly 
 black, and that afterwards by degrees the white fossils 
 become apparent. Mr. Colles, however, states that he 
 never knew an instance in which this occurred, as the 
 fossils are always to be seen from the first. The pure 
 black is hard and fine grained, a very fine slab being in 
 O'Connell's tomb at Glassnevin, Dublin. 
 
382 Geology of Ii'eland. 
 
 In the south part of Clare, and in the County of 
 Limerick, in various places in the Lower Limestone, are 
 red and mottled limestones. Specimens of nearly all 
 the Limerick " reds " can be seen in Adare Manor, the seat 
 of the Earl of Dunraven. During its erection a con- 
 siderable quantity of stone, in fact all the red marble, 
 was taken out of the Clorane quarry, to the north of 
 Adare ; but since then the lower beds have become red, 
 which proves that the red colour is due to a chemical 
 change in the rocks. All the red marble quarries in 
 Limerick and Clare are enumerated in the* Geological 
 Survey Memoirs. 
 
 A pinkish-grey stone, in places yellowish, was used for 
 the beautiful pillars in the cloisters of Askeaton abbey, 
 said to have been built by the Great Desmonds 
 (Fitzgeralds) in the fourteenth or fifteenth century. The 
 exact place where the stone was procured is unknown, 
 but from the fossils it would appear to have been from 
 the Lower Limestone of the adjacent county. At 
 Thomond Gate, Limerick, a black marble was formerly 
 worked ; and in the Railway Terminus quarry, but at a 
 great depth, an excellent bed of black stone was found, 
 while a similar stone was discovered by Mr. William 
 Barrington in the Railway cutting between Adare and 
 Rathkeale. 
 
 The red and other coloured marbles are rather numer- 
 ous in the County of Cork, as near Fermoy, Little Island, 
 Buttevant, Midleton, and other places. The Little Island 
 u red " has been used in the Liverpool Exchange, in 
 Manchester, &c. The Fermoy red at the R. C. Church, 
 Thomas Street, Dublin ; and the Cathedral, Queenstown. 
 The Midleton stone is very different from the ordinary 
 Cork type, as it varies from a warm dove colour to a rich 
 
Quarries. 383 
 
 variegated marble, while in other places the colour is equal 
 to jasper ; it is now much used, although only very lately 
 known. In Kerry, trials have been lately made on whitish, 
 pinkish, and greyish stones, but as yet with no practical 
 results. 
 
 The Gal way marble {pphiolite and ophicalcite), known 
 as the " Connemara greens," occurs in various places, but at 
 present the only quarries worked are at Streamstown, near 
 Clifden, by Mr. Colles ; and at Lissoughter, near Recess, 
 by Mr. Sibthorpe ; while numerous articles of vertu are 
 carved out of it by Mr. Macdonnell, a self-taught artist in 
 Clifden. " The buildings in which this stone has been used, 
 are very numerous, but the largest column yet obtained 
 is at St. Ann's, County Dublin, the princely residence of 
 Sir Arthur Guinness, Bart. This marble is a good stone 
 for inside decoration, but for outside work it is nearly useless, 
 as it weathers so rapidly. A short time since, it and some 
 of the other Irish marbles were much used by English 
 architects for outside work, the consequence being that all 
 alike acquired for a time a bad reputation." 
 
 A rock allied to the ophiolites is a handsome greenish- 
 brown speckled stone (eklogite), found at Currywongaun, 
 near Kylemore Castle, in north-west Galway, and at 
 Tonaderrew, south of Ballyhean, Co. Mayo. There is 
 also a white stone at Craggs, to the south of Letterfrack, 
 on which a quarry has been opened by Dr. Ritchie of 
 Belfast. This stone is of " excellent quality, equal to the 
 Italian, but it rises in small blocks." The latest accounts 
 state that the size of the stones increases in depth, and it 
 is hoped that good sized blocks will eventually be raised. 
 
 Other localities for marbles are ; in the County of 
 Dublin, red at Johnstown, and black at Celbridge ; in 
 the County Tipperary, black near Portumna bridge, and 
 
384 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 at Castle Biggs ; in the County of Galway, an excellent 
 grey stone near Ballinasloe ; this can be raised in large 
 sizes, and was extensively used in Lady Coutts's Markets in 
 London ; in the County of Clare, a fine bourdella marble 
 at Clondeslough ; in the County of Kerry, black, and white 
 variegated stone near Listowel and Tralee ; from the latter 
 locality it used to be largely exported ; a striped red and 
 white marble at Killarney, and near Dunkerron marble of 
 various colours, black, white, purplish, yellow, and veined ; 
 in the County Longford, brownish red, mottled grey, at 
 Ballymahon. Black stones of different qualities occur at 
 Castlebar, County Mayo ; near Glasslough, County Mon- 
 aghan ; Rathmullen, County Donegal, and Carrickahedy, 
 County Londonderry. 
 
 Good limestone for general building purposes occurs 
 nearly everywhere in the Upper Limestone, those of the 
 Burren type giving the best material. It is found in 
 numerous places in Clare, Galway, Mayo, Roscommon, 
 Sligo, Longford, &c. Many of the quarries have already 
 been mentioned, but there are others of note. At Ross 
 and Ardbraccan, in Meath, are well known stones, and 
 much used ; at Sheepshouse, County of Louth ; at Eden- 
 derry and Tullamore, King's County, there are very superior 
 stones, some being marbles ; at Ballyduff, one mile NW. 
 of Tullamore, the stone can be raised in large blocks j the 
 tracery, windows, and dressing, of St. Patrick's Cathedral 
 Dublin, are from this quarry ; also columns, &c. in various 
 public dwellings in Dublin. 
 
 At Moate, Westmeath, there is a very good quality of 
 stone, which was largely used in the new Exchange, 
 Manchester, and at other places in England. There are 
 also good stones in the neighbourhood of Carlingford, 
 County Louth, that have been largely exported to England. 
 
Quarries. 385 
 
 The well known Milverton quarries near Skerries, County 
 of Dublin, should also be mentioned. 
 
 The White Limestones of Cretaceous age in Ulster have 
 been largely used for building stones, as in Belfast and 
 Moneymore ; they do not, however, cut with as even faces 
 as the Carboniferous rocks. These rocks at Larne and 
 Glenarm, as previously described, are manufactured into 
 whiting. 
 
 Formerly, all the limestones of the different formations 
 were extensively used to burn into lime for agricultural 
 purposes. This, however, unfortunately for the country, 
 has been greatly done away with since the introduction of 
 guano, and now there are thousands of limekilns that have 
 not been alight for over twenty years. The lime produced 
 from the Cretaceous rocks is usually " rich," and although 
 good for land, it is not the best for mortar. The Meta- 
 morphic and other Lower Palaeozoic limestones in general 
 contain impurities, and many of them are difficult to burn 
 without their slagging, while when burnt, they give a small 
 return of lime ; some of them, however, produce hydraulic 
 limes ; this is also the case with many of the limestones 
 belonging to the Calp. In general, the Fenestella and 
 Burren limestones are good lime-producers, but in places 
 they are magnesian, which takes away from them their 
 value for building purposes. 
 
 Pure limestones make good road metal, when the traffic 
 is not excessive, but the argillaceous or Calp limestone 
 always makes dirty roads, and the former extensive use 
 of it for metalling its streets has given to the capital of 
 Ireland the sobriquet of " Dirty Dublin." 
 
 c C 
 
'386 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 Hydraulic Limestone. 
 
 A list of the Irish stones capable of making hydraulic 
 limes was drawn out by Sir Richard Griffith, who went 
 into the subject ; but unfortunately it was never published, 
 and cannot now be found ; only a few localities therefore 
 can be mentioned. Hardman records an hydraulic lime- 
 stone at Drumreagh, County Tyrone; Egan one on 
 Shelling hill, Benburb, County Armagh ; Major-General 
 Scott, eminent for his researches in this subject, mentions 
 " a good hydraulic limestone, at Castle Caldwell, County 
 Fermanagh," and Mr. John Kelly records a stone below 
 high water mark in Lough Swilly, near Farland point, 
 capable of producing a lime that will set under water. 
 
 Other localities are, Robertstown, east of Foynes, 
 County Limerick ; Courtown, County Wexford, a limestone 
 in the Cambro- Silurian rocks; south of Wexford in the 
 Carboniferous limestone there are beds having hydraulic 
 qualities in different quarries ; and in the Silurian rocks at 
 Toormakeady. County Mayo, there is a limestone said to 
 have similar qualities. 
 
 In connection with the hydraulic limes may be men- 
 tioned " a viscid greyish substance, which, when dried and 
 mixed with lime, makes an hydraulic cement." According 
 to Mr. J. Nolan it occurs in the drift to the north-east of 
 Ballynamona, on the north of Lough Corrib, County of 
 Galway. 
 
 Sand and Grit Stones. 
 
 Stones of these kinds occur in all the groups from 
 the Triassic downwards ; but the best for fine tool-work 
 are found among the Triassic and Carboniferous rocks. 
 
Quarries. . 387 
 
 The Triassic rocks are usually of red or reddish colours, 
 but some are white, yellow, and brown. The most exten- 
 sive quarries in them seem to be those in Scrabo Hill and 
 Dundonald, County Down, but there are various others in 
 different places in the province of Ulster. 
 
 The best Carboniferous sandstones worked at the present 
 time, are in Tyrone and Londonderry ; some of them, as, 
 for example, near Draperstown, Londonderry, are in the 
 Calp, while those in the County of Tyrone are in both 
 the Calp and the Burren Limestones. According to Mr. 
 Sibthorpe, the best of the Tyrone stone has been sub- 
 stituted for Portland stone. Formerly these stones were 
 largely exported, but many of the old quarries are now 
 closed, as the " clearing," or " head " of drift, became too 
 expensive to remove. 
 
 In the Connaught Coal Measures there are superior 
 stones for tool- work, but they have not as yet got into the 
 market, principally on account of the expense of carriage. 
 Some of these stones seem to be as good as those of 
 Tyrone and Londonderry. Fair stones are also found in 
 the Coal Measures of Leinster and Munster. For general 
 work there are excellent stones in many places in the 
 Old Red Sandstone, and in the Carboniferous " Shore 
 Beds," some being of superior quality ; such a vein is said 
 to exist at the boundary of Clare and Galway, near 
 Mount Shannon. The conglomerates, such as those in 
 the promontory of Hook, County of Wexford, can be 
 raised in large blocks, very suitable for piers, and other 
 marine structures. The value of most of the stones 
 belonging to the Old Red Sandstone, and the Shore Beds, 
 for ornamental purposes, is much deteriorated on account 
 of the instability and variations in their colours. In the 
 Glengariff or Dingle Grits, massive blocks can be raised: 
 
 C C 2 
 
388 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 they have not, however, been used in any of the extensive 
 sea works, as it has been found cheaper to bring materials 
 by sea from other places where quarries are already open. 
 Some of the Cambrian, Cambro-Silurian, and Coal 
 Measure grits, make good road metals ; also the quartzites 
 and quartz-rocks. The hard quartzose grits of Cambrian 
 age at Bray Head, County of Wicklow, are now being exten- 
 sively quarried, and carried to Dublin to mend the streets ; 
 a similar quartzose grit was cut through near Newtown- 
 mountkennedy, in making the tunnel for the Vartry 
 Water Works. Quartzite and quartz-rocks are much 
 used in the County of Wexford, for road metal, and grit- 
 stones in other places. 
 
 Granite and Elvan. 
 
 The granitic rocks of Ireland are very variable in 
 character. Some are good handsome stones, easily 
 worked, and of great durability, but excepting the 
 quarries near Dalkey to build Kingstown-harbour, no 
 extensive quarries have been opened in them. 
 
 In the Dalkey quarries the stones are of different 
 qualities ; they also seem to be of different ages, masses 
 of the newer granite coming up through the older. The 
 better class of stone cannot be surpassed for texture, for 
 hardness when free from its quarry water, and for the 
 readiness with which it could be squared and dressed. 
 From other places in the Leinster range the granites have 
 been largely procured for columns and other works in 
 the public buildings of Dublin and places in England. 
 Most of the stones thus used have been procured from 
 surface stones. These surface stones are peculiar, for 
 although they have lost all their quarry water, yet they 
 
Quarries. 389 
 
 are easily worked. This seems in a great measure due to 
 the " grain," or structure like foliation, which, as previ- 
 ously mentioned, is found in all these granites. They 
 are, however, of two distinct qualities, the older granites 
 (Pre- Silurian) being for the most part good stones ; while 
 the newer (Post-Carboniferous ? ), although they work 
 readily, become discoloured and weather more or less 
 rapidly. Very good stones are procured at Ballyknockan 
 quarry to the SE. of Blessington. 
 
 At Carnsore, in the extreme south of Wexford, are 
 perhaps some of the oldest granites in Ireland, they being 
 of Cambrian age. Most of them are of metamorphic 
 origin, and consequently not the best for tool-work, but 
 in the immediate vicinity of Carnsore there is a very 
 superior vein of granite with floors, end, and backs 
 (horizontal and perpendicular joints), that render the rock 
 capable of being easily raised in large blocks very 
 suitable for sea-works ; this granite has not as yet been 
 worked. 
 
 In the County of Galway the granites and Elvans are 
 most varied, many of them being extremely handsome 
 stones. The great mass of the granite is of meta- 
 morphic origin, but in different places, especially in the 
 neighbourhood of the town of Galway, there are numer- 
 ous veins and protrusions of granitic rocks (granites and 
 elvans), many of them being both handsome and suitable 
 for tool-work ; yet none of them have been brought into 
 the market. Some are red, others grey, or of mixed red 
 and yellow ; or red, yellow, and green ; also purplish 
 mottled or porphyritic, and of other varieties ; one very 
 handsome variety is a rapakivi porphyry, another being 
 of a rich chocolate colour, spotted with deep red and 
 green, similar to some of the continental porphyries that 
 
390 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 are so much prized. In Illaun Dara, and in places on the 
 mainland in the neighbourhood of Roundstone Bay, are 
 granites which are easily raised in large squared blocks, 
 and are very suitable for piers and such works. 
 
 The newer basal elvans (Post-Silurian), such as that 
 near Waterloo Bridge, Clifden, dresses readily; but the 
 older ones (granitone and allied rocks), also the meta- 
 morphosed Plutonic rocks, including all those that may be 
 classed under the general name of Hornblende-rock, 
 almost invariably are bad for tool-work ; but they cannot 
 be excelled for rough sea-walls on account of their great 
 weight and their capabilities of bearing nearly any 
 amount of wear and tear. 
 
 At Bessbrook, near Goraghwood, County Armagh, a 
 quarry has been lately opened in a pale bluish-grey granite, 
 and one at Goraghwood in a porphyritic granitoid elvan. 
 These quarries are now in active work, and the stones are 
 shipped largely for monuments and public buildings, 
 finished in every style up to the best polished work. At 
 Ballymagreehan, near Castlewellan, County Down, great 
 expense was gone to in opening a quarry, from which 
 the steps and plinths of the Albert memorial, Hyde 
 Park, London, were procured, but shortly afterwards the 
 works were closed. In the County of Donegal, where 
 there is as great a variety as in the County Galway, works 
 were established near Buncrana, but " the stones manu- 
 factured were very variable in colour, probably from 
 being top stones, which got them into bad repute, and 
 the work did not turn out a commercial success." 
 
 The granites and elvans in places are used for road 
 metal ; the granites and silicious elvans make a good dry 
 clean road, but in general they are unsuitable for anyroad 
 on which there is an excessive traffic ; the basic elvans, 
 
Quarries. 391 
 
 however, are usually excellent road metal, but as they 
 are so hard and expensive to break, the contractors 
 rarely use them, except when compelled. In the places 
 in the Counties of Wexford, Waterford, and elsewhere, 
 where they are used, the roads are very superior to those 
 of the neighbouring localities. 
 
 Felstones and Traps (Whinstones). 
 
 As building stones the rocks of these kinds are usually 
 not very suitable for tool-work, although excellent for 
 general building purposes. Some of the felstones, how- 
 ever, especially the porphyrites, are good and handsome 
 stones, such as those in the neighbourhood of Glenflesk, 
 near Killarney. Of the County of Down rock Traill 
 writes, "There are a number of porphyritic dykes 
 which penetrate the Cambro-Silurian rocks, many of 
 which would form highly ornamental building stones ; 
 such as the dolerites and porphyrites occurring along 
 the shore south of Newcastle, at St. John's point, and in 
 the Ard promontory, also some inland near Ballynahinch." 
 
 They do not as a rule yield blocks of great size, and 
 are as yet almost wholly unworked, but are " capable of 
 producing very beautiful stones of sufficient dimensions 
 for polishing and for architectural purposes." Remarks 
 similar to these, on the felstones of other localities, will be 
 found in the reports of Du Noyer and others of the Irish 
 geologists. Some of the eurites and dolerites of the 
 County of Dublin and elsewhere, as years ago pointed out 
 by Oldham and Jukes, are suitable for paving stones, 
 similar to those now being imported from England for 
 the Dublin streets and tramways. 
 
392 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 A rock allied to felstone is extensively worked at 
 Belleek, County Fermanagh, to manufacture into kaolin 
 or porcelain clay. It is possible this rock belongs more 
 properly to the granitic rocks, but in various other places 
 there is petrosilex similar to the rocks that in China 
 are manufactured into kaolin. Dykes of petrosilex are 
 specially numerous in Errisbeg, the country westward of 
 Roundstone, County of Galway ; while Warren recorded 
 many dykes in the area to the north of the Erriff valley, 
 County of Mayo. They have also been observed in 
 Wexford and neighbouring counties in the neighbourhood 
 of the granitic districts. The rocks suitable for the manu- 
 facture of kaolin have already been mentioned in the 
 last chapter. 
 
 Manures. 
 
 There are various mineral substances that can be used 
 as fertilizers of the ground ; some, however, have to be 
 artificially treated. These (often local) manures were 
 formerly in great request, but now foreign products, 
 greatly to the detriment of the land, and the resources 
 of the country, have nearly altogether superseded them. 
 
 Lime as a manure has already been mentioned. It 
 is beneficial to all classes of drained land ;* but to those 
 of a calcareous nature too much must not be added. It 
 may be used when fully burnt (quick lime), when half 
 burnt, or when ground up unburnt — when half burnt it is 
 very effective, if immediate results are not required, as the 
 stones " shell," and the lime is imparted to the land by 
 
 * All the limy manures if applied to undrained land which is impregnated 
 with iron are deleterious, as they make the iron soluble, and thus liable to be 
 absorbed by the plants growing on the land ; but when such soils are pro- 
 perly drained these manures are most beneficial. 
 
Manures. 393 
 
 degrees. In only a few localities is the ground limestone 
 used; yet it is a highly valuable manure, especially on light 
 peaty soils, because while fertilizing the land it adds to its 
 weight and substance It ought to be more generally 
 adopted, especially in those places where fuel is dear, as 
 ground limestone will give nearly as quick, and much more 
 lasting, returns than " quick lime." The use of Gypsum as 
 a manure has been mentioned in Chapter XXI. page 359. 
 
 Another former favourite was marly gravel, or " Corn 
 gravel " as it was called in Munster, as a coating of this 
 material on wheat land greatly increased the crop. This 
 gravel is very useful on upland, if not used in excess ; 
 while on drained bogs and moors it is nearly invaluable. 
 In the latter cases scarcely too much can be used if added 
 gradually, and time be given to allow it to blend into, and 
 mix with, the peaty soil. The marl that occurs under many 
 of the bogs was also used similarly to the "corn gravel." 
 At the present time most of the gravel pits of Munster 
 are levelled in ; while the marl under the bogs is rarely 
 raised. 
 
 In parts of Wexford and Wicklow there are marls and 
 shell-sands (manure gravels), which were extensively 
 used as manure. The marl was raised and allowed to 
 " melt," or disintegrate, under atmospheric influences, 
 during which process the injurious ingredients were dissi- 
 pated into the air, or carried off by rain and runlets ; 
 while the manure gravel was raised and used as bedding 
 or " soil " for the cattle, prior to its being applied 
 to the land. The use of the marl is now almost obsolete, 
 although the manure gravels are still used a little. The 
 marl has similar qualities to those of ground limestone, 
 and corn gravel, while the manure gravels are good except 
 on light soils. 
 
394 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 The ^Eolian drift and other sands were much used 
 formerly, in Ireland, as manure. Those with sufficient 
 limy matter have very similar effects to lime, but are more 
 effective on stiff retentive soils. The silicious varieties are 
 invaluable on marls, and very useful in stiff clays. Off 
 the south-west coast of Cork are large banks of " shell- 
 sand," and twenty-five years ago a large fleet of " sand 
 boats " was employed in dredging this up and boating it 
 to the different harbours and piers, from which it was carted 
 for miles into the interior ; while in some localities, where 
 the banks were exposed at low water, innumerable carts 
 and boats were loaded during ebb tide. This trade has 
 now nearly ceased, although the " shell sand " was a most 
 useful manure on all classes of land, especially if at a 
 distance from the sea. 
 
 " Dolerite sand " is in many cases a natural fertilizer. 
 Much of the rich land in the plain of Limerick is due to 
 the debris of the melaphyres, eurites, and tuffs ; the same 
 thing occurs in the vicinity of Croghan Hill, King's 
 County, and near Castlebar, County Mayo ; while in the 
 latter county, west of Toormakeady, the effects of this 
 sand are most conspicuous, the debris of a bed of mela- 
 phyre forming a rich belt of pasture land in the Silurian 
 conglomerates. 
 
 " Growan," or decomposed granite seems also to be a 
 fertilizer under certain conditions, as seen in the County 
 of Carlow, the debris of the granite mixed with the 
 limestone gravel making rich soil. The disintegrated 
 melaphyres, dolerites, and granites, furnish limy gravels 
 and clays, alkalies, and soluble silica; and they are cal- 
 culated to sufficiently supplement most of the deficiencies 
 in the composition of any soil solely derived from merely 
 calcareous rocks. 
 
Water Sttpply. 395 
 
 Sulphur ore (pyrite), although not in itself a fertilizer, is 
 extensively used for making sulphuric acid (Vitriol), so 
 valuable in the manufacture of artificial manure. The 
 Sulphur ores of the Ovoca mines are thus utilized in 
 the chemical works at Arklow, at Wicklow, in Dublin, in 
 Cork, in Belfast, and elsewhere. 
 
 Apatite (phosphate of lime), also used in the manufacture 
 of manures, occurs in the Counties of Dublin, Down, 
 Antrim, Galway, and elsewhere ; but as yet no vein of 
 sufficient size to be worked economically is known. 
 
 Water Supply. 
 
 The supply of water in a district, especially of that part 
 of the water which issues from springs, is largely dependent 
 upon the petrological character of the rocks, and the 
 geological structure of that district. Sir Robert Kane, 
 F.R.S., in his " Industrial Resources of Ireland/' gives an 
 estimate of the rainfall and an exhaustive account of the 
 surface water and the uses to which it can be put. He 
 also points out that the water power might be much more 
 utilized than it has been. The Upper Bann only, " is fully 
 economized in Ireland ; its banks presenting a picture of 
 industry, of comfort, and intelligence which is a pattern to 
 other districts." Observations since made, show that the 
 average rainfall is greater than was estimated by Kane ; 
 but, otherwise, what he states is applicable to Ireland of 
 the present day. We shall here, without going into much 
 detail, give a short discussion of the various rocks of 
 Ireland, beginning with the Eruptive rocks, in reference 
 to their absorbent powers, and the probability of procur- 
 ing water from them, either by sinking wells or by driving 
 levels across them. 
 
396 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 The eruptive granitic, felspathic, and such other rocks, 
 except the tuffs, and perhaps some of the traps, have small 
 absorbent powers. Most of the water falling on areas of 
 such rocks runs off rapidly, and pounded or collected 
 water is rarely found, except in the surface accumulations 
 (drift, alluvium and bog), or in breaks in the strata, such 
 as dykes of fault-rock and growan, or the fissures adjoining 
 newer eruptive rocks, and in mineral veins.* Dykes of 
 fault-rock and growan, if in valleys or extensive flats, 
 often give a large and continuous supply of water, due, 
 not so much to percolation through the rocks which they 
 traverse, as to the drainage into them from surface 
 deposits. However, as such dykes always contain more 
 or less metallic or other extraneous matter, and in some 
 cases, even, can be profitably worked as lodes, the water 
 derived from them is often tainted by their mineral 
 contents. 
 
 Springs are frequent along the margins of tracts and 
 courses of eruptive rocks ; also in the tracts, when beds 
 or other masses of tuffs are inter-stratified with the other 
 rocks. Thus Pallas Hill, County of Limerick, which is 
 composed of Carboniferous melaphyres with some beds of 
 tuff, is famed for the numerous springs on it ; these, how- 
 ever, are not solely due to the beds of tuff, as many of 
 them are on lines of fault that dislocate, and sometimes 
 shift, the rocks. 
 
 The metamorphic rocks generally have but small 
 absorbent power, and this is in an inverse ratio to the 
 
 * A remarkable supply of water was found in the syenite of Town Hill 
 near St. Helier, Jersey, in sinking the well laid out by Major Humphry, R.E., 
 for Regent's Fort. In the above description growan dykes, although in 
 general a variety of fault-rock, are mentioned separately, as they possess very 
 distinctive characters. 
 
Water Supply. 397 
 
 intensity of the action to which they have been subjected ; 
 the metamorphic granite absorbing less than the gneiss, 
 and the gneiss than the schist, while the " sub-meta- 
 morphic rocks " act very like the unaltered ones. There 
 is, however, an exception in the quartz-rock, whether 
 unaltered or altered, which, as mentioned at page 12, 
 gives off copious springs ; while quartzite (metamorphosed 
 grits and sandstones) does not do so ; this is markedly 
 instanced at Howth, County Dublin, in the Forth moun- 
 tains, County Wexford, also in the Bennabeola Mountains, 
 County Galway, and in other places ; where the principal 
 springs issue from the quartz-rock or the lines of fault 
 connected with it. This is due, not to the permeable 
 character of the rock material itself, but to the innumerable 
 regular and irregular joints in the mass, through which the 
 water percolates. There are also in many of the metamor- 
 phic districts, permeable beds of limestone and other 
 calcareous schists, that collect water to be afterwards 
 returned to the surface in springs. 
 
 The general character of all the older Palaeozoic rocks, 
 excepting the limestones and such like, is to be imper- 
 meable ; but the Cambrians and Cambro-Silurians are so 
 traversed and broken up by faults, that they are generally 
 capable of containing a vast quantity of water, which 
 finds its way to the surface in innumerable springs, but 
 some of these, especially in the Cambro-Silurian Mineral 
 Districts, are chalybeate or cupreous. In many of the 
 districts, supplies of water are stored in small lakes, whose 
 basins have been produced by the rupturing and shrinkage 
 of the rocks. It is, therefore, always possible when a town 
 is situated at a lower level than ground formed of these 
 rocks, to supply it with water, either by taking it from one 
 of such lakes, or by tapping springs by a level driven 
 
398 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 across two or more lines of faults. Villages or small 
 towns situated on these formations and not requiring a 
 large and continuous supply of water, can usually be 
 more cheaply supplied by pumps, if the wells be judiciously 
 sunk ; their sites being so chosen that the sewage of the 
 town cannot percolate into them. To prevent this, it is 
 usually necessary, only, that the dip of the beds of rock 
 should be from the well towards the town ; but in some 
 cases, other precautions are also necessary. 
 
 The older Silurian rocks of Mayo, Galway, and Kerry 
 (Llandovery, Wenlock and Ludlow types) are somewhat 
 similar to the Cambro-Silurians, but are not as much broken 
 up by faults ; still they are capable of holding a consider- 
 able supply of water, especially when they contain beds 
 of limestone and tuff, or permeable sandstones. There is 
 no large town in Ireland situated on or near such rocks ; 
 the question therefore of their water-bearing character is 
 not one of much practical importance. 
 
 The newer Silurians of Cork (Glengariff grits) and Kerry 
 (Dingle beds) are usually impermeable ; there are, how- 
 ever, exceptions to this rule, as certain calcareous and 
 tuffose rocks collect water, as do also some of the slates. 
 There are also many faults, not however as numerous as 
 those in the Cambro-Silurian, in which the surface water 
 collects to be conducted to the lakes and springs. Here- 
 after, if necessary, water could easily be procured from 
 these areas, but at present the towns situated in them are 
 inconsiderable. These remarks apply also to the tract 
 between Pomeroy and Lough Erne, and those in the 
 vicinity of Boyle and Ballaghaderreen where the rocks 
 are probably of a similar age, as mentioned at page 82. 
 
 As pointed out when describing the sedimentary rocks, 
 those belonging to the Carboniferous formation underlie a 
 
Water Supply. 399 
 
 large portion of Ireland ; they, therefore, are, as regards 
 the matter in hand, the most important rocks in the island. 
 For our present purpose they may be conveniently divided 
 into the " Old Red Sandstone " of the Cork type, the 
 ordinary " Old Red Sandstone" and the " Shore-beds," the 
 " Carboniferous Slate," and the different Limestones and 
 Shales. 
 
 The Old Red Sandstone of the Cork type constitutes but 
 an indifferent water-bearing formation, if we except its 
 upper beds, the " Yellow Sandstone " of Griffith. These 
 are permeable rocks, especially certain slates that are 
 usually found at the bottom of the group, from which the 
 inhabitants procure excellent and constant water by 
 cutting in them wells, only one or two feet in depth. 
 These are important beds relatively to the present 
 question, as so many towns in SW. Ireland are situated 
 on them or on the overlying Carboniferous Slate or Lime- 
 stone. In most cases, as at Queenstown, Cork Harbour, 
 the " Yellow Sandstone " forms higher ground than the 
 newer Slates and Limestone, and in such cases the water 
 should be procured by driving levels from these into the 
 slates belonging to the " Yellow Sandstone." This is to be 
 preferred to sinking, if the place be situated near the sea, 
 and especially if it be on the limestone, as this rock is so 
 porous that the sea water often percolates through it for 
 considerable distances. 
 
 The "Old Red Sandstone," of the ordinary Irish type, 
 and the similarly constituted " Shore-beds," do not require 
 much consideration, as they are usually not of great 
 thickness, except in Kerry, and perhaps in Fermanagh 
 and Tyrone, while in general, the necessary quantity of 
 water of a better quality can be procured from older or 
 newer rocks. If water, however, is required from them, it 
 
400 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 can be procured, as most of the rocks are permeable, 
 while at their base in places in the County Clare is a 
 peculiar limestone that yields good water. 
 
 11 The Carboniferous Slate," the County Cork represen- 
 tative of the Carboniferous Limestone, is made up of 
 grits and slates somewhat similarly to the Cambro-Silurian 
 formation ; it is, however, less affected by faults, and does 
 not hold as much water, nor produce as many springs. 
 
 The Carboniferous limestones similar to the older ones, 
 are more or less permeable, some groups being more 
 so than others. These groups are named and described 
 at page 65. The lower "Shaly Limestone," is in itself 
 a permeable rock, but there are often between the beds 
 impermeable shale and clay partings. In these rocks 
 there is always a considerable supply of water, so that 
 springs are common in the areas occupied by them. The 
 " Fenestella Limestone," is very permeable, and the water 
 rapidly sinks into it, generally not coming to the surface 
 except at the outcrops of its basal beds (" Lower Cherty 
 Zone "), or along lines of faults ; but in some places there 
 are peculiar thin seams of shale that traverse the mass 
 irregularly, and these nearly invariably stop the passage 
 of the water, pounding it up or bringing it to the surface. 
 At the " Lower Cherty Zone," springs are not uncommon. 
 
 The Upper Limestone is very variable in character. In 
 the Calp of Ulster, arenaceous rocks of an impermeable 
 character often occur ; but associated with them are others, 
 also limestones and shales, all more or less permeable, 
 which supply the springs in such areas. Elsewhere the 
 Calp rocks, although always argillaceous, are more or less 
 calcareous, often good limestones, and they can absorb 
 water in a greater or less degree ; but the shale partings 
 and the beds of shale and arenaceous rocks, and, in some 
 
Water Supply. 401 
 
 districts, of tuff, or even melaphyre or eurite, prevent it 
 from descending ; therefore, in these Calp areas water is 
 generally easily found near the surface by sinking for it. 
 There are, however, some districts, as in portions of 
 Limerick and Clare, where the rock is called Calp on 
 account of its dark, blackish colour, although a very pure 
 limestone, without shale partings or beds, and in such 
 areas water sometimes cannot be procured, except at 
 considerable depths. 
 
 The Upper Limestone of the Burren type is generally 
 inclined to be cavernous, and in it occur all the great 
 systems of subterranean rivers ; while on its surface are 
 situated most of the Turloughs or Blind-lakes. It often 
 has, however, beds or continuous layers of chert, and in 
 some places, of shale, clay, or clunch, which prevent the 
 water from sinking, and bring it to the surface, either at 
 the outcrops of these impermeable beds, or along lines 
 of fault. In portions of Clare, Galway, Mayo, and 
 other counties, there is too much water in the winter and a 
 want of it in summer ; as during the former the turloughs 
 are full, while in summer they are dry, and in places the 
 cattle have to be driven miles, morning and evening, to 
 water. This summer scarcity could be remedied in many 
 cases ; as each turlough is fed from one or more vents, 
 while the rest of the basin is coated by impervious clay, 
 the insoluble argillaceous residue of the limestone 
 deposited by the water ; if, therefore, impermeable walls 
 or dams were constructed round the vents, a certain depth 
 of water could be impounded for summer use.* This 
 could not be done on hills, like those of Burren, County 
 Clare, but in this and similar areas there are many places 
 
 * Such dams would in most cases require flood-gates or sluices to regulate 
 the water supply. 
 
 D D 
 
402 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 where tanks or small reservoirs could be easily con- 
 structed, in which to collect the water given out during 
 the winter by the springs at the fault lines, or along the 
 outcrops of the partings and beds of shale and chert. 
 Chalybeate and other mineral springs are not uncommon 
 in the Upper Limestone, especially in the Calp. Many of 
 these " wells " were formerly much frequented, and used 
 on account of the medicinal properties of the water, but at 
 present they all seem to be out of fashion. 
 
 The Upper Carboniferous or Coal Measures are made 
 up of both permeable and impermeable rocks, and contain 
 a large store of water that in general is easily procured. 
 In the Queen's County Coal-field, numerous bore holes 
 were made some years ago in search of coal, and the area 
 is now dotted over by artificial springs ; some being 
 chalybeate, but most of them clear, good-looking water. 
 Nevertheless, it seems probable that the water from some 
 of the rocks have pernicious qualities ; as in the Coal 
 Measure areas, the inhabitants are often liable to ailments 
 not prevalent outside their limits. Others of the waters, 
 however, are eminently curative, such as the iron, sulphur, 
 and magnesia springs of Lisdoonvarra, County Clare, 
 which have been resorted to from time immemorial. These 
 issue from the basal shales (Lower Measures), and in 
 the same beds in other localities are somewhat similar 
 springs. 
 
 The Mesozoic and Cainozoic rocks, which in England 
 contribute largely to the water supply, occur in Ireland 
 only in the province of Ulster, except an insignificant 
 tract of Triassic rocks, which extends into Meath ; and 
 even in Ulster they are sparingly developed and of small 
 thickness. They are represented by rocks belonging to the 
 Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, and Miocene groups. 
 
Water Supply. 403 
 
 The Permian rocks are so rare, and occupy such limited 
 tracts, that they are of no account ; while the Triassic 
 and Jurassic rocks usually emerge only as a fringe round 
 the Cretaceous and Miocene rocks ; consequently their 
 waters in general can only be procured from deep wells. 
 The Cretaceous rocks and the Basal beds of the Miocene 
 supply numerous springs, but the other Miocene rocks are 
 principally impermeable beds of dolerite. The latter 
 rock, however, covers a large surface, from which a con- 
 siderable quantity of water can be collected ; besides, there 
 are subordinate inliers of argillaceous rocks, which produce 
 two or more zones of springs. 
 
 As a rule, the Mesozoic and Cainozoic rocks of Lon- 
 donderry yield a good supply of water, but in some parts 
 this is very variable. It has hitherto been chiefly 
 obtained only by having recourse to the expensive process 
 of sinking deep wells. These in the Triassic might in 
 some cases have been advantageously avoided by utilizing 
 the springs that occur in the Cretaceous strata margin- 
 ing the dolerite, as well as those in the superincumbent 
 dolerite itself. The water from the latter, is, how- 
 ever, sometimes objectionable, because of the large 
 quantity of oxide of iron contained in it, but when free 
 from this impurity it is usually to be preferred to that 
 springing from the Cretaceous rocks, owing to its compa- 
 rative softness. 
 
 Perhaps one of the best examples of a constant, cheap, 
 and easily available water supply, exists at Moneymore, 
 where, at a distance of less than half a mile from the town, 
 and at about 100 feet above it, the water springs in an 
 unfailing stream from the lower part of the chalk ; while 
 the wells in the Triassic, from which the town at present 
 is supplied, are expensive to sink. 
 
 D D 2 
 
404 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 For the following details we are indebted to Mr. W s A. 
 Traill. 
 
 " Cretaceous, Jurassic and Triassic rocks underlie the 
 greater portion of Antrim and Londonderry and in this 
 respect these counties are favourably situated. 
 
 "The Miocene dolerite of the central plateau cannot 
 be considered as water-bearing strata. However, the top 
 surface of the trap rock, immediately below the drift, is to 
 a small extent, but limited in quantity, and liable to 
 pollution. The trap rock allows the percolation of water 
 through cracks, fissures, and jointage seams to the under- 
 lying beds. 
 
 " The Iron-ore-measure, at an horizon about 600 feet 
 above the base of the dolerite, containing impervious clay, 
 forms a water-bearing stratum, evident by the great 
 number of springs which mark its outcrop. However, the 
 water from this source is not the best, being more or less 
 contaminated by the hydrated oxide of iron. 
 
 " The lower aluminous beds yield better water, but to 
 a less extent. 
 
 " The Chalk and its underlying bed of Hibernian Green- 
 sand, are pre-eminently the water-bearing strata of NE. 
 Ulster. These permeable rocks for the greater part are 
 underlaid by the plastic clays of the Lias, or by the 
 Keuper Marls : and many confirmatory evidences exist 
 which prove their constant supply of water. Along the 
 entire outcrop of the Chalk, from above Belfast to the 
 Giant's Causeway, the number of perennial springs is very 
 great ; and in many places this continued outflow of 
 water is a constant source of local landslips, and the 
 displacement of the Coast road. 
 
 '•' The Triassic Rocks — more especially the Bunter series 
 — are also water-bearing, but to a less extent. The compa- 
 
Water Supply. 405 
 
 ratively limited area over which these beds are exposed, 
 renders the localities few where borings could be made 
 with a prospect of success. In some cases, however, such 
 Artesian borings have given most satisfactory results, as 
 from the so-called Cromac Springs or Artesian well in 
 Belfast. 
 
 " The newer rocks of the greater part of the Counties of 
 Antrim and Londonderry form a geological basin, the dole- 
 rite area occupying the centre, with the Chalk and Green- 
 sand cropping out almost continuously along its margin, 
 underlaid by the plastic clays of the Lias, or those of the 
 Keuper Marls. The outcrop of the Chalk is found at 
 considerable elevations on Slieve-gallion-carn and Ben 
 Evenagh to the westward, Knocklayd, Lurigethan, and the 
 Sallagh Braes to the north and east ; Cave Hill, the 
 Black Mountain, and Collin to the south-east ; attaining in 
 some cases to over 1,000 feet in altitude ; while throughout 
 the centre of the basin it is below the surface, and covered 
 by variable thicknesses of dolerite. Its depth below the 
 surface for many localities can be readily estimated from 
 its relation to the Iron-ore-measures at the base of the 
 Upper Dolerite. 
 
 " Other strong evidences in support of large quantities of 
 water being pent up in the porous strata below the 
 dolerite, are the great number of perennial springs which 
 occur throughout its area. 
 
 " The following localities along the central axis of the 
 basin may be cited as places where Artesian borings 
 would probably be successful ; near Antrim, Ballymena, 
 Ballymoney, and Coleraine. The requisite depths of 
 course would vary in the several localities, but some 
 being situated in the Lower Dolerite, would not require 
 very deep bore-holes before the Chalk and Greensand 
 
40 6 Geology of Ireland. 
 
 would be met with. The Mesozoic and Cainozoic rocks 
 of Ulster would thus appear to possess several strata suit- 
 able for yielding water-supplies by Artesian borings. 
 
 " The Cambro-Silurian formation, which comprises the 
 greater portion of the County Down, must be looked upon 
 as an unpropitious field from which to expect a water 
 supply by boring. However, in places where the Trias 
 overlaps that formation, by boring into the junction a 
 water-bearing stratum would probably be found. Near 
 Newtownards, Knock and Lisburn are localities where 
 boring under such circumstances might be successful." 
 
 As mentioned when describing the Triassic Salt- 
 Measures, Saline springs occur in the neighbourhoods of 
 Larne and Glynn, County Antrim. 
 
 The superficial accumulations, principally drift, are so 
 extensive in Ireland, that they add considerably to its 
 water supply. In some districts, such as portions of 
 Kilkenny, Carlow, Kildare, Wicklow and Dublin, where 
 they overlie granitic rocks, they are very important, as 
 without them very little water could be retained, and in 
 summer it would be very scarce. The glacial drifts usually 
 are permeable, the water sinking in them until it reaches 
 layers or lenticular deposits of sand or gravel. Water, 
 however, is often found at no great depth, but in other 
 cases the whole accumulation will have to be sunk through, 
 or it may be even necessary to cut a " well," in the under- 
 lying rock, as a cistern to collect the water percolating 
 between the drift and the surface of the rock. But when 
 sinking these wells, if one or two sandy seams or partings 
 have been cut through, a good and permanent supply of 
 water sufficient for ordinary farming purposes may be 
 procured. 
 
 In gravel and sand accumulations a permanent supply 
 
Water Supply. 407 
 
 of water is rarely obtained unless a bed of clay is reached. 
 If this impermeable stratum be pierced, the water will 
 often disappear and may not be again recovered except at 
 great expense. There are however, exceptions, as these 
 sands and gravels may be accumulated in hollows margined 
 by impermeable drift or rock, and under such circum- 
 stances the gravel and sand may be saturated with water 
 close up to the surface of the ground. When sinking 
 for water in a hill of glacial drift, the depth at which water 
 will be found can usually be calculated from the heights 
 at which the springs appear on the hill slopes. 
 
 Water is also procurable in some places, at the junction 
 of the drift and the overlying alluvium or peat accumu- 
 lations, this water, however, is often of indifferent quality ; 
 but, in places in the mountainous districts and even else- 
 where, springs may occur at the junction of the peat and 
 underlying drift or other rocks, and in most cases, if the 
 outfall is kept open and a regular stream flows from the 
 well, the water will be perfectly good and free from 
 organic matter. Peat bogs have great absorbent powers ; 
 after a dry summer it takes weeks of heavy continuous 
 rain to saturate the bogs in the basin of the Shannon, and 
 raise the river at Killaloe. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 GLOSSARY OF GEOLOGICAL AND CELTIC* 
 
 TERMS. 
 
 Acicular. — Needle-shaped. 
 
 Adit. — A horizontal gallery or tunnel, to drain or enter a mine. 
 
 Adularia. — Ice-spar ; a variety of felspar. 
 
 ^olian-drift. — Fine sand drifted and heaped up by the wind. 
 
 Aerial. — Of, belonging to, or produced by, the air. 
 
 Agglomerate. — A term introduced by Lyell to designate the 
 
 unstratified accumulations of rock fragments produced by 
 
 volcanic action. 
 Aille. — A Celtic term for a cliff. 
 Albite. — A soda felspar having some lime. 
 Amorphous. — Having no regular or determinate structure. 
 Amphibolic. — Rocks containing a large percentage of amphi- 
 
 bole (hornblende). 
 Anogene. — Formed above or near the surface, see page 194. 
 Anthracite. — Stone-coal ; coal destitute of bitumen. 
 Anticlinal. — Applied to strata which dip in opposite directions, 
 
 from a common ridge or axis. 
 Aphanite. — The compact varieties of the Traps or Whinstones, 
 
 such as gabbro-aphanite, melaphyre-aphanite and doleritc- 
 
 aphanite, in which the mineral constituents are in a pasty 
 
 condition and undistinguishable. 
 Ard {Celtic). — A hill; properly a height. 
 
 * Many of the miners' terms are from Celtic (Cornish) roots. 
 
4 1 o Appendix. 
 
 Arenous, Arenaceous. — Sandy ; composed of particles of sand 
 (arena). 
 
 Argillous, Argillaceous. — Clayey ; composed of clay (argil/a). 
 
 Argillite. — Clay-schists ; metamorphic argillous rocks. 
 
 Atalia or Ah alia (Celtic). — Brackish or slightly-salt water. 
 
 Avon (Celtic). — A river, see Owen. 
 
 Assay. — The determination of the quantity of mineral in an ore. 
 
 Attle or Attel (Celtic). — Waste, deads; the useless stuff taken 
 out of a mine. 
 
 Axis. — Applied to the line about which rocks are bent or turn, 
 or to which they have some common relation. " Axis of Eleva- 
 tion," " Anticlinal Axis." 
 
 Back, "The Top of;" Back-of-Lode. — The chemically changed 
 portion of a lode, near the surface of the ground. 
 
 Basalt. — Aphanite ; a compact variety of dolerite. 
 
 Basin. — In reference to a river, all the area draining into it ; in 
 reference to rocks lying in a limited depressed tract in older 
 rocks, the area occupied by them ; and in regard to rock 
 strata, the beds dipping towards a common centre or short 
 line. 
 
 Basset. — The outcrop of a bed of rocks, or the line at which it 
 comes to the surface of the ground. 
 
 Bastard Limestone. — Impure limestone ; a rock having a per- 
 ceptible percentage of lime, but not sufficient to make 
 a limestone. In some localities this term is applied to mag- 
 nesian limestone and dolomite. 
 
 Bed. — A geological and quarryman's term. A stratum of rock of 
 greater or less thickness of a uniform or nearly uniform com- 
 position or structure ; or of a composition or structure dif- 
 ferent from that of the associated rocks. Correctly, the term 
 applies only to the surface of a rock, and in this sense it is 
 sometimes used. 
 
 Ben or Bin (Celtic). — A peak. 
 
 Bind. — A collier's term for shale. 
 
 Blebs. — Small globular aggregations. 
 
 Blind-lake. — A small lake or pond in drift, or bog, without a 
 surface outlet, also called Turlough. 
 
 U, U.J.OW V^CllXVU AUliWUg,! 
 
Glossary. 411 
 
 Bog {Celtic, soft). — An accumulation of peat. 
 
 Bog-Butter. — Masses and lumps of mineralized butter and fat 
 found in the Irish bogs. 
 
 Bole. — A ferruginous argillaceous rock associated with the 
 Miocene Traps, see page 163. 
 
 Bore-Hole. — A hole put down by an auger to prove the nature 
 of unknown strata. 
 
 Botryoidal.— Resembling a bunch of grapes. 
 
 Boulder. — A block of stone that has been carried about by 
 water or ice. In general it is more or less rounded and the 
 angles worn off. 
 
 Boulder-Clay. — Drift containing boulders. When unstratified it 
 seems to have been formed by ice, and is called Glacial Drift, 
 or in Ulster, Till. Many boulder-clays are not glacial. In 
 all the older glacial or Boulder-clay drifts, most of the 
 boulders are rounded, while in the newer or Moraine-drift 
 many are angular or subangular. 
 
 Break.— Used to denote a want or absence of strata, or a 
 group of strata, in a geological sequence. Also used synony- 
 mously with fault, to indicate that a bed or series of beds 
 have been broken across and displaced. 
 
 Breast. — The extreme " end," in a level or drive in a mine; very 
 similar to Face, q.v. 
 
 Breccia. — A rock made up of angular fragments. 
 
 Brick-Clay. — A clay from which bricks or tiles can be made. 
 
 Brown-Coal. — See Lignite. 
 
 Buddagh {Celtic, useless). — Very impure dirty coal. 
 
 Buddle. — A trough used in tin mining for washing the ores, and 
 in streaming for separating the gold and tin from the sand. 
 
 Bunch. —A miner's term for ore occurring in a small mass. 
 
 Burrows, Borradh {Celtic). — Synonymous with Attle, q.v. 
 
 Callow {Celtic). — An alluvial flat liable to be flooded. 
 
 Calp or Calpe. — A name used by Kirwan for the black 
 Carboniferous Limestone, and subsequently adopted by 
 Griffith for one of the lithological divisions of the Irish 
 Carboniferous rocks. 
 
 Cam, Caim.— Winding, see Kaim. 
 
412 Appendix. 
 
 Cannel Coal. — In the Leinster and Ulster colleries this term 
 
 indicates a compact laminated anthracite. In the Leitrim 
 
 and Tyrone coalfields, the same term is applied to a compact 
 
 laminated bituminous coal. 
 Carrick, Carrig {Celtic). — A prominent mass of rock in situ. 
 Carrigeen. — A little rock. 
 
 Catogene. — Formed below at some depth, see page 194. 
 Cats Heads. — A Leinster collieries term for nodules of grit in 
 
 shales. 
 Cats-tooth Ore. — Crystalline white calamine. 
 Cawk, Cork. — A miner's term for Barytes or Heavy spar. 
 Cement. — A lime that hardens quickly. 
 Chalybeate. — Containing iron in solution. 
 Chalcedony. — A variety of quartz. 
 Chert. — A flinty substance prevalent in some Carboniferous 
 
 Limestones. 
 China Clay. — See Kaolin. 
 
 Chlorilite, Chlorite Schist. — A metamorphic rock. 
 Clay-iron-stone. — Impure earthy carbonates of iron. 
 Clay-rock. — A term introduced by Jukes to designate unstratified 
 
 clay indurated into a hard rock. 
 Clay-stone. — A compact variety of Felstone. 
 Clearing. — In coal mining, the soft parting between the coal and 
 
 the associated rocks ; in quarrying, the surface that has to be 
 
 cleared away before valuable stone can be procured. 
 Cleavage. — An induced structure in rocks, which gives them a 
 
 tendency to split into slates. 
 Clogh {Celtic). — A block of stone, an erratic block. 
 Clunch. — Gritty or stony fireclay. 
 
 Coal. — Geologically, any rock capable of forming a fire. 
 Conchoidal. — Like a shell. 
 Concretion. — Any mineral or matter that separates from the 
 
 rest of the rock and forms more or less well-defined lumps or 
 
 nodules. 
 Cone in Cone. — A peculiar structure in some rocks as if the 
 
 mass was made up of a number of cones placed one inside 
 
 the other. 
 Conglomerate. — A rock made up for the most part of rounded 
 
 pebbles. 
 
Glossary. 4 1 3 
 
 Connemara. — A local term in the Cork colleries for a dirty clayey 
 impure coal, see Buddagh. 
 
 Contemporaneous. — Formed or deposited at the same time as 
 the associated rocks. 
 
 Contorted. — Used of strata twisted up or folded after they were 
 deposited. 
 
 Coom, Coum, Cwm, Combe. — A valley, also a Corry, q.v. 
 
 Coprolites. — Fossil dung, often erroneously used for phosphatic 
 nodules. 
 
 Corcas, Corcagh (Celtic). — An alluvial flat, usually tidal. 
 
 Corker (Celtic). — Roots of trees found in the bogs. 
 
 Corry (Celtic, a cauldron). — A "punch-bowl" or coom; a 
 valley like a cul-de-sac. 
 
 Costean (Celtic). — Searching for minerals or lodes under dilu- 
 vium or other drifts ; Streaming, which see. 
 
 Crannog. — The name used for the Irish lake dwelling. See p. 278. 
 
 Crag and Tail. — Hills or rocks that slope gently in one direc- 
 tion and are steep or abruptly terminated in the opposite. 
 
 Crop. — The basset or outcoming of a bed of rock at the surface 
 of the ground. 
 
 Cross-course. — A miner's term for a dyke of fault-rock or mine- 
 ral vein crossing the lodes in a district. 
 
 Deads. — See Attals. 
 
 Debacle. — A violent rush or outburst of water or mud. 
 
 Delta. — The alluvial bank that often forms at the mouth or inver 
 
 of a river. 
 Dendrites. — Arborescent or moss-like forms occasionally assumed 
 
 by some minerals. 
 Denudant. — A force that denudes or wears away and removes a 
 
 substance. 
 Denudation. — Laying bare by removal. 
 Detritus. — The materials arising from the waste or distintegra 
 
 tion of a rock mass. 
 Diabase. — A variety of Gabbro containing quartz. 
 Diggings. — A Colonial term for Streaming, or mining for ores or 
 
 minerals in or under drift deposits. 
 
414 Appendix. 
 
 Diluvium. — Gravels and such like, supposed to have been formed 
 
 or accumulated by a sudden rush or some extraordinary 
 
 stream of water. 
 Diorite. — Triclinic felspar + amphibole. 
 Dip. — The inclination or angle of slope of the surface of a bed of 
 
 rock, necessarily at right angles to its Strike, q.v. 
 Dirt-bed. — A local term in the Queen's County coalfield for a 
 
 remarkable bed made up of fragments of plants. 
 Dislocation. — A rupture, a fault, a displacement of strata. 
 Dogstooth Spar. — Crystallized white dolomite. 
 Dolerite. — Triclinic felspar + pyroxene. 
 Dolomite. — Limestone containing carbonate of magnesia as one 
 
 of its essential minerals. Also a mineral. 
 Drift. — All accumulations that owe their position to having been 
 
 drifted or driven by water, wind, ice, &a 
 Drum {Celtic). — A ridge-shaped hill. 
 Drumlin {Celtic). — A long narrow ridge mound, applied by the 
 
 Irish geologists to the long regular hills of Boulder clay. 
 Druse, Drusy-cavity. — Hollow spaces in ores or rocks lined with 
 
 crystalline minerals. 
 Dyke. — A wall-like mass of rock cutting across other rocks ; now 
 
 generally applied to narrow protrusions of eruptive rocks. 
 
 Eklogite. — A magnesian rock allied to serpentine {Ophite). 
 
 Elvan, Helvan {Celtic). — White-rock, see page 179. 
 
 End. — A miners' term similar to Breast, q.v. 
 
 Endogenous. — Produced within. A name applied by Sterry 
 
 Hunt to the mineral veins deposited from solution in cracks 
 
 and fissures. 
 Erratic-block. — A transported or carried block. 
 Escarpment. — A cliff or abrupt slope on a hill, or the edge of a 
 
 plain, see page 299. 
 Esker {Celtic). — Literally a ridge ; applied to the long ridges of 
 
 gravel so prevalent in some parts of Ireland. In some few 
 
 places these are called cams (winding) on account of the 
 
 ridges winding about ; in Ireland cam, however, is more often 
 
 applied to a winding river. 
 
Glossary. 415 
 
 Esker-sea. — The sea that covered the portion of Ireland in which 
 
 the Eskers accumulated. 
 Estuarine. — Belonging to an estuary or a wide tidal river 
 
 mouth. 
 Eurite. — Basic felstone, ^ page 180. 
 Exfoliate. — To disintegrate into scales. 
 Exotic rocks. — See page 194. 
 
 Face. — A miner's and quarryman's term for the front of a lode 
 or quarry. When perpendicular joints cross a quarry it is said 
 to have a good face. The dip of the beds is often also called 
 the face, and the quarry or cutting is said " to face the wrong 
 way " if the rocks dip away from the workmen. 
 
 Fault. — A break or displacement of strata. 
 
 Fault-rock, Fault-dyke. — The dyke or mass of broken rocks 
 or rock debris filling up a fissure along a line of fault. 
 
 Felsilite. Felsite-Schist. — A metamorphic rock. 
 
 Felsite. — Defined by Cotta as a mixture of Orthoclase and silica. 
 Another name for Petro-silex, see page 180. 
 
 Felstone. — See page 180. 
 
 Fiord. — A long narrow estuary or bay. 
 
 Fire-bricks. — Bricks that resist the fire. 
 
 Fire-clay. — Any clay capable of being made into fire-bricks. 
 
 Fire-stone. — Any stone that stands heat without injury. 
 
 Fissile. — Capable of being split into thin plates or laminae. 
 
 Flag, Flagstone. — Thin bedded rocks that are easily split. 
 
 Flint. — Silicious nodules and layers found in the Cretaceous 
 rocks. 
 
 Flucan or Floocan (Celtic). — Literally, a soft moist substance. 
 Clay, rotten shale and such like. 
 
 Fluvio-marine. — Strata having a mixed river (fluvius) and sea 
 (mare) origin. 
 
 Foil (Celtic).— A cliff. 
 
 Foliation. — The leaf-like structure of some rocks produced by 
 metamorphic action. 
 
 Forcque ; Fork (Celtic). — Un watered ; a mine is in foixque 
 when all the water is pumped out of it. 
 
4 1 6 Appendix. 
 
 Freestone. — Any rock that can be easily cut and dressed. In 
 the Co. Dublin, however, the same term is applied to growan. 
 Freshet. — A river flood. 
 
 Gabbro. — See page 181. 
 
 Gangue, Gang {Celtic, worthless). — Veinstone, q.v. 
 
 Geodes. — Nodules having internal cavities. 
 
 Geological Horizon. — The position of a stratum relatively to 
 geological age. 
 
 Glacial. — Formed by or belonging to ice (glacies). 
 
 Glacial Drift. — Drift that was deposited directly from ice. 
 
 Glacialoid Drift. — Drift like Glacial drift, but which has, 
 nevertheless, been re-arranged by water, see page 225. 
 
 Gneiss. — A metamorphic rock, see page 178. 
 
 Gorge. — A ravine, a deep open fissure. 
 
 Gossen, Gossaun. — The ochreous Back (q.v.) of a lode. 
 
 Granite, Granat (Gran, Celtic a grain). — The name is now 
 usually confined to a crystalline Ingenite rock (see page 178), 
 but in many places in Ireland it is a general name for any 
 silicious hard granular rock. 
 
 Granitone. — One of the basic Elvans, see page 181. 
 
 Graphic Granite. — A granite with its minerals so arranged as 
 to have an appearance like writing characters. In west 
 Galway the graphic granite nearly always occurs in veins 
 which cut across beds of limestone. 
 
 Graphite. — Plumbago, " blacklead ; " carbon, with an admix- 
 ture of iron and sometimes other impurities. 
 
 Gravel. — An accumulation of generally water-worn fragments — 
 when such accumulations are made up of fine particles it is 
 called sand; if the fragments are large it is called gravel, but 
 if very large, above the size of hen's eggs, it is called shingle. 
 
 Grit, Gritstone. — Hard and compact arenaceous rocks, in 
 which the grains of sand are not visible to the naked eye, 
 or are so firmly compressed or cemented together that it is 
 impossible to separate them. 
 
 Growan (Celtic). — Decomposed or disintegrated granite. 
 
 Hackly Fracture. — Breaking with a jagged surface like the 
 fracture of wrought iron. 
 
Glossary. 417 
 
 Hade, Hading. — A miner's term for the dip or underlie of a 
 lode. 
 
 Halvans. — Heaps of Deads which still contain a little ore. 
 
 Haugh. — An alluvial flat flooded in Freshets. 
 
 Head of Tide. — The meeting of two tidal waves which have 
 entered a channel at opposite ends. 
 
 Heave. — A miner's term for the horizontal displacement of a lode. 
 
 Hornblendite, Hornblende-Schist. — A metamorphic rock 
 consisting chiefly of hornblende. 
 
 Hornstone. — A rock like compact felstone. Baked slates or 
 shales. 
 
 Horse. — A miner's term for a mass of rock included within, or 
 suddenly coming in and cutting out a lode. 
 
 Hummock. — A small knoll or mound. 
 
 Hyaline — Glassy, glass-like. 
 
 Hydraulic Cement, Hydraulic Lime. — Lime capable of set- 
 ting or hardening under water. 
 
 Hypergene-rocks. — See foot-note, page 4. 
 
 Hypogene-rocks. — See foot-note, page 4. 
 
 Ice-cap. — The mass of land-ice which is supposed by some to 
 have covered the northern hemisphere. 
 
 Imbricated. — Overlapping, after the manner of roof-tiles. 
 
 In situ. — In its original or natural position. 
 
 Indurated. — Hardened by heat or other causes. 
 
 Inlier. — Applied to a bed or beds of rocks interstratified in 
 rocks of quite different character. 
 
 Intercalated. — Interposed or inserted between. 
 
 Intercolline Spaces. — A term applied by Lyell to valleys or 
 hollows in volcanic regions between erupted hills, to 
 distinguish them from ordinary ones produced by denu- 
 dation. 
 
 Inver (Celtic). — A river mouth. 
 
 Inverted. — Turned over ; as when a series of beds is folded, 
 until part of it lies upside down. 
 
 Ire-stone (Ire, Celtic brown.) — A Cornish and Irish name for 
 whinstone, sometimes corrupted into iron-stone. 
 
 E E 
 
4 1 8 Appendix. 
 
 Iron Pyrites. — A general name for the different varieties of 
 sulphide of iron — pyrite, marcasite, and pyrrhotite. 
 
 Ironstone. — A general name for the oxide and carbonate ores 
 of iron. 
 
 Jasper. — A general name for coloured compact silicious com- 
 pounds. 
 
 Jasper Rock. — A red-purplish or greenish quartz-rock occurring 
 in regular dykes. 
 
 Joints. — Division planes, different from those of bedding, which 
 cross rock masses in parallel sets and make them capable 
 of being divided into smaller regular masses. A Master 
 joint passes through a number of beds. 
 
 Kam, Kame, Kaim. — Winding. See Cam and Esker. 
 
 Kaolin (Chinese). — Literally " Low Ridge," the 'name of the 
 hill on which China clay was originally manufactured. The 
 name is now generally used for china or porcelain clays. 
 
 Kelve. — A local term in the Leinster collieries for carbonaceous 
 slates and shales. 
 
 Killas. — A miner's term for slate and other argillaceous rocks. 
 
 Knock or Cnock (Celtic). — A hill. 
 
 Lacustrine. — Of or belonging to a lake (lacus). 
 
 Lagoon. — A sheet of water divided from the sea by a barrier 
 of sand, a coral-reef, &c. 
 
 Lamellar, Lamellated. — Composed of very thin plates. 
 
 Lamina. — A thin leaf or stratum formed by deposition. 
 
 Landslip. — A portion of ground that has slipped from its original 
 position to a lower level. 
 
 Laterite. — A name given by the Indian geologists to a variety 
 of tuff or tuffose rock which can be cut up, when soft, into 
 blocks, which, on drying, become hard enough to be used as 
 bricks. It is often an impure steatite, sometimes conglome- 
 ritic. Some of the Antrim tuffs (Bole and Lithomarge) are 
 identical with varieties of laterite from Kutch, India. 
 
 Launders (Celtic). — Wooden gutters for carrying water over 
 hollows, or from one place to another. 
 
Glossary. 419 
 
 Lenticular. — Shaped like a lens. 
 
 Lignite. — Wood-coal, brown-coal. 
 
 Lithological. — Relating to the physical characteristics of the 
 material of a rock. "Penological" properly refers to the struc- 
 ture and character of a rock in the mass, though it is some- 
 times used synonymously with " Lithological." 
 
 Lithomarge. — A tuff or tuffose rock, more or less ferriferous. 
 
 Littoral. — Belonging to the shore of a sea or lake. 
 
 Loam. — Vegetable soil; a mixture of clay, sand, and vegetable 
 remains. 
 
 Loobs (Celtic), — The remnants, or remains of a mineral ore. 
 
 Loose Shelf. — A miner's term for the broken rock between the 
 drift and the solid rock. — See Rubble. 
 
 Lough. — An English corruption of the Celtic loch, a lake. 
 
 Loughaun. — A little lake. 
 
 Lug (Celtic, a prison). — A deep hollow or recess among hills. 
 
 Lusca (Celtic).— A cave, a dwelling in the earth; which may be 
 either natural or artificial. 
 
 Lydian-stone. — A black earthy variety of chert, or of Baked-shale, 
 used as touchstone for testing gold. 
 
 Magnesian Limestone. — Limestone containing magnesia. 
 
 Magnesite. — A rock formed of compact carbonate of magnesia. 
 
 Manure Gravel. — A local term in Wexford for a shelly gravel. 
 
 Marl. — Calcareous clay. 
 
 Marlstone. — Indurated marl. 
 
 Matrix. — The mass or body of matter in which minerals or other 
 
 substances are contained. 
 Maum (Celtic). — A connecting gap in a mountain range between 
 
 two valleys. 
 Melaphyre. — Triclinic felspar + pyroxene + amphibole. See 
 
 page 181. 
 Metamorphic. — Changed in form or character. 
 Metapepsis. — Change produced in rocks by moist heat. See 
 
 page 175. 
 Meteoric. — Formed by atmospheric action. 
 Methylosis. — Change produced by chemical action. See p. 177. 
 Micalite, Mica-Schist. — A metamorphic rock. 
 
 E E 2 
 
420 Appendix. 
 
 Monagay turf. — See page 269. 
 
 Monoclinal. — Strata undulating, but having a dip only in one 
 direction. See Anticlinal and Synclinal. 
 
 Monolith. — A pillar formed of one block of stone. 
 
 Moraine. — The mound of detritus heaped by a glacier at its 
 side, or at its end. 
 
 Moraine drift. — The name adopted for the glacial drift sup- 
 posed to have been formed by or deposited from glaciers. 
 
 Mudstone. — A term introduced by Murchison for the argil- 
 laceous rocks that disintegrate easily and become mud. 
 
 Nacreous. — Having a pearly iridescent lustre, like mother-of- 
 pearl. 
 
 Neogene. — Newly formed — a term applied by some geologists to 
 a group including the Pliocene and Miocene. 
 
 Nodal line. — The hinge line of a stationary oscillating tide in a 
 channel, or the line where the direct and reflex tidal waves 
 neutralize each other. 
 
 Novaculite. — Whetstone (novacula, a razor). 
 
 Nummoid. — Like money {niimmus, a coin). 
 
 Nummoid Schist. — A variety of micalite containing thin roundish 
 pieces of quartz, giving the rock an appearance as if studded 
 over with small pieces of money. 
 
 Obsidian. — A glassy variety of felstone. 
 
 Ochre. — Earthy ores of iron, yellow, red, or brown in 
 colour. 
 
 Old Men's Workings; Dane's Works. — Terms applied to old 
 mining operations, the traces of which remain, but of 
 which there is now no other record. " Dane " in many cases 
 is a corruption for Tuatha De Danann, an enterprising tribe 
 or colony that settled in Ireland about 1,000 years b.c. They 
 were engaged in various great works. 
 
 Olivine. — A mineral common in dolerite ; a silicate of magnesia 
 and iron. 
 
 Oolitic. — Composed of rounded grains like smalls eggs (oon). 
 
 Opalescent. — Resembling opal in lustre. 
 
Glossary. 421 
 
 Ophiolite. — Sterry Hunt's name for the serpentines that are 
 methylosed calcareous rocks. 
 
 Ophite. — A name for the serpentines that are methylosed 
 igneous rocks. 
 
 Outcrop. — The edge, or outgoing, or basset of a bed of strata, 
 or of a mineral vein. 
 
 Outlier. — A detached or disconnected: portion from the main 
 mass of any stratified group of rocks. 
 
 Overlap. — The extending of a bed or beds beyond the under- 
 lying beds. 
 
 Owen, Ow {Celtic). — River. 
 
 Palaeontology. — The study of fossil animals and plants. 
 Paramoudra. — A name invented by Dr. Buckland's guide for 
 
 the fossil sponges in the Antrim white-limestone (indurated 
 
 chalk) and adopted by that geologist. 
 Paroptesis. — Change produced in rocks by dry heat. See page 
 
 176. 
 Partings. — Thin films of clay or shale between beds of strata ; 
 
 thin soft films under and over beds of coal. 
 Peach. — A miner's term for chlorite and chloritic minerals. 
 Peat (fieait or putt, Celtic, soft or miry). — See page 267. 
 Pegmatite. — A very coarse variety of granite occurring in endo- 
 genous veins. 
 Petrological. — See Lithological. 
 Petro-silex. — Felsite ; very silicious felstone. 
 Phyllite. — A mineral allied to mica. 
 Phyllilite, Phyllite-schist. — A metamorphic rock. 
 Pin-mine. — Clay ironstone. 
 
 Pindy. — A Munster name for carbonaceous shale. 
 Pisolitic. — Composed of small pea-like concretions (pz'sum, a 
 
 pea). 
 Placer. — An American term for mineral mining in diluvial 
 
 accumulations ; similar to the English term Streaming, q.v. 
 Plutonic — A name applied to igneous rocks not formed on the 
 
 surface of the earth, though now, perhaps, appearing there 
 
 by denudation. 
 Pluvial. — Of or belonging to rain. 
 
422 Appendix. 
 
 Poikilitic. — By some geologists the Permian and Triassic rocks 
 are placed in one formation under this name. 
 
 Porcellanite. — Baked or burnt and very slightly fused earth. 
 
 Porphyrite, Porphyry. — An ingenite rock containing distinct 
 and well developed felspar crystals. 
 
 Pot-hole, Slugga, Sluggy. — Round holes that are formed in 
 the ground from the subtraction of underlying rocks. See 
 page 324. 
 
 Poul, Poll (Celtic). — A hole. 
 
 Psammite. — Fine-grained ferruginous clayey sandstone having, 
 when mixed with lime, hydraulic properties. 
 
 Pseudomorphism. — A process by which a mineral, &c, assumes 
 a form not properly belonging to itself; as where one mineral 
 replaces another, particle by particle, and thus acquires the 
 crystalline form of that other. 
 
 Pyrite, Pyrites. — Sulphide of iron, worked as a sulphur ore. 
 
 Pyrrhotite, Pyrrhotine. — Magnetic pyrites, worked as a sul- 
 phur ore. 
 
 Quaquaversal. — Tending in every direction. 
 
 Quartz. — Crystallized silica. 
 
 Quartz-rock. — See pages ix. and 180. 
 
 Quartzite, Quartz-Schist. — A metamorphic rock. 
 
 Quicksand. — An unstable running sand — some surface sands 
 become quicksands when wet. In tidal places some sands are 
 quite firm while the tide is ebbing or going out, while they 
 are quicksands when the tide is flowing or coming in. 
 
 Raddle, Reddle. — A red argillaceous ore of iron. 
 
 Raised Beach. — A term applied to the old sea margins that are 
 
 now at a higher level than its present margin. 
 Redfree. — An Ulster name for the Triassic sandstones. 
 Reticulated. — Like net-work. 
 Ripple-mark. — The low small ridges formed on the surface of 
 
 sand by currents of water or wind (not by the water ripples). 
 
 These are often preserved on sandstone. 
 River Basin. — The area drained by a river. 
 
Glossary. 423 
 
 Rock. — Geologically, any substance more or less solid forming 
 
 part of the crust or external portion of the earth. 
 Rock-basin. — A hollow excavated in the solid rock. — See p. 330. 
 Rock-salt. — The form in which common salt occurs as a rock 
 
 mass. 
 Rock-soap. — A soft variety of steatite. 
 Roof. — A miner's and quarryman's term for the rock immediately 
 
 over a bed of coal, or a quarry. 
 Rotten Stone. — Decomposed silicious limy argillous rock — used 
 
 for cleaning and polishing metal. 
 Rubble. — The broken-up rock between the drift and the solid 
 
 rock. In some places called foundation, and by the miners 
 
 loose or broken shelf. 
 
 Sand. — See Gravel. 
 
 Sandstone. — iVn arenaceous rock having a distinct granular struc- 
 ture., having been composed originally of grains of sand. 
 
 Scalp {Celtic). — A cleft. 
 
 Scarped. — Having a steep face. 
 
 Schist. — Metamorphosed rocks. See page 177. 
 
 Scoriaceous.' — Composed of scorise, the small fragments like 
 cinders blown from a volcano. 
 
 Seam. — A subordinate bed in a series, as a seam of coal. 
 
 Seat, Seat-clay. — The fireclay under a coal. 
 
 Seat-rock. — The hard rock under a seat-clay. 
 
 Set, Sed {Celtic, a measure of value). — The area included in a 
 mineral take or lease. 
 
 Shale. — An argillaceous rock deposited in thin laminae. 
 
 Shelf. — The miner's term for the surface of solid rock. 
 
 Shell Marl. — A shelly marl found under the bogs and in lakes. 
 
 Shell Mine. — Clay-ironstone that splits off in shells. 
 
 Shingle. — See Gravel. 
 
 Silver-Blends. — A peculiar ore at Connary, Co. Wicklow. 
 
 Sinter. — Deposits from calcareous or silicious springs. 
 
 Slab. — Plates of rock formed either by cleavage or jointing. 
 
 Slate. — Argillaceous rocks affected by cleavage. 
 
 Slide. — Miners' term for a down-thrown fault. 
 
424 Appendix. 
 
 Slieve {Celtic) — A mountain. 
 
 Slig, Sliggen {Celtic). — Loose shingly slate or shale. 
 
 Slugga, Sluggy {Celtic). — See Pot-hole. 
 
 Soapstone. — Steatite. 
 
 Soil. — The decomposed surface of rocks mixed with vegetable 
 and animal substances. — See page 287. 
 
 Steatite. — See page 192. 
 
 Stellate. — Starlike. 
 
 Stone-bind. — Local term for arenaceous shale. 
 
 Stone-mine. — Boate's name for the iron ores occurring as rock 
 masses (Hematite, &c). 
 
 Stratigraphically. — According to the order of the super-posi- 
 tion of strata. 
 
 Stream Gold. — Gold obtained from drifts by streaming. 
 
 Stream Tin. — Tin obtained from drift by streaming. 
 
 Streaming, Streamwork. — Washing drift for gold or tin. 
 
 Striated. — Marked with fine lines. 
 
 Strike. — A term introduced from the German by Sedgwick- 
 The line of the level bearing of a bed of rock, perpen- 
 dicular to the dip of the bed. 
 
 Stull {Celtic). — A mine working, or deads, supported by timbering. 
 
 Syenite. — Amphibole + orthoclase, with or without quartz. 
 
 Synclinal. — A bed, or a series of beds, making a U or V-shaped 
 fold, both portions, or the two sides of the U or V, dipping 
 at each other. 
 
 Tachylyte. — A glassy variety of dolerite or melaphyre. 
 
 Talcite, Talc-Schist. — A metamorphic rock. 
 
 Talus. — A sloping mound of detritus accumulated at the base of 
 
 a cliff or very steep slope. 
 Tesselated. — Divided into squares or chequers. 
 Thinning out. — A set of strata becoming thinner and thinner till 
 
 at last it may disappear. 
 Throw. — The displacement of strata or veins by a fault. 
 Tieve ( Celtic). — One side of a mountain or hill. 
 Till. — The Ulster name for boulder-clay drift. 
 Toad-stone. — A spotted variety of dolerite. 
 
Glossary. 425 
 
 Trap. — Basic igneous rocks. 
 
 Trough. — A comparatively narrow synclinal fold of rock strata. 
 Tuff. — The fragmentary products of volcanic eruptions. 
 Turlough {Celtic). — See Blind-lake. 
 
 Umber. — An argillaceous peroxide of iron and manganese. 
 Unconformable. — Used of strata lying on the upturned ends of 
 
 older strata. 
 Under-clay. — The clay under a coal. 
 Underlie, Underlay. — A miner's term for the dip of a lode. 
 
 Variolated. — Spotted. 
 
 Vein. — A fissure or rent filled with minerals. 
 
 Veinstone, Gangue. — The unproductive stony matter that 
 occurs in a mineral vein associated with the ores. 
 
 Verd Antique. — Ophi-calcite, serpentine mixed with calcite. 
 
 Vesicular. — Full of cavities. 
 
 Volcanic. — Belonging to a volcano. Igneous rocks that have 
 been formed on or near the present surface of the earth. 
 
 Volcanic Bomb. — A mass of molten matter shot up into the air 
 by a volcano. 
 
 Volcanic Focus. — A subterranean centre of igneous action. 
 
 Volcanic Throat. — A volcanic vent or pipe. 
 
 Vug, Vuggy, — Holes or cavities in minerals and mineral veins. 
 
 Vulcanicity, Vulcanism. — Terms introduced by Humboldt to 
 include " the entirety of those telluric phenomena which are 
 to be ascribed to the constant active reaction of the interior 
 of the earth upon its external crust or surface." 
 
 Wad. — An earthy oxide of manganese. 
 
 Wall. — A miner's term for the side of a lode. That under the 
 lode is called the Foot-wall, and that above it the Hanging- 
 wall. 
 
426 Appendix. 
 
 Watershed. — The line that divides the water of one valley or 
 
 area from that of others. 
 Whin, Whinstone. — Name for Trap. 
 White Limestone. — The Ulster name for the indurated chalk of 
 
 that province. 
 White Stone. — The English name of Elvan, which see. 
 Wood-coal. — Lignite. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Acheson's (F.) Gold mines, 344, 
 
 Achill, 335. 
 
 Adams (Dr. Leith) on mammalia, 293 ; 
 
 on Ursus, 297. 
 Adiantites Hibernicus, 61. 
 ^Eolian drift, 223, 228, 235, 238, 319, 
 
 394- 
 
 Agglomerate, 200, 201, 202, 205 ; 
 
 Valentia, 203. 
 Aghavilly, County Armagh, fossils, 234. 
 Aille, County Mayo, cave, 285 ; River, 
 
 327. 
 
 Albitic granite, 198, 206, 218, 
 
 Allihies mines, 352, 
 
 Alum, 358. 
 
 Aluminous iron-ore, 164. 
 
 Ancient sea margins, 241, 251. 
 
 Annaghone, colliery, 127 ; faults, 129. 
 
 Anodonta Jukesii, J, 8. 
 
 Anogene rocks, 4, 194. 
 
 Antimony, 356. 
 
 Antrim, Cambro- Silurians, 35 ; caves, 
 
 286 ; eruptive rocks, 207, 208 ; 
 
 hills, 303, 308 ; Jurassic rocks, 
 
 144 ', metamorphic rocks, 189 ; 
 
 mineral localities, 361 ; raised 
 
 beaches, 253, 256, 259. 
 Apatite, 395. 
 Aqueous drift, 223, 224, 
 Aqueous rocks, 4. 
 Aran Islands, Galway Bay, 240, 249, 
 
 253> 28 5> 3 QI 5 Donegal, 360. 
 Archipelagos, 2 ; Galway, 335. 
 Ardagh rocks, 94. 
 
 Ardsolla river, 327. 
 Ardtrea, eruptive rocks, 209, 
 Arenicolites, 13. 
 
 Arklow, iEolian drift, 240 ; rocks, 195. 
 
 Armagh, drift fossils, 234 ; mineral 
 
 localities, 362 ; rocks, 86, 87, 
 
 133. 139, 390. 
 Aughrim, County Wicklow, 13, 182, 
 
 186, 196 ; River valley, 234, 246, 
 Auriferous sand, 344. 
 Austen (Capt.), on Waterford raised 
 
 beaches, 253, 255. 
 Avonbeg, 246 ; Valley, 258. 
 Avonmore, 13, 196 ; Valley, 258. 
 
 B. 
 
 Baginbun, 27. 
 
 Baily (W. H.), on Armagh rocks, 
 134 ; Ballaghaderreen rocks, 48 ; 
 Ballycastle fossils, 92 ; on Benburb 
 rocks, 87 ; on fossils, 30, 32, 34, 
 39, 41, 44, 45, 61, 77, 95, 99, 101, 
 106, 109, in, 118, 145, 154, 168; 
 on Lough Neagh beds, 169, 233 
 f, n. ; on Peruvians, 131 ; on Tul- 
 lyconnell rocks, 133. 
 
 Baked rocks, 184. 
 
 Balbriggan, rocks, 34. 
 
 Baldoyle, water supply, 13. 
 
 Ball (J.), on Lake Como, 331. 
 
 Ballagh, erratic, 248. 
 
 Ballaghaderreen, Silurians, 48. 
 
 Ballinderry, river section, 170. 
 
d.28 
 
 Index. 
 
 Ballinhassig, Coal Measures, 60. 
 
 Ballinleeny, eruptive rocks, 200. 
 
 Ballintoy, Jurassic rocks, 144. 
 
 Ballybetagh, fossils, 296. 
 
 Ballybig, Salt Measures, 138. 
 
 Ballybrood, rocks, 75, 109, 201. 
 
 Ballycapple, County Wicklow, iron 
 mines, 354. 
 
 Ballycar, fossils and rocks, 32, 38. 
 
 Ballycastle Coal-field, 90, 91 ; Creta- 
 ceous, 153, 155 ; Miocene, 158. 
 
 Ballycoog, lodes, 355 ; slates, 377. 
 
 Ballycottin bay, 60. 
 
 Ballydowane bay, 27 ; fossiliferous ophi- 
 olite, 188. 
 
 Ballygeary, ^Eolian drift, 240 ; rocks, 
 183. 
 
 Ballyhean, shore beds, 70. 
 
 Ballyheedy, County Cork, Coal Mea- 
 sures, 60, 104. 
 
 Ballyknock, trachyte, 162, 208. 
 
 Ballyknockan, granite quarries, 389. 
 
 Ballymacgibbon promontory, 44. 
 
 Ballymena, rocks, 208. 
 
 Ballymoney, coals, 29; Series, 24, 3.1, 
 32, 33, 35, 36, 183, 195. 
 
 Ballymurtagh, 351,355. 
 
 Ballynahinch, County Galway, 205. 
 
 Ballynakill and Kylemore Valley, 204. 
 
 Ballynakill Bay, County Galway, 256. 
 
 Ballynascreen, iron-ore, 159. 
 
 Ballypalady, iron-ore, 166; section 168. 
 
 Bann river, 322 ; upper, 395. 
 
 Bannow, County Wexford, 16 ; Section 
 16, 17, 18, 19, 26, 183, 195. 
 
 Banteer, caves, 284 ; limestones, 68. 
 
 Bantry Bay, 55, 59, 202. 
 
 Barnavave el van, 210. 
 
 Barrow, 258, 261 ; estuary, 255, 265 ; 
 fault, 25 ; valley, 77, 195, 197, 231, 
 237,246, 316; water-basin, 233. 
 
 Barton (Rev. R. ), Lough Neagh hones, 
 171. 
 
 Basal Carboniferous rocks (Old Red 
 Sandstone), 71. 
 
 Basal series, Miocene, 157. 
 
 Basic felstone, 180. 
 
 Basic el vans, 180, 209. 
 
 Bauermann (H.) on iron-ore, 164. 
 
 Bays, 2, 3, 328. 
 
 Beginish, Valentia, 189, 203, 376. 
 
 Belfast, aluminous iron-ore, 164, 353. 
 
 Belvoir, County Clare, fossils, 32. 
 
 Benburb, rocks, 87. 
 
 Ben Evenagh, Jurassic, 147 ; Triassic, 
 
 142 ; Chalk, 405. 
 Bennabeola, 244, 308, 309; water 
 
 supply, 397. 
 Bermingham (J.) on Slieve Dart 
 
 felstone, 203. 
 Billymore, conglomerate, 69. 
 Bird Hill, County Tipperary, 31 ; drift, 
 
 238, 323- 
 Birr or Parsonstown, 33 ; erratics, 249. 
 Black Head, County Antrim, 153. 
 Blacksand (gold sand), 235. 
 Blackball Head, fossils, 61. 
 Black-Sod bay, rocks, 190. 
 Blackstairs Mountain, 198. 
 Blackwater Valley (Cork), 54, 68, 231, 
 
 316; Coal Measures, 107. 
 Blown sand, 238, 394. 
 Bogs,. 267 ; ash, 270 ; growth of, 272 ; 
 
 human remains in, 273 ; lake 
 
 basins, 333 ; water, 407. 
 Bohilbreaga, lignite, 159. 
 Bole, 163. 
 
 Boleyneendorrish, plant bed, 267. 
 Borris, County Carlo w, drift, 236. 
 Boulder-clay drift, 223. 
 Boyle, rocks, 82. 
 Boyne river, 35, 322. 
 Bradley (Samuel) on Jarrow colliery 
 
 fossils, 118. 
 Bray, Head, 13, 35, 196; valley, 197, 
 
 258. 
 Brenan (James) on Shandon Cave, 
 
 285. 
 Broadhaven, yEolian drift, 239. 
 Brosna river, 322. 
 
 Brownrigg (W. B.) on Jarrow col- 
 liery fossils, 118. 
 BRYCE(Dr.) on fossils, 259, 286, 298. 
 Buckland (Dean) on flints, 154 ; on 
 
 Lias, 146. 
 Budd (James) on fossils, 376. 
 
Index. 
 
 429 
 
 Bull's Head, fossils, 39. 
 
 Bunmahon, red conglomerate (Old Red 
 Sandstone ? ), 28. 
 
 Burren, 260 ; cliffs, 300, 301 ; hills, 
 300; limestone, 65, 69, 74, 75, 76, 
 80, 81, 83, 87, 201, 384 ; water- 
 supply, 401. 
 
 C. 
 
 Cabra Castle, Trias, 134. 
 Cahernarry, rocks, 201. 
 Caherconlish, columns, 201. 
 Caherconree, fossils, 39. 
 Cahir, County Tipperary, clays, 168, 
 
 233, 317. 
 
 Cahirmore, County Cork, rocks, 202. 
 
 Cahore, rocks, 16, 17. 
 
 Cainozoic, period, 5 ; rocks, 8, 156 
 water-supply, 402. 
 
 Calcareous rocks, 205 ; springs, 195. 
 
 Callows, 291 ; of Shannon, 323. 
 
 Calp, 65, 74, 76, 77, 80, 81, 83, 87, 88, 
 201 ; coal, 86, 90 ; Draperstown, 
 89 ; fossils, 74, 87 ; resume on, 90, 
 91 ; thinning out of, 75 ; water- 
 supply, 400. 
 
 Cambrian, 5, 6, 1 1 ; Belfast Lough, 22, 
 Bray Head, 13, 196; Carnsore, 
 16, 194 ; Donegal, 191 ; eruptive 
 rocks in, 204, 215 ; fossils, 15, 
 17 ; Galway, 20, 21 ; Galtymore, 
 20, 30 ; Granard, 22 ; junctions 
 with Cambro-Silurians, 26 ; me- 
 tamorphic, 182, 189, 215 ; Nine- 
 mile House, 30 ; Slieve-na-muck 
 30 ; Slieve-na-man, 20 ; Ulster, 
 35 ; water-supply, 397 ; Wexford, 
 16 ; Wicklow and Dublin, 196. 
 Cambro- Silurian, 5, 6, 15, 22, 23, 191, 
 198 ; coal, 29 ; eruptive rocks, 
 203, 216; Forth, 195 ; fossils, 25, 
 26, 42, 47 ; fossil zone of, in Silu- 
 rians, 42 ; junctions with Cam- 
 brians, 26; metamorphic, 182, 186, 
 189, 216 ; water-supply, 397. 
 
 Cape Clear island, 55, 336. 
 
 Carboniferous, 5, 63 ; cherty zones, 65 ; 
 conglomerate, 33, 308; eruptive 
 rocks, 195, 196, 198, 199, 203, 206, 
 218 ; granite, 195, 198 ; metamor- 
 phic, 188, 219 ; slabs, 379 ; water- 
 supply, 398- 
 
 Carboniferous rocks, Carlingford, 93 ; 
 Cavan, 94; Down, 93; Dundalk, 
 93 ; Kills, 94 ; Kilmurry, 59 ; 
 Macroom, 59 ; sandstone, 87 ; 
 shorebeds, 64 ; Slate, 50, 55, 58, 
 60 ; fossils, 61 ; water-supply, 400. 
 
 Carlingford, eruptive rocks, 93 ; granit- 
 oid rock, 209 ; Lough, rocks near, 
 34, 209, 212, 328. 
 
 Carlow, Cambro-Silurians, 25 ; dolo- 
 mite, 188 ; granite, 197 ; meta- 
 morphic rocks, 187; minerals, 362; 
 shore-beds, 70. 
 
 Carnsore, district, 16, 194 ; granite, 
 389 ; metamorphic rocks, 215 ; 
 rocks, 182. 
 
 Carrane-Tual, 2, 305, 307, 308. 
 
 Carrick (Rathdrum), granite quarry, 
 198. 
 
 Carrick Mountain, 15, 196. 
 
 Carrick-on-Suir, 30, 317. 
 
 Carrickfergus, Jurassic rocks, 144; Salt 
 Measures, 137 ; Trias, 137. 
 
 Carrickgollogan, 14, 197. 
 
 Carrickmacross, Carboniferous rocks, 
 93; outlier, 34, 35. 
 
 Carrigogunnel, 201. 
 
 Carrigaline, Coal Measures, 104. 
 
 Carte (Dr. A. ) on fossils, 297. 
 
 Cashel Hill, County Galway, 309. 
 
 Castle Espie, limestone, 93. 
 
 Castle Hill, County Limerick, felstone, 
 200. 
 
 Castlebar, melaphyre, 206. 
 
 Castlecomer Coalfield, 112; tableland, 
 263 f.n. 
 
 Castleconnell, 200. 
 
 Castlehaven, fossils, 61. 
 
 Castlemaine harbour, 54. 
 
 Castlereagh, rocks, 82. 
 
 Catogene rocks, 4, 194. 
 
430 
 
 Index. 
 
 Cavan, granite, 212 ; lakes, 335 ; mi- 
 neral localities, 362 ; rocks, 83, 84. 
 
 Caves, 284. 
 
 Celtic terms, 9. 409. 
 
 Central Ireland, 1 ; lakes of, 33.5. 
 
 Central plain, 1,2; glaciation of, 242. 
 
 Cervus elaphus, 294 ; megaceros, 233, 
 295 ; iarandus, 294. 
 
 Chair of Kildare, 33 : shore-beds, 70. 
 
 Challenger 's explorations, 56. 
 
 Chalk, flints in drift, 261, 262 ; indu- 
 rated, 149 ; upper, 149 : water 
 supply, 404. 
 
 Charts of lakes, 331. 
 
 Chemical changes in rocks, 177. 
 
 Chert, Carboniferous, 65, 66, 74. 
 
 Cirques, 313. 
 
 Clare, caves, 284 ; Carboniferous, 79 '■> 
 hills, 299 ; lakes, 334 ; marbles, 
 382 ; mineral localities, 362 ; raised 
 beaches, 256. 
 
 Clare Island, 48. 
 
 Classification of the rocks, 5, 49, 179. 
 
 Clay -ironstone, 99, 100, 108, 120, 121, 
 122, 169. 
 
 Clay-rock, 374. 
 
 Clays, 360. 
 
 Clew Bay, 20, 81, 191 ; islands, 335 ; 
 rocks, 190. 
 
 Clifden, eruptive rocks, 205. 
 
 Cliffs, 299, 300. 
 
 Clonakilty, quarry, 377. 
 
 Clonegal, drift, 233. 
 
 Clonwilliam, slate quarry, 377. 
 
 Close (Rev. M. H.), glaciation, 241 ; 
 glaciers, 244 ; ice, Leinster hills, 
 261 ; Irish cooms, 31 1 ; shelly 
 drift, 261. 
 
 Coagh, eruptive rocks, 208 ; Trias, 141. 
 
 Coal, Calp, 86, 90 ; Cambro-Silurian, 
 29 ; Dundalk, 93 ; Jurassic, 147 ; 
 Miocene, 157, 159, 164, 167; Plio- 
 cene (?), 169, 170; rods, 80, 99. 
 
 Coalfields, 103; Connaught, 120; Dun- 
 
 gannon, 122; East Munster, 109; 
 
 Leinster, 112; West Munster, 104. 
 
 Coalhill, Tagoat, 29. 
 
 Coalisland Coalfield, 122 ; limestone, 153 
 
 Coal Measures, 5, 7, 50, 53, 54, 61, 75, 
 95 ; Ballinhassig and Ballheedy, 
 60 ; Ballybrood, 109 ; Blackwater, 
 107; Connaught, 119; Fethard, 
 109 ; Garbally, 109 ; Kinsale, 60 ; 
 Lough Allen, 82 ; Mitchelstown, 
 109 ; West Cork, 103, 104 ; fish, 
 129 ; fossils, 59, 95 ; hills, 300, 
 306; water-supply, 402. 
 
 Cobalt, 357. 
 
 Cod's Head, County Cork, 202. 
 
 COLLES (Richard) on marbles, 380. 
 
 Collin Glen, Cretaceous, 153 ; Jurassic, 
 144 ; Rhsetic, 136. 
 
 Colonies of Cambro-Silurian fossils, 47. 
 
 Columns, Bengooria, 191 ; Giants'- 
 Causeway, 164; Limerick, 201, 
 202 ; Lough Guitana, 203. 
 
 Comeragh Mts., 310; glaciers, 245. 
 
 Conglomerate, limestone, 69 ; peculiar, 
 32 ; recent, 230. 
 
 Conical hills, 308. 
 
 Connaught, Cambro-Silurians, 36 ; 
 Coal Measures, 119 ; eruptive 
 rocks, 203; hills, 304; metamor- 
 phic rocks, 189. 
 
 Connary, lodes, 351. 
 
 Conybeare (Rev. W. B.), onPermians, 
 130. 
 
 Cookstown, rocks, 8"J. 
 
 Coolbaun, Coal Measures, section 1 14. 
 
 Coole Lough, river system, 325. 
 
 Coom-glaciers, 311. 
 
 Coomhola grits, 50. 
 
 Cooms, 299, 309 ; sea formed, 312. 
 
 Copper mines, 358. 
 
 Copperas, 358. 
 
 Corbally, slate quarry, 375. 
 
 Corcasses, 291. 
 
 Corcogemore quartz-rock, 204. 
 
 Cork, Carboniferous rocks, 5, 7; caves, 
 284 ; cooms, 310, 311 ; drift, 236 ; 
 faults, 315; hills, 261, 303; 
 minerals, 363 ; lakes, 334 ; moun- 
 tains, 2, 3, 303 ; raised beaches, 
 253, 254, 255; rocks, 50, 58; 
 slate quarries, 376 ; valleys, 258 ; 
 water-supply, 399. 
 
Index. 
 
 43 1 
 
 Corkers, 269, 277. 
 
 Corvockbrack granite, 205, 21 8. 
 
 Courtown, tide at, 251. 
 
 Craig-na-shoke, 159- 
 
 Crannagh Macknavin, 281. 
 
 Crannogs, 278. 
 
 Cratloe hills, County Clare, 31, 32, 
 199, 238. 
 
 Creggaunbaun group, 41, 46. 
 
 Cretaceous, limestone, 385 ; rocks, 8, 
 148 ; water-supply, 404. 
 
 Croagh Patrick, 36, 47, 191, 205, 308 ; 
 beds, 36. 
 
 Croaghan, King's County, 199. 
 
 Croaghmarhin beds, 39, 40. 
 
 Croaghmoyle group, 48. 
 
 Croghan-Kinshella, 342. 
 
 Cromac springs, Belfast, 405. 
 
 Cronebane Hill, 250 ; mines, 351. 
 
 Crookhaven, beach, 253; slates, 376. 
 
 Crossabeg, Cambro- Silurians, 25. 
 
 Crossfarnoge, County Wexford, 182. 
 
 Cruise (R.J.) on raised beach, 254. 
 
 Crumlin river beds, 1 70. 
 
 Cuilcagh, 322. 
 
 Culfin group, 41, 43. 
 
 Cullion, Limestone, 89. 
 
 Cultra, Permians, 132. 
 
 Curlew Mountains, rocks, 82. 
 
 Curracloe bog, 266. 
 
 Curragh of Kildare, 33 ; recent conglo- 
 merate, 230. 
 
 Currareavagh, rocks, 44. 
 
 Cushendall rocks, 90, 160. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dalkey, drift, 231 : granite, 388. 
 
 Damlaght, Cretaceous, 152. 
 
 Dana (Prof. J.D.) on sub-ice rivers, 
 
 234- 
 Dargle river and valley, 321, 322. 
 
 Dark shale series, 24, 32, 33, 35, 36, 
 
 183, 195- 
 Davidson (T.) on fossils, 42, 61. 
 Deal-forest age, 268, 272. 
 
 Decomposed granite, 394. 
 
 Deltas, 3. 
 
 Dernasliggaun, faults, 43. 
 
 Derreennawinshin, fossils, 46. 
 
 Derries (oakwoods), 269. 
 
 Desertmartin, limestone, 89. 
 
 Devil's Bit mountain, 316. 
 
 Devil's Glen, 320 ; erratic, 250. 
 
 Devonian, fossils, 61 ; rocks, 56. 
 
 Diamond Hill, 191. 
 
 Dingle and Dungarvan fault, 54, 55, 
 67, 107 ; valley, 50. 
 
 Dingle bay, 50, 53, 55 ; glaciation, 245 ; 
 promontory, 54 ; Silurians, 38. 
 
 Dingle or Glengariff grits, 50, 52, 66, 82. 
 
 Dogger Bank, Wexford, 228. 
 
 Dolerite, Cainozoic, 163 ; hills, 306 ; 
 Miocene, 208 ; sand, 294 ; Scrabo 
 Hill, 135. 
 
 Dolomite, 76, 188, 205, 221. 
 
 Donabate, 34. 
 
 Donald's Hill, Cretaceous, 151; Mio- 
 cene, 158. 
 
 Donegal, bays, 328, 330 ; eruptive 
 rocks, 207 ; granite, 390; hills, 
 308 ; islands, 335 ; kitchen-mid- 
 dens, 283 ; lakes, 335 ; metamor- 
 phic rocks, 189, 192, 215 ; minerals, 
 207, 364 ; raised beaches, 256, 
 
 259- 
 Doohylebeg, Rathkeale, fossils, 74. 
 
 Doolough beds, 36, 47. 
 
 Doonass, Castleconnell, 323. 
 
 Doonooney, coal, 29. 
 
 Dooms promontory, 44. 
 
 Down, Carboniferous rocks, 93 ; hills, 
 
 308 ; minerals, 364 ; water-supply, 
 
 406. 
 Down Hill, conglomerate, 158; Jurassic, 
 
 147. 
 Draperstown fault and rocks, 89. 
 Drift, 223 ; fossils, 259 ; lake-basins, 
 
 33°5 332 ; pebbles on edge, 236 ; 
 
 water-supply, 406. 
 Dromineen bay, 323. 
 Drumgoff, Glenmalure, 246, 320. 
 Drumkelin bog, submerged house, 273. 
 Drumshambo section, 83. 
 
432 
 
 Index. 
 
 Du Noyer, (G.V.) 14, 23, 35, 38, 53, 
 153, 244, 250, 283, 391 ; Ballynock 
 trachyte, 163, 208 ; iron-ore, 160 ; 
 lacustrine accumulations, 8 ; Per- 
 mians, 132 ; raised beaches, 254, 
 255, 256, 257 ; Scrabo Hill rocks, 
 135, 209 ; Tardree trachyte, 162. 
 
 Dublin and Wicklow mountains, 3, 245. 
 
 Dublin, Bay, 254,5328 ; Cambrians, II, 
 182 ; Cambro-Silurians, 25 ; Car- 
 boniferous, 76 ; minerals, 365 ; 
 raised beaches, 252, 254, 258 ; 
 shelly drift at high levels, 261. 
 
 Duffen (W. le S.) on Miocene rocks, 
 157, 161, 167, 168. 
 
 Duncrue salt mine, 137. 
 
 Dundalk coal, 93. 
 
 Dungannon Coalfield, 122. 
 
 Dungiven, Triassic, 141 ; rocks, 90. 
 
 Dunkerron, 51, 52, 54, 310. 
 
 Dunleary, Kingstown, 252. 
 
 Dunluce, 158. 
 
 Dunmanus Bay, 59. 
 
 Dunmore cave, Kilkenny, 285. 
 
 Dunmurry, Cretaceous, 152. 
 
 Durocher(M. J.)> on hybrid rocks, 210. 
 
 Dursey Island, 202, 336. 
 
 E. 
 
 East Coast, islands, 336 ; raised beach, 
 256. 
 
 East Munster Coalfield, 109. 
 
 Economical products, 339. 
 
 Edge (B. B. ) on coal-measures, Lein- 
 ster, 112, 119, 231. 
 
 Egan (F. W.), 89, 133, 163, 172, 403. 
 
 Egerton (Sir P. de M.G.), coal-mea- 
 sure fossils, 98, 101, 104. 
 
 Elvans, 179, 180, 184, 205, 208, 209, 
 210, 388, 390. 
 
 English and Irish Cambro-Silurians, 37. 
 
 Enniscorthy, drift, 233. 
 
 Enniskeen, Triassic, 134. 
 
 Erne river, 327. 
 
 Erratics, 241, 244, 247. 
 
 Erris, Mayo, 308. 
 
 Errisbeg, 308. 
 
 Errismore, vEolian drift, 240. 
 
 Eruptive rocks, 4, 6, 7, 14, 75, 175, 194 ; 
 Antrim, 166 : Ballymoney series, 
 199 ; bedded, 182 ; Cambrian, 
 215 ; Cambro- Silurian, 216 ; Car- 
 boniferous, 71, 218 ; Carlingford, 
 93 ; chronologically classified, 213, 
 214; metamorphic, 192; Miocene, 
 157, 161, 208, 220; roots of, 208; 
 Triassic, 220 ; water-supply, 396. 
 
 Escarpments, 299, 300. 
 
 Eskers, Formation of, 226 ; fossils, 230 ; 
 drift, 224, 226 ; sea, 224, 225, 238, 
 
 259. 
 Estuaries, 3 ; drift, 223, 231. 
 Eurite, 33, 43, 45, 180, 181, 191 
 
 sheets, 191 ; Silurian, 45, 46, 204; 
 Eurite series, 42. 
 Exotic rocks, 194. 
 Extravasated rocks, 194. 
 
 F. 
 
 Farran (Dr.) submerged forest, 265. 
 Fastnet rock, 336. 
 Fathom mountain, Elvan, 210. 
 Faults, 25, 31, 43, 83,89, 109, 113, 
 
 128, 129, 141, 197, 314, 321. 
 Felstone, 180, 181, 391 ; peculiar, 
 
 Castle Hill, 200. 
 Fenestella limestone, 71, 72, 81, 201, 
 
 309 ; water-supply, 400. 
 Fergus river, 326. 
 Fermanagh, Coal-measures, 120; lakes, 
 
 335 ; minerals, 365 ; rocks, 84. 
 Fermanagh and Sligo section, 86. 
 Ferriter's Cove beds, 39, 40. 
 Ferry carrig, 27. 
 Fethard, Coal-measures, 109. 
 Finlan (P.), Clogh coal-measures, 116; 
 
 fossils, f.n. in, 118. 
 Fiords, 2, 3, 321. 
 Fireclay, 99, 100. 
 Fish fossils, coal-measure, 98 ; list, 
 
 87, 92. 
 
Index. 
 
 433 
 
 Flags, 378. 
 
 Flagstone series, 99, 379. 
 
 Flesk river, 316 ; valley, 54. 
 
 Flint-gravel, and conglomerate Mio- 
 cene, 149, 157. 
 
 Flints in drift, 262. 
 
 Floods, effects of, 235. 
 
 Fluviatile drift, 223. 
 
 Foot (F. J.), 22, 35, 75, 100, 105, 106, 
 244, 255, 284, 360. 
 
 Forbes (David), on eruptive rocks, 
 175, 221. 
 
 Forbes (Edward), geological periods, 
 5 ; fossils, 34. 
 
 Forbes (W.), debacles, 332. 
 
 Forlorn Point, County Wexford, 182. 
 
 Formnamore Mountains, 45, 46, 244, 
 308. 
 
 Forth mountains, 16, 17, 183. 
 
 Fossils, Armagh, 87, Ballycastle, 92 ; 
 Balleymoney rocks, 31, 32 ; Bally- 
 heedy, 104 ; bog, 278 ; Burren 
 limestone, 76, 80, 82 ; Calp, 74, 
 87 ; Cambrians, 13, 15, 17, 25, 
 26 ; Cambro-Silurians, 26, 30 ; 
 Carboniferous, 61, 84 ; Caradoc, 
 46 ; Castle Espie, 93 ; Clare, 105 ; 
 Coal Measures, 59, 95, 101, 104, 
 105, in ; Creggaunbaun, 47; Cre- 
 taceous, 152 ; Dark shale series, 35 ; 
 Desertmartin, 89 ; Devonian, 61 ; 
 Dingle, 39 ; Doohylebeg, 74 ; Drift, 
 231, 234, 257, 259 ; East Munster, 
 m; Eskers, 230 ; Fenestella 
 limestone, 72; Foynes island, 108; 
 Glengariff grits, 53 ; Glin, 106 ; 
 Gowlaun series, 43 ; Hook, 62, 
 78 ; Kiltorcan, 61, 78 ; Llandeilo, 
 39; Lough Neagh, 170, 171 ; 
 Lower Carboniferous, 100 ; Lower 
 Limestone Shale, 71, 80, 81 ; Lower 
 Shaly Limestone, 72 ; Marine drift, 
 231 ; Miocene, 168 ; men, 274, 
 293 ; Old Red Sandstone, 80; peat, 
 267 ; recent, 230 ; Rhaetic, 136 ; 
 Rhone Hill, 139 ; Rosscliff, 105 ; 
 Salrock, 42 ; Shore-beds, Carboni- 
 ferous, 69 ; Silurians, 45 ; Sligo, 
 
 84 ; Tallow Bridge and Toe Head, 
 79 ; Upper Llandovery, 191 ; Vic- 
 toria slate quarry, 376 ; Whiddy 
 island, 59 ; Yellow sandstone, 61. 
 Fossils and fossiliferous rocks, 13, 35, 
 
 36, 39, 44- 
 Foyle river, 322. 
 Foynes, Coal-measures, 108. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gabbro, 33, 44, 202 ; uralitic, 205. 
 Galtee mountains, erratics, 249 ; glaciers, 
 
 245- 
 Galtymore, 20, 30, 307, 308. 
 Galway, Bay 20, 239, 265, 326, 328, 
 
 335 ; Cambrians, 21 ; Carboniferous, 
 
 7, 79; caves, 284; cooms, 310; 
 
 erratics, 248, 249 ; granite, 389 ; 
 
 gravel, 231 ; hills, 260, 299 ; 
 
 kitchen middens, 283 ; metamor- 
 
 phic rocks, 189 ; minerals, 365 ; 
 
 raised beaches, 253, 256 ; valleys, 
 
 231, 258, 314. 
 Garbally Coal Measures, 109. 
 Garvin (J. ) on fossils, Lough Neagh 
 
 beds, 171. 
 GEiNiTZ(Dr.) on Tyrone Coalfield, 128. 
 Geological, history, 1 : systems, 5 ; 
 
 terms, 9, 409. 
 Giants' Causeway, 155, 164. 
 Glacial drift, 223 ; glacialoid drift, 225. 
 Glaciation, 221. 
 Glaciers, 9, 241. 
 Glandore lode, 353. 
 Glanmire, fossils, 61. 
 Glanmore, slate quarry, 378. 
 Glen, Imale, 319 ; of the Downs, 321 ; 
 
 Ow, 246, 320. 
 Glenarm, whiting, 154; quarries, 161. 
 Glennawooa, Mayo, 310. 
 Glenbonniv, relics in peat, 277. 
 Glenbrian, granite, 195. 
 Glencar, fossils, 84. 
 Glencolloo, 307. 
 Glencree, 318. 
 Glendalough, 250, 310, 333. 
 F F 
 
434 
 
 Index. 
 
 Glenflesk, drift, 245, 260 ; eruptive 
 
 rocks, 189. 
 Glengariff grits, 41, 53, 85, 203 ; Fin- 
 
 tona, 85 ; fossils, 53. 
 Gleninagh, 259. 
 Glenmacanass, 321. 
 Glenmalure, 246, 320 ; hills west of, 
 
 234- 
 Glennagappul, 310. 
 Glin, fossils, 106. 
 Glynn, Salt Measures, 138. 
 Gneiss series, 178; Donegal, 192. 
 Gneissite, 204. 
 Gokane Point, fossils, 61. 
 Gold, 339 ; alluvium, 346 ; drift, 234 ; 
 
 faults, 344, 346 ; sand, 234, 344 ; 
 
 working, 345 ; ornaments, 341. 
 Golden, Tipperary, 317. 
 Golden-vein (Suir Valley), 292. 
 Good (J.) on Dunworley Bay bog, 
 
 265. 
 Goraghwood "granite," 210, 390. 
 Goresbridge, yj. 
 Gorey fault, 25. 
 Gort river system, 325. 
 Gorumna, County Galway, 204. 
 Gowlaun, 43 ; rocks, 47 ; series, 42 ; 
 
 Silurians, 41. 
 Graiguenamanagh, 255- 
 Grainger (Dr. ) on fossils, 
 Granard, 22, 35. 
 Granite, 179, 180, 388 ; Carnsore, 
 
 194 ; decomposed, 394 ; Dublin 
 
 and New Ross, 187 ; grain in, 197, 
 
 198; hills, 306; Mourne, 192; 
 
 Newer, Wicklow, 187 ; Newry, 
 
 210 ; Silurian, 204 : slabs, 378 ; 
 
 Slieve Croob, 192 ; water-supply, 
 
 396. 
 Granitic felstone, 204; gneiss, 178; 
 
 rocks, 4, 179, 180, 194; sand, 197; 
 
 soil, 288. 
 
 Granitoid rock, Slieve Foye, 209. 
 
 Gravels, Lough Corrib, 230 ; Tyrone, 
 Derry, and Nore, 226. 
 
 Great Sugarloaf, 197. 
 
 Greenore, County Louth, kitchen-mid- 
 dens, 283 : shell gravels, 257. 
 
 Greenore, County Wexford, 16 ; Cam- 
 bro- Silurians, 26 ; quartzite, 182 ; 
 metamorphic rocks, 215. 
 
 Greensand, 150. 
 
 Gray (W.) on iron-ore measures, 167. 
 
 Greystones, 14. 
 
 Griffith (Sir R. W.), 20, 50, 51, 53, 
 
 55, 5 6 > 93, l6 9, 170, 357, 3§6 ; 
 Ballycastle rocks, 90 ; Coal Mea- 
 sures, 112, 121, 122, 123; Cork- 
 rocks, 7 f. n. ; Fintona rocks, 82, 
 85 ; Louisburg, 47 ; Permians, 
 133 : Tyrone and Fermanagh rocks, 
 86. 
 
 Gritstones, 386. 
 
 Growan, 197, 394. 
 
 Gulladuff Trias, 141. 
 
 Gypsum, 134, 139, 358, 393. 
 
 H. 
 
 Hardman (E. T.), 100 f. «., 124, 
 
 169. 
 Harkness (Prof.) on fossils, 44. 
 Harte (W.), kitchen-middens, 283. 
 Haughton (Rev. Dr.), 192, 209,251. 
 Haughtonia pcecii #, 13. 
 Head of tide, 251. 
 Hibernian Greensand, 149, 150. 
 Highlands. Wicklow, 306. 
 Highly silicious intrusive granitic rocks, 
 
 179. 
 Hills, 2, 3, 299, 303. 
 Hillsborough, County Down, 162, 208. 
 Histioderma Hibemicum, 13. 
 Hollywood, County Wicklow, fault, 
 
 321. 
 Hook Promontory, 78, 316, 317. 
 Hooker (Dr.) on debacles, 332. 
 Hore (J. ) on red rocks, Bunmahon, 28. 
 Hornblende rock, 194, 204, 390. 
 Hornblendic-gabbro, 204 ; granite, 204. 
 Hornstone (baked shale), 158, 184. ; 
 
 Weaver on, 186. 
 Horses' Glen, Mangerton, 310. 
 Hospital, Limerick, 200. 
 
Index. 
 
 435 
 
 Howth, 34; Cambrians, II, 12; cobalt, 
 357 ; quartz-rock and quartzite, 
 197 ; water-supply, 397. 
 
 Hughes (Mr. ) on fossils, 30, 376. 
 
 Hull (Prof.), 87, 133, 135, 162. 
 
 Human remains, or relics, 273, 286, 
 
 295- 
 Hungry Hill, County Cork, glaciers, 
 
 245- 
 Huxley (Prof. ) on Coal Measure fossils, 
 
 98, 101, 119. 
 Hybrid rocks, 180, 181, 210. 
 Hydraulic limestones, 386. 
 Hyndman (G.) on fossiliferous gravel, 
 
 259. 
 Hypergene and Hypogene rocks, 4 f.n. 
 
 I. 
 
 Ice action, 242, 299 ; cap, 224 ; move- 
 ment, 242 ; sheet, 9, 235. 
 
 Igneous rocks, 194. 
 
 Inch conglomerate, 52. 
 
 Ingenite rocks, 175. 
 
 Innistioge, on Nore, 317. 
 
 Intraglacial drift, 225 ; peat, 234, 267. 
 
 Intrusive granite, 179, 180; rocks, 194. 
 
 Invers, 3. 
 
 Ireland's Eye, 34, 337. 
 
 Irish Elk, 295. 
 
 Iron furnaces, 352 ; mines, 352, 353. 
 
 Iron-ores, 56, 99, 100, 108, III, 122, 
 159 ; and gold, 343 ; localities, 
 J 66, 353 ; Miocene, 160, 161, 
 164, 166; measures, 157, 160, 
 161, 164 ; Palaeozoic, 354. 
 
 Island Magee, Jurassic, 144 ; iron-ore, 
 166. 
 
 Islands, 328, 335. 
 
 Isle of Man, 229. 
 
 Iveragh, 51, 52, 54, 310. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jacob (A.), on Leinster Coal Measures, 
 112. 
 
 James (Sir H.), drift Forth mountain, 
 261/.%. 
 
 Jarrow colliery fossils, 118. 
 
 Jones (Admiral), Armagh fossils, 87. 
 
 Jones (M. H.), on oak beams in drift, 
 284. 
 
 Tukes (J. Beete), 7 f.n., 13, 14, 15, 23, 
 28, 30, 38, 47, 51, 52, 56, 59, 60, 
 64, 77, 152, 169, 200, 244, 277, 
 315, 391 ; Australian limestone, 
 73 ; Ballaghaderreen rocks, 48 ; 
 Coal Measures, 98, 104, 1 12, 122 ; 
 fish Coal Measures, 98 ; Lauren- 
 tian rocks, 35, 191, 207 ; Miocene, 
 8, 149, 160 ; White Ball Head ag- 
 glomerate, 202. 
 
 Jurassic, 8, 143 ; altered 146, 185 f.n.; 
 coal, 147 ; localities, 143, 144. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kames, 229 f.n. 
 
 Kane (SirR.), 132, 287, 342, 359, 380; 
 water supply, 395. 
 
 Kaolin, 360, 392. 
 
 Keady Mountain, Cretaceous, 151; Mio- 
 cene, 158. 
 
 Keeper Mountain, 31, 306. 
 
 Kelly (John, the late), on Quartz-rock, 
 14; salt measures, 137. 
 
 Kelly (J. ), on hydraulic limestone, 386. 
 
 Kenmare river, 51, 55. 
 
 Kerry, bays, 328 ; Carboniferous, 5, 7, 
 65; cooms, 309, 311; hills, 260, 
 304 ; kitchen middens, 282 ; 
 lakes, 334 ; minerals, 367 ; moun- 
 tains, 23, 260, 304 ; raised 
 beaches, 253, 255 ; rocks, 50 ; 
 valleys, 258. 
 
 Kilbride (Rev. W.), submerged land, 
 264. 
 
 Kilbride Bay, 43 ; promontory, 43. 
 
 Kilcoole, County Wicklow, 196. 
 
 Kilcorig quarry, 160. 
 
 F F 2 
 
43^ 
 
 Index. 
 
 Kildare, Carboniferous, 75, 76; Cambro- 
 Silurians, 25, 27 ; Chair of, 33 ; Coal 
 Measures, 119 ; dolomites, 76, 188 ; 
 kitchen middens, 283 ; meta- 
 morphic, 187 ; minerals, 367. 
 
 Kilkenny, Carboniferous, 76 ; Coal 
 Measures, 112; dolomite, 76, 188; 
 Esker gravel, 226 ; marbles, 381 ; 
 minerals, 367. 
 
 Kilkieran Bay, County Galway, 231. 
 
 Killala Bay, 250. 
 
 Killaloe, 323 ; rocks of, 324 ; slate 
 quarries, 375. 
 
 Killarney, drift, 245 ; eruptive and 
 metamorphic rocks, 189 ; lakes, 3, 
 
 334- 
 
 Killary harbour, 36, 43, 190, 199, 204, 
 206, 256, 259 ; eurites, 204 ; Silu- 
 rians, 41. 
 
 Killoughter, County Wicklow, 13. 
 
 Killowen, County Wexford, " elk-hole," 
 
 295- 
 
 Killucan, 34. 
 
 Kilmacrea, Pass, 320 ; slate quarries, 
 
 378. 
 Kilmakilloge, lake, 334 ; section, 58. 
 Kilmichael, County Wexford, 254. 
 Kilmurry, rocks, 59. 
 Kilroot, raised beach, 256. 
 Kilsella, County Sligo, fossils, 84. 
 Kiltorcan rock and fossils, 61, ']'], 78. 
 Kinahan (Dr. J. R.), 12, 13, 15 f.n., 
 
 296. 
 King (Clarence), glaciers, 224, 249. 
 King (Dr.), Galway Cambrians, 20; 
 
 fossils, 44 ; joints, 74 ; Permians, 
 
 132, 133- 
 King (W. , of India), on granitic rocks, 
 
 179. 
 Kings County, Carboniferous, 75 ; 
 
 minerals, 368. 
 Kingscourt, Trias, 134. 
 King's River valley, County Wicklow, 
 
 erratics, 250. 
 Kinsale Head, 60; Coal Measures, 104. 
 Kinvarra, 326. 
 Kitchen middens, 257, 282. 
 Knockadober, County Kerry, 262. 
 
 Knockagraffy, County Armagh, fossils, 
 
 234. 
 Knockfeerna, County Limerick, 200, 
 
 201. 
 Knockmahon, mines, 350 ; red rocks, 
 
 28. 
 Knockmealdown, glaciers, 245. 
 Knockmore, caves, Fermanagh, 284, 
 
 285, 293. 
 Knocknadona, fossils, 160. 
 Knocknamohill mines, 355. 
 Knocksheegowna, 31, 33. 
 Kylemore valley, 204. 
 
 L. 
 
 Lackavrea, quartz rock, 204. 
 Lacustrine drift, 223, 233. 
 Lady's Island, Wexford, 228. 
 Lagan, valley, 292 ; Permian, 132 ; 
 
 Trias, 135. 
 Lagoons, 3, 259, 328. 
 Lagore crannog, 281. 
 Lake dwellings (crannogs), 278. 
 Lakes, 3, 321, 330 ; Killarney, 3, 203. 
 
 (see Loughs. ) 
 Lambay, 34, 77, 337. 
 Lame, 166 ; Cretaceous, 154 ; Jurassic, 
 
 144 ; raised beaches, 253, 256 ; 
 
 whiting, 154. 
 Laterite, 163. 
 
 Laurentians (?), 35, 191, 207. 
 Le Conte (Prof.), California gold, 
 
 343 ; metamorphism, 175. 
 Lead, 348, 351. 
 Lee River, 316. 
 Leenaun, Killary harbour, 256, 259, 
 
 3"- 
 
 Leinster Carboniferous, 75 ; Coalfield, 
 112; erratics, 250; granite, 195, 
 197, 388; hills, 304; range, 195. 
 
 Leitrim, Carboniferous, 83 ; Coal Mea- 
 sures, 120 ; minerals, 368. 
 
 Lemonfield, conglomerate, 69. 
 
 Leonard (Hugh), ash of peat, 270. 
 
 Leonard (W. B.), 134, 135. 
 
 Letter Mullen, rocks, 36, 190, 204. 
 
Index. 
 
 437 
 
 Levaly lake, 81. 
 
 Lias, altered, 145, 158; hornstone, 158 ; 
 typical section, 144; Portrush, 145, 
 158, 185. 
 
 Liffey, river, 321 ; valley, 258. 
 
 Lignite, 157, 159, 164, 167, 170, 171. 
 
 Limavady, Cretaceous, 150; Jurassic, 
 Triassic, 142. 
 
 Lime, 392 ; soil, 290. 
 
 Limerick, Carboniferous, 65, 70 ; erup- 
 tive rocks, 200; marbles, 382; 
 mines, 350 ; minerals, 368 ; plain 
 of, 260 ; raised beaches, 255, 258. 
 
 Limestone, 380 ; band in Coal Mea- 
 sures, 100, 105, 106 ; Burren type, 
 75 ; Carboniferous, 58 ; eruptive 
 rocks in, 218 ; hills, 300, 306 ; 
 slabs, 379 ; water supply, 400. 
 
 Linfield, columns, 201. 
 
 Lisbellaw, Cambro-Silurians, 36. 
 
 Lisdoonvarna, springs, 402. 
 
 Lisnastrane, limestone, 153. 
 
 Lithographic stone, 153. 
 
 Lithomarge, 163. 
 
 Little Causeway, Rathlin Island, 164. 
 
 Little Killary, County Gal way, 43. 
 
 Little Sugarloaf, County Wicklow, 197. 
 
 Llandeilo fossils, 25, 26, 29, 30. 
 
 Llandovery fossils, 39, 43, 44, 45. 
 
 Local metamorphism, 4, 175. 
 
 Local soil, 287. 
 
 Londonderry, bays, 328 ; Cambro-Silu- 
 rian, 35 ; Carboniferous, 86 ; Creta- 
 ceous, 150; eruptive rocks, 207; 
 hills, 308 ; Jurassic, 147 ; meta- 
 morphic rocks, 189 ; minerals, 
 368 ; raised beaches, 256 ; rocks, 
 86; Triassic, 140, 141. 
 
 Longford, Cambro-Silurians, 34 ; mine- 
 rals, 369. 
 
 Loughs, 3, 330; Allen, 322, 323; 
 Bray, 310; Cooter, 80, 325 ; Corrib, 
 3, 41, 44, 69, 81, 230, 258, 265, 
 3 2 7, 330> 331 5 Derg, 32, 323, 
 331 ; Erne, 88 ; Forbes, 34, 323 ; 
 Foyle, 141 ; Gara, 82,83 5 Graney, 
 33 ; Guitane, 189, 203 ; Gur, 201 ; 
 Hacket, 280 ; Key, 82 ; Mask, 41, 
 
 43, 44, 45, 69, 81, 205, 331 ; 
 
 Moher, 205 ; Muck, 42, 43 ; 
 
 Neagh, 3, 330; Rea, 280; Ree, 
 
 323 ; Shinny, 77. 
 Lough Muck series, 42. 
 Lough Mourne, Jurassic rocks, 144. 
 Lough Neagh, basin, 330 : beds, 169, 
 
 170, 171 ; clays and sands, 233; 
 
 Cretaceous, 153 ; faults, 90, 128 ; 
 
 hones, 169; series, 156, 168. 
 Loughnahinch crannog, 280. 
 Loughrea, 80. 
 
 Louisburgh, rocks, 41, 47, 191. 
 Louth, Carboniferous, 76 ; eruptive 
 
 rocks, 212 ; minerals, 369. 
 Lower Carboniferous, 63, 87 ; fossils in 
 
 Coal Measures, 100. 
 Lower limestone, disappearance of, 75. 
 Lower limestone shale, 58, 64, 67, 70, 
 
 71, 83, 84, 87, 88. * 
 Lowland bogs (red bogs), 271. 
 Ludlow fossils, 50, 52. 
 Lugacurren fault, 113. 
 Lugnanoon granite, 217. 
 Lugnaquillia, 306, 310; cooms, 31 1 ; 
 
 glaciers, 245. 
 Lurgan, Cretaceous, 153. 
 Lusca (cave), 284. 
 Luscans, or cave-dwellers, 285. 
 Lyons (Rev. P.), on Galway erratics, 
 
 M. 
 
 Macgillicuddy's Reeks, 307. 
 
 Macroom, rocks, 59. 
 
 Maghera, Triassic, 141. 
 
 Magilligan, Jurassic, 147. 
 
 Magnesia, 358 ; springs, 195, 402 
 
 Magnesite, Coagh, 208. 
 
 Maigue River, 322. 
 
 Malahide Bay, 329. 
 
 Mallet (R. ), on Minerals, 346. 
 
 Mallow rocks, 68 ; eruptive rocks, 200. 
 
 Mammalia, 291. 
 
 Man, ancient, 282. 
 
 Manganese, 56, 355. 
 
438 
 
 Index. 
 
 Mangerton, Killarney, 310. 
 
 Manures, mineral, 374 ; artificial, 395. 
 
 Marbles, 74, 380. 
 
 Marine, denudation, 299 ; drift, 223. 
 
 Marl, 393. 
 
 Maum Thomoish, 311. 
 
 Maum Valley, 43, 45, 48. 
 
 Maums, 2, 3, 315, 321, 392. 
 
 Maumturk Mountains, 244. 
 
 Mayo, bays, 328, 329; Cambro- Silurians, 
 36 ; cooms, 310 ; Carboniferous, 
 328, 329 ; erratics, 248 ; erup- 
 tive rocks, 207 ; islands, 335 ; 
 metamorphic rocks, 189 ; la- 
 goons, 323 ; lakes, 334 ; minerals, 
 369 ; raised beaches, 253, 256, 
 259 ; rocks, 20 ; Silurians, 41, 44 ; 
 slates, 378 ; valleys, 231, 258. 
 
 McHenry (A.), 36, 190. 
 
 McDonnell (Dr.), on fossils, 268. 
 
 Meadows (McCarthy), on Coal Mea- 
 sures, 115, 116, 117. 
 
 Meath, Carboniferous rocks, 76 ; kitchen 
 middens, 283 ; raised beaches, 257; 
 minerals, 369. 
 
 Meelick, King's County, 323. 
 
 Mesozoic, period, 5 ; rocks, 130 ; water 
 supply, 402. 
 
 Metallic schist, 178. 
 
 Metamorphic granite, 178, 389. 
 
 Metamorphic, rocks, 4, 175, 182 ; Cam- 
 brians, 215 ; Cambro-Silurians, 
 216; Carboniferous, 218; chrono- 
 logically arranged, 213; Miocene, 
 220 ; Triassic, 220. 
 
 Metamorphism, 175. 
 
 Metapepsis, 4, 175, 182 ; Metapeptic 
 
 action, 175. 
 Meteoric, abrasion, 299 : drift, 223, 235 ; 
 
 rocks, 4. 
 Methylosis, 4, 177. 
 
 Methylotic, action, 188 ; rocks, 192, 204. 
 Middle (?) gravels, 233, 236. 
 Milne-Home (D.), on shoals, 228. 
 Mineral list, 361 ; manure, 392 ; soil, 
 
 287. 
 Mines and minerals, 339 ; ancient, 347, 
 350- 
 
 Miocene, 156; conglomerate, 151, 157; 
 dolerite, 161, 208, 210 ; eruptive 
 rocks, 161 ; metamorphic rocks, 
 220; plants, 160, 167, 168. 
 
 Mitchelstown, Coal Measures, 109; 
 Caves, 286. 
 
 Mizen Head promontory, 55. 
 
 Moira, Cretaceous, 154; eruptive rocks, 
 209. 
 
 Molybdenite, 357. 
 
 Monaghan, section, 85 ; lakes, 335 ; 
 minerals, 369 ; rocks, 84. 
 
 Moneygall, 31. 
 
 Moneymore, Triassic, 141 ; rocks, 88 ; 
 water supply, 403. 
 
 Moneyneany, Cretaceous, 151; conglo- 
 merate, 89. 
 
 Moneystown Hill, Cambrian and Cam- 
 bro-Silurians, 27. 
 
 Moraine drift, 223 ; recent, 245. 
 
 Motto stone, Ovoca mines, 250. 
 
 Mount Gabriel, County Cork, 245. 
 
 Mount Leinster, 187, 198, 261 j drift, 
 236, 261. 
 
 Mount Mary, 80. 
 
 Mounie granite, 192, 210. 
 
 Moy river, 327. 
 
 Moyola, rocks, 89. 
 
 Mulatto stone, 151, 153. 
 
 Mullaghmore, Triassic, 141. 
 
 Munster, Carboniferous, 65 ; Coalfields, 
 104, 3°3; hiUs, 3°3> 3°4 ', meta- 
 morphic rocks, 188. 
 
 Muntervary promontory, 55. 
 Murchison (Sir R. L), on Permians, 
 
 131. 
 
 Murrisk, County Mayo, 204. 
 Mweelrea, 46, 244, 308, 311 ; eurites, 
 
 205; group, 44; section, 45; 
 
 Silurians, 41. 
 Mweelrea and Toormakeedy group, 44. 
 
 N. 
 
 Native, copper, 351 ; gold, 339 ; silver, 
 
 347 ; sulphur, 356. 
 Nenagh, erratics, 249 ; intraglacial peat, 
 
 234, 267. 
 
Index. 
 
 439 
 
 Neozoic period, 5. 
 
 New Ross, rocks, 195. 
 
 Newport, County Tipperary, erratics, 
 
 249- 
 
 Newry granite, 209, 210. 
 
 Newtown, Queen County, Coal Mea- 
 sures section, 114; drift, 231 ; in- 
 traglacial peat, 267. 
 
 Newtownbarry, drift, 233 ; slate quarry, 
 
 377- 
 
 Ne wto wnmountkennedy, 1 5 . 
 
 Nevadite, 208. 
 
 Ninemilehouse, County Tipperary, 
 rocks, 30. 
 
 Nobber, rocks, 94. 
 
 Nolan (J.), agglomerate, 210 ; hy- 
 draulic deposit, 386. 
 
 Nore, 258, 261 ; estuary, 255 ; valley, 
 226, 231, 246, 316. 
 
 Nuggets of gold, 344. 
 
 O. 
 
 Oak, forest, age, 268, 272; corkers, 
 
 265. 
 Ochreization of schist, 187. 
 O'Kelly (Joseph), 33, 244. 
 Old Red Sandstone, 5, 7, 28, 38, 52, 
 
 63, 64, 66, 68, 78 ; Armagh, 87 ; 
 
 quartz-rock, 71, 199; slabs, 378; 
 
 water supply, 399. 
 Old Red Sandstone (Cork type), 50, 51, 
 
 53> 55> 6o > 66 - 
 Old Red Sandstone and Shore-beds, 65. 
 
 Oldham (Dr.), 391. 
 
 Oldhamia, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 197. 
 
 Omagh, cave, 285 ; rocks, 86, 88. 
 
 Omey Island, yEolian drift, 240. 
 
 One hundred feet beach, 224, 252, 258. 
 
 Ormond slate quarries, 375. 
 
 Oughterard, 70, 190. 
 
 Ovoca, 235, 258, 261 ; mines, 185, 354. 
 
 Ow, 13, 15; Glenow, 320. 
 
 Owenduff, paroptetic rocks, 1 84. 
 
 Owenreagh fossils, 53. 
 
 P. 
 
 Palaeozoic period, 5. 
 
 Palaeozoic rocks, 11 ; classification of, 
 
 49 ; limestones, 385 ; marbles, 380. 
 Pallas Hill, County Limerick, 396. 
 Paps, the, Co. Cork, 307. 
 Paramoudra, 154. 
 Paroptesis, 4, 176, 182, 185. 
 Paroptetic action, 184. 
 Parsonstown (Birr), 33. 
 Partry mountain, 45. 
 Pass of Salrock, 43. 
 Peat, bogs, 267 ; ash of, 270 ; fossils, 
 
 267, 268, 278. 
 Pebble-iron ore, 164. 
 Penarth beds, 136. 
 Permian, 8 ; at base of Trias, 142 ; 
 
 rocks, 130 ; supposed, 133. 
 Petro-silex, 180, 204; Bannow, 195. 
 Philipstown, King's County, 199. 
 Phillips (Prof.), on Cambro-Silurian ? 
 
 23- 
 Physical features, 1, 299. 
 Pipeclay, 360. 
 Pisolitic iron-ore, 164. 
 Placer mines, 339, 342. 
 Plant beds, Miocene, 160, 167, 168. 
 Plastic clays, 168, 233. 
 Pleistocene, 156, 168. 
 Pliocene (?), 156, 168. 
 Plunkett (Thomas), on Knockmore 
 
 caves, 284 ; mammalia, 285, 
 
 293- 
 
 Plutonic rocks, 179, 194 ; basic, 181 ; 
 
 list of, 180, 181 ; silicious, 1 80 ; 
 
 Silurian, 204. 
 Poikilitic formation, 130. 
 Pollshone harbour, 17. 
 Pomeroy, Cambro-Silurians, 36. 
 Porcelaine clay, 360. 
 Portlock (General), 36, 64, 85, 89, 
 
 123, 140, 145, 146, 152, 155 159, 
 
 169 ; Antrim caves, 253, 256 ; 
 
 Benburb rocks, 87 ; fossils, 92, 
 
 139; Scrabo Hill, 135, 209; 
 
 Rhcetic beds, 142. 
 Portraine, 77. 
 
44Q 
 
 Index. 
 
 Portrush, 185 f.n., 208; Cretaceous, 
 
 155: elvan, 220; Jurassic, 144; 
 
 Lias, 144, altered Lias, 145. 
 Portumna, 323 ; Burren limestone, 80 ; 
 
 erratics, 249. 
 Post-Carboniferous, dolerites, 207 ; 
 
 elvan, 209 ; granite, 198, 210. 
 Post-glacial, estuarine drift, 232 ; fluvia- 
 
 tile drift, 234; lakes, 234; marine 
 
 drift, 225. 
 Pot-holes, 324. 
 Poulaphuca, 321. 
 Powerscourt waterfall, 321. 
 Pre-glacial, drift, 225, 231, 233; peat, 
 
 267. 
 Pre-historic remains, 267, 273. 
 Prestwich (Prof.), on Coal Measure 
 
 fossils, 1 01. 
 Primary period, 5. 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quarries, 374. 
 
 Quartz with gold, 344. 
 
 Quartz rock, 14, 17, 45, 71, 180, 183, 
 204; altered, 12, 17, 195, 221; 
 Bray Head, 196 ; Carboniferous, 
 202 ; Corcogemore mountains, 221 ; 
 Forth Mountain, 195 ; Greisen, 
 179 ; Ireland's Eye, 34 ; Old Red 
 Sandstone, 199 ; Wicklow, 196. 
 
 Quartzite, 177, 178. 
 
 Queen's County, Carboniferous, 75; 
 drift, 231 ; minerals, 370. 
 
 R. 
 
 Rabbit sand, 238. 
 
 Raised beaches, 226, 241, 251. 
 
 Raleigh (Sir W.), iron mine, 353. 
 
 Ramsay (Dr. A. C), Cambrians, 21 ; 
 cooms, 311 ; Permians, 131 ; rock- 
 basins, 330. 
 
 Rathgormuck quarries, 377. 
 
 Rathlin Island, rocks, 155, 158, 164, 
 166. 
 
 Raven banks, 319. 
 
 Recent moraines, 245. 
 
 Records of ancient man, 282. 
 
 Red bole, 164. 
 
 Red Carboniferous rocks, 89. 
 
 Red bog, 268. 
 
 Reenydonagan, 61. 
 
 Regional metamorphism, 4, 175. 
 
 Rhsetic beds, 136, 141, 142, 144. 
 
 Rhone Hill, fossils, 139. 
 
 Ringaskiddy, 60. 
 
 Ripple marks, 53. 
 
 Rivers, 3; valleys, 314. 
 
 Roaring Water Bay, 59. 
 
 Rock basins, 330 ; with faults, 331 ; 
 not always lakes, 331. 
 
 Rock terraces, 252. 
 
 Rockabill, 337. 
 
 Roscommon, Carboniferous, 81 ; erup- 
 tive rocks, 207 ; lakes, 335 ; 
 minerals, 370. 
 
 Rosscarbery slate quarries, 377. 
 
 Rosslare bank, 319. 
 
 Roundwood reservoir, 15. 
 
 Rowan (D. J.), on kitchen middens, 
 
 257. 
 Roxborough, rocks, 201. 
 Rush Bay, 329. 
 
 S. 
 
 St. Helen's, County Wexford, ^Eolian 
 
 drift, 240. 
 St. Mullins, County Carlo w, 198. 
 St. Patrick's bridge, County Wexford, 
 
 228. 
 Sallagh Braes, 161, 405. 
 Salrock, beds, 43 ; pass, 43 ; series, 
 
 41, 191 ; slates, 205, 378. 
 Salt, 358 ; marshes, 291 ; Measures, 
 
 137. 
 Saltee Islands, 16, 182. 
 Salter (J. W.), on fossils, 44, 39. 
 Salter's Castle, sections, 171. 
 Sands, 360 ; calcareous or shelly, 230, 
 
 239 ; silicious, 239, 361 ; streams, 
 
 239. 
 
Index. 
 
 441 
 
 Sandstones, 386 ; recent, 230. 
 
 Sandy Bay beds, Lough Neagli, 170. 
 
 Scalp, Enniskerry, 321. 
 
 Schist series, 177, 186, 192, 190. 
 
 Scott (Major-General), hydraulic lime- 
 stone, 386. 
 
 Scott (R. H.), Donegal rocks, 192, 
 207. 
 
 Scouler (Dr.), Lough Neagh hones, 
 172. 
 
 Scrabo Hill, eruptive rocks, 209 ; Tri- 
 assic, 135. 
 
 Scrope (Poulett), on basic igneous 
 rocks 162. 
 
 Scullogue gap, 198. 
 
 Sea beaches, 251 ; margins, 251, 262 
 
 Secondary period, 5. 
 
 Sections : — Annagher colliery, 124 ; 
 Annaghmore, Coalisland, 171 ; Ben 
 Evenagh, 142; Ballinderry, 170; 
 Ballypalady, 1 68 ; Barrow estuary, 
 265 ; Clare and Galway Carbonifer- 
 ous, 79 ; Coalisland, 123, 125 ; 
 Collin Glen, 136 ; Connaught 
 Coalfield, 121 ; Coolbaun, Castle- 
 comer, 114; Cork rocks, 54, 58; 
 diagrammatic, 54 ; Dingle, West 
 Cork, and Limerick, 51 ; Drum- 
 shambo,83 ; Dungannon Coal Mea- 
 sures, 123 ; East Munster Coal 
 Measures, no ; Galway Cam- 
 brians, &c, 21 ; Irish Coal Mea- 
 sures, 97 ; Iron-ore Measures 
 167; Kerry Carboniferous, 67; 
 Lagan valley, 135 ; Leinster Coal 
 Measures, 113, 114; Limerick 
 Carboniferous, 71 ; Miocene, 160 ; 
 Munster Carboniferous, 67 ; New- 
 town Coal Measures, 1 14 ; Rhsetic 
 beds, 136, 137 ; Sandy Bay, 171 ; 
 Salt Measures, Duncrue, 137 ; 
 Seefin, Galway, 190; Slaney val- 
 ley Cambrians, 16 ; Sligo, 83 ; 
 Sligo and Fermanagh, 86 ; 
 Tyrone, 85 ; Waterloo, Lame, 
 144; West Munster Coalfield, 105 ; 
 Wexford harbour, 266. 
 
 Sedimentary rocks, 4, 1 1 . 
 
 Seefin section, County Galway, 190. 
 
 Shanagolden, County Limerick, 201. 
 
 Shandon cave, County Waterford, 285 
 
 Shanganagh river terraces, 252, 254. 
 
 Shankill, 197. 
 
 Shannon river, 31, 34, 260, 322 ; 
 estuary, 253. 
 
 Shell sand, 394; shelly drift, 261. 
 
 Sherkin Island, slates, 376. 
 
 Shore beds and Old Red Sandstone, 65. 
 
 Shore beds (at different horizons in 
 the carboniferous), 64, 69, 82 ; 
 Lough Shinny, County Dublin, 
 70 ; Oughterard, Galway, 68 ; 
 Roscommon, 82 ; (at the base of 
 Old Red Sandstone), 79, 85. 
 
 Sibthorpe(T.), on marbles, &c, 380. 
 
 Silicified wood (Lough Neagh hones), 
 
 I7i. 
 
 Silicious limestones, 71, 202 ; sand, 
 361 ; springs, 195. 
 
 Silurians, 38 ; Ballycar (?), 32 ; con- 
 glomerate, 47, 48, 52, 53; Cork 
 type, 50, 51 ; eruptive rocks, 217 ; 
 granite, 204 ; limestone, 45 ; meta- 
 morphic, 189, 217; Mayo, 191; 
 plutonic rocks, 204 ; water supply, 
 398. 
 
 Silver, 347 ; localities for, 348. 
 
 Silvermines, County Tipperary, 31, 
 347 ; erratics near, 249. 
 
 Skelligs, County Kerry, 335. 
 
 Skerries, County Dublin, 7 7, 337. 
 
 Skerries, Portrush, 208. 
 
 Skibbereen, glaciation near, 245. 
 
 Slabs, 378. 
 
 Slaney, fault, 25 ; valley, 16, 231, 232, 
 255, 258, 261, 318. 
 
 Slate, 32, 374 ; conglomerate, 26, 27, 
 183. 
 
 Slemish, County Antrim, 208. 
 
 Slieve (anglice, mountain), Arra, 31 ; 
 Aughta, 31, 324; Bawn, County 
 Roscommon, 34, 8^ ; Bernagh, 
 31, 32; Bloom, 31, 33, 249; 
 Brack, S. W. of Newry, 210 ; 
 Croob granite, 192, 209 ; Carna 
 Coal Measures, 119; Dart, County 
 
442 
 
 Index. 
 
 Galway, 80, 203 ; Foye, County 
 Louth, 209, 210, 220 ; Gallion- 
 Carn, 141, 152, 159 ; Galry, 34 ; 
 Kimaltha, 31, 307 ; More, Achill, 
 308 ; Nabolea, S. W. of Newry, 
 210 ; Namuck, 30, 109 ; Naman, 
 20, 29 ; 'Partry, 45 ; Phelim, 31, 
 199, 249, 316 ; Roe, County Kil- 
 kenny, coal, 29. 
 
 Sligo, Carboniferous, 81 ; Cambro-Silu- 
 rians, 36; Coal Measures, 120; 
 eruptive rocks, 207 ; lakes, 335 ; 
 metamorphic rocks, 189 ; mineral 
 localities, 370 ; mountains,. 308 ; 
 raised beaches, 253 ; section, 8^. 
 
 Sligo and Fermanagh section, 86. 
 
 Sluggas, 324. 
 
 Smerwick beds, 39, 40. 
 
 Smyth (Prof. W. W.), on Wicklow 
 gold mines, 343. 
 
 Sneem section, 58. 
 
 Soft-rock chalk, 151. 
 
 Soil, 287 ; producing animals, 292. 
 
 Spenser (Poet), on the Slaney, 320. 
 
 Sphene-rock, 208. 
 
 Spike Island, 60. 
 
 Srahs, 235. 
 
 Stage lode, Knockmahon red rocks, 28. 
 
 Steatite, 26, 188, 359 ; bole, 166 — 
 steatitic rocks, 205. 
 
 Stewart (S. A.), on drift fossils, 256. 
 
 Stewartstown, Triassic, 140. 
 
 Stokes (Dr.), Cobalt ore, 357. 
 
 Stone crannogs, 279. 
 
 Stone turf, 269. 
 
 Strabane, rocks, 88. 
 
 Stratford on Slaney, 233. 
 
 Streedagh, fossils, 84. 
 
 Submarine peat, 267. 
 
 Submerged, bogs, 265 ; forests, 241, 
 264, 265 ; land, 241, 264 ; road, 
 276, 277 ; wattlefence, 277. 
 
 Submergence, ancient traditions re- 
 specting, 264. 
 
 Submetamorphic rocks, 177, 183, 186, 
 192. 
 
 Subterranean rivers, 324. 
 
 Suck river, 322. 
 
 Sugarloaves, Bray, 14, 309. 
 
 Suir estuary, 255 ; valley, 231, 258, 
 
 261, 316. 
 Sulphur ore, 356, 395. 
 Superficial accumulations, 223. 
 Sutton, 355, 357. 
 Swallow holes, 324. 
 Syenite, 181, 204. 
 Symes (R. G.), 191, 203, 207. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tagoat Cambro-Silurians, 26, 183. 
 
 Taghmon, 29. 
 
 Tallow Bridge, fossils, 61. 
 
 Tamlaght, fossils and rocks, 152, 208. 
 
 Tardree, eruptive rocks, 162, 208, 220. 
 
 Tate (Ralph), Cretaceous, 148 ; Juras- 
 sic, 144 ; Lias fossils, 145 ; Rhsetic 
 beds, 136 ; white limestone, 149. 
 
 Templepatrick section, 162. 
 
 Terraces (marine), 231, 251, 258. 
 
 Tertiary period, 5. 
 
 Three hundred feet beach, 252, 259. 
 
 Tide, mean height of the, 251. 
 
 Tigroney baked shales (hornstone), 184. 
 
 Till, 223. 
 
 Tin, 357. 
 
 Tipperary, Carboniferous, 75 ; Cambro- 
 Silurians, 32 ; Coal Measures, 103, 
 109 ; mineral localities, 370 ; 
 mountains, 306. 
 
 Tirawley, 81. 
 
 Tircrevan Burn, Jurassic, 147. 
 
 Toe Head, fossils, 61. 
 
 Togher, 15. 
 
 Tomines, Ardsolla river, County Clare, 
 326. 
 
 Toomavara, 31. 
 
 Toormakeady rocks, 205, 206 ; Silurian 
 group, 41. 
 
 Tory Hill, Limerick, 309. 
 
 Trachy-dolerite, 180, 181. 
 
 Trachyte, 180 — trachytic rocks, 162 
 
 Traill (W. A.), 161, 163, 164, 167, 
 192, 207, 209, 212, 254, 256, 391, 
 404. 
 
Index. 
 
 443 
 
 Tramore, County Waterford, 27, 188, 
 
 371. 
 Transported soils, 287, 290. 
 Traps, 180, 181, 391 ; classification of, 
 
 221, 222. 
 Trees in bogs, 268, 271. 
 Triassic, 5, 34, 134; dolerite, 207. 
 
 209 ; eruptive rocks, 220 ; S. E. 
 
 and E. Antrim, 137 ; Tyrone and 
 
 Londonderry, 139, 140, 14 1. 
 Tubbrid, rocks, 85, 88. 
 Tullow, 233, 318. 
 Tullyconnell, Permians, 132. 
 Turloughs, 324. 
 Twelve-feet beach, 252. 
 Twenty-five-feet beach, 254. 
 Tyrone, Carboniferous, 86 ; Cambro- 
 
 Silurians, 85 ; Coalfields, 122 ; 
 
 Cretaceous, 148, 152; eruptive 
 
 rocks, 207 ; Esker drift, 220, 260 ; 
 
 geology, Portlock, 36 ; hills, 308 ; 
 
 metamorphic rocks, 189 ; minerals, 
 
 371 ; Triassic, 139, 140. 
 Tyrone and Fermanagh, rocks, 65. 
 Tyrone and Monaghan section, 85. 
 
 U. 
 
 Uggool, fossils, 46. 
 
 Ulster, Carboniferous, 8, 84 ; Cambro- 
 Silurians, 34: Coal-measures, 122 ; 
 Cretaceous, 8, 148 ; erratics, 251 • 
 eruptive rocks, 207 ; glaciation, 
 247 ; hills, 300, 304 ; Jurassic, 8, 
 143 ; metamorphic rock, 189 ; Per- 
 mians, 8, 130; Triassic, 7> 8, 134, 
 
 135. 
 
 Upper glacial (?) drift, 233, 236, 238. 
 Upper Llandovery fossils, 32, 42, 43 ; 
 
 rocks, 48. 
 Uralite, White Ball Head, 203. 
 Uralitic gabbro, 205. 
 
 V. 
 
 Vale of, Aherlow, 307 ; Clara, 320 ; 
 Ovoca, 258, 261, 320. 
 
 Valentia, 52, 53, 189, 335; harbour, 
 203 ; slate quarry, 376. 
 
 Valleys, 314; Avonbeg (Glenmalure), 
 246, 258 ; Avonmore (Vale of 
 Clara), 258 ; Aughrim (Glenow), 
 246 ; Barrow, 246, 258, 261 ; 
 Bray (Dargle), 254, 258 ; King's 
 river (tributary of Liffey), 261 ; 
 Lagan, 292 ; Liffey, 258 ; Nore, 
 226, 246, 258, 261 ; Shan- 
 ganagh, 254; Slaney, 255, 258, 
 261 ; Suir (Golden Vein), 258, 
 261, 292. 
 
 Variegated limestone, 45. 
 
 Vartry basin, 320 ; waterworks, 15. 
 
 Vegetable soil, 287. 
 
 Victoria slate quarries, County Tippe- 
 rary, 30, 376. 
 
 Volcanic rocks, 179, 181, 194 ; basic, 
 181 ; silicious, 180. 
 
 Vulcanicity, 6, 7, 176, 205. 
 
 W. 
 
 Warren (J. L.), Cultra beds, 132; 
 Hibernian Greensand, 153 ; Lagan 
 valley, 135 ; Miocene eruptive 
 rocks, 166 ; Petro - silex, 392 ; 
 Scrabo Hill, 209. 
 
 Water-supply, 9, 12, 13, 395. 
 
 Waterfalls, 321. 
 
 Waterford, Carboniferous, 50, 68, 75 ; 
 Cambro- Silurian, 25 ; cooms, 310, 
 311; Cork rocks, 50, 68; drift, 
 236 ; erratics, 250 ; glaciation, 245 ; 
 Hook rocks, 78 ; lagoons, 329 ; 
 minerals, 353, 371 ; mountains, 
 303; raised beaches, 253, 255, 
 261 ; slate quarries, 377 ; valleys, 
 261,317; Yellow Sandstone, 68. 
 
 Waterloo, Larne, Cretaceous, 154 ; Ju- 
 rassic, 144. 
 
 Weaver (T.), gold, 342 ; hornstone, 
 186 ; minerals with gold, 345. 
 
 Wenlock type fossils, 44, 48, 191. 
 
 Westmeath lakes, 335. 
 
444 
 
 Index. 
 
 Wexford Cambrians, 16 ; Cambro- 
 Silurians, 23 ; Carboniferous, 78 ; 
 drift, 236, 237 ; dolomite, 188 ; 
 eruptive rocks, 194 ; granite, 194, 
 195 ; harbour, 16, 319 ; kitchen- 
 middens, 283 ; lagoons, 329 ; me- 
 tamorphic rocks, 182 ; minerals, 
 372 ; mountains, 304 ; raised 
 beaches, 253, 254; submerged 
 peat, 266 ; valleys, 261. 
 
 Whiddy Island, Bantry Bay, 53, 59; 
 Coal Measures, 104; fossils, 61. 
 
 Whinstone, 180, 181, 221, 222, 391. 
 
 White Ball Head, agglomerate, 202. 
 
 White Head, Cretaceous, 153; Jurassic, 
 144. 
 
 White limestone (indurated chalk), 149, 
 208, 385. 
 
 White turf, 269. 
 
 Whitepark Bay, 155. 
 
 Whiting manufactories, 154. 
 
 Wicklow, 13 ; Cambrians, 11, 182, 
 196; Cambro-Silurians, 23; cooms, 
 310, 311; erratics, 250; granite, 
 187, 196; lagoons, 329; minerals, 
 372 ; mountains, 3, 306 ; raised 
 beaches, 253, 254 ; valleys, 261. 
 
 Wilde (Sir W. R.) on crannogs, 281. 
 
 Wilkinson (G.), on intraglacial peat, 
 Nenagh, 234. 
 
 Wilkinson (Berdoe), 82, 120. 
 Willson (Walter L.), 118, 188, 245, 
 
 249, 255. 
 Wilson (J.) on Duncan's flowbog, 
 
 County Antrim, 276. 
 Wilton coal, Cambro-Silurian, 29. 
 Windy Gap, County Kerry, 53. 
 Woodward (Dr. Henry) on fossils, 
 
 171. 
 Woodward (Horace) on Permians, 
 
 130. 
 Wright (Dr. E. P.) on Jarrow col- 
 liery fossils, 119. 
 Wyley (Andrew), 12, 13, 15, 245, 255, 
 
 / n., 261, 262. 
 Wynne (A. B.), 31, 33, 72, 83, 163, 
 
 169, 255. 
 
 Yellow Sandstone (Griffith), 55, 58, 59, 
 60, 61, 68 ; agglomerate beds and 
 dykes, 202; water-supply, 399. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zinc, 348. 
 
 Woodfall & Kinder, Printers, Milford Lane, Strand, London, W.C. 
 
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CONTENTS OF THE VARIOUS VOLUMES 
 
 IN THE COLLECTED EDITIONS OF 
 
 MR. TENNYSON'S WORKS. 
 
 THE IMPERIAL LIBRARY EDITION, 
 
 COMPLETE IN SEVEN OCTAVO VOLUMES. 
 
 Cloth, price \os. 6d. per vol. ; 12s. 6d. Roxburgh binding. 
 Contents. 
 Vol. I.— MISCELLANEOUS POEMS. 
 II.— MISCELLANEOUS POEMS. 
 III.— PRINCESS, AND OTHER 
 POEMS. 
 
 Printed in large, clear, old-faced type, with a Steel Engraved Portrait of the Author, the set complete, 
 
 cloth, price ^3. 13s. 6d. ; or Roxburghe half-morocco, price .£4. js. 6d. 
 
 *** The handsomest Edition published. 
 
 Vol. IV.— IN MEMORIAM and MAUD. 
 V.— IDYLLS OF THE KING. 
 VI.— IDYLLS OF THE KING. 
 VII.— DRAMAS. 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S EDITION, 
 
 IN SIX VOLUMES. Bound in cloth, 3 Ss. 6d. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Vol. I.— EARLY POEMS and ENGLISH 
 IDYLLS. 6*. 
 II.— LOCKSLEY HALL, LUCRE- 
 TIUS, and other Poems. 6s. 
 III.— THE IDYLLS OF THE KING, 
 complete. 7s. 6d. 
 
 Vol. 
 
 IV.— THE PRINCESS and MAUD. 6s. 
 V.— ENOCH ARDEN and IN 
 MEMORIAM. 6s. 
 
 VI— QUEEN MARY and HAROLD 
 7 s. 
 
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 THE CABINET EDITION, 
 
 COMPLETE IN TWELVE VOLUMES. Price 2s. 6d. each. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Vol. 
 
 I.— EARLY POEMS. Illustrated with 
 a Photographic Portrait of Mr. 
 Tennyson. 
 
 II.— ENGLISH IDYLLS, and other 
 POEMS. Containing an Engraving 
 of Mr. Tennyson's Residence at 
 Aldworth. 
 
 Ill— LOCKSLEY HALL, and other 
 POEMS. With an Engraved 
 Picture of Farringford. 
 
 IV— LUCRETIUS, and other POEMS. 
 Containing an Engraving of a Scene 
 in the Garden at Swainston. 
 
 V.-IDYLLS OF THE KING. With 
 an Autotype of the Bust of Mr. 
 Tennyson by T. Woolner, R.A. 
 
 Vol. VL— IDYLLS OF THE KING. Illus- 
 trated with an Engraved Portrait of 
 ' Elaine,' from a Photographic Study 
 by Julia M. Cameron. 
 VII.— IDYLLS OF THE KING. Con- 
 taining an Engraving of 'Arthur,' 
 from a Photographic Study by Julia 
 M. Cameron. 
 VIII.— THE PRINCESS. With an En- 
 graved Frontispiece. 
 IX— MAUD and ENOCH ARDEN. 
 With a Picture of 'Maud,' taken 
 from a Photographic Study by Julia 
 M. Cameron. 
 X.— IN MEMORIAM. With a Steel 
 Engraving of Arthur H. Hallam, 
 engraved from a picture in possession 
 of the Author, by J. C. Armytage. 
 XL— QUEEN MARY: a Drama. With 
 
 Frontispiece by Walter Crane. 
 XII.— HAROLD: a Drama. With Frontis- 
 piece by Walter Crane. 
 
 TJuse Volumes maybe had separately, or the Edition complete, in a handsome o?-namejilal 
 
 case, price 32s. 
 
 THE MINIATURE EDITION, 
 
 Vol. I.— POEMS. 
 II.— POEMS. 
 III.-POEMS. 
 IV.— IDYLLS OF THE 
 V.— IDYLLS OF THE 
 VI.-IDYLLS OF THE 
 
 IN THIRTEEN VOLUMES. 
 Contents. 
 
 Vol. VII.— IDYLLS OF THE KING. 
 VIIL— IN MEMORIAM. 
 IX.— PRINCESS. 
 KING. X.— MAUD. 
 
 KING. XL— ENOCH ARDEN. 
 
 KING. XII.— QUEEN MARY. 
 
 Vol. XIII.— HAROLD. 
 
 Bound in imitation vellum, ornamented in gilt and gilt edges, in case, price 42.?. 
 This Edition can also be had in plain binding and case, price 36s. 
 
 IW 
 
 Spottiswoode & Co., Printers, New-street Square, London. 
 
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